GENERAL NAVIGATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Mathematics - General Reminders
The Earth
The Triangle of Velocities and Navigation
Computer
Terrestrial Magnetism
Aircraft Magnetism
Direct Reading Compasses
The Slaved Gyro\Remote Reading Compass
Properties of a Chart
The Mercator Projection
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Lambert Projection
The Polar Stereographic Projection
The Transverse Mercator
The Oblique Mercator
Grid Navigation
The One in Sixty Rule
Visual Navigation Techniques
Plotting
Point of Equal Time
Point of Safe Return
Relative Velocity
The Solar System
Time and Time Conversions
Inertial Navigation Systems
Purposes of a Flight Management Systems
(FMS)
The Compass Swing
Mathematics - General Reminders

Simple Arithmetic
Powers, Roots and Indices
Algebra
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical Functions
Mathematics - General Reminders
1. Understanding and being able to apply some of the basic principles of mathematics is an
essential requirement for anyone studying for a professional pilot’s licence or instrument rating.
Almost all aspects of aviation can be said to have a mathematical basis or involve mathematics to
some degree.

2. The level of mathematical knowledge required by this syllabus is well within the grasp of the
average person. However, as it has usually been some time since our students have had to transpose a
formula, solve an equation or use trigonometry, this chapter supplies a few reminders of such areas.

3. Please study this chapter before embarking on any other part of the course. There are
worksheet questions at the end of the chapter to enable you to test your progress.

4. The first area of mathematics to be considered is simple arithmetic.

Simple Arithmetic
Addition
5. The addition of positive or negative values produces a positive or negative result depending
on the sign and magnitude of the two parts being added, for example:
 (a) (+2) + (+3) = +5

(b) (-2) + (-3) = -5

(c) (-3) + (+5) = +2

(d) (+3) + (-5) = -2

Subtraction
6. When a number is subtracted from another the sign of the result depends on the sign and
magnitude of the two numbers. For example, when both numbers are positive:

(e) (+5) - (+3) = +2

(f) (+3) - (+5) = -2

7. When one or both numbers are negative the result varies depending on which is the larger
number as illustrated in the following examples:
 (g) (-5) - (-3) = -2

8. In example (g) the double negative becomes positive and so in effect the equation could be
rewritten as: -5 +3 = -2.

(h) (-3) - (-5) = +2

9. In example (h) minus, minus 5 becomes plus 5 and so this equation could be rewritten as: -3
+5 and becomes the same as equation (d).

10. Here are two more examples of subtracting negative values:

(i) (+3) - (-5) = +8

(j) (-10) - (-15) = +5

Multiplication
11. When two positive numbers or two negative numbers are multiplied together the result is
always positive. However, when only one number is negative the outcome is always negative. The
following examples illustrate multiplication:
 (k) (+5) x (+3) = +15

(l) (-5) x (-3) = +15

(m) (-5) x (+3) = -15

(n) (+5) x (-3) = -15

Division
12. The rule applicable for division regarding negative numbers is similar to that for
multiplication i.e. when both values are positive or both negative the outcome is always positive. If
either number is negative, the outcome of the division is negative. The following examples illustrate
division:

(o) (+6)  (+3) = +2

(p) (-6)  (-3) = +2

 (q) (+6)  (-3) = -2

(r) (-6)  (+3) = -2

Powers, Roots and Indices

13. For the purpose of the examination syllabus it is necessary to know only how to square a
number (raise it to the power of 2), and how to find the square root of a number (raise it to the
power of ½). If the reader is familiar with indices then this knowledge will stand her/him in good
8
stead in the examinations notably with scale problems and with radio calculations, where 310 m/
sec is easier to deal with than 300,000,000 m/sec. Frankly, however, if you are unfamiliar with
indices, you can manage very well without them.

Algebra
14. Within this syllabus there is a limited requirement for simple pure algebra. The major
significance of algebra is at the applied level, in as much as it is normally more convenient to
manipulate formulae at the pure stage to isolate the unknown factor, and then to add the known
values.

15. The secret then lies in the ability to handle simple transposition confidently. Remember the
golden rule of transposition: whatever you do to one side of the equation you must also do to the
other.
EXAMPLE 1-1
EXAMPLE
Given that:
A+B=C+D
Isolate D

SOLUTION
In order to isolate D it is necessary to move C to the other side of the equation. To achieve this,
subtract C from both sides.
A+B-C=D
Another way of looking at the same problem is to say that, when moving a value from one side of
the equal symbol to the other, change the sign (+ or -) of the value.
EXAMPLE 1-2
EXAMPLE
Given that:
W = (X + Y).Z
Isolate Z.
The full stop is by convention used instead of a multiplication symbol to avoid confusing it with the
letter X.

SOLUTION
In order to isolate Z it is necessary to move (X + Y) to the other side of the equation. To achieve
this divide (X + Y) into both sides:
W = (X + Y). Z
W--------- (X + Y). Z
------------- = --------------------------
(X + Y) (X + Y )
W
- ------ ----- = Z
( X ---Y) +
EXAMPLE 1-3
EXAMPLE
Given that:
W = (X + Y).Z
Isolate X.

SOLUTION
The first step is to remove the brackets by multiplying both X and Y by Z.
W = X.Z + Y.Z
Now subtract Y.Z from both sides:
W – Y.Z = X.Z + Y.Z – Y.Z

W – Y.Z = X.Z
Now divide both sides by Z:
·
W – Y.Z X.Z
-------------- = ---
----- -----
Z Z
W – Y.Z
--------------------= X
Z
Note. This equation can be further simplified to:
W
-----– Y= X
Z
EXAMPLE 1-4
EXAMPLE
Given that:
X=KT
Isolate T.

SOLUTION
The first step is to divide both sides by K;
X KT
--- = -----------
K K
In order to remove the square root sign from the T it is necessary to square both sides of the
equation:
2
⎛X ⎞
⎝---
K
=T
EXAMPLE 1-5
EXAMPLE
Given that;
S
D =  4  K1  K2
--

Isolate S .

SOLUTION
First re-write the formula in its simplistic form;
4.S.K .K
D = ------------ ----1---------2-

now multiply both sides by :
4.S.K 1 .K 2 .
D. = --------------------------------

D. = 4.S.K1.K2

Now divide both sides by 4.K 1 .K 2 :

D. 4.S.K 1 .K2 .
----- ------- =
--------.K
K ----------------------------
4. 1 2 4. K 1 .K 2
D.
----- ------- = S
--------
4.K1.K2
16. At various points in the notes, worked examples contain simple transposition such as these.
Take each transposition one step at a time and remember the golden rule: always do to one side of
the equation exactly what you do to the other.

Trigonometry
17. As with the preceding consideration of algebra, the required level of knowledge of
trigonometry is reasonably basic. There is no requirement for any practical calculations using
spherical trigonometry.

18. The sum of the numerical values of the three angles of any triangle is always 180 degrees.
Since in trigonometry only right-angled triangles are considered, the sum of the two angles other than
the right angle must always add up to 90 degrees.
EXAMPLE 1-6
EXAMPLE
Given a right-angled triangle ABC where the angle BAC is 90°, and the angle ABC is 53°,
determine the value of the angle ACB.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 1-1

Angle BAC = 90

Angle ABC = 53
Angle ACB = (180 - 90- 53) = 37
19. Considering only the right-angled triangle, the length of any side of the triangle may be
determined in one of several ways;

(i) by Pythagoras;

(ii) by scale drawing;

(iii) using the 3:4:5 ratio, if applicable;

(iv) Using the basic trigonometric functions of sine, cosine or tangent.

20. Pythagoras’ theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The hypotenuse is always the side opposite
the right angle, and is always the longest side.
EXAMPLE 1-7
EXAMPLE
The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle measures 10 metres. One of the adjacent sides is 8
metres long, determine the length of the remaining side.

SOLUTION

(i) By Pythagoras

Let X represent the unknown side

102 = 82 + X 2
100 = 64 + X 2
100-64 = X2
36 = X2
36 = X
6 metres = X
 (ii) By scale drawing (1cm: 2 metre)
FIGURE 1-2

(iii) By 3:4:5 ratio:

Given any right-angled triangle where the ratio of the hypotenuse to one of the adjacent sides is
either 5: 4 or 5: 3, then the ratio of the hypotenuse to the remaining side will be either 5: 3 or 5: 4.
In other words the length of the sides is in the ratio 5: 4: 3. In the example given the ratio of the
hypotenuse to the given side is 5: 4, since the hypotenuse is 10 metres long (5 x 2) and the given
side 8 metres long (4 x 2). The length of the remaining side is therefore 6 metres (3 x 2),
maintaining the 5: 4: 3 ratio.
(iv) By basic trigonometrical functions. Basic trigonometric functions are discussed shortly

21. A practical example of a Pythagoras type of problem is illustrated in the following example:
EXAMPLE 1-8
EXAMPLE
An airborne distance measuring equipment (DME) gives a slant range to the beacon of 15nm when
the aircraft is flying at FL 360. Determine the horizontal range of the aircraft from the DME
station.

SOLUTION
The question requires the horizontal range, so to this end it is acceptable to convert the altitude
(36,000 ft) into nautical miles by dividing by 6000 as opposed to 6080. In this case, the altitude is
(approximately) 6nm.

152 = 62 + X 2
225 = 36 + X 2
189 = X2
÷189 = X
13.7 = X

The approximate horizontal range is therefore 13.7nm.

The solution by scale drawing is self-explanatory.
The solution by 3:4:5 doesn’t apply in this case.
Trigonometrical Functions
22. The candidate should be thoroughly familiar with the three basic trigonometrical functions of
sine, cosine and tangent.

The Sine of an Angle

23. The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the side opposite to the angle divided by the
length of the hypotenuse. See Figure 1-3. (Remember, the hypotenuse is always the side opposite the
right angle, the third side is termed the adjacent).
24. At Figure 1-3, the angle ABC is 30°. The construction shows that the hypotenuse is twice as
long as the side opposite the 30° angle. Therefore:

opposite
the sine of 30° = -----------------------------
hypotenuse
= 3
--
6
= 0.5

25. Using the same construction technique, it can be shown that:

 sine 0° = 0
sine 30° = 0.5
sine 45° = 0.7071
sine 60° = 0.8660
sine 90° = 1.0

FIGURE 1-3
Sine of an Angle

The Cosine of an Angle

26. The cosine of an angle may be determined by constructing another right-angled triangle such
that the angle ABC exists between the hypotenuse and an adjacent side. The cosine of the angle is
found by dividing the length of the adjacent side by the length of the hypotenuse, see Figure 1-4.
Therefore:
 adjacent
the cosine of 30° = -----------------------------
hypotenuse
5.196
= ------------
6
= 0.8660

FIGURE 1-4
Cosine of an Angle

27. Using the same construction technique, it can be shown that:

cos 0° = 1.0
cos 30° = 0.8660
cos 45° = 0.7071
cos 60° = 0.5
cos 90° = 0
The Tangent of an Angle
28. Again using a right-angled triangle, the tangent of an angle is determined by dividing the
length of the side opposite the angle in question by the length of the side adjacent to the angle.

The tan of 0° is found to be 0,

The tan of 30° is found to be 0.5773,

The tan of 45° is found to be 1.0,

The tan of 60° is found to be 1.732, and

The tan of 90° is found to be infinity.

29. Use of electronic calculators. Examining authorities are permitted to allow candidates to use
simple scientific calculators in the JAR-FCL examinations. Such calculators should possess sine,
cosine and tangent functions enabling you to process these ratios automatically. Should you not have
such a calculator available whilst working on this course, tables are provided at Figure 1-5,
Figure 1-6 and Figure 1-7.
FIGURE 1-5 NATURAL COSINE VALUES 0° TO 90°
(°) VALUE (°) VALUE (°) VALUE
1 1.000 31 0.857 61 0.485
2 0.999 32 0.848 62 0.469
3 0.999 33 0.839 63 0.454
4 0.998 34 0.829 64 0,438
5 0.996 35 0.819 65 0.423
6 0.995 36 0.809 66 0.407
7 0.993 37 0.799 67 0.391
8 0.990 38 0.788 68 0.375
9 0.988 39 0.777 69 0.358
10 0.985 40 0.766 70 0.342
11 0.982 41 0.755 71 0.326
12 0.978 42 0.743 72 0.309
13 0.974 43 0.731 73 0.292
14 0.970 44 0.719 74 0.276
15 0.966 45 0.707 75 0.259
16 0.961 46 0.695 76 0.242
17 0.956 47 0.682 77 0.225
18 0.951 48 0.669 78 0.208
19 0.946 49 0.656 79 0.191
20 0.940 50 0.643 80 0.174
21 0.934 51 0.629 81 0.156
22 0.927 52 0.616 82 0.139
23 0.920 53 0.602 83 0.122
24 0.914 54 0.588 84 0.105
25 0.906 55 0.574 85 0.087
26 0.899 56 0.559 86 0.070
27 0.891 57 0.5445 87 0.052
28 0.883 58 0.530 88 0.035
29 0.875 59 0.515 89 0.017
30 0.866 60 0.500 90 0.000
FIGURE 1-6 NATURAL SINE VALUES 0° TO 90°
(°) VALUE (°) VALUE (°) VALUE
1 0.017 31 0.515 61 0.875
2 0.035 32 0.530 62 0.883
3 0.052 33 0.545 63 0.891
4 0.070 34 0.559 64 0.899
5 0.087 35 0.574 65 0.906
6 0.105 36 0.588 66 0.914
7 0.122 37 0.602 67 0.920
8 0.139 38 0.616 68 0.927
9 0.156 39 0.629 69 0.934
10 0.174 40 0.643 70 0.940
11 0.191 41 0.656 71 0.946
12 0.208 42 0.669 72 0.951
13 0.225 43 0.682 73 0.956
14 0.242 44 0.695 74 0.961
15 0.259 45 0.707 75 0.966
16 0.276 46 0.719 76 0.970
17 0.292 47 0.731 77 0.974
18 0.309 48 0.743 78 0.978
19 0.326 49 0.755 79 0.982
20 0.342 50 0.766 80 0.985
21 0.358 51 0.777 81 0.988
22 0.375 52 0.788 82 0.990
23 0.391 53 0.799 83 0.993
24 0.407 54 0.809 84 0.995
25 0.423 55 0.819 85 0.996
26 0.438 56 0.829 86 0.998
27 0.454 57 0.839 87 0.999
28 0.469 58 0.848 88 0.999
29 0.485 59 0.857 89 1.000
30 0.500 60 0.866 90 1.000
FIGURE 1-7 NATURAL TANGENT VALUES 0° TO 90°
(°) VALUE (°) VALUE (°) VALUE
1 0.017 31 0.601 61 1.804
2 0.035 32 0.625 62 1.881
3 0.052 33 0.649 63 1.963
4 0.070 34 0.675 64 2.050
5 0.087 35 0.700 65 2.145
6 0.105 36 0.727 66 2.246
7 0.123 37 0.754 67 2.356
8 0.140 38 0.781 68 2.475
9 0.158 39 0.810 69 2.605
10 0.176 40 0.839 70 2.747
11 0.194 41 0.869 71 2.904
12 0.213 42 0.900 72 3.078
13 0.231 43 0.932 73 3.271
14 0.249 44 0.966 74 3.487
15 0.268 45 1.000 75 3.732
16 0.287 46 1.036 76 4.011
17 0.306 47 1.072 77 4.331
18 0.325 48 1.111 78 4.705
19 0.344 49 1.150 79 5.145
20 0.364 50 1.192 80 5.671
21 0.384 51 1.235 81 6.314
22 0.404 52 1.280 82 7.115
23 0.424 53 1.327 83 8.144
24 0.445 54 1.376 84 9.514
25 0.466 55 1.428 85 11.430
26 0.488 56 1.483 86 14.300
27 0.509 57 1.540 87 19.081
28 0.532 58 1.600 88 28.636
29 0.554 59 1.664 89 57.290
30 0.577 60 1.732 90 -------
Further Trigonometrical Functions
30. Three further trigonometrical functions are achieved by taking the reciprocals of the three
basic functions.
1 hypotenuse
31. The reciprocal of the sine of an angle, ------ or ----------------------------- , is the cosecant.
sin opposite

1 hypotenuse
32. The reciprocal of the cosine of an angle, ------- or ----------------------------- , is the secant.
cos adjacent

1 adjacent
33. The reciprocal of the tangent of an angle, ------ or ---------------------- , is the cotangent.
tan opposite

34. Secant is used in navigation in connection with the properties of a Mercator chart which
expands as the secant of the latitude.

Calculation of Sine and Cosine Values in the Second, Third

and Fourth Quadrants
35. Certain calculations connected with ‘compass swinging’ require the calculation of the sine or
cosine of angles greater than 90°. The following paragraphs explain how a sine or cosine ratio can
be determined for an angle greater than 90°.
36. The quadrants referred to in this calculation are:

Quadrant 1 - angles < 90°

 Quadrant 2 - angles between 90° and 180°

Quadrant 3 - angles between 180° and 270°

Quadrant 4 - angles between 270° and 360°

FIGURE 1-8
Sine / Cosine .

Angles

37. Since sine and cosine ratios only apply to angles of less than 90°, a method is required to
convert a larger angle to one of less than 90°. The angle required is found by comparing the angle
given and the nearest vertical reference line. For example, if the angle given is 130° then the angle
whose sine and cosine value has the same numeric value is 50°. See Figure 1-8. If the angle given is
250°, then the sine or cosine value will be numerically the same as 70°. For 340°, the required angle
is 20°.
 38. The ‘rule of thumb’ which applies is:

Second quadrant = 180° - angle

Third quadrant = angle - 180°
Fourth quadrant = 360° - angle

39. Having found the necessary angle which will be used, it is now necessary to establish whether
the sine or cosine is positive or negative, and for this it is necessary to refer to Figure 1-9.

FIGURE 1-9
Sine /Cosine Signs
 40. At Figure 1-9 we see that the sine values of angles between 0° and 180° are positive, and
between 180° and 360° are negative. A graphical plot of sine values produces a ‘sine curve’ as shown
at Figure 1-10.

FIGURE 1-10

41. Figure 1-9 shows that cosine values of angles between 270° and 90° are positive, and between
90° and 270° are negative. A graphical plot of cosine values produces a ‘cosine curve’ as shown at
Figure 1-11.
FIGURE 1-11

42. A scientific calculator should be able to resolve the relevant ratio and its sign automatically.
Some examples are given below; check the results with a calculator.
EXAMPLE 1-9
EXAMPLE
Determine the natural sine and cosine values of 157°, 223° and 356°.

SOLUTION

For sine 157° use 23° and the value is positive = +0.391
For cosine 157° use 23° and the value is negative = -0.920
For sine 223° use 43° and the value is negative = -0.682
For cosine 223° use 43° and the value is negative = -0.731
For sine 356° use 4° and the value is negative = -0.070
For cosine 356° use 4° and the value is positive = +0.998
FIGURE 1-12

43. The diagram at Figure 1-12 is useful for remembering which of the sine, cosine and tangent
functions are always positive in each quadrant.

