Emergence of Delhi Sultanates

Introduction : The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the North India between AD1200
to AD1526 were termed as Sultans and the period of their rule as the Delhi Sultanate. These
rulers were of Turkish and Afghan origin. They established their rule in India after defeating
the Indian ruling dynasties which were mainly Rajputs in northern India. The main ruler who
was overthrown by the invading Turk Muhammad Ghori from Delhi was Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
These Sultans ruled for more than 300 years (from around AD 1200 to AD 1526). The last of
the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Mughals under the leadership of Babur in
AD1526 who established the Mughal Empire in India. During this period of around three
hundred years ve different dynasties ruled Delhi.
These were the Mamluks (AD 1206–AD 1290) (popularly known as slave dynasty), the Khaljis
(AD 1290–AD 1320), the Tughlaqs (AD 1320–AD 1412), the Sayyids (AD 1412–AD 1451) and
the Lodis (AD 1451– AD 1526). All these dynasties are collectively referred as the Delhi
Sultanate.
ARAB INVASION OF INDIA : In the early 8th century Arabs invaded India
from the North-West region. This Arab invasion in AD 712 was led by Muhammad
Bin Qasim a general of the Umayyad caliphate. Invasion on India was part of the
policy of Arab expansion during this period.
The Arab expansion was notable for the speed with which it was accomplished.
Between AD 633–637, Arab conquered West Asia, Jordan Syria, Iraq, Turkey and
Persia. They also conquered parts of North Africa and Southern Europe. Between
AD 639–637, Egypt was also conquered. By AD 712, the Arabs had entered Spain
and were soon making inroads into Southern France. By the 8th Century AD, the
Arabs had acquired a core position from Spain to India, connecting the trade of
Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.

MAHMUD GHAZNI: In all Mahmud Ghazni invaded India 17 times during

AD 1000–1026. Mahmud Ghazni was Son of Sabuktigin, the founder of Ghazni
dynasty & Turkish slave commander. Mahmud Ghazni rst encountered the
Hindushai ruler, Jaipal in AD 1001. In the years AD 1004–06 Mahmud Ghazni
attacked the rulers of Multan. Soon Punjab also passed into the hands of the
Ghaznavids. Between AD 1014–1019, Mahmud en- riched his treasury by looting
the temples of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura and Kanauj. The attack against
Nagarkot in AD 1008 has been described as his rst great tri- umph. In AD 1025,
Mahmud embarked on the most ambitious Indian campaign, the attack on the
Somnath temple in Saurashtra. Mahmud captured the city after grim struggle in
which more than 50,000 defenders lost their lives. Mahmud left Somnath after a
fortnight when he came to know that the Gujarat king Bhima-I had completed
preparations to confront him. His attacks on India were an attempt to ful l his
ambi- tion to make Ghazni the formidable power in the politics of Central Asia.
Mahmud’s raids into India were only to acquire the famous wealth of India. This
wealth would help him to consolidate his vast rule in Central Asia. He did not
wish to establish an empire in India. The Ghaznavids had their control on parts of
Punjab and Sind which continued till AD 1135. However his invasions exposed
the weak defence of Indian kingdoms. They also opened possibility of attacks in
future by the Turks.
MUHAMMAD GHORI (SHAHABUDDIN MUHAMMAD): In AD
1173 Shahabuddin Muhammad (AD 1173–1206) also called Muhammad of Ghor
ascended the throne of Ghazni. The Ghoris were not strong enough to meet the
growing power and strength of the Khwarizmi Empire; they realised that they
could gain nothing in Central Asia. This forced Ghori to turn towards India to
ful l his expansionist ambitions. Muhammad Ghori was very much interested in
establishing permanent empire in India and not merely looting its wealth. His
campaigns were well organised and whenever he conquered any territory, he left
a general behind to govern it in his absence. His invasions resulted in the
permanent establishment of the Turkish Sultanate in the region lying north of the
Vindhya Mountains.
Conquest of Punjab and Sind
Muhammad Ghori led his rst expedition in AD 1175. He marched against
Multan and freed it from its ruler. In the same campaign he captured Uchch from
the Bhatti Rajputs. Three years later in AD 1178 he again marched to conquer
Gujarat but the Chalukya ruler of Gujarat, Ghima II defeated him at the battle of
Anhilwara. But this defeat did not discourage Muhammad Ghori. He realised the
necessity of creating a suitable base in Punjab before venturing on the further
conquest of India. He launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in
Punjab. As a result Peshawar was conquered in AD 1179–80 and Lahore in AD
1186. The fort of Sialkot and Debol were captured next. Thus by AD 1190 having
secured Multan, Sind and Punjab, Muhammad Ghori had paved the way for a
further thrust into the Gangetic Doab.