44. Just remember CAST, starting at top left and working clockwise. The diagram reminds us
that:

In the fourth quadrant only the Cosine is positive.

In the first quadrant All values are positive.

In the second quadrant only the Sine is positive.
 In the third quadrant only the Tangent is positive.

‘1 in 60 Rule’
45. The principle behind the 1 in 60 rule is that the tangent of a small angle is approximately
1
equal to -----th of the angle itself.
60

46. The 1 in 60 rule has several applications in navigation where it can be used to determine track
error angle (the angle between the intended track, sometimes known as the course, and the track
acutally flown, also known as the track made good). It can also be used in the vertical plane in
aircraft rate of descent calculation.

47. The use of the 1 in 60 rule in the estimation of track error angle (TEA) serves to illustrate the
mathematics of a 1 in 60 rule calculation. In Figure 1-13 the right angled triangle represents a
navigation problem in which the planned course is represented by side AB and the acheived track by
AC. Side BC represents the distance the aircraft is off track at C. Angle BAC represents the track
error angle (TEA).

FIGURE 1-13
 BC
Tan BAC = --------
AB
Therefore,
Dist off track (3nm)
Tan TEA = ---------------------------------------------------------
Dist along track (40nm)
Since, Tan TEA x 60 = TEA
the formula can be written as,
Dist off track x 60
TEA = -------------------------------------------
Dist along track
3 x 60
= --------------
40
TEA = 4½°
Self Assessed Exercise No. 1

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

(a) (+14) – (+18) = (b) (-10) – (+1) =

(c) (+15) + (-25) = (d) (-18) + (+13) =
(e) (-30) – (-11) = (f) (-8) – (-17) =
(g) (-2) + (-22) = (h) (+6) – (-3) =
(i) (-7) + (+17) = (j) (+9) + (-3) =

QUESTION 2.

(a) (+88) (-11) = (b) (-9) x (+12) =

(c) (+8)  (+9) = (d) (+5)  (-8) =
(e) (-9)  (-7) = (f) (-27)  (-3) =
(g) (-11)  (+6) = (h) (-54)  (+6) =
(i) (+42)  (-7) = (j) (-45)  (+9) =
QUESTION 3.

(a) 710 × 72 = (b) 710 ÷ 72 =

(c) 9-3 × 95 = (d) 62 ÷ 6-2 =

QUESTION 4.

(a) (b)
(8100) = (810) =
(c) (d)
(4  49) = (81  36) =

QUESTION 5.

Given that:

15.047  ( 29.37 ) 2
x= -------------------------------------------
4 sin 78°

Determine the value of X

QUESTION 6.

Given that:

Y = A + B  + Cos 

and that:

A=3
B = +1.5

C = 22

 = 42°

Determine the value of Y

QUESTION 7.

Given that:

R tan 
M = N + P sin  + Q sin  + ------------------
60

and that:

N = 2.6

P = 15

Q = + 15

R = 480

 = 480

 = 54°

Determine the value of M

QUESTION 8.

Given that:

G  4  Cos  Cos
D= ----------------------------------------------------


and that:
D = 14,000

 = 65°

 = 25°

 = 0.03

Determine the value of G

QUESTION 9.

Given that:

A=MxKx T

and that:

A = 500
M = 0.83

K = 38.94

Determine the value of T

QUESTION 10.

Given that:

DH EOH
C = --------------and P= ------------------------
O+H O+H

and that:
C= P
E= 4

O = 300

Determine the value of D

QUESTION 11.

Find AC. See FIGURE 73 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 12.

Find EF. See FIGURE 74 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 13.

Find J. See FIGURE 75 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 14.

Find k. See FIGURE 76 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 15.

Find PQ. See FIGURE 77 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 16.
Find t. See FIGURE 78 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 17.

Find s. See FIGURE 79 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 18.

Find X. See FIGURE 80 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 19.

Find k. See FIGURE 81 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 20.

Find angle G. See FIGURE 82 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 21.

Find LM. See FIGURE 83 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 22.

Find angle . See FIGURE 84 in the Reference Book

QUESTION 23.

secant 25° =

secant 70° =
QUESTION 24.

(a) Sin 160° = (b) Cos 160° =

(c) Sin 250° = (d) Cos 250° =
(e) Sin 305° = (f) Cos 305° =
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

(a) -4 (b) -11

(c) -10 (d) -5
(e) -19 (f) +9
(g) -24 (h) +9
(i) +10 (j) +6

ANSWER 2.

(a) -8 (b) -108

(c) +72 (d) -40
(e) +63 (f) +9
(g) -66 (h) -9
(i) -6 (j) -5
ANSWER 3.

(a) 712 (b) 78

(c) 92 (d) 64

ANSWER 4.

(a) 90 (b) 28.5

(c) 14 (d) 1.5

ANSWER 5.

x = 3317.4

ANSWER 6.

Y = –3.85

ANSWER 7.

M = –10.71

ANSWER 8.

G = 274.136
ANSWER 9.

T = 239.327

ANSWER 10.

D = 1200

ANSWER 11.
AC = 70

ANSWER 12.

EF = 91.5

ANSWER 13.

j = 85.7

ANSWER 14.

k = 21.5

ANSWER 15.

PQ = 86.4

ANSWER 16.

t = 16
ANSWER 17.

s = 92.8

ANSWER 18.

X = 12.9°

ANSWER 19.
k = 39.2

ANSWER 20.

G = 48.8°

ANSWER 21.

LM = 109.4

ANSWER 22.

 = 59.3°

ANSWER 23.

secant 25° = 1.103

secant 70° = 2.924

ANSWER 24.

(a) Sin 160° = +0.342 (b) Cos 160° = –0.940

(c) Sin 250° = –0.940 (d) Cos 250° = –0.342
(e) Sin 305° = –0.819 (f) Cos 305° = +0.574
 The Earth

Definitions
Position Reference Systems
Direction on the Earth
Distance on the Earth
Conversion Factors
Earth Convergency
Conversion Angle
The Earth
1. Any study of the science of navigation must begin with an appreciation of the properties of
the Earth.

2. The Earth is an almost spherical planet which spins about the axis joining the geographic
north and south poles. The Earth is not a true sphere, but is slightly flattened, or compressed, at the
poles. In other words, the diameter of the Earth is slightly greater across the equator (6884 nm) than
between the poles (6860 nm). The Earth is therefore described as an ellipsoid or ‘oblate spheroid’.
This distortion, or ‘compression factor’, of the perfect sphere is very small, and is normally ignored
for the purpose of this syllabus. In addition, when producing maps and charts from a reduced earth
model, the compression factor is also small enough to be ignored if required, without incurring
significant error.

Definitions
3. The definitions which follow are important. Please refer to Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2 and
Figure 2-3.

4. Direction. The Earth spins on its own axis whilst travelling on its orbit around the sun; the
direction in which the Earth rotates is defined as east (see Figure 2-1). Since the Earth is spinning,
there must be a spin axis; the geographic, or true, poles are defined as the two points on the Earth’s
surface through which the spin axis passes.
FIGURE 2-1
The Earth’s
Rotation
The Earth

5. The Earth is described as rotating from west to east. If you were looking down on the north
pole from space, the Earth would be seen to be rotating anti-clockwise.

6. The direction north can then be defined as the direction one would have to travel from any
point on the Earth’s surface by the shortest route to reach the north pole. Similarly, south is the
direction one would have to travel to reach the south pole. Finally, west is the direction opposite to
east.

7. Great Circle. A great circle is an imaginary circle on the surface of the Earth whose radius is
the same as the Earth and whose plane passes through the centre of the Earth.
8. The shorter arc of a great circle is the shortest distance between any two points on the surface
of the Earth; any great circle cuts the Earth into two equal halves or hemispheres. At Figure 2-2 the
shorter arc of the great circle between positions A and B is shown as a broken line and represents the
shortest distance across the Earth’s surface between A and B.
FIGURE 2-2
Great Circle and
Rhumb Line Track

9. Small Circle. A small circle is any circle on the surface of the Earth whose radius is not that of
the Earth, and whose plane does not pass through the centre of the Earth ie any circle other than a
great circle. Parallels of latitude are examples of small circles.

10. Rhumb Line. A rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth which
maintains a constant direction with respect to true North. As will be seen shortly, this definition
means that a rhumb line must cross all meridians at the same angle.
11. At Figure 2-2, the rhumb line joining points A and B is shown as a solid line. The distance
from A to B along this rhumb line is greater than along the great circle; however, it is sometimes
convenient to fly along a track with a constant track direction.
12. The Equator. The Equator is the name given to the great circle whose plane lies
perpendicular to the Earth's spin axis; therefore, the Equator is the only great circle that lies in an
east-west direction. The Equator also crosses all meridians at 90; hence, not only is it a great circle,
but it is also a rhumb line. All points on the Equator are equidistant from the geographic poles and
the Equator divides the Earth into the northern and southern hemispheres; therefore, the Equator
defines 0° North and/or South. See Figure 2-3.
FIGURE 2-3
Meridians and
Parallels of
Latitude

13. Parallels of Latitude. A parallel of latitude is an imaginary line that joins points of equal
latitude; it is a small circle that lies parallel to the Equator (the Equator, therefore, is also a parallel of
latitude; the only one which is a great circle). Parallels of latitude are used to define position in terms
of latitude.

14. Whole degrees of parallels of latitude are numbered from 1° to 89° North or South of the
Equator. Since parallels of latitude are parallel to the Equator and run East/West they cross all
meridians at right angles and are therefore rhumb lines. See Figure 2-3.
15. Meridians. A meridian is a semi-great circle between the North and South poles (see
Figure 2-3). It is a line joining points of equal longitude and crosses the Equator at right angles. All
meridians define the directions of True North and South.

16. The Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is the semi-great circle passing through the poles
and also passing through Greenwich, in London; it is also known, therefore, as the Greenwich
Meridian and defines a longitude of 0° East and/or West. The Greenwich anti-meridian lies at 180°
East/West.

17. Meridians are used to define the angular difference of a position from the Prime Meridian
which is referred to as longitude. Whole degrees of meridians are numbered from 0° to 180° and are
labelled east or west of the 0° meridian of longitude (the Prime Meridian). For every meridian, there
is an anti-meridian that lies geometrically opposite (in other words 180° of longitude removed). A
meridian together with its anti-meridian form a complete great circle.

18. The longitudes of a meridian and its anti-meridian will always add up to 180; they will also
be in opposite hemispheres. Hence the anti-meridian of 030W is 150E.

Position Reference Systems

19. The purpose of a Position Reference System is to be able to define uniquely any point on the
surface of the Earth.
20. There are a number of different ways of defining position. You will probably be familiar with
the method of using x-axis and y-axis co-ordinates (where the x-axis and y-axis are at right angles to
each other) to plot a graph; these are called Cartesian Co-ordinates. However, the Cartesian Co-
ordinate system is not very convenient when applied to navigation on the curved surface of the Earth.
21. An alternative system is the Polar Co-ordinates system. Using Polar Co-ordinates it is
possible to define any point on the surface of a sphere in terms of the radius of the sphere, (r), and 2
angles, represented by the Greek letters  and .

22. When applied to navigation, the angles  and  are called latitude and longitude. Since we
treat the Earth as a true sphere, r, the radius of the Earth is constant and is not therefore required in
order to define position.

Latitude
23. The latitude of any point on the Earth’s surface is defined as the arc of the meridian
intercepted between the equator and the parallel of latitude passing through the point (see
Figure 2-4). The latitude is given as an angle subtended at the centre of the Earth and expressed in
degrees and minutes North or South of the Equator. (Note that each degree can be divided into 60
minutes of arc and each minute subdivided into 60 seconds of arc.)
FIGURE 2-4
Latitude

Longitude
24. The longitude of any point on the Earth is defined as the smaller arc along the Equator
intercepted between the Prime Meridian and the meridian passing through the point (see Figure 2-5).
The longitude is given as an angle subtended at the centre of the Earth and expressed in degrees and
minutes of arc, East or West of the Prime Meridian.
FIGURE 2-5
Longitude

Position
25. We can now uniquely define any point on the Earth’s surface in terms of latitude and
longitude. Latitude and longitude may be written as whole degrees only or as degrees and minutes
(and sometimes seconds) as illustrated below:
• Latitude 14 degrees north could be expressed as: 14N or 14N or 1400N or
1400’N or 14°00’00"N
• Longitude 15 degrees east could be expressed as: 015E or 015E or 01500E or
01500’E or 015°00’00"E
Geodetic and Geocentric Latitude
26. Our definition of latitude is based on the assumption that the Earth is a true sphere. This
definition should properly be called the Geocentric latitude ie the angle subtended between the line
joining a point on the surface of the Earth to the centre of the Earth and the plane of the Equator.

27. There is an alternative definition of latitude, known as Geodetic (or Geographic) latitude.
Geodetic latitude is defined as the angle between the normal to the meridian at a given point (ie the
perpendicular to the Earth’s surface at that point) and the plane of the Equator. When we look, later
on, at chart properties, we will see that the first stage in map projection is to produce a physical
model of the Earth which is called a Reduced Earth. This model can either be spherical (ignoring the
irregularities in the shape of the Earth) or spheroidal, taking the irregularities into account.
28. If the model is spherical then in fact there will be no difference between the Geodetic and
Geocentric latitudes because the angle is measured in both cases at the centre of the Earth. If
however, the model does take account of the irregular shape of the Earth, then there will be a
difference between the two latitudes. This difference is known as Reduction of Latitude and is at a
maximum at a latitude of 45 when its value is approximately 11.6’ of arc. It should be noted that
the latitude plotted on modern aeronautical charts is, in fact, the Geodetic (or Geographic) latitude.

29. When it comes to very accurate navigation systems such as Global Positioning System (GPS),
the difference between Geocentric and Geodetic latitude becomes significant. GPS requires a very
accurate mathematical ‘model’ of the Earth in order to function properly. This model is provided by
a Geodetic Survey; the one used for GPS is the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84).
Difference or Change of Latitude
30. Difference of latitude (d lat), which is also known as change of latitude (ch lat), is the
difference between two latitude angles normally expressed in degrees and minutes of arc. Figure 2-6
shows three positions at different latitudes but at the same longitude (that is to say, on the same
meridian). Point A is at 40°N, point B is at 10°N and point C is at 30°S. In this example the d lat
between A and B is 30°, whereas the d lat between A and C is 70°.
FIGURE 2-6
Difference in
Latitude

31. The following examples illustrate the calculation of d lat:

EXAMPLE 2-1
EXAMPLE
Point X is at 2643’N 10000’W, point Y is at 3422’N 10000’W. What is the difference in
latitude

SOLUTION

Lat Y = 3422'N

- Lat X = 2643’N

therefore, d lat = 739'

EXAMPLE 2-2
EXAMPLE
Point X is at 2643’N 10000’W as before, point Z is at 3422’S 10000’W. What is the
difference in latitude?

SOLUTION

Lat X = 2643'N

+ Lat Z = 3422’S

therefore, d lat = 6105'

Difference or Change of Longitude

32. Difference of longitude (d long), which is also known as change of longitude (ch long), is the
angular difference between two longitude angles normally expressed in degrees and minutes of arc.
Figure 2-7 represents three positions at different longitudes but at the same latitude. Point A is at
030°W, point B is at 030°E and point C is at 070°E. In this example the d long between A and B is
60°, whereas the d long between A and C is 100°.
FIGURE 2-7
Difference in
Longitude

33. Assuming the shorter arc of longitude difference is required in each case, the following
examples illustrate the calculation of d long:
EXAMPLE 2-3
EXAMPLE
Point P is at 4000’N 00742’W, point Q is at 4000’N 02326’W. What is the difference in
longitude?

SOLUTION

Long Q = 02326'W

- Long P = 00742’W

therefore, d long = 1544'

EXAMPLE 2-4
EXAMPLE
Point P is at 4000’N 00742’W, point R is at 4000’N 02326’E. What is the difference in
longitude?

SOLUTION

Long P = 00742'W

+ Long R = 02326’E

therefore, d long = 3108'

34. Because it is normal to calculate the shorter arc between 2 points, a problem can arise when
calculating d lat between points at high latitudes on opposite meridians or when calculating d long
either side of the Greenwich anti-meridian. The following examples illustrate such situations.
EXAMPLE 2-5
EXAMPLE
Point X is at 7942’N 10000’W, point Y is at 8449’N 08000’E. What is the difference in
latitude.

SOLUTION
The angular difference between these points is not a simple subtraction of one from the other
because they are on opposite sides of the North pole. (Notice that the two longitudes add up to
180.) The 2 points are on meridian and anti-meridian and therefore we must calculate the
difference in latitude via the North pole. See Figure 2-8.

Step 1 d lat from 7942’N to the north pole (9000’N)

= 9000'N

- 7942'N

= 1018'
 Step 2 d lat from the north pole to 8449'

= 90°00'N

- 84°49'N

= 05°11'
Step 3 d lat between point x and point y is the sum of the 2 values found:

= 10°18'

+ 05°11'

= 1529'
FIGURE 2-8
EXAMPLE 2-6
EXAMPLE
Point L is at 60N 160W, point M is at 60N 170E. Calculate the shorter arc of d long in
minutes between the two points.

SOLUTION

Step 1 Point A has a d long from the Greenwich anti- meridian of:

180E/W - 160°W

= 20
Step 2 Point B has a d long from the Greenwich anti- meridian of:

180°00'E/W - 170°E

= 10°
Step 3 Therefore, the total d long between points A and B and in minutes of arc is 30 x 60’

= 1800 minutes
FIGURE 2-9
Direction on the Earth
35. We have used the concept of direction in establishing our position reference system. When
flying an aircraft, we steer it in a particular direction, the aircraft heading, and it is essential to know
which datum or reference that heading is measured against.

True Direction
36. Directions in navigation are normally measured clockwise from a given datum. True North
has been defined as the direction in which one would have to travel from any point on the Earth’s
surface to reach the North Pole.
37. True direction is expressed as an angle measured clockwise from True North.

38. As already stated, a meridian defines the directions of the True North datum (000°(T)) and
South (180(T)) at any given position. Furthermore, since all meridians and parallels cross at 90°, all
parallels of latitude define the directions of East (090°(T)) and West (270°(T)).

Magnetic Direction
39. Because meridians and parallels of latitude are only imaginary lines on the Earth, the actual
measurement of direction in its simplest form is achieved using a magnetic compass. In a compass,
small magnets or a magnetised pointer seek to align with the direction of the Earth's magnetic field
(they ‘seek’ Magnetic North).
40. The direction of Magnetic North at any point defines the ‘magnetic meridian’ at that point
i.e. local Magnetic North. Unfortunately, because the North magnetic pole is not coincident with the
true pole, a difference between the true and magnetic meridians occurs. This angular difference may
vary between 0° and 180° and is called variation. Knowledge of the local value of variation enables
magnetic directions to be converted to true.

41. If Magnetic North lies to the West of True North, variation is said to be westerly; if Magnetic
North lies to the east of True North, the variation is said to be easterly; hence variation is measured
either West or East from True North. See Figure 2-10.
FIGURE 2-10
Comparing True
North and
Magnetic North
(Variation West)

42. In the example in Figure 2-10, an aircraft is heading 090(T). Variation is West of True North
and has a value of 10. From the diagram, we can see that the magnetic heading is a larger angle and
must be larger by 10; therefore, the magnetic heading is 100(M).

43. This gives rise to a saying to help you remember which way to apply variation:

VARIATION WEST, MAGNETIC BEST

VARIATION EAST, MAGNETIC LEAST
FIGURE 2-11
Comparing True
North and
Magnetic North
(Variation East)

44. Similarly in Figure 2-11, an aircraft is heading 110(T). Variation is East of True North and
has a value of 10. From the diagram, it can be seen that the magnetic heading is a smaller angle and
must be smaller by 10; therefore, the magnetic heading is 100(M).
45. Lines joining points of equal variation are known as isogonals and are normally printed on
navigation charts. See Figure 2-12
FIGURE 2-12
Isogonals as
Shown on a
Jeppesen
1:500,000 Chart
Compass Direction
46. Magnetic fields within the aircraft may deflect the compass magnets from their intended
alignment. The direction in which the compass needle actually indicates North is called Compass
North. The error angle between Magnetic North and Compass North is called deviation. Deviation
may also be caused by a misalignment of the reference line on the compass itself. Deviation is
covered in more detail later.
47. If Compass North lies to the West of Magnetic North the deviation is westerly (or negative) as
shown at Figure 2-13. If Compass North lies to the East of Magnetic North the deviation is easterly
(or positive) as shown at Figure 2-14.
FIGURE 2-13
Deviation West
FIGURE 2-14
Deviation East

48. Note that, unlike variation, deviation changes with change of aircraft heading. Deviation in
an aircraft compass is reduced to a minimum by conducting a compass swing. Residual deviations
are then recorded on a compass deviation card, which is mounted in the aircraft. An illustration of
one type of cockpit deviation card is shown at Figure 2-15.
FIGURE 2-15
A Compass +

For Magnetic Heading Steer by Compass

Deviation Card
N 000° 002°
NE 045° 046°
E 090° 087°
SE 135° 136°
S 180° 182°
SW 225° 225°
W 270° 267°
NW 315° 315°

49. The relationship between compass, magnetic and true direction is summarised as shown at
Figure 2-16.

FIGURE 2-16
Relationship + Deviation + Variation
between Compass East Magnetic East True
Compass, direction ------------> direction ------------> direction
Magnetic and True °(C) - Deviation °(M) - Variation °(T)
Directions West West
 Definitions:

• Deviation is east when compass north lies to the east of magnetic north
• Deviation is west when compass north lies to the west of magnetic north
• Variation is east when magnetic north lies to the east of true north
• Variation is west when magnetic north lies to the west of true north
50. Here are some examples to check your understanding of the relationships between compass,
magnetic and true directions.

EXAMPLE 2-7
EXAMPLE
Draw a diagram to illustrate an aircraft on a heading of 063°(T), variation 27°E, deviation -7°
(west) to show compass and magnetic north in relation to true north.

SOLUTION
See Figure 2-17.
FIGURE 2-17
Comparison of True, Magnetic and Compass Heading
EXAMPLE 2-8
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is steering 247 on the compass. The variation is 13E and there is -1 (west) compass
deviation. What is the aircraft’s true heading?

SOLUTION
Deviation west, compass best which means the heading (M) is less than compass:

therefore, Heading (M) = 247 - 1

= 246(M)
Variation east, magnetic least, which means the heading (T) is greater.

therefore, Heading (T) = 246 + 13

= 259(T)
EXAMPLE 2-9
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly a heading of 090(T). If the variation is 6W and the compass deviation is -3
(west), what heading is required on the compass to achieve the desired true heading?

SOLUTION
Variation west, magnetic best, which means the heading (M) is greater.

therefore, Heading (M) = 090 + 6

= 096(M)
Deviation west, compass best, which means the heading (C) is greater.

therefore, Heading (C) = 096 + 3

= 099(C)

Grid Direction
51. Grid navigation involves the use of a grid overprinted on a normal navigation chart to
simplify navigation in polar regions. Grid direction is covered in a later chapter and also in the
Operational Procedures notes.
Distance on the Earth
52. The measurement or calculation of distance is an essential element in navigation. On a chart,
distance is normally measured using a scale bar or using dividers, but a knowledge of the means of
calculating distance is also required and is covered in this section.

53. There are three main systems of measurement:

(a) Imperial measurement – statute mile, yards, feet and inches

(b) Systeme Internationale (SI) – The Metric System: kilometres, metres, centimetres and
millimetres

(c) Angular Measurement – The nautical mile (nm)

Imperial Measurement
54. The Imperial system of measurements is based on:

12 inches = 1 foot

3 feet = 1 yard

1, 760 yards = 1 statute mile

55. For most of the calculations required in this syllabus, it is necessary only to remember that 1
statute mile equates to 5,280 feet.

Systeme Internationale
56. The Systeme Internationale is more commonly known as the metric system. The basic unit of
measurement for distance in the SI is the metre (m). There is an exact and scientific definition of the
metre available, but for the purposes of this syllabus, we use the definition of the kilometre (km)
provided by Napoleon: one kilometre is equal to one ten-thousandth of the average distance from
the Equator to either pole. Hence the distance from the Equator to the north or south pole is 10,000
km.

1 kilometre = 1000 metres

1 metre = 100 centimetres

Nautical Mile
57. The unit of distance most frequently used in navigation is the nautical mile (nm). The
relationship between the nautical mile and latitude/longitude is fundamental to navigation.
 58. Definition. The nautical mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the Earth along a
great circle which subtends an angle of 1’ of arc measured at the centre of curvature of the Earth.
However because the radius of curvature varies (the Earth is an oblate spheroid) so does the actual
length of a nautical mile. For most practical purposes, the angle of 1’ is assumed to be subtended at
the centre of the Earth and the variability in length of the nautical mile is ignored. For calculations
required in this syllabus, it is necessary to remember the conversion rate:

1 nautical mile = 6,080 feet

(Note: This distance equates to 1854m; however, for reference purposes the ICAO nautical mile is
actually defined as a distance of 1852 metres)
59. A meridian is a semi-great circle; therefore, 1’ along a meridian can be assumed to represent
1nm. Therefore, 1 of change of latitude along a meridian is assumed to represent a distance of
60nm.

Calculating Distances
60. The syllabus requires you to be able to calculate the following:

(a) Great circle distance. The great circle distance may be along a meridian or along the
Equator.

(b) Rhumb line distance. The rhumb line distance is the east/west distance along a parallel
of latitude. Rhumb line distance is also called ‘departure’.

61. The calculation of the distance between two points that are neither on the same meridian or
anti-meridan, nor on the same parallel of latitude is not required in this syllabus.

rcle Distance
62. Some examples of distance calculation are given below. Assume the shorter arc of distance is
required in each case:
EXAMPLE 2-10
EXAMPLE
Determine the great circle distance in nautical miles between points A and B, and
between points A and C in Figure 2-18

SOLUTION

FIGURE 2-18
First check that A and B are on the same Meridian.
Point A is at 40°N; point B is at 10°N.
The difference in latitude (d lat) is 30° which we must convert to minutes (multiply by 60).

Therefore the distance between A and B = 30 x 60’

= 1800’
= 1800 nm

Point A is at 40°N; point C is at 30°S

The d lat is 70° and A and C lie on the same meridian

Therefore the distance between A and C = 70 x 60’

= 4200’
= 4200 nm
EXAMPLE 2-11
EXAMPLE
Determine the great circle distance in nautical miles between point D (47°15'N 027°30'W) and
point E (32°20'N 027°30'W).

SOLUTION

Point D is at 47°15’N; point E is at 032°20’N; both are on the same

meridian

The d lat is 14°55’

Therefore the great circle distance is (14 x 60’) + 55’

= 895’
= 895 nm
EXAMPLE 2-12
EXAMPLE
Determine the great circle distance in nautical miles between point F (80°N 030°W) and point G
(85°N 150°E).

SOLUTION
At first sight these two points appear not to be on the same meridian, but remember, a meridian
and its anti-meridian will always add up to 180 and they are always in opposite hemispheres.
In this case point F lies on 030W and point G lies on 150E; they add up to 180 and are in
opposite hemispheres. Therefore, G is on the anti-meridian of F and both points lie on the same
great circle We can proceed by calculating the distance via the North Pole. See Figure 2-19.
Calculating great circle distance over the pole
FIGURE 2-19

Point F is at 80°N 30°W; Point G is at 85°N 150°E

From 80°N to the North Pole (90°N) = 10°

From the North Pole to 85°N = 5°

Therefore the d lat is 15° and we have established that F & G lie on a meridian
and its anti meridian

Therefore the distance between F and G = 15 x 60’

= 900’
= 900 nm
EXAMPLE 2-13
EXAMPLE
Determine the great circle distance in nautical miles between point J (00°N/S 075°W) and point K
(00°N/S 150°W).

SOLUTION
Points J and K are not on the same meridian, but they are both on the Equator. The Equator is a
great circle; hence we can calculate the distance that J and K are apart.
Point J is at 075W and point K is at 150W; therefore, the d long is 75. That difference in
longitude is along a great circle (the Equator) where 1’ of arc equates to 1nm.

Therefore the distance between J to K = 75 x 60’

= 4500’
= 4500nm

Calculating Departure (Rhumb Line) Distance

63. One degree change of latitude along any meridian always represents a distance of 60 nm. One
degree of change of longitude will, however, only measure 60 nm at the Equator; this is because the
Equator is the only parallel of latitude which is a great circle.
64. It follows, therefore, that a change of 1’ of arc of longitude along the Equator will equate to
1nm whereas a change of 1’ of arc of longitude at either pole is not a distance at all, simply a very
small rotation. So the distance represented by 1’ of longitude decreases as latitude increases. This
means that (except at the Equator) we cannot convert a difference in longitude to distance simply by
converting d long to minutes.

65. However, there is a trigonometrical function which varies in the same way as longitudinal
distance ie is a maximum of +1 at 0, (the Equator) and a minimum of 0 at 90 (the pole). That
function is the cosine and it is the cosine of the latitude that is used to convert d long in minutes to
departure in nautical miles. It is essential to note that this formula will only produce an exact answer
if both positions have the same latitude.

66. The formula relating change of longitude to distance is called the departure formula. The
formula states that:

Departure Distance (nm) = Difference in long (min) x cos lat

or, in other words,

Departure Distance (nm) = d long’ x cos lat

67. Some examples of departure calculation are given below. Once again, unless the question
states otherwise, assume the short arc of distance is required.
EXAMPLE 2-14
EXAMPLE
Determine the shorter arc of rhumb line distance between point A (35°15'N
027°40'W) and point B (35°15'N 046°25'E).

SOLUTION

Distance (nm) = d long’ x cos lat

Add the longitude values to give d long, thus

= (46°25’ + 27°40’) x cos 35°15’

= 74°05’ x cos 35°15’

= ((74 x 60) + 05) x 0.817 (rounded)

= 4445’ x 0.817

= 3632nm
EXAMPLE 2-15
EXAMPLE
Determine the shorter arc of rhumb line distance between point C (4800’N
02700’E) and point D (4800’N 01435’E).

SOLUTION

Departure Distance (nm) = d long’ x cos lat

= (27°00’ - 14°35’) x cos 48°

= 12°25’ x cos 48°

= ((12 x 60) + 25)’ x 0.669

= 745’ x 0.669

= 498.4nm
EXAMPLE 2-16
EXAMPLE
Determine the shorter arc of rhumb line distance between point E (6500’N 16217’E)
and point F (6500’N 15724’W).

SOLUTION
In this example, the points are both at 6500’N, but they are either side of the
Greenwich anti-meridian. It is therefore necessary to work out the d long from 16217E
to 18000’ E/W and from 18000’ E/W to 15724’W and add them together, thus:
18000' - 16217' = 1743'

18000’ - 15724' = 226'

1743' + 2236' = 409'

therefore, d long = 4019'

Departure Distance (nm) = d long’ x cos lat

= 409' x cos 65

= ((40 x 60) + 19)’ x cos 65

= 2419’ x 0.423

= 1023nm
 Comparison of Rhumb Line and Great Circle Distances
EXAMPLE 2-17
EXAMPLE

FIGURE 2-20
Comparison of Rhumb Line and Great Circle Distance
Figure 2-20 illustrates an extreme case of the advantage of flying a great circle track as opposed to
a rhumb line. In this example, point B is on the anti-meridian of point A, hence the great circle
track between them passes directly over the north pole.
In addition, since points A and B are both at 60N, we can calculate the east/west departure
distance between them.

SOLUTION

From Point A (at 60N) to the north pole (90N) = 30 d lat

From the north pole to point B (also at 60) = 30 d lat

Therefore, the total d lat from A to B = 60

Great circle distance from A to B = 60 x 60’

= 3600’

= 3600nm
 On the other hand, the E/W Rhumb Line or Departure Distance is calculated as follows:

Departure distance (nm) = d long’ x cos lat

= (180 x 60)’ x cos 60

= 10800’ x 0.5

= 5400nm

In this example the rhumb line distance is 1800nm, or 50% more than the great circle distance,
indicating why airlines prefer great circle routes (to save time, fuel and money).

Conversion Factors
68. Check your computer and ensure that it makes provision for converting from one unit of
distance to another. If your computer does not provide this facility, you will need to memorise the
following conversion factors:
 1 nm (6080ft) = 1.854km = 1854 metres

1 nm = 1.152 statute miles = 6080 ft

1 statute mile = 1.610 km = 1610 metres

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 metre = 3.28 ft

69. Speed given in knots represents the number of nautical miles flown in one hour; therefore:

1 knot = 1 nm/hour

70. To convert speed given in knots to metres/second, divide the speed in knots by 1.95, ie.
1.95kts = 1m/s

71. Note that when expressing altitude or height, some countries choose to use feet whilst others
choose to use metres.
 Earth Convergency
72. When discussing the form of the Earth, we observed that all meridians lie north/south and
join the two true poles. What this means is that the meridians converge at the poles and the distance
between adjacent meridians reduces with increase in latitude.

FIGURE 2-21
73. The effect of this convergency of meridians is that the direction of a great circle track or
bearing constantly changes (unlike a rhumb line which remains the same). The magnitude of the
change can be determined by calculating the convergency between the start point and the finish point
(or destination) on the track.

Definition
74. Earth Convergency. Earth convergency can be defined as the angle that one meridian forms
with another.

75. Expressed more technically, earth convergency (EC) is the angle of inclination between any
two meridians at a given latitude.

76. At the Equator earth convergency is zero, since all meridians are parallel with one another.
However, at the poles the value of Earth convergency between any two meridians is equal to the
value of the change of longitude between them.

77. If we consider two meridians 1 of longitude apart at the Equator, the angle they form with
each other is 0. However, if we consider the same two meridians at the north pole (or south pole),
they will form an angle of 1 which is the same as the difference (or change) in longitude. Hence
earth convergency between these two meridians is 0 at the Equator and 1 at the poles.

78. There is a trigonometrical function which varies in the same way as earth convergency ie is a
minimum of 0 at 0, (the Equator) and a maximum of +1 at 90 (the pole). This is the sine function
and it is the sine of the latitude that is applied to d long to calculate earth convergency.
79. To calculate earth convergency the formula is:
 Earth Convergency = Difference in Longitude () x Sine of the Latitude

80. Unlike the formula for departure distance, which is accurate only when the two points are at
the same latitude, in the case of earth convergency the two points may be at different latitudes, and
the formula for calculating earth convergency then becomes:

Earth Convergency = Difference in x Sine of the Mean

between 2 points Longitude () Latitude

Consider Figure 2-22:

FIGURE 2-22
Change in Great
Circle Track Due
to Earth
Convergency
81. Earth convergency between the two meridians shown in Figure 2-22 is 40° at latitude 30°N
(80° x sine 30).

82. The great circle track measured at C is 070°(T); measured at D, it is 110°(T). The great circle
track has changed by 40°; due to the convergency between the 040W meridian and the 040E.

83. An example of an Earth convergency calculation is given below:

EXAMPLE 2-18
EXAMPLE
The great circle track between point E (38°N 04°30'E) and point F (43°N 17°E) measures 059°(T)
at E. Determine the direction of this great circle track at F. See Figure 2-23.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 2-23
Earth Convergency = Difference in x Sine of the Mean
between 2 points Longitude () Latitude

Earth convergency = d long° x sin mean lat

( 38 + 43 )
= (17°00’ - 04°30’) x sin -- -
--------------------
2

= 12.5° x sin 40°30’

= 12.5° x 0.649

= 8°
 By observation, the track angle at F must be larger than the track angle at E and therefore we add
the earth convergency (in this case) to the initial great circle track at E to obtain the new great circle
track at F:

great circle track at F = great circle track at + earth convergency

E

= 059° + 8°

= 067°(T)

84. The practical application of convergency on a chart is covered later in ‘plotting’.

Conversion Angle
85. When flying between one point and another it is usual to use either a great circle track (the
shortest distance) or a rhumb line track (with a constant track angle).
FIGURE 2-24
Rhumb Line Track

86. Figure 2-24 is the situation repeated from Figure 2-22, but this time also shows the rhumb
line track between C and D. We have already seen that the great circle track increases from 070(T)
to 110(T); implying that at some point the great circle track must be 090(T).

87. The rhumb line track between C and D follows the 30N parallel of latitude and therefore the
rhumb line track must be a constant 090(T).

88. Therefore, at some point, the two tracks are parallel ie they are both 090(T).

89. The great circle track changes (because of earth convergency) at a constant rate from 070 to
110; therefore, to be parallel with the rhumb line track, it must have changed by 20. The total track
change between C and D is 40. Therefore, the point at which the great circle track and rhumb line
track are equal and parallel is at the mid-longitude of the track ie at 0E/W.
90. The difference in track angle between the initial great circle track and the rhumb line track is
the angular difference subtended between these two tracks at the departure point.

91. The initial great circle track is 070(T); the rhumb line track is 090(T); therefore, the
difference is 20. The angular difference between the tracks at D is also 20.

92. This angle is called the conversion angle. That angle of 20 equals half of the earth
convergency between points C and D. The formula for calculating conversion angle is:

Conversion angle = 0.5 x d long x sin mean lat

Figure 2-25 is as Figure 2-23, but once again the rhumb line track is included.
FIGURE 2-25
Rhumb Line Track

93. Check that the logic outlined in the previous example holds true forFigure 2-25 and the
rhumb line track is 063().

94. To sum up, the changes in great circle track over the Earth are due to earth convergency.

earth convergency = d long x sin mean lat

95. The difference between the great circle track and rhumb line track between two points is
called conversion angle.
 conversion angle = half of earth convergency

= 0.5 x d long x sin mean lat

Try the following example:

EXAMPLE 2-19
EXAMPLE
Point A is at 6500’N 0500’E; point B is at 6000’N 1500’W. If the initial great circle track at
the departure point A is 252(T), find:
(a) the great circle track B to A measured at B

(b) the rhumb line track A to B?