The First Battle of Tarain (AD 1191) Muhammad Ghori’s possession of

Punjab and his attempt to advance into the Gangetic Doab brought him into direct
con ict with the Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan. He had overrun many small
states in Rajputana, captured Delhi and wanted to extend his control over Punjab
and Ganga valley. The con ict started with claims of Bhatinda. In the rst battle
fought at Tarain in AD 1191, Ghori’s army was routed and he narrowly escaped
death. Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda but he made no efforts to garrison it
effectively. This gave Ghori an opportunity to reassemble his forces and make
preparations for another advance into India.

The Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192)

This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian History. Muhammad
Ghori made very careful preparations for this conquest. The Turkish and Rajput
forces again came face to face at Tarain. The Indian forces were more in number
but Turkish forces were well organised with swift moving cavalry. The bulky
Indian forces were no match against the superior organisation, skill and speed of
the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish cavalry was using two superior techniques. The
rst was the horse shoe which gave their horses a long life and protected their
hooves. The second was, the use of iron stirrup which gave a good hold to the
horse rider and a better striking power in the battle. A large number of Indian
soldiers were killed. Prithviraj tried to escape but was captured near Sarsuti. The
Turkish army captured the fortresses of Hansi, Sarsuti and Samana. Then they
moved forward running over Delhi and Ajmer.
After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of
his trusted slave general Qutbuddin Aibak. In AD 1194 Muhammad Ghori again
returned to India. He crossed Yamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards
Kanauj. He gave a crushing defeat to Jai Chand at Chandwar near Kanauj. Thus
the battle of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in
Northern India. The political achievements of Muhammad Ghori in India were
long lasting than those of Mahmud of Ghazni. While Mahmud Ghazni was mainly
interested in plundering Muhammad Ghori wanted to establish his political
control. His death in AD 1206 did not mean the withdrawal of the Turkish
interests in India. He left behind his slave General Qutbuddin Aibak who became
rst Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.

Administration of the Empire:

• Initially, the Governors and administrators of the provinces were handpicked
faithful followers or even slaves of the Sultans, called bandagans. However,
because of their humble birth, these choices were not liked by many elite people.
• Military commanders were also appointed as governors and could collect
revenue from the territory given to them. However, they were frequently
transferred and also subject to audit by the Sultan's accountants.
• In the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the assessment and collection of land revenue
was directly controlled by the state. Even the local chieftains had to pay tax to
the state.
• Ibn Battuta, a scholar who travelled with Timur to India, has mentioned in
detail how the local chieftains arranged their defense against the Sultans.
• Due to frequent attacks by the Mongols, the Sultans carried out many defensive
measures.
Achievements and Legacy of the Sultanate:
• The main achievement of the Delhi Sultanate was its successful defense of India
form Mongol invasion. Of course, it suffered from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by
Timur, due to which independent Sultanates were established in Awadh, Bengal,
Jaunpur, Gujarat and Malwa.
• The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting
‘Indo- Muslim’ fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature
and religion.
• The Khiljis conquered Gujarat and Malwa and set the rst expeditions South of
the Narmada River, as far South as present day Tamil Nadu.
• The main achievement of the Tughlaqs was the introduction of a monetary
economy in the provinces (sarkars) and districts (pargannas) that had been
established and founded; a network of market centers through which the
traditional village economies were integrated into the wider culture.
• State revenues remained based on successful agriculture, which induced
Muhammad-bin-Tughlak to have village well dug, offer seed to the peasants and
tot encourage cash crop like sugarcane. he moved the capital from Delhi to
Daulatabad, which proved very unpopular and was subsequently reversed.
• The main achievement of the Sayyid dynasty was the consolidation of the
Muslim presence in Kashmir.
• Overall, Sultans of Delhi had reasonably good relations with other Muslim
rulers in the near East and owed them no allegiance.
• The Sultans based their laws on the Quran and the Sharia. They permitted non-
Muslims to practice their religion only if they paid Jizya or Head Tax.
• The Sultans ruled from urban cente4rs. Military camps and trading posts
provided the nucleus for towns that sprang up in the countryside.
• The Sultanate provided the foundation for the Mughal Empire, Which continued
to expand its territory.