SOLUTION
The recommended technique here is to determine the track direction from A to B measured at B
and then take the reciprocal. A thumb-nail sketch is usually sufficient to show which way to apply
convergency, but be sure to give the correct relative positions according to the latitude and
longitude of the two points.
EXAMPLE 2-20
EXAMPLE

FIGURE 2-26
Solution to (a)

Earth Convergency = d long° x sin (mean lat)

= 20° x sin 62.5°

= 20° x 0.887

= 17.74° = 18° (approx)

From Figure 2-26 it can be seen that the track angle at B will be smaller than 252; therefore, we
have to subtract the convergency:

great circle track at B = great circle track at A - convergency

= 252° - 18°

= 234°
But this is the track A to B measured at B; we now take the reciprocal to determine the great circle
track B to A

234° - 180° = 054°

Therefore, the great circle track B to A measured at B is 054(T)

Solution to (b)
The rhumb line track A to B is determined by applying the conversion angle to the given great
circle track at A.
Figure 2-26 confirms that the conversion angle must be subtracted from the great circle track at A.

Conversion Angle = ½ x Earth Convergency

= ½ x 18°

= 9°

rhumb line track A to B = great circle track A to B - conversion angle

= 252° - 9°

= 243°
Note: By definition the rhumb line track does not change (it crosses all meridians at the same
angle) so, although it is not required in this question, the reciprocal will also be the same all the
way from B to A (063°).
Self Assessed Exercise No. 2

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

State the definition of the direction East.

QUESTION 2.
State the definition of the direction North.

QUESTION 3.

State the definition of a great circle.

QUESTION 4.

State the definition of a small circle.

QUESTION 5.

State the definition of the Equator.

QUESTION 6.

State the definition of a parallel of latitude.

QUESTION 7.

State the definition of a meridian.

QUESTION 8.

What is the anti-meridian of the 060°E meridian.

QUESTION 9.

Define geocentric latitude.

QUESTION 10.
Define reduction of latitude.

QUESTION 11.

Where is reduction of latitude at a maximum.

QUESTION 12.

Point A is at 47°25’N 02°30’W; point B is at 11°57’N 02°30’W

Calculate d lat between points A and B

Calculate the great circle distance between A and B

Determine the bearing (°T) of B from A.

QUESTION 13.
Define Earth convergency.
QUESTION 14.

Point C is at 45°00’N 12°25’E; point D is at 45°00’N 10°46’W.

Calculate d long between points C and D

Calculate the rhumb line (departure) distance between C and D

Determine the rhumb line track (°T) C to D

Determine the great circle track (°T) D to C measured at D
QUESTION 15.

Direction – fill in the blanks.

Hdg°(C) Deviation Hdg°(M) Variation Hdg°(T)

120 10W 15E
345 -7 27E
4E 132 24W
12W 12W 220
+10 7E 270
16W 300 16E
030 10E 4E
000 10W 17W
3E 215 6W
220 -4 5W
QUESTION 16.

Great Circle Distance – fill in the blanks.

A B D Lat Distance (nm)

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Great Circle Distances
49°00’S 012°25’E 45°00’S 012°25’E
37°27’S 049°21’E 43°21’S 049°21’E
10°21’S 113°47’W 05°17’N 113°47’W
53°25’N 108°00’E 47°17’N 108°00’E
78°47’N 035°45’W 84°35’N 144°15’E
QUESTION 17.

Rhumb Line Distance – fill in the blanks.

A B D Long Distance (nm)

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Rhumb Line (departure) Distances
52°00’N 21°31’W 52°00’N 010°17’E
13°00’S 175°17’E 13°00’S 168°31’W
49°00’S 012°25’E 49°00’S 025°45’E
21°00’N 010°43’E 21°00’N 016°17E
47°30’N 025°00’W 47°30’N 044°28’W
QUESTION 18.

Great Circle and Rhumb Line Tracks fill in the blanks.

Point A Point B GC Conv GC CA RL Track

Tk @ A Tk @ B
Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
59°00’N 010°00’W 65°00’N 010°00’E 050
47°00’S 125°00’W 41°00’S 135°00’W 300
55°00’N 110°00’W 75°00’N 010°00’E 022
75°00’N 010°00’E 60°00’N 075°00’W 245
75°00’S 160°00’W 60°00’S 165°00’E 312
75°00’N 100°00’W 50°00’N 025°00’W 128
73°00’S 120°00’E 55°00’S 150°00’E 023
50°00’S 170°00’W 73°00’S 135°00’W 129
55°00’S 120°00’E 73°00’S 170°00’E 107
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

East is defined as the direction in which the Earth rotates.

ANSWER 2.

Since the Earth is spinning, it has a spin axis. The extremities of the spin axis on the Earth’s surface
are the True Poles. Then facing in the direction of the Earth’s rotation, ie. East, the True North Pole
is on the left. The direction North is then defined as the direction in which one would have to travel
from any point on the Earth’s surface by the shortest route to reach the True North Pole.
ANSWER 3.

A great circle is an imaginary circle on the surface of the Earth whose radius is the same as the Earth
and whose plane passes through the centre of the Earth.
ANSWER 4.

A small circle is an imaginary line on the surface of the earth whose radius is not the same as the
Earth and whose plane does not pass through the centre of the Earth, ie. any circle that is not a great
circle.

ANSWER 5.

The Equator is the name given to the great circle whose plane lies perpendicular to the Earth’s spin
axis; it is the only great circle that lies in an east/west direction.
ANSWER 6.

A parallel of latitude is an imaginary line that joins points of equal latitude; it is a small circle that
lies parallel to the Equator and hence lies in an east/west direction. Parallels of latitude are used to
define position in terms of latitude, north or south of the equator.

ANSWER 7.

A meridian is a semi-great circle between the north and south poles. It is a line joining points of equal
longitude and crosses the Equator at right angles. Meridians define the directions of True North and
South and are used to define position in terms of longitude east or west of the Greenwich (Prime)
Meridian.
ANSWER 8.

120°W
ANSWER 9.

Geocentric latitude is the angle subtended between a line joining a point on the surface of the Earth
to the centre of the Earth and the plane of the Equator; it assumes the Earth is a true sphere.
ANSWER 10.

Reduction of latitude is the difference between geocentric and geodetic latitude. It is the difference
between treating the Earth as a true sphere and taking the irregularities into account.

ANSWER 11.

Reduction of latitude is at a maximum at a latitude of 45° where its value is approximately 11.6’ of
arc
ANSWER 12.

I. D.lat = 47° 25’ – 11° 57’ = 35° 28’

II. Great circle distance = (35 x 60) + 28 = 2128 nm

III. True bearing of B from A = 180°T (on the same meridian)

ANSWER 13.

Earth convergency is caused by the meridians converging at the poles. It is the angle that the meridian
at one point on the Earth’s surface form with the meridian at another point. Earth convergency = d
long° x sin (mean lat).
ANSWER 14.

a) difference in longitude = 10°46’ + 12°25’

= 23°11’

b) Rhumb line (departure) distance = d long’ x cos lat

= [(23 x 60) +1]’ x cos 45

= 1391 x 0.707

= 983.4 nm

c) Rhumb line track C → D follows 45°N parallel of latitude that is parallel to the Equator which
lies east/west. Therefore, 45°N parallel lies east/west; therefore, track C → D is 270°T
d) Rhumb line track C → D = 270°T

 Rhumb line track D → C = 090°T (can take reciprocal of rhumb line anywhere)

Great circle track D → C is smaller angle than rhumb line.

 Great circle track D → C = rhumb line track D → C – conversion angle

conversion angle = ½ x d long° x sin (mean lat)

= ½ x 23.2° x 0.707

= Great circle track D → C = 090° – 8.2° = 081.8°T

See FIGURE 85 and FIGURE 86 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 15.

Hdg°(C) Deviation Hdg°(M) Variation Hdg°(T)

120 10W 110 15E 125
345 -7 338 27E 005
128 4E 132 24W 108
244 12W 232 12W 220
253 +10 263 7E 270
316 16W 300 16E 316
030 10E 040 4E 044
000 10W 350 17W 333
212 3E 215 6W 209
220 -4 216 5W 211
ANSWER 16.

A B D Lat Distance (nm)

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Great Circle Distances
49°00’S 012°25’E 45°00’S 012°25’E 4°00’ 240
37°27’S 049°21’E 43°21’S 049°21’E 5°54’ 354
10°21’S 113°47’W 05°17’N 113°47’W 15°38’ 938
53°25’N 108°00’E 47°17’N 108°00’E 6°08’ 368
78°47’N 035°45’W 84°35’N 144°15’E 16°38’ 998

ANSWER 17.

A B D Long Distance (nm)

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Rhumb Line (departure) Distances
52°00’N 21°31’W 52°00’N 010°17’E 1908’ 1174.7
13°00’S 175°17’E 13°00’S 168°31’W 972’ 947
49°00’S 012°25’E 49°00’S 025°45’E 800’ 524.8
21°00’N 010°43’E 21°00’N 016°17E 334’ 311.8
47°30’N 025°00’W 47°30’N 044°28’W 1168’ 789.1
ANSWER 18.

Point A Point B GC Conv’y GC CA RL

Tk @ A Tk @ B Track

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude

59°00’N 010°00’W 65°00’N 010°00’E 050 17.6° 067.6 8.8° 058.8
47°00’S 125°00’W 41°00’S 135°00’W 300 6.9° 306.9 3.5° 303.5
55°00’N 110°00’W 75°00’N 010°00’E 022 108.8° 130.8 54.4° 076.4
75°00’N 010°00’E 60°00’N 075°00’W 284.3 78.5° 205.7 39.3° 245
75°00’S 160°00’W 60°00’S 165°00’E 295.8 32.3° 328.1 16.2° 312
75°00’N 100°00’W 50°00’N 025°00’W 094.7 66.5° 161.2 33.3° 128
73°00’S 120°00’E 55°00’S 150°00’E 050 27° 023 13.5° 036.5
50°00’S 170°00’W 73°00’S 135°00’W 159.8 30.8° 129 15.4° 144.4
55°00’S 120°00’E 73°00’S 170°00’E 151.9 44.9° 107 22.5° 129.4
The Triangle of Velocities and Navigation
Computer

Triangle of Velocities
Navigation Computer
Speed, Distance and Time Calculations
Calibrated (Rectified) Airspeed to True Airspeed
Calculations
Mach Number Calculations
Conversion Factors
The Triangle of Velocities and
Navigation Computer
Triangle of Velocities
1. The triangle of velocities is a vector triangle which is used to establish the relationship
between the elements governing an aircraft’s speed and direction through the air and its direction and
rate of progress over the surface of the earth. The difference between these two values is caused by
the wind.

Definitions Used in the Triangle of Velocities

2. Velocity. A velocity comprises two elements, a direction and a speed. In navigation the
direction is measured clockwise from a given datum which is usually true north. Speed is the rate of
movement per unit of time which may be specified in a number of different ways. Normally the
speeds used in navigation are nautical miles per hour which is abbreviated to knots or kt.

3. True Airspeed (TAS) and Groundspeed. The speed of movement of an aeroplane relative to
the undisturbed air is referred to as the true airspeed. If the speed is measured relative to the path
over the surface of the Earth, it is referred to as the groundspeed of the aircraft (G/S).

4. Heading. The heading of an aircraft is the direction the aircraft is moving in the undisturbed
air. In other words, the direction in which the nose is pointing. However, rarely is the air completely
still; it is moved by the wind and as a consequence will move an aircraft flying in that air downwind.
5. Wind Velocity. Wind velocity is the direction from which the wind is blowing and its speed of
movement over the Earth.

Wind Effect
6. If an aeroplane is heading 090(T) at a TAS of 500kt, after 1 hour it will be 500nm east of its
start position in still air. This is referred to as its air position. However, if during that hour a wind
had been blowing from the north at 50kts, the aeroplane would have been blown downwind by
50nm. In other words, its ground position would be 50nm south of its air position.

7. What has occurred is that although the aeroplane was heading 090(T) at a TAS of 500kts, it
was being continuously blown downwind for the whole hour. Its path over the ground can be
determined by joining the start ground position to the end ground position and is called its track
made good (TMG). The distance between these two positions in the hour is a measure of its
groundspeed.

8. This principle is depicted in Figure 3-1 by vectors. (A vector is a straight line in the direction
of the velocity having a length representing the distance travelled). The heading and TAS vector by
convention is denoted by one arrow on the line, the track and groundspeed vector by two arrows and
the wind vector and speed by three arrows. This is known as the triangle of velocities.
FIGURE 3-1
Triangle of
Velocities

9. Drift. The angle subtended between the heading and the track is referred to as the drift. It is
defined as starboard if the aeroplane is blown to the right of its heading, (as in Figure 3-1), or port if
it is blown to the left of its heading. Provided all three velocities remain constant then the drift angle
will be the same no matter what the period of time. For instance, in the example, after 30 minutes,
the aeroplane will have only travelled half of the distance in the air and over the ground but the drift
will remain the same.

(Note. Drift angle is also known as the wind correction angle).

10. Solving the Triangle of Velocities. Of the six variables that make up the triangle of velocities,
if four of them are known it is always possible to determine the other two. When plotting these
velocities it is essential that they all be drawn to the same scale.

11. The following two examples require the construction of the triangle of velocities in each case.
If you are in doubt as to how to proceed, read the solution first.
EXAMPLE 3-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft has a TAS of 300 kt and is heading 290°(T). The drift is 17° port and the groundspeed
as 345 kt. Determine by vector construction the wind velocity affecting the aircraft at this time.

SOLUTION
Remember that drift is the angle between the aircraft's heading and track measured left or right
(port or starboard) of the heading.
1. Construct true north datum.
2. Select a suitable scale ie. 1cm - 25nm
3. Plot the true heading 290(T). Mark with one arrow.
4. Measure the distance to scale for 1 hour at TAS (300nm = 12cm). This point is the air position.
5. Calculate the true track (290-17) = 273°(T)
6. Plot the track 273(T). Mark with two arrows.
7. Along the track to the same scale, measure 1 hour at groundspeed (345nm = 13.8cm). This
point is the ground position.
8. Join the ends of the two vectors.
9. Remember that wind blows from air position to ground position. Mark with three arrows.
10. Measure the length of the wind vector (approx. 4.2cm).
11. Convert to a wind speed using the scale selected.
FIGURE 3-2
EXAMPLE 3-2
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is required to make good a track of 260°(T). The TAS is 150 kt and the W/V is
300°(T)/40 kt. Determine by vector construction the required heading and the groundspeed.

SOLUTION
The construction is as follows:
1. Choose a suitable scale. At Figure 3-3, 1 cm is taken to represent 10 kt.
2. Construct a True North Reference.
3. Construct a track line bearing 260°(T).
4. Draw the W/V vector. From 300°(T) for 4cm. (40kts).
5. From the end of the W/V vector, arc a curve 15 cm (TAS 150 kt) across the track line.
6. Join the end of the W/V vector to the point where the TAS arc crosses the track line, this line is
the heading/TAS vector.
7. Measure the angle between True North and the Hdg/TAS vector.
8. Hdg = 270°(T).
9. Measure the length of the track/groundspeed vector, and using the chosen scale convert this
distance to a speed (approx 11.7 cm).
10. G/S = 117 kt.
 FIGURE 3-3

12. The plotting solution to the vector triangle is long and laborious. The solution is more easily
obtained by using a navigation computer.
Navigation Computer
13. All candidates must be equipped with a suitable navigation computer. The Pooleys
International CRP 5 computer is recommended because it performs all of the necessary functions.
Candidates already possessing a computer should check that the plastic slide is calibrated up to at
least 800 kt and that the reverse (circular sliderule) side includes the facility to compute Mach No.
and to apply compressibility corrections to TAS calculations. Ideally, the sliderule side of the
computer should include conversion markings to enable the candidate to convert units of distance
(nautical miles, statute miles, kilometres), volume (Imperial gallons, US gallons, litres), and weight
(pounds, kilograms). Specific gravity scales are also a great help when converting volumes of fuel to
weight of fuel or vice versa.

Description of the Navigation Computer (CRP 5)

14. The sliding Speed Scale. There are two scales, one on each side of the slider (see Figure 3-4).
On one side is the low speed scale ranging from 40kts to 300kts with speed arcs at 2kt intervals and
labelled every 10kts. The other side has a high speed scale which ranges from 150kts to 1050kts
with speed arcs at 10kt intervals and labelled every 50kts. On both scales the centre of radius of the
speed arcs is at 0kt. From this point, the straight line through the middle of the slider parallel to
the sides represents the heading of the aeroplane. Drift lines radiate from the 0kt point. On the low
speed scale they are at 2° intervals from 40kts to 100kts and at 1° intervals from 100kts to 300kts.
On the high speed scale, they are at 2° intervals from 150kts to 300kts and at 1° intervals from
300kts to 1050kts.
15. Along the sides of the slider are distance scales, two on each side. On the left of the low speed
side of the slider is a 1:500,000 nautical mile scale for measuring distance on that scale chart. A mm
ruler is provided on the right of the low speed side. The scales on the high speed side are 1:250,000
for measuring distance on that scale chart, and an inch ruler on the right of that side.

16. By selecting the scale appropriate to the TAS and positioning the exact TAS beneath the centre
dot on the face of the computer, commonly called the TAS dot, it is possible to reproduce the wind
vector end of the triangle of velocities. The TAS dot is effectively the air position after one hour. The
ground position can be found when the wind vector is added as will be shown in the following
examples. At the bottom end of both sliding speed scales is a squared portion which is used to solve
wind component problems.
FIGURE 3-4
The Sliding Speed
Scale
17. The Computer Face. The front of the computer consists of a rotating perspex face and scale
divided into 360° known as the bezel (see Figure 3-5). The bezel is kept in position by two locking
brackets and four screws. On the upper bracket is the true heading datum with a scale marked either
side of the datum at 1° intervals. The left scale is used to indicate port drift or easterly variation and
the right scale for starboard drift or westerly variation.

18. By rotating the bezel the centre line of the sliding scale is correctly aligned with the direction
indicated against the heading datum. Heading must always end up against the heading datum to
complete the solution to any vector triangle problem.
FIGURE 3-5
The Computer
Face
Using the Navigation Computer
19. There are two ways to solve the vector triangle known as the dot down’ and the ‘dot up’
methods. The dot down method is the preferred method used on this course. There are three main
triangle of velocities problems that are solved on the computer and three additional types of velocity
problems, each of them is dealt with in this chapter. They are:

(a) Given: heading, TAS and wind velocity

Find: track and groundspeed.

(b) Given: heading, TAS, track and groundspeed

Find: wind velocity

(c) Given: track, TAS and wind velocity

Find: heading and groundspeed

(d) Given: wind velocity and runway direction

Find: along and across track wind component

(e) Given: wind direction, runway direction, maximum crosswind limitation and
minimum acceptable headwind
Find: maximum and minimum wind speeds suitable for take-off

(f) Given: two or more headings and the drift on each and the TAS
Find: wind velocity
Worked Examples
20. The following examples and explanations cover these six computer solutions; please work
slowly through them and repeat the exercise until the procedures are learned.
EXAMPLE 3-3
Given Heading
TAS and Wind EXAMPLE
Velocity, Find An aircraft is heading 100°(T) with a TAS of 150 kt. The wind velocity is given as 360°(T)/25 kt.
Track and Determine by computer the expected track and groundspeed.
Groundspeed
SOLUTION
Initially select the low speed sliding scale face up.
FIGURE 3-6
Figure 3-3 shows the first step in the solution. The compass rose is rotated until the direction from
which the wind is blowing is positioned next to the heading index. A cross is then placed 25 kt
down the perspex screen from the centre ring to represent the wind velocity.
The next step is illustrated at Figure 3-7. The compass rose is rotated until the heading, in this case
100°(T), is next to the heading index. The centre ring is aligned with the appropriate TAS on the
speed scale, in this case 150 kt. The drift (9° starboard) is read off at the cross relative to the drift
lines, and the groundspeed (156 kt), also at the cross, relative to the curved speed lines.
 FIGURE 3-7

By reading 9° starboard drift on the upper outer scale, the track can be read against it on the inner
scale as 109(T).
The solution in this case gives a track of 109°(T), and a groundspeed of 156 kt. Figure 3-8 relates
back to the vector triangle to show just what has been achieved. The lines with the appropriate
arrows (one for Hdg/TAS, two for track/groundspeed, three for W/V) show the wind vector end of
the triangle of velocities which has effectively been reproduced on the computer. The Hdg/TAS and
track/groundspeed vectors would, of course, meet at 0 kt on the speed scale.
FIGURE 3-8
EXAMPLE 3-4
Given Heading,
TAS, Drift and EXAMPLE
Groundspeed, An aircraft has a TAS of 300 kt and is heading 290°(T). The drift is known to be 17° port and the
Find Wind Velocity groundspeed as 345 kt. Determine by computer the wind velocity affecting the aircraft at this
time.

SOLUTION
This is example 3-2 reworked by computer. Initially select the high speed scale face up.
Figure 3-9 shows the first steps in the solution. The compass rose is rotated until the heading, in
this case 290°(T), appears under the heading index. The centre ring is placed over the appropriate
TAS, in this case 300 kt. The cross is placed on the perspex to coincide with, in this case, 17° port
drift and a groundspeed of 345 kt.
FIGURE 3-9
Figure 3-10 is identical to Figure 3-9, except that again the wind vector end of the triangle of
velocities is shown.
FIGURE 3-10
Figure 3-11 shows the final step in the solution. The compass rose is rotated until the cross is
directly beneath the circle (on the zero degree drift line). The direction from which the wind is
blowing 036°(T)] now appears against the heading index. The wind speed (105 kt) is extracted
against the speed scale. In this example the W/V is therefore 036°(T)/105 kt.
FIGURE 3-11
EXAMPLE 3-5
Given required
Track, TAS and EXAMPLE
Wind Velocity, An aircraft is required to make good a track of 260°(T). The TAS is 150 kt and the W/V is
Find Heading 300°(T)/40 kt. Determine by computer the required heading and the groundspeed.
required and
Groundspeed SOLUTION
See Figure 3-12, Figure 3-13, Figure 3-14 and Figure 3-15.
The computer solution of this problem requires a little more manipulation than in the previous
two cases, and it is this solution which is most commonly completed incorrectly.
The first step is to put on the wind velocity as shown at Figure 3-12, in this case the W/V is
300°(T)/40 kt.
FIGURE 3-12
The next step is to place the ring over the TAS, in this case 150 kt. It is impossible to put the
heading under the index mark, and so the track, in this case 260°(T), is placed under the index
mark instead, see Figure 3-13.
FIGURE 3-13
Were the heading of 260°(T) to be steered, the drift experienced would be 12° port (Figure 3-13).
Using this assessment of drift the heading required to make good a track of 260°(T) would be
(260° + 12° port) 272°(T), so set 272°(T) under the heading index, as shown at Figure 3-14.
FIGURE 3-14
With 272°(T) under the heading index the drift is now 9.5° port (Figure 3-14). In order to make
good the required track of 260°(T) with this drift it is now necessary to head 269.5°(T), so put
this value under the heading index. On this heading the drift now shows 10° port and so to
make good a track of 260°(T) the heading required is 270°(T) and this value is set under the
heading index arrow, the drift remains at 10° port, as shown at Figure 3-15.
FIGURE 3-15
 Now take stock of the situation shown at Figure 3-15. The TAS is given as 150 kt and this value
appears under the ring. The drift is shown as 10°port, the required track is 260°(T) and the value
under the heading index is 270°(T), these three values therefore equate correctly.
Having completed the check outlined above, it is now possible to note the correct heading, in this
case 270°(T), and the groundspeed of 117 kt.
It might be useful now to go through this example again before attempting the next example.

EXAMPLE 3-6
Given required
Track, TAS and EXAMPLE
Wind Velocity, An aircraft is to make good a track of 135°(T) at a TAS of 190 kt with a forecast W/V of 010°(T)/
Find required 40 kt. Determine by computer the required heading and the expected groundspeed.
Heading and
Groundspeed SOLUTION
First of all mark the wind velocity on the computer. Then set the TAS under the ring and set the
track under the heading index. The drift then shows 9° starboard.
 FIGURE 3-16

To make good a track of 135°(T) with 9° starboard drift it is necessary to head 126°(T), so set this
under the heading index. Drift now shows 10° starboard, so set 125°(T) under the heading index.
Check that the TAS is under the ring, and that heading 125°(T) plus or minus drift (in this case plus
10° starboard drift) equals the required track 135°(T).
 Having completed the check note the heading and read off the groundspeed of, in this case, 210 kt,
as shown at Figure 3-16.
The required heading is therefore 125°(T), and the groundspeed expected is 210 kt.
In all of the previous examples the north datum used has been true north. It is equally possible to
solve any triangle of velocities problem using a magnetic north or grid north datum. Appreciate
however that all three vector directions (heading, track and wind direction) must use the same
north datum.

Wind Component Calculations

21. It is probable that the slide on your computer is printed with a square grid on one side. If this
is so, you possess a quick and easy way of determining, for example, the head or tail component and
the crosswind component for take-off and landing.
EXAMPLE 3-7
EXAMPLE
Given that the surface W/V is 240°(M)/30 kt, determine the wind components
along and across runway 30.

SOLUTION
By vector diagram
FIGURE 3-17
s

By computer:
1. Select the low speed scale
2. Position the speed slide to zero on the squared portion
3. Mark on the wind velocity in the usual way down from the TAS dot.
FIGURE 3-18
Next, rotate the compass rose until the runway direction (based on the same referenced direction
as the wind) lies beneath the heading index, as shown at Figure 3-19 . It is now possible to read off
the headwind and crosswind components using the chosen scale. From the wind dot make a
horizontal line to intersect the central vertical scale. Read the headwind component. A vertical
from the wind dot to intersect the horizontal scale. The crosswind component is measured from
the TAS dot and must be labelled left to right or right to left. It is not a drift, it is a wind
component
 FIGURE 3-19

The following diagram shows the vector diagram as an aid to comprehension.

 FIGURE 3-20

Note that the same procedure can be used where the wind component along track is required. In
which case, the wind velocity is plotted in the same way and then the compass roise is rotated to
put track under the heading index.
EXAMPLE 3-8
Given the Runway
Direction and the EXAMPLE
Limiting
In order to take off on runway 09 an aircraft needs a headwind component of at least 5 kt. The
Components, Find
maximum permissible crosswind component for this aircraft is 20 kt. The wind direction is given
the Maximum and as 150°(M).
Minimum Wind
Speeds Determine the minimum and maximum wind speeds acceptable for take-off.

SOLUTION
See Figure 3-21, and Figure 3-22. The first step is to set the wind direction against the heading
index and to draw a line vertically all the way down the centre of the computer from the TAS ring.
With the TAS ring over the top of the squared grid set the runway direction against the heading
index. Move down the vertical axis to 5kt. Take a horizontal line to intersect the line already
drawn. Mark this point. Travel horizontally from the TAS dot to 20kts crosswind. Now take a
vertical to intersect the wind line. Mark this point.
FIGURE 3-21
Rotate the bezel until the wind direction line is again vertical and, using the chosen scale, read off
the minimum and maximum permissible wind speeds of, in this case, 10 kt minimum and 23 kt
maximum.
FIGURE 3-22
Multi Drift Wind Finding
22. A wind velocity can be found using a minimum of two headings and drifts provided the TAS
is known. The following example uses 3 headings and drifts.

23. Determine the TAS of the aircraft and set this value under the ring on the computer.

24. Determine the drift on a given heading, for example, at a TAS of 150 kt let us assume that the
drift is measured as 5° left on a heading of 030°(T). With 150 kt under the ring and 030° under the
heading index draw a line all the way down the 5° left drift line.
25. Now turn the aircraft through 120° and determine the drift on the new heading, let's say that
the drift on 150°(T) is determined as 9° right. Place the heading of 150° under the heading index and
draw a line down the 9° right drift line.

26. Turn the aircraft through a further 120° and determine the drift. In this example the heading
is 270° and the drift is determined as 4° left. Again place the heading under the index and draw a
line down the 4° left drift line.
27. This process will result in three drift lines crossing at a common point. Rotate the compass
rose until the intersection of the three drift lines is vertically beneath the TAS ring and read off the
W/V of, in this case, 058°(T)/24 kt.

Note: Although a ‘three-drift wind velocity’ is the most accurate method, W/V can still be found
from just two drifts and two headings.
Speed, Distance and Time Calculations
28. Speed is expressed in units of distance per unit time, for example nautical miles per hour, or
knots.

distance (nm)
Thus: Speed (kt) = --------------------------------
time (hours )
29. For navigational purposes it is usually more convenient to work in minutes rather than
decimals of an hour. For example, use 75 minutes rather than 1.25 hours. Remember that an hour is
60 minutes, which is why the 60 unit on the inner scale of your computer is outlined or otherwise
highlighted in some way.

30. To utilise the reverse side of the navigation computer for these purposes, the rotating inner
scale represents time in minutes and the outer scale nautical miles.
EXAMPLE 3-9
EXAMPLE
An aircraft travelled 52 nm over the ground in 12.5 minutes. Compute the groundspeed of this
aircraft.

SOLUTION
Place 52 (nm) on the outer ring over 12.5 (mins) on the inner ring. The number which appears on
the outer ring opposite 60 minutes (1 hour) on the inner ring which in this example is 25.0.
FIGURE 3-23
Mental arithmetic is required to place the decimal point. In this example, since the aircraft has
covered approximately 50 nm in just over one fifth of an hour the groundspeed is obviously 250 kt.
Note. In the examinations, a calculator will be provided. Thus by using the original formula:
dis tan ce ----
Speed = ----  60
ti ------------ tes
me in minu
By calculator:
52 (nm)
-  60 = 249.6 kt
------------------------
12.5 (min)
EXAMPLE 3-10
EXAMPLE
Determine how long will it take an aircraft with a TAS of 625 kt to cover a distance of 830 nm
over the ground with a headwind component of 87 kt.

SOLUTION
The groundspeed is (625 - 87) 538 kt and this figure is placed on the outer ring over 60 on the
inner ring. Find the distance (830 nm) on the outer ring, and the number which appears opposite
it on the inner scale is the time, expressed in minutes. In this case the time required is 92.5 mins,
or 1 hour 32.5 mins.
FIGURE 3-24
Transposing the original formula then:
dis tan ce
Time in minutes = ---- ---  60
--------------------------
g roundspeed
By calculator:
830
= -------- 60
538
= 92.5min

= 1hr 32.5min
EXAMPLE 3-11
EXAMPLE
Determine how far an aircraft will travel over the ground in 2 hours and 5 minutes given a TAS of
465 kt and a tailwind component of 62 kt.

SOLUTION
By computer.
FIGURE 3-25
The groundspeed is (465 + 62) 527 kt and this figure is placed on the outer ring over 60 on the
inner ring. Find the time on the inner ring (125 minutes). The number which appears over this
figure is the distance, expressed in nautical miles. In this case the distance travelled is 1098 nm.
Transposing the formula:
groundspeed
Distance =  time in minutes
---------------------------------
60
By calculator
527(kt)
=  125 (min)
-----------------
60

= 1098 nm
Calibrated (Rectified) Airspeed to True Airspeed
Calculations
31. Before making airspeed conversions, it is essential to understand the following definitions:

(a) ASIR - Airspeed Indication Reading. That which is indicated by an ASI without
correction.

(b) IAS - Indicated Airspeed. The speed shown by the pitot/static airspeed indicator
calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at MSL and
uncorrected for airspeed system errors.

(c) CAS - Calibrated Airspeed. The IAS corrected for position and instrument error. It is
equal to TAS at MSL in a standard atmosphere. (Note. In the UK, CAS is often
referred to as Rectified Airspeed (RAS) and is labelled as such on the CRP 5
Computer).

(d) EAS - Equivalent Airspeed. The CAS corrected for compressibility at the particular
pressure altitude under consideration. It is equal to CAS in a standard atmosphere.

(Note that when applying the effect of compressibility using the CRP 5, the raw TAS is
found first; if TAS is >300kt, this value is then corrected (reduced) by the amount
necessary for compressibility).

(e) TAS - True Airspeed. The EAS corrected for density error and is the true speed of the
aeroplane relative to the undisturbed air.
32. The following paragraphs deal with the method of converting CAS to TAS, given pressure
altitude and temperature. (The reason for this conversion is dealt with in 022 - Instruments &
Electronics).
EXAMPLE 3-12
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is flying at Flight Level 100. The correct outside air temperature at this altitude is -
15°C. Given that the aircraft is flying at a CAS of 150 kt, determine the TAS.

SOLUTION
First find the window on the rotating disc labelled AIR SPEED. FL 100 is 10,000 ft pressure
altitude, so position 10 in the window against -15°C on the temperature scale. Check the
reading on the outside scale against 150 kt CAS (RAS) on the inside scale. In this case the answer
is 171 kt, and since the TAS is below 300 kt there is no need to apply a correction for
compressibility.
FIGURE 3-26
 Correction for Compressibility
33. The following example covers the use of the compressibility correction window. Again, the
need for this correction (practically speaking at true airspeeds in excess of 300 kt) is explained fully
in 022 - Instruments & Electronics.

EXAMPLE 3-13
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is flying at FL 350. The correct outside air temperature is -43°C. Given that the aircraft
is flying at a CAS of 266 kt, determine the TAS.

SOLUTION
Set the pressure altitude (35,000 ft) against the correct outside air temperature(- 43°C) and read the
TAS on the outside scale against the CAS (RAS) (266 kt) on the inside scale. In this case the initial
reading of TAS (the raw TAS) is 480 kt, as shown at Figure 3-27.
Without moving the inner ring, turn the whole computer upside down in order to bring the
compressibility correction window to the top, as shown at Figure 3-27. Now follow the
instructions printed under the correction window. These instructions tell us to take the initial (raw)
TAS, to divide this figure by 100, and to then subtract 3. In this example the initial TAS is 480 kt,
which when divided by 100 gives 4.8. By subtracting 3 from this figure we finish up with 1.8.
In this case then, it is necessary to move the compressibility arrow 1.8 divisions in the direction
shown by the small arrow (anti-clockwise), see Figure 3-27. The corrected TAS is now read on the
outside scale against the CAS (266 kt) on the inner scale. The TAS, corrected for compressibility, is
now 463 kt.
34. Different types and makes of computer will give slightly different answers to TAS corrected
for compressibility, and in any event the process of correction is not a particularly accurate one.
FIGURE 3-27
 35. In the event that your computer is not able to correct for compressibility, it is necessary to use
the table shown at Figure 3-28. You are permitted to take this table into the examination with you.
The procedure for using the table is outlined at the top of the table.

FIGURE 3-28 COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION TABLE

To use: Enter with CAS/RAS and altitude to extract the correction factor. Multiply the CAS/
RAS by this factor and determine TAS from the computer using the CORRECTED CAS/RAS.
Rectified Airspeed in Knots
Pressure 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Altitude in ft
10,000 1.0 1.0 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97
20,000 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93
30,000 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.91 0.90 0.89
40,000 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.87 0.87 0.86
50,000 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.84 0.84 0.84

Mach Number Calculations

36. Again Machmeters are dealt with fully in Instruments. One quick and easy way of converting
Mach number to TAS, and of determining the local speed of sound (LSS), is on the computer, and
therefore these solutions are covered in the following paragraphs.
37. When working with Mach number always remember the following important points:
 (a) The local speed of sound (Mach 1.0) depends only on the ambient temperature.
TAS
(b) Mach number is the TAS divided by the local speed of sound, or: Mach no. = -----------
LSS
(c) The Machmeter does not suffer from compressibility errors and so it is not necessary
to apply a compressibility correction when converting Mach number to TAS.
EXAMPLE 3-14
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is flying at Mach 0.86 and the true ambient air temperature is -42°C. Determine:
(a) The local speed of sound.

(b) The TAS.

SOLUTION

(a) The first step is to align the Mach number index arrow in the window marked
Mach No. or Pressure Altitude x 1000 ft with the ambient temperature. The figure
on the outer ring which appears opposite 10 (Mach 1.0) on the inner ring is the
local speed of sound in knots. In this case the LSS is 592 kt.

(b) In this example the aircraft is flying at Mach 0.86 (592 x 0.86 kt), and the
appropriate TAS is found on the outside ring opposite 8.6 (Mach 0.86) on the inner
ring. In this case the TAS is 509 kt.
 FIGURE 3-29

38. It is also necessary to understand the relationship between Mach No and CAS/RAS. The
Machmeter indicates the ratio between the aircraft’s TAS and the local speed of sound but it does this
by comparing airspeed (CAS or RAS) with the static pressure. Thus, the output of the Machmeter is
directly proportional to the CAS (RAS), but inversely proportional to static pressure.
CAS (RAS)
Mach No  -----------------------------------
Static Pressure
39. From this relationship it can be deduced that if an aircraft climbs at a constant CAS, the static
pressure reduces with altitude, so Mach No increases. A constant CAS in a descent would have the
opposite effect.
40. This principle can be demonstrated on the navigation computer and is illustrated in the
following example.
EXAMPLE 3-15
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is climbing at a constant CAS in the International Standard Atmosphere. Determine the
effect on:
(a) TAS

(b) Mach No

SOLUTION

(a) As the aircraft climbs, air density decreases. Select a CAS of 100 kts, say. In the
International Standard Atmosphere the temperature is +15°C at MSL. Set these
readings on the CRP-5 and read off the TAS on the outer ring against the CAS, 100
kts, on the inner ring.

Now repeat the process for FL100. Since temperature is assumed to decrease at
1.98°/1000ft the temperature at FL100 should be approximately -5°C. Set these
conditions on the CRP-5 Airspeed window and read off the TAS on the outer ring
against the CAS, constant at 100kts, on the inner ring.

TAS at MSL = 100kts

TAS at FL100 = 116kts
Therefore TAS increases
 TAS
(b) Mach No = -----------From a) above we know that TAS is increasing when an aircraft
LSS
climbs at a constant CAS.

The local speed of sound varies only with the ambient temperature.

As the aircraft climbs, the temperature reduces; as temperature reduces, the local
speed of sound reduces.

So, TAS is increasing, LSS is decreasing.

 the ratio TAS

-----------MUST be increasing.
LSS

 Mach No will increase in a constant CAS Climb.

Conversion Factors
41. On the outer scale of the circular slide rule are datum arrows to be used for conversions of
weight, volume and distance. In the event that your computer does not have any or all of the
necessary conversion marks it is important that you memorise the conversion factors given at
Figure 3-30. The diagram at Figure 3-32 may help with this task although the answers may differ
slightly because of the abbreviated conversion factors. Using the diagram permits the use of the
calculator to complete the conversion of volume to mass and vice versa.
 Note. Conversion factors must be learned and such aide memoires are not permitted in the
examination.

FIGURE 3-30 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

1 Imperial gallon = 1.2 US gallons
1 Imperial gallon = 4.55 litres
1 US gallon = 3.8 litres
1 nautical mile (6080ft) = 1.854 kilometres
1 nautical mile = 1.152 statute miles
1 statute mile = 1.610 kilometres
1 metre = 3.28 feet
1 inch = 2.54 centimetres
1 metre/second = 1.95 knots
EXAMPLE 3-16
EXAMPLE
Convert 3615 kilograms into pounds.
Using the conversion datum arrows on the computer.
Place the weight in kilograms (3615) on the inner scale under the kg mark on the periphery of the
sliderule. The number which appears on the inner scale under the lbs datum arrow on the
periphery of the sliderule read the corresponding weight in pounds, in this case 7970 lb.
FIGURE 3-31
FIGURE 3-32
42. When travelling in the direction of the arrows multiply, when travelling in the opposite
direction, divide.

43. When converting litres of any liquid to kilograms the volume must be multiplied by the
specific gravity, or when converting kilograms to litres the weight must be divided by the specific
gravity. Similarly, when converting Imperial gallons to pounds the volume must be multiplied by 10
x the specific gravity, or to convert pounds to Imperial gallons the volume must be divided by 10 x
specific gravity of the liquid.
44. Aviation fuels and oils are lighter than pure water, therefore their specific gravities will be less
than 1.0.
EXAMPLE 3-17
EXAMPLE
Convert 6720 litres into both US and Imperial gallons.

SOLUTION
Using the conversion marks on the computer.
FIGURE 3-33
 Place the value in litres (6720) on the inner scale under the km-m-ltr mark on the periphery of the
sliderule. The volume in Imperial gallons is given on the inner scale under the imp gals mark on
the periphery, in this case 1477 gallons. Likewise, the volume in US gallons is found under the US
gals mark, in this case 1768 gallons.
By calculator:

Litres ÷ 3.8 = US gals

US gals ÷ 1.2 = Imp gals
or
Litres ÷ 4.55 = Imp gals
6720 ÷ 3.8 = 1768 US gals
1768 ÷ 1.2 = 1474 Imp gals
6720 ÷ 4.55 = 1470 Imp gals

45. Exactly the same procedures are adopted when converting units of distance, taking full
advantage of conversion marks when available, but otherwise using the conversion factors and
multiplying or dividing as required.

46. Of course the conversion marks or conversion factors used for converting units of distance
can equally well be employed when converting units of speed, for example knots into statute miles
per hour or kilometres per hour.

47. For the radio syllabus it is often necessary to convert speed in knots into metres per second or
vice versa. The conversion factor in this case is 1.95, such that:
 (a) When converting speed in knots to speed in metres per second, divide the speed in
knots by 1.95.

(b) When converting the speed in metres per second to speed in knots, multiply by 1.95.

48. Try the following examples.

EXAMPLE 3-18
EXAMPLE
The weight of fuel required for a flight is calculated as 2660 kg. If the specific gravity of the fuel is
0.78, give the volume of fuel required in:
(a) Litres.

(b) Imperial gallons.

(c) US gallons.
SOLUTION
By computer.
FIGURE 3-34
By calculator:

(a) Kg ÷ SG = Litre
2660 ÷ 0.78 = 3410 Litres
(b) Litre ÷ 4.55 = Imp gals
3410 ÷ 4.55 = 749.5 Imp gals
(c) Litre ÷ 3.8 = US gals
3410 ÷ 3.8 = 897 US gals
OR
Kg x 2.205 ÷ 10SG = Imp gals
2660 x 2.205 ÷ 7.8 = 752 Imp gals
Imp gals x 1.2 = US gals
752 x 1.2 = 902 US gals

Although the answers are slightly different, examination choices of answer should accommodate
such differences.
EXAMPLE 3-19
EXAMPLE
Determine the weight in pounds of 9650 litres of fuel having a specific gravity of 0.85.

SOLUTION
By computer.
FIGURE 3-35
 By calculator.

9650 litres x 0.85 = 8203 kg

8203 kg x 2.2 = 18,045 lb

By calculator.

Litres x SG x 2.205 = lbs

9650 x .85 x 2.205 = 18087 lbs
OR
Litres ÷ 4.55 x 10 SG = lbs
9650 ÷ 4.55 x 8.5 = 18027 lbs

Altitude Calculations
49. Before any calculations can be attempted, it is essential to understand the following
definitions:

(a) Height - the vertical distance of a point or object considered as a point measured from
a specified datum.

(b) Elevation - the vertical distance of a fixed point above mean sea level.
 (c) Altitude - the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point
measured from mean sea level.

(d) QFE - the atmospheric pressure at the aerodrome pressure datum point; when set in
the sub scale of an altimeter of an aircraft the altimeter will indicate height above the
QFE reference datum.

(e) QNH - the atmospheric pressure at the aerodrome pressure datum point converted to
mean sea level using the standard atmospheric lapse rate of temperature and pressure.
When set in the sub-scale of the altimeter it will cause the altimeter to indicate the
altitude above msl.

(f) Pressure Altitude - the altitude above the standard atmosphere pressure datum of
1013.25mbs. When set on the altimeter sub scale the altimeter will indicate pressure
altitude. At the surface level of an aerodrome this is known as QNE.

(g) Density Altitude - is the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing
density occurs.

The Calculation of True and Indicated Altitude

50. The navigation computer uses the standard atmosphere temperatures and pressure altitude to
enable indicated altitude to be converted to true altitude. This can be seen if the inner and outer
circular scales are aligned at the same value. Line up 10 on the outer scale with 10 on the inner scale.
In the ALTITUDE window against 0 feet pressure altitude is a temperature of +15°C ie the standard
atmosphere temperature at MSL. The standard atmosphere temperature can be determined from this
window for any pressure altitude up to 30,000 feet. See Figure 3-36.
FIGURE 3-36
 51. By setting the ambient temperature against the pressure altitude, in the altitude window, the
altitude is corrected for the effect of the difference of temperature from standard.

52. It can be seen that the standard temperature at 25,000 feet pressure altitude is -35°C. If,
however, the ambient temperature is actually -20°C, it is warmer than standard by 15°C. Therefore,
the atmosphere is less dense than standard and the true altitude will be higher.
53. Set pressure altitude 25,000 feet against -20°C in the altitude window. Read on the inner of
the two outer circular scales the indicated pressure altitude 25 (representing 25,000ft), the true
altitude is opposite to this on the outer scale and reads 26,600 feet.

EXAMPLE 3-20
EXAMPLE
Pressure altitude 20,000 feet; Ambient temperature -40°C. Determine the true altitude

SOLUTION
Set pressure altitude 20,000 feet against temperature -40°C. Against 20 on the inner scale, the true
altitude is 18,800 feet.
FIGURE 3-37
 54. Note. A useful rule of thumb solution for this type of problem is:

Altitude difference = 4 x temp deviation x altitude in thousands.

55. In this example, the temperature deviation is calculated by comparing ambient temperature
with standard. Thus, at 20,000ft, the standard is +15-40 = -25°C. Ambient temperature is -40°C,
ie. 15° colder. Therefore, correction to indicated altitude is:
4 x -15 x 20 = -1200’.
Therefore, true altitude is 18,800’.

EXAMPLE 3-21
EXAMPLE
A mountain is 9000 feet elevation. Determine the pressure altitude that will clear the obstacle by
1000 feet if the ambient temperature at 9,0000 feet pressure altitude is -20°C.

SOLUTION
The true altitude required is 9000 feet + 1000 feet = 10,000 feet. Set -20°C against pressure
altitude 10,000 feet. Against 10,000 feet on the outer scale read pressure altitude 10,580 feet.

56. From these examples it can be deduced that if an aircraft is flying at a constant indicated
altitude from a cold air mass to a warm air mass, the true altitude increases due to the temperature
change and when flying from a warm to a cold air mass, the altitude reduces.
The Calculation of Density Altitude
57. The density of the air directly affects the performance of an aeroplane. In a dense
atmosphere, it will perform well but in a low density atmosphere the performance will be reduced.
Most aeroplane flight manuals schedule the performance against pressure altitude but some smaller
types do not. The performance of these aircraft is scheduled against density altitude which for any
given aerodrome elevation or pressure altitude and ambient temperature, the density altitude can be
determined from the navigation computer. The aerodrome elevation on the pressure altitude scale is
set against the ambient temperature in the AIRSPEED window. The density altitude is then displayed
against the datum arrow in the density altitude window.
FIGURE 3-38
EXAMPLE 3-22
EXAMPLE
Aerodrome elevation 4000ft. Ambient temperature +25°C

SOLUTION
Density altitude 6100ft.

58. An alternative ‘Rule of Thumb’ method to determine the density altitude is to use the
formula:

Density altitude = Aerodrome elevation + (120 x ISA deviation)

59. In the above example then:

Density altitude = 4000 + (120 x 18) = 6160 ft.

Note. When temperature is warmer than standard, the correction to altitude is added and, when
colder than standard, is subtracted.
EXAMPLE 3-23
EXAMPLE
Aerodrome elevation 6000ft. Ambient temperature -10°C

SOLUTION
By computer
Density altitude 4500ft.
By calculator = 4440ft [(6000 + (120 x -13))]

Temperature Calculations
60. Temperature is the measure of the intensity of heat in a body. The ambient air temperature is
therefore a measure of the heat in the free air at that time and is referred to as the static air
temperature (SAT). An aircraft travelling through the air compresses the air ahead of it and suffers
the full effect of that compression at the aircraft leading edges of the wing etc. where the air is
brought almost to a halt momentarily. The compression heats the air adiabatically, also in and
around the area of the temperature sensing probe. The temperature sensed and indicated is therefore
a falsely high temperature. The increase in temperature due to this effect is known as ‘ram-rise’ and
the indicated temperature is referred to as the total air temperature (TAT). Depending on the type of
temperature probe used to determine the temperature, ‘ram-rise’ can be calculated with a varying
degree of accuracy and the TAT corrected by that amount. This is called the ‘recovery factor’ or
‘recovery coefficient’.

61. The recovery factor can be calculated from the appropriate formula or from a graph.
62. TAT cannot be used for airspeed conversions; it must first be corrected to become the
corrected outside air temperature (COAT).

63. The CRP 5 possesses a temperature rise scale calibrated against indicated airspeed values.
The values enable TAT to be corrected to give an approximate SAT if required.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 3

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

Find Track and Groundspeed (G/S)

Heading TAS W/V Drift Track G/S

355 400 210/60
170 200 090/50
090 150 360/30
160 310 040/70
302 240 270/50
025 200 340/40
062 260 140/50
115 230 100/60
145 365 270/35
170 410 100/110
QUESTION 2.

Find wind velocity

Heading TAS Track G/S Drift W/V

270 250 267 213
155 300 159 330
040 350 035 380
210 620 205 538
226 260 205 169
310 400 300 450
260 355 268 282
225 150 217 187
047 173 058 197
083 197 070 228
QUESTION 3.

Find heading and groundspeed

Track TAS W/V Drift Heading G/S

120 180 340/50
260 300 140/75
020 240 120/40
219 200 310/74
163 120 075/23
010 220 350/65
350 420 010/100
290 510 260/90
230 240 250/50
120 120 210/20
QUESTION 4.

Find headwind and crosswind components

Runway(M) W/V(M) Headwind Crosswind

090 120/40
310 270/30
230 270/30
030 010/50
140 310/30
270 060/20
210 180/40
160 060/20
110 350/30
060 030/25
QUESTION 5.

Find minimum and maximum wind speeds

Runway Wind Min H/ Max C/Wind Min Wind Max Wind

(M) Direction (M) Wind Speed Speed
030 070 10 kt 20 kt
075 040 20 kt 20 kt
250 290 15 kt 25 kt
290 250 20 kt 30 kt
345 010 20 kt 20 kt
010 330 15 kt 15 kt
330 010 20 kt 20 kt
270 240 15 kt 20 kt
240 270 5 kt 12 kt
210 265 10 kt 17 kt
QUESTION 6.

Convert Rectified Air Speed (RAS) to True Air Speed (TAS) or vice versa.

Flt Level COAT (C) RAS TAS

250 -30 180
200 -10 250
300 -30 250
120 -30 150
250 -35 340
420 -60 230
350 165 300
270 -25 300
310 -40 250
210 -10 250
QUESTION 7.

Convert Mach No to True Air Speed (TAS) or vice versa

Ambient Temperature Mach No TAS

-30 0.75
-40 542
0.85 510
-70 0.90
-20 510
0.76 460
0.85 515
-20 0.75
-25 500
-35 421
QUESTION 8.

Speed/Distance/Time computations

Groundspeed Distance Time (mins)

210 198
324 42
278 34
352 27
420 450
180 69
150 32
60 10
450 55
310 17
QUESTION 9.

Convert the distances

Kilometres Statute Miles Nautical Miles

91
215
200
168
280
420
420
77
31
2,457
QUESTION 10.

Convert the volumes

Imperial Gallons US Gallons Litres

1,420
10,900
26,010
2,320
622
14,500
47
7,530
685
2,870
QUESTION 11.

Convert the weights

Pounds (lbs) Kilograms (kg)

723
19,400
6,120
22,320
520
980
250
7,530
685
93,000
QUESTION 12.

Convert the weight to volume/volume to weight

Pounds (lbs) Kilograms (kg) SG US Gallons Imp. Gallons Litres

15,400 0.80
0.79 51,000
10,000 1,600
0.78 750
153,500 18,000
1,400 0.80
71,000 40,000
2,450 818
1,980 560
490 610
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

Heading TAS W/V Drift Track G/S

355 400 210/60 4S 359 450
170 200 090/50 15S 185 198
090 150 360/30 11S 101 153
160 310 040/70 10S 170 350
302 240 270/50 8S 310 199
025 200 340/40 9S 034 174
062 260 140/50 11P 051 253
115 230 100/60 5S 120 172
145 365 270/35 4P 141 383
170 410 100/110 15S 185 387
ANSWER 2.

Heading TAS Track G/S Drift W/V

270 250 267 213 3P 286/39
155 300 159 330 4S 014/38
040 350 035 380 5P 173/45
210 620 205 538 5P 239/96
226 260 205 169 21P 257/120
310 400 300 450 10P 070/88
260 355 268 282 8S 233/85
225 150 217 187 8P 009/44
047 173 058 197 11S 288/43
083 197 070 228 13P 199/57
ANSWER 3.

Track TAS W/V Drift Heading G/S

120 180 340/50 10S 110 216
260 300 140/75 12S 248 330
020 240 120/40 10P 030 243
219 200 310/74 22P 241 188
163 120 075/23 11S 152 117
010 220 350/65 6S 004 158
350 420 010/100 5P 355 325
290 510 260/90 5S 285 429
230 240 250/50 4P 234 192
120 120 210/20 10P 130 118
ANSWER 4.

Runway(M) W/V(M) Headwind Crosswind

090 120/40 35 H/W 20 R-L
310 270/30 23 H/W 19 L-R
230 270/30 23 H/W 19 R-L
030 010/50 47 H/W 17 L-R
140 310/30 30 T/W 5 R-L
270 060/20 17 T/W 10- R-L
210 180/40 35 H/W 20 L-R
160 060/20 4 T/W 20 L-R
110 350/30 15 T/W 26 L-R
060 030/25 22 H/W 12 L-R
ANSWER 5.

Runway Wind Direction Min H/ Max C/ Min Wind Max Wind

(M) (M) Wind Wind Speed Speed
030 070 10 kt 20 kt 13 kt 31 kt
075 040 20 kt 20 kt 25 kt 34 kt
250 290 15 kt 25 kt 19 kt 39 kt
290 250 20 kt 30 kt 26 kt 47 kt
345 010 20 kt 20 kt 22 kt 47 kt
010 330 15 kt 15 kt 20 kt 23 kt
330 010 20 kt 20 kt 27 kt 31 kt
270 240 15 kt 20 kt 17 kt 40 kt
240 270 5 kt 12 kt 5 kt 24 kt
210 265 10 kt 17 kt 18 kt 21 kt
ANSWER 6.

Flt Level COAT (C) RAS TAS

250 -30 180 268
200 -10 250 348
300 -30 250 406
120 -30 150 173
250 -35 340 485
420 -60 230 455
350 -40 165 300
270 -25 300 456
310 -40 250 406
210 -10 175 250
ANSWER 7.

Ambient Temperature Mach No TAS

-30 0.75 456
-40 0.91 542
-36 0.85 510
-70 0.90 500
-20 0.82 510
-32 0.76 460
-31 0.85 515
-20 0.75 465
-25 0.815 500
-35 0.70 421
ANSWER 8.

Groundspeed Distance Time (mins)

210 198 56.6
465 324 42
278 158 34
352 158 27
420 450 64.4
180 69 22.6
282 150 32
360 60 10
450 55 7.3
310 88 17
ANSWER 9.

Kilometres Statute Miles Nautical Miles

169 105 91
345 215 186
200 124 108
269 168 145
519 323 280
420 260 226
675 420 365
124 77 67
57.5 35.7 31
2,457 1,560 1,328
ANSWER 10.

Imperial Gallons US Gallons Litres

1,420 1,704 6,475
9,083 10,900 41,420
5,704 6,845 26,010
1,933 2,320 8,816
622 746 2,836
3,187 3,830 14,500
47 56.2 214
6,300 7,530 28,600
685 822 3,115
630 755 2,870
ANSWER 11.

Pounds (lbs) Kilograms (kg)

723 329
42,680 19,400
13,464 6,120
22,320 10,145
1,144 520
980 445
250 114
16,600 7,530
685 312
204,600 93,000
ANSWER 12.

Pounds (lbs) Kilograms (kg) SG US Gallons Imp. Gallons Litres

15,400 6,980 0.80 2,310 1,922 8,750
89,000 40,400 0.79 13,500 11,200 51,000
10,000 4,550 0.75 1,600 1,330 6,050
5,869 2,668 0.78 900 750 3,420
153,500 69,500 0.85 21,600 18,000 82,080
3,080 1,400 0.80 461 386 1,746
71,000 32,400 0.81 10,520 8,780 40,000
5,400 2,450 0.79 818 683 3,110
4,380 1,980 0.78 671 560 2,540
1,075 490 0.80 161.5 134.5 610
 Terrestrial Magnetism

Magnetism – General Principles

Terrestrial Magnetism
Terrestrial Magnetism
Magnetism – General Principles
1. Magnetism is a property which may be possessed by iron, steel and a few other chemical
elements such as nickel, cobalt and certain special alloys. The main properties of a magnet are:
(a) the ability to attract material made of iron and other magnetic materials;

(b) when freely suspended it will tend to align in an approximately North-South direction
depending on its position on the earth;

(c) the attracting force tends to be concentrated at each end of the magnet. The end which
is north-seeking is called the North (or red) pole and the end which is south-seeking
the South (or blue) pole;

(d) like poles repel, unlike poles attract;

(e) the strength of the attracting or repelling force between two magnets decreases as the
square of the distance between them.

2. Magnetic force can be shown to exist around a magnet by, for example, sprinkling some
easily magnetised light material such as iron filings around it. The small iron particles will themselves
become magnetised by the magnetic force but less so with increased distance from the magnet. If the
area is then vibrated slightly to permit movement the iron filings tend to align themselves with the
lines of magnetic force emanating from the magnet. This phenomenon is illustrated at Figure 4-1.
FIGURE 4-1
Diagram of the
Magnetic Field
Around a Bar
Magnet
3. Each iron filing itself becomes magnetised and aligns with the flow of the magnetic force or
flux. The direction of the lines of force in the magnetic field are, by convention, assumed to emanate
from the North-seeking pole of the magnet and re-enter at the South-seeking pole. The strength of
this force is measurable and the SI units used are ‘tesla’. Material can be magnetised only up to a
certain point and is then said to be saturated.

4. Magnetic moment. The magnetic moment of a magnet is the product of its pole strength and
its length and is a measure of its tendency to turn or be turned by another magnetic field. The greater
the pole strength and/or the longer the magnet the greater will be the magnetic moment and the
stronger will be its tendency to align with the magnetic field in which it is located.

Terrestrial Magnetism
5. The Earth possesses a magnetic field similar to that of a magnet. The cause of this magnetism
has not been fully explained, but the presence of large quantities of iron in its core and the rotation of
the earth itself may play a part in the formation of the magnetic field. Suffice to say that a freely
suspended magnetic needle will align itself in a direction reasonably consistent with this field and will
therefore point to the North Magnetic Pole.

6. The Earth’s magnetic field behaves as if there were a very powerful bar magnetic located at its
centre with, by convention, a blue (south-seeking pole) near the North geographic pole. In practice
the North Magnetic Pole is located some 750 nm from the true pole in northern Canada. An
equivalent South Magnetic Pole is located in Antarctica. The maximum strength of a magnet is
normally found at each of its poles (hence the term ‘pole strength’) however, in the case of the Earth
the maximum strength has been found to be at two locations near to each pole. In addition the
magnetic poles are not single points but large areas where it is assumed the lines of magnetic flux
emanate from or enter the Earth vertically. Figure 4-2 illustrates diagrammatically the bar magnet
concept and the Earth’s magnetic field.
FIGURE 4-2
The Earth’s
Magnetic Field
 Components of Terrestrial Magnetism
7. Magnetic meridian. A freely suspended magnet will align itself with the local lines of force
that are part of the Earth’s magnetic field and a line drawn through the plane of the magnet and the
centre of the Earth would define the local magnetic meridian. This meridian therefore defines the
direction of Magnetic North and South at any location. It is not always consistent because there are
known anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field where local deposits of iron ore for example will
deflect the magnet from its expected alignment.

8. Directive force. The force that causes the alignment of the magnet with the Earth’s field is
known as the directive force and it is given, by convention, the representative letter H. It is the
horizontal component of the total force present (represented by the letter T) at any location.
9. Vertical component. The total magnetic force T may consist of both horizontal and vertical
components depending on location, the vertical component is given the representative letter Z.
Figure 4-3 illustrates the relationship between T, H and Z.

FIGURE 4-3
Components of
Earth Magnetism
10. Magnetic Equator. At every point midway between the North and South Magnetic Poles on
the Earth the lines of total force are horizontal to the Earth’s surface; the line joining all these points
is known as the magnetic equator. At this point, H represents the total force of the Earth’s magnetic
field and is at its greatest strength. Z is non-existent at the magnetic equator.

11. Dip. Dip is the name given to the angle below the local horizontal, taken up by a freely
suspended magnet when aligning itself with the Earth’s total magnetic field. Since this field tends to
follow the contours illustrated in Figure 4-2, it can be seen that the angle of dip increases with
increase in ‘magnetic latitude’ until, at the North and South Magnetic Poles, it is 90° (with the
magnet vertical). It can be concluded therefore that the angle of dip is zero at the magnetic equator
increasing to a maximum of 90° at the magnetic poles. (Note, the term magnetic inclination may also
be used to describe dip).

12. A line joining points with the same value of dip on the Earth’s surface is known as an isoclinal
line.

13. The line joining points with zero dip angle is known as an aclinal line and is a description of
the magnetic equator The change in dip angle with latitude is illustrated in Figure 4-4.
FIGURE 4-4
Variation of H, Z
and Dip T at Two
Different Latitudes

14. Directionality. The freely suspended magnet has been used since very early times for providing
directional guidance and the principles involved are still used in magnetic compass systems. The
directionality relies on the magnet (compass needle in a simple compass) aligning with Magnetic
North and for this to be achieved the directive force H must be of sufficient strength for the
sensitivity of the compass magnet(s).

15. As can be seen from Figure 4-4, the proportion of the total force which is H must reduce with
increase in magnetic latitude until it is zero at the poles (where only Z is present). It can be
concluded, therefore, that magnetic compass systems give poor indications near to the poles and are
completely useless very close to the poles.
16. Polar navigation charts usually show areas where magnetic compass systems are unreliable
and unusable. (The minimum strength of the directive force for operation of a magnetic compass
system near to the North pole is considered to be 6 micro-tesla). Figure 4-5 illustrates the type of
warning given on a polar chart.
FIGURE 4-5
Depiction of
Compass
Unreliability
Warning Areas
 17. Calculations of H and Z from total force T at any given latitude. It is possible to make an
approximate calculation of the comparative values of Z and H for a given magnetic latitude with a
given value of the total magnetic force (T) and the angle of dip. The simplified relationship between
components is that based on a the right angled triangle in which trigonometry and/or Pythagoras’
formula may be used according to the information given.

FIGURE 4-6
H, T, Z
Relationship

18. From Figure 4-6 it can be seen that,

Z
Tan dip angle = --- and therefore
H
(a) Z = H  Tan dip: and

Z ;
(b) H = ----------
Tan dip
H
also, from Figure 4-6, Cos dip angle = and therefore,
---
T

(a) H = T  Cos dip; and

 H
(b) T = -----------------
Cos dip
in addition, T2 = Z2 + H2.

19. The following examples illustrate the use of these formula.

EXAMPLE 4-1
EXAMPLE
Given that T = 50 micro-tesla (mT), dip angle = 60°, calculate H and Z.

SOLUTION

H = T x cos dip,

therefore, in this case H = 50 x cos 60,

H = 25 mT;

and, Z = H x tan dip,

therefore, in this case Z = 25 x tan 60,

Z = 25 x 1.732,

Z = 43.3 mT
EXAMPLE 4-2
EXAMPLE
Given that T = 60mT, dip angle 30 (deg), calculate H and Z.

SOLUTION

H = T x cos dip,

therefore, H = 60 x .866,

H = 51.96 mT

Z = H x tan dip,

therefore, Z = 51.96 x .577

Z = 30 mT.
Summary of Changes in H and Z with Latitude
20. It can be seen that the strength of H decreases with increase in dip angle and magnetic
latitude, whereas Z increases with increase in magnetic latitude.

Variation
21. Because the magnetic and geographic poles are not in the same positions, magnetic meridians
and true (geographic) meridians do not always coincide and there will exist in most places on the
Earth an angular difference between the directions of magnetic and true north. The difference
between the direction of True North and Magnetic North at any point on the Earth’s surface is
commonly known as variation. (Strictly speaking, variation is the angle between the direction taken
up by component H and True North). The minimum value of variation is zero when the poles and
the observer’s position are in alignment, the maximum value is 180° in any position that is exactly
between the true and magnetic poles. Figure 4-7 is a reminder of the principle of variation.
FIGURE 4-7
Calculation of
Magnetic Variation

22. Application of variation. The application of variation to convert magnetic direction to true
and vice versa has already been covered in Chapter 2. Variation is described as East and positive
when Magnetic North is on the eastern side of True North, and West and negative when Magnetic
North is on the western side of True North. For example ‘var 10W’ annotated on a chart means that
to convert magnetic direction to true in that position 10° must be subtracted from it.

(Note. The sign convention is arranged to allow a conversion from magnetic to true, when
converting back the other way the signs must be reversed.)
23. Changes in variation. There are several factors which can alter the value of variation at any
given position. Local magnetic anomalies have already been mentioned. Other changes are:

(a) Secular changes. The magnetic poles are moving in relation to the true poles following
a roughly clockwise movement around the true pole every 960 years. (The magnetic
pole has moved in a north-westerly direction in last hundred years). The value of
variation at any given place will change with time according to this movement, this
change may be referred to as a secular change and the annual rate is normally depicted
on navigation charts.

(b) Annual changes. An annual change in the value of variation takes place in a yearly
cycle with maxima occurring in conjunction with the spring and autumn equinoxes
(March 21 and September 21). The change is small, varying from 2’E to 2’W in the
northern hemisphere. The change is in the opposite sense in the southern hemisphere.

(c) Daily changes. Daily changes in variation can occur due to changes in the ionosphere
associated with changes from night to day. The earth’s magnetic field is modified by
changes in the ionosphere and alter the directionality of the magnetic field. The
changes are relatively small, around 4’ with maxima occurring about sunrise and
noon.

(d) Periodic changes. The 11 year sunspot cycle has significant effect on the ionosphere
and on the Earth’s magnetic field. Changes of 12’ on a daily basis are possible.
Magnetic storms associated with increased sunspot activity cause errors in terms of
several degrees.
 24. Variation on charts. Navigation charts normally show lines of equal variation known as
isogonals. (Note variation values change rapidly over short distances near to the poles which is an
additional problem for navigation in polar areas.)

25. The annual change in variation is normally shown somewhere on the chart along with the
date of the chart to enable isogonal values to be amended for current date. It is inadvisable to use an
old chart without this amendment. The information might be depicted as shown in Figure 4-8.

FIGURE 4-8
Representation of
Variation Change
LINES OF MAGNETIC VARIATION FOR 1999
on a Navigation
Chart
(Annual Rate of Change 6’ decrease)

(Note. There are two ‘lines’ on the Earth’s surface where zero variation exists: One approximates to
a portion of the meridian running through the Magnetic North Pole to the True South Pole, the other
approximates to its anti-meridian between the Magnetic South Pole and the True North Pole. These
lines, joining points of zero variation are called agonic lines.)
 Aircraft Magnetism

General Principles
Analysis of Hard and Soft Iron Magnetism
Aircraft Magnetism
General Principles
1. The ability of an aircraft magnetic compass system to align with or to ‘sense’ the local
magnetic meridian accurately not only depends on the strength of the horizontal directive force H at
that point but also on the magnetic environment within the aircraft. Other magnetic forces will exist
within an aircraft and especially in the cockpit of an aircraft and these forces can give rise to what is
called deviation. Deviation is the angular difference between the compass indicated direction and the
direction of the local magnetic meridian (Magnetic North). The purpose of a compass swing is to
analyse and correct for as much of this deviation as possible.

Causes of Deviation
2. Deviation can occur as a result of hard iron and soft iron magnetism within an aircraft and
also as a result of misalignment of reference lines from which readings are taken or of the detector
element in a remote sensing compass system.
Permeability
3. Permeability is the name given to the capacity of a material to become magnetised. In
scientific terms it is expressed as the ratio between the flux density (magnetic field strength) within
the material compared with the magnetising force. Materials possessing high permeability are easily
magnetised whereas materials such as rubber, brass, copper, aluminium, plastic, and carbon fibre
have very low or zero permeability and cannot be magnetised. Material such as Permalloy has a high
permeability but once the magnetising force is removed it decays very quickly. In the case of iron
however, once magnetised the magnetism is likely to decay at a much slower rate. The measure of
whether iron is hard or soft is this capacity to retain magnetism. The magnetisation process is called
magnetic induction.

Hard Iron Magnetism

4. Hard iron magnetism is the name given to magnetism that is virtually permanent or decays
very slowly. It is caused by the presence of iron and steel components within the aircraft structure
that acquire magnetism slowly from the Earth’s magnetic field during manufacture (hammering,
riveting, vibration assist the process). Also it can form when an aircraft remains on the ground on
one heading for a long period of time (weeks). A very powerful electrical shock such as that received
in a lightning strike can also establish hard iron magnetism in an aircraft. Hard iron magnetism is
very difficult to remove.
Soft Iron Magnetism
5. Soft iron magnetism is the name given to temporary magnetism. Such magnetism is usually
induced within highly permeable ‘soft’ iron or steel components by the presence of magnetic fields,
but decays rapidly when the magnetising force is removed. Such magnetism is frequently induced by
the magnetic fields surrounding electrical components. For example, the operation of an electrical
motor (such as a windscreen wiper) in the cockpit of an aircraft can therefore induce temporary soft
iron magnetism that disappears when the component is switched off.

Analysis of Hard and Soft Iron Magnetism

Components of Hard Iron Magnetism
6. In order to analyse and correct for the effect of magnetism within an aircraft it is necessary
first to analyse its effect in detail. To achieve this the magnetism is assessed to act in each of three
planes within the aircraft structure and thus to have three identifiable components. The three
components are labelled with the capital letters P, Q and R depending on whether they act in the fore/
aft, athwartships (lateral axis) or vertical axis of the aircraft respectively.

7. Magnetism component P. The conventional description of the effect of magnetism

component P draws on the analogy of a ‘bar magnet’ positioned in the fore/aft axis with its poles on
either side of the aircraft compass system. Component P is, by convention, positive when the south-
seeking or blue pole is ahead of the compass system and negative when behind it. Figure 5-1
illustrates diagrammatically the principle and shows a component +P.
FIGURE 5-1
Hard Iron
Magnetism
(Component +P)

8. Magnetism component Q. A similar analogy is used to identify component Q, but this time
the ‘bar magnet’ is positioned so that its poles are ether side of the compass system. By convention, a
south-seeking (blue) pole on the starboard side is positive and when on the port side is negative.
Figure 5-2 illustrates +Q.

FIGURE 5-2
Hard Iron
Magnetism
(Component +Q)

9. Magnetism component R. This component is assumed to act in the vertical plane of the
aircraft above and below the compass system. A south-seeking (blue) pole below the compass system
is positive and a red pole negative. Figure 5-3 illustrates +R.
FIGURE 5-3
Hard Iron
Magnetism
(Component +R)

Effects of Components P, Q and R

10. In an aircraft compass system the compass magnets are mounted horizontally to enable them
to align with the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field. The effect of component R on
the compass magnets should not interfere with this alignment providing the aircraft remains in level
flight. Were the aircraft to pitch up or down the R would no-longer remain vertical and would then
cause some deviation. In practice the effect on a compass system is negligible compared to other
errors likely to be present and is generally ignored.
11. In normal operation the magnets in a direct reading compass remain nearly horizontal and
aligned with North. However, the position of components P and Q relative to the compass magnets
will change with change of aircraft heading and whilst the strength of the components does not
change with heading their deviating effect does. This aspect is covered in detail in the chapter on
compass swinging.

12. In principle, the effect of each of the components P and Q is to produce a proportion of the
total deviation called a ‘coefficient of deviation’. Each coefficient is also given an identifying letter.
Component +P produces coefficient +B, component +Q produces coefficient +C, (similarly -P
produces –B etc.). The purpose of the compass swing is to identify these coefficients to enable
corrections to be made to cancel their effect.

Soft Iron Magnetism

13. Soft iron magnetism is temporary, induced magnetism, it is present only when an inducing
magnetic field is present. One of the main causes of soft iron magnetism is the Earth’s magnetic field
in which the horizontal and vertical components may induce horizontal and vertical soft iron
magnetism respectively in the aircraft structure near to the compass magnets. The effect of horizontal
soft iron is rather complex, but as it is strongest when the H component of Earth magnetism is
strongest, the deviation caused is relatively small. Vertical soft iron magnetism is more important
because it is strongest in high latitudes where Z is stronger, whereas H is weaker and the magnets of
the compass are more easily deflected.

14. The bar magnet analogy is continued with respect to vertical soft iron magnetism. In this case
the reader must imagine vertical bar magnets positioned ahead and behind the compass magnets on
the longitudinal axis giving soft iron component ‘cZ’. Also, vertical bar magnets positioned on the
lateral (or athwartships) axis causing component ‘fZ’.
15. From the positioning of cZ and fZ it can be seen that these components contribute to
coefficients of deviation B and C respectively.

Summary of Effects of Hard and Vertical Soft Iron

Magnetism
16. Hard iron magnetism is permanent and does not vary with magnetic latitude but, the
deviation caused by hard iron magnetism increases with latitude because in high latitudes where H is
weaker, the compass magnets are more easily deflected. The deviating effect of hard iron magnetism
varies with the heading of an aircraft.

17. Vertical soft iron magnetism increases when an aircraft moves to a higher latitude because Z
increases. The deviation caused by vertical soft iron magnetism in higher latitudes is doubly increased
because H is reduced. The deviating effect of the vertical soft iron component of coefficients B and C
varies with the heading of an aircraft.
 Direct Reading Compasses

Direct Reading\Standby Compasses

Horizontality
Sensitivity
Aperiodicity
Serviceability Tests
Compass Safe Distances
E Type Compass
Acceleration Errors
Inertia
The Z Field Effect
Turning Errors
Inertia
The Z Field Effect
Liquid Swirl
Direct Reading Compasses
Direct Reading\Standby Compasses
1. A direct reading compass enables the pilot to read the aircraft heading directly in relation to a
magnetic assembly.
2. This type of compass basically consists of two or more pivoted magnets, which are free to
align themselves with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. It is desirable that any
direct reading compass should possess three elementary properties:
(a) Horizontality

(b) Sensitivity

(c) Aperiodicity

Horizontality
3. As already discussed, it is the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field which
enables the compass magnets to align themselves with north. It is therefore essential that the
compass magnets should lie as close as possible to the horizontal plane.
 4. If a magnet were pivoted at its centre on a pin, it would dip to lie in the plane of the Earth's
total field. Even in mid latitudes, the dip angle would be unacceptably high. To overcome this
problem, a system of pendulous suspension is employed which is schematically outlined at
Figure 6-1. The success of the system lies in the fact that the centre of gravity of the magnets lies
below the pivot point. Thus the dipping effect due to the vertical (Z) component of the Earth's
magnetic field is opposed by the weight of the magnets.

FIGURE 6-1
DRC Magnet
Assembly
Suspension System

5. The collar and sleeve assembly Figure 6-1 prevents the magnet assembly from parting
company with the pivot during inverted flight.

6. The result of pendulous suspension is that the magnets will lie close to the horizontal. Except
at the magnetic equator there will however be a small residual dip, see Figure 6-2. In mid latitudes
the residual angle of dip should be less than three degrees.
 Direct Reading Compasses

FIGURE 6-2
Natural angle of a
dip

Sensitivity
7. Sensitivity is a measure of the ability of the compass magnetic assembly to point accurately
towards north.
8. Nothing can be done to increase the strength of the weak terrestrial magnetic field and so it is
necessary to use several magnets with high pole strengths. The magnetic assembly is made as light as
possible to reduce friction at the pivot.
9. The pivot itself normally incorporates a jewelled bearing which is lubricated by the viscous
fluid which fills the bowl. Being fairly dense the fluid effectively lightens the magnet assembly still
further, once again reducing friction at the pivot.

Aperiodicity
10. The aperiodic quality of a compass may be defined as the ability of the magnet assembly to
settle quickly, pointing towards the magnetic north pole, following displacement during manoeuvres
or turbulence.
11. If a compass is not entirely aperiodic, the effect is that the magnets oscillate, or hunt, around
magnetic north, coming to rest only slowly.

12. Aperiodicity is achieved by using short length magnets, thereby keeping the mass near to the
centre of rotation and reducing the moment of inertia. This is also aided by the use of light materials
in the magnetic assembly. The fluid within which the magnets are immersed will tend to dampen any
oscillation of the magnet assembly.

13. The compass fluid discussed above must obviously be transparent. Additionally, the liquid
must also completely fill the compass bowl in order to prevent liquid swirl during turns, as this
would deflect the magnet assembly. To ensure that the bowl is always completely full despite change
in temperature, an expansion bellows is fitted which acts as a fluid reservoir.
Serviceability Tests
14. The following tests would normally be carried out after compass installation, following a
compass swing, or whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.
(a) Check that the compass liquid is free from discolouration, bubbles and sediment. The
movement of bubbles could deflect the magnetic assembly and the presence of
sediment could prevent its free movement.

(b) Carry out a damping test. Using a small magnet deflect the compass by 90° and hold
for at least 20 seconds to allow the liquid to stabilise. Now remove the magnet. The
time taken for the compass reading to return to within 5° of the original reading
should be 2 to 3 seconds for an E type compass.

(c) Carry out a pivot friction test. Turn the aircraft so that it is on one of the cardinal
headings (N, E, S or W). Again using a small magnet, deflect the compass by 10° and
hold for 10 seconds. Remove the magnet and note the reading when the compass
settles. Now repeat the procedure but deflect the compass in the opposite direction.
For an E type compass the readings after deflection should be within 2½° of the
readings prior to deflection. Now repeat the process on each of the remaining
cardinal headings.

Compass Safe Distances

15. From experience, you know that one of the major problems with a direct reading compass is
that it must necessarily be mounted in the cockpit or on the flight deck. It is therefore surrounded by
equipment which is capable of causing deviation, and the compass must be carefully sited.
16. The compass should be sited such that no single item of non electrical equipment causes a
compass deviation of more than 1°. The sum of the deviations caused by all such equipment must
not exceed 2°. Similarly, no single item of electrical equipment, or its associated wiring, may cause a
compass deviation of more than 1°, and again the sum of the deviations caused by all such equipment
and wiring may not exceed 2°. The operation of the aircraft controls is not permitted to change the
deviation suffered by the compass by more than 1°.

17. Where the compass concerned is the primary heading reference, the maximum permissible
deviation on any heading is 3° and the maximum permissible value of coefficients B and C is 15°.
When a direct reading compass is installed as a standby heading reference, the maximum permissible
deviation on any heading is 10°.

E Type Compass
18. The E Type compass, which is illustrated at Figure 6-3, is otherwise known as the vertical
card compass. It is in very common use, as the main magnetic heading reference in modern light
aircraft, and as a standby compass in larger aircraft.
FIGURE 6-3
E-type compass
19. Notice that with the E Type compass, the compass card is attached to the magnet assembly.
Appreciate that (ignoring all errors) as the aircraft turns the magnets and compass card remain
stationary whilst the instrument case and lubber line move around them:
(a) A displacement of the magnet assembly away from north in an anti-clockwise
direction will result in an erroneous increase in indicated heading, ie. the compass will
overread.

(b) Conversely, a displacement of the magnet assembly away from north in a clockwise
direction will result in an erroneous decrease in indicated heading, ie. the compass will
underread.

Acceleration Errors
20. We know from basic flight training that direct reading compasses will give incorrect readings
during aircraft acceleration or deceleration. There are two reasons for this: inertia is one, and the
effect of the vertical (Z) component on the displaced magnets is the other.

Inertia
21. Figure 6-4 shows a pendulously suspended magnet (with residual dip) in the northern
hemisphere. Notice that the vertical line through the pivot point lies closer to the nearer (North)
magnetic pole than does the centre of gravity of the magnet.
22. Figure 6-5 shows the same magnet viewed from above (the diagram is rotated through 90° to
put North conventionally at the top of the diagram).
 Figure 6-6 shows the effect on the magnet of an acceleration on a heading of 090°(M). The
acceleration is felt through the pivot but, due to inertia, the magnet wishes to maintain its state of
uniform motion and so a reaction is evident which acts through the centre of gravity which will cause
the magnet assembly to rotate.

FIGURE 6-4
Effect of Residual
Angle of Dip -
Northern
Hemisphere
23.
FIGURE 6-5
Relative Positions
of Pivot and
Centre of Gravity
(Northern
Hemisphere)
FIGURE 6-6
Inertia Effect -
Aircraft
Accelerating East
in the Northern
Hemisphere

24. The needle has swung clockwise when viewed from above. The compass will therefore read
less than 090° during the acceleration. A deceleration on a heading of 270°(M) will also cause the
magnet to swing clockwise when viewed from above, causing the compass to read less than 270°
during the deceleration.
 Figure 6-7 shows a pendulously suspended magnet in the southern hemisphere. Again the pivot point
is nearer than the centre of gravity to the nearer (South) pole, as illustrated at Figure 6-8. An
acceleration on a heading of 090°(M) will cause the magnet to swing anti-clockwise when viewed
from above, see Figure 6-9. This will cause the compass reading to increase during the acceleration.
A deceleration on a heading of 270°(M) will cause the needle to rotate in the same direction as an
acceleration on 090°M, again causing an increase in the compass reading.

FIGURE 6-7
Effect of Residual
Angle of Dip -
Southern
Hemisphere
25.
FIGURE 6-8
Relative Positions
of Pivot and
Centre of Gravity
(Southern
Hemisphere)
FIGURE 6-9
Inertia Effect -
Aircraft
Accelerating East
in the Southern
Hemisphere

26. From Figure 6-4, Figure 6-5, Figure 6-6, Figure 6-7, Figure 6-8, and Figure 6-9 it is apparent
that:

(a) An acceleration always produces an apparent turn towards the magnetic pole which is
physically closest to the aircraft;

(b) A deceleration always produces an apparent turn towards the magnetic equator.
27. At the magnetic equator there will be no acceleration error. This is because the magnet lies in
the horizontal plane (no residual dip) and therefore the pivot point and the centre of gravity are
vertically co-incident.
28. On headings of north and south there will again be no acceleration error, since both the
centre of gravity and the pivot lie along the aircraft's fore and aft axis. In this situation acceleration
or deceleration causes the magnet to move in the vertical plane (causing a change in the residual dip
angle) rather than the horizontal plane (which would cause an erroneous heading indication).

The Z Field Effect

29. The effect of the Earth's vertical field component during change of speed is not as easy to
explain as the effect of inertia. Remember, however, that the error caused by the Z field effect always
acts in the same direction as the error caused by inertia.

30. Figure 6-10 shows a pendulously suspended magnet in the northern hemisphere. Since the
magnet lies beneath the pivot, the Z field can have no turning effect. Figure 6-11 shows the effect of
an acceleration to the east. The magnet is left behind (because of inertia) and no longer lies vertically
beneath the pivot. The Z field can now exert a turning force on the dipped end of the magnet. The
magnet can only turn by rotating about the pivot, causing the already dipped north-seeking end to
move downwards under the influence of the Z field. The magnet therefore moves in a clockwise
direction when viewed from above, as shown at Figure 6-12.
FIGURE 6-10
Z Field Effect
FIGURE 6-11
Z Field Effect
(Continued)
FIGURE 6-12
Z Field Effect
(Continued)

31. Refer back to Figure 6-6 and check that the inertia induced error and the Z field error are in
fact complementary. They are, and this is always so.

Turning Errors
32. Turning errors should be easy to understand if it is appreciated that any turn is effectively an
acceleration towards the centre of curvature of the turn. Again it is the effect of inertia and of the Z
field which are primarily responsible for errors in a turn.

33. Once again, appreciate that the errors induced by inertia and by the vertical field component
are always complementary.
Inertia
34. Figure 6-13 shows a pendulously suspended magnet (with residual dip) in the northern
hemisphere. The aircraft within which the compass is fitted is presently heading 315°(M) and
compass deviation is assumed to be zero. Notice that, as always, the pivot point lies closer to the
nearer magnetic pole than does the centre of gravity of the magnet. If you are in doubt as to why this
is so refer back to Figure 6-4 Figure 6-5.
FIGURE 6-13
Turning Errors -
Northern
Hemisphere
FIGURE 6-14
Aircraft Turning
From 315°(M)
onto 045°(M) -
Northern
Hemisphere
35. Figure 6-14 shows the same aircraft during a turn from 315°(M) through north onto
045°(M). The aircraft is presently passing through 360°(M). The acceleration force (towards the
centre of curvature of the turn) is acting through the pivot and the reaction to this force is acting
through the centre of gravity of the magnet. The result is that, during the turn, the magnet will swing
clockwise when viewed from above, and consequently the compass will under-read.

36. Figure 6-15 shows an aircraft in the northern hemisphere turning from 045°(M) through
north onto 315°(M). Again, for simplicity, deviation is assumed to be zero during straight and level
flight at a constant airspeed. As the aircraft passes through 360°(M), the acceleration force and the
reaction to it have caused the magnet to swing anti-clockwise when viewed from above, and the
compass will over-read during the turn.
FIGURE 6-15
Aircraft Turning
From 045°(M)
onto 315°(M) -
Northern
Hemisphere
37. Figure 6-16 shows an aircraft in the northern hemisphere turning from 135°(M) through
south onto 225°(M). As the aircraft passes through 180°(M), the magnet has swung anti-clockwise
when viewed from above and is causing the compass to over-read during the turn.
FIGURE 6-16
Aircraft Turning
From 135°(M)
onto 225°(M) -
Northern
Hemisphere
38. Three of the eight possible conditions where turning errors will exist have now been
illustrated and discussed. The table at Figure 6-17 summarises the turning errors in all eight cases.
The turning errors listed at Figure 6-17 are for reference only and you shouldn't try to memorise
them. It is far better to apply the logic previously discussed to resolve the effect of turning errors.

39. The term ‘sluggish’ which appears in the right-hand column of the table denotes that the
compass heading is lagging behind the aircraft heading. Conversely, when the term ‘lively’ is used,
the compass is leading the aircraft around the turn.
FIGURE 6-17
Turning errors -
Direction of Turn Hemi- Displacement of Magnet Compass Compass
Summary sphere (viewed from above) Reading Error Condition
315°(M) through Northern Clockwise Under-read Sluggish
N to 045°(M)
045°(M) through Northern Anti-clockwise Over-read Sluggish
N to 315°(M)
135°(M) through S Northern Anti-clockwise Over-read Lively
to 225°(M)
225°(M) through S Northern Clockwise Under-read Lively
to 135°(M)
315°(M) through Southern Anti-clockwise Over-read Lively
N to 045°(M)
045°(M) through Southern Clockwise Under-read Lively
N to 315°(M)
135°(M) through S Southern Clockwise Under-read Sluggish
to 225°(M)
225°(M) through S Southern Anti-clockwise Over-read Sluggish
to 135°(M)

From Figure 6-17, the following rules of thumb can be formulated:

 (a) During a turn through the pole which is physically nearer to the aircraft, the compass
will be sluggish. It is therefore necessary to roll out early when using the direct
reading compass.

(b) During a turn through the pole which is physically further from the aircraft the
compass will be lively. It is therefore necessary to roll out late when using the direct
reading compass.

40. From the two statements above it can be seen that, at the magnetic equator, there is no
turning error (since there is no residual dip). Furthermore, when rolling out on headings near to
090°(M) and 270°(M), the turning error will be minimal as the acceleration force and the reaction to
it will lie close to a north-south direction and will result only in a change of the residual angle of dip.

41. Remember that it is a displacement of the magnet in a clockwise direction when viewed from
above which causes the compass to under-read, and a displacement in an anti-clockwise direction
which causes the compass to over-read.

The Z Field Effect

42. The effect of the Earth's vertical field component during a turn is not easy to illustrate with
two-dimensional diagrams. Remember, however, that the error caused by the Z field effect always
acts in the same direction as the inertia induced error.
Direct Reading Compasses

43. Consider an aircraft in the northern hemisphere turning from 315°(M) through north onto
045°(M). During the turn, the magnet will be thrown outwards (towards the high wing) and will no
longer be vertically beneath the pivot. The Z field component will now cause the dipped (in this case
the north-seeking end) of the magnet to swing downwards and clockwise about the pivot. This
situation is as illustrated at Figure 6-12, remembering that the acceleration is into the turn. Check
Figure 6-14 and you will see that the clockwise movement of the magnet under the influence of the Z
field complements the displacement of the magnet due to inertia.

Liquid Swirl
44. A third factor involved in turning errors is liquid swirl. Ideally the compass bowl will have a
smooth internal surface and be full of a low viscosity fluid. If these conditions are not fully met,
there will be a tendency for the liquid to be dragged around the bowl during turns. Once in motion,
the liquid will continue to swirl under its own momentum. Should it occur, this fluid swirl will carry
with it the magnetic assembly, thereby displacing it from its correct orientation. The displacement
will therefore be in the direction of the turn and a clockwise turn (135° through south to 225°) with
liquid swirl will result in a clockwise turn of the magnets and an under-reading compass.

45. Depending on the hemisphere and the direction of turn, the effect of liquid swirl will either
increase or decrease the turning error. At the magnetic equator liquid swirl would be the only source
of any error in a turn.
 The Slaved Gyro\Remote Reading
Compass

The Detector Unit

The Transmission System
The Slaving System
Annunciator Indicators
The Gyro Self Levelling System
Remote-Reading Compass System Errors
Advantages of the Slaved Gyro Compass
The Slaved Gyro\Remote Reading
Compass
1. The direct-reading compass (DRC) which forms the primary heading reference in most light
aircraft is relegated to the role of a standby system in larger aircraft. Direct reading compasses suffer
from significant turning and acceleration errors and therefore have serious limitations. Furthermore,
by virtue of the design of a DRC, the sensing elements (the magnets), must necessarily be housed on
the flight deck; an area rich in deviating materials and components. In other words, whilst the long
term accuracy of the DRC is reasonable, its overall performance will be degraded by short term
inaccuracies.

2. The directional gyro indicator (DGI) goes some way to solving the problems discussed above.
If the DGI is set with reference to the DRC heading corrected for deviation when the aircraft is in
straight and level flight and at a constant airspeed, then the DGI will read the correct value of
magnetic heading. Unfortunately the DGI will subsequently drift because of both real and apparent
errors, and so the problem of producing an accurate heading reference, whilst reduced, is still
evident. The advantage of the short term accuracy of the directional gyro is degraded therefore by
long term errors due to drifting.
3. The slaved gyro compass (otherwise known as the gyro magnetic compass or remote-reading
compass) essentially solves the problem by automatically and continuously comparing the output of
a magnetic sensing element with the indicated heading of the gyro indicator, and by resetting the gyro
whenever a discrepancy exists. The gyro output is therefore slaved to magnetic north and combines
the advantages of the long term accuracy of the sensing element with the short term accuracy of a
directional gyro.

4. The pilot is no longer required to reset the gyro indicator periodically; or, putting it another
way, significant errors of indicated heading do not occur if he fails to do so.
5. The major components of a slaved gyro compass system are shown at Figure 7-1.
FIGURE 7-1
Slaved Gyro
Compass System -
Block Schematic
The Detector Unit
6. The element which senses the direction of magnetic north, the detector unit, is normally
mounted in a wing tip or at the top of the fin, in an area where the deviating influence of the aircraft
is at an absolute minimum.

7. The output of the detector is a series of electrical currents which represent magnetic heading
in a manner which will be discussed shortly. The detector unit itself suffers from turning and
acceleration errors, however the electrical output currents can be interrupted whenever the aircraft
accelerates or turns. When this happens the gyro unit will function as a pure DGI for the duration of
the manoeuvre. Once the aircraft returns to constant velocity flight the gyro heading is automatically
updated with reference to the detector output.

8. The heart of any detector unit is the flux valve. The principle of operation of such a valve is
now discussed.

9. If a direct current is passed through a coil wound around a soft iron core, the core will
become magnetized as shown at Figure 7-2.
FIGURE 7-2
Induced
Magnetism in a
Soft Iron Core

10. If the soft iron core is now split at the middle and the two halves are laid side by side without
disturbing the coil, two magnets of equal strength and opposite polarity are produced as shown at
Figure 7-3.
FIGURE 7-3
Two Soft Iron
Cores Resulting in
Equal and
Opposite Magnetic
Fields

11. Were the value of the current passed through the coil to be steadily increased a stage would be
reached when the soft iron cores would become saturated. That is to say that any further increase in
coil current would not result in a corresponding increase in the strength of the magnetic fields
produced.
12. In fact, in a flux valve, it is an alternating current rather than a direct current which is fed to
the primary windings shown at Figure 7-3.

13. The effect of the alternating current is to completely reverse the magnetic polarity of both soft
iron cores each time that the direction of current flow changes.

14. The peak value of the alternating current fed to the primary coil is just sufficient to saturate
the soft iron cores. In other words, ignoring any external magnetic influences, the cores would just
saturate at the 90° and 270° phase points of the primary winding alternating current flow, see
Figure 7-4.
FIGURE 7-4
Variation in
Fluxvalve Field
Strength with
Phase of AC.

15. Thus far we have established that an electric current may be used to produce a magnetic field.
Of course the reverse is also true. If a magnetic field, of changing field strength and/or polarity, cuts
a conducting element an alternating electric current will be induced to flow through the conductor.
16. A secondary coil is wound around the flux valve as shown at Figure 7-5.
FIGURE 7-5
Fluxvalve
Construction
Showing Input and
Output Coils
17. If the flux valve were to be placed in a totally screened container such that there were no
external magnetic influences acting upon it, there would be no current induced into the secondary
coil. This is because the two soft iron cores are producing equal but opposite magnetic fields which
effectively cancel each other.

18. When the flux valve is placed within the terrestrial magnetic field the equality of the magnetic
fields produced by the soft iron cores is disturbed; consequently, a current will be induced to flow in
the secondary (output) winding, as shown at Figure 7-6.
FIGURE 7-6
Effect of
Terrestrial Bias on
Fluxvalve
Operation
19. Comparing Figure 7-4 and Figure 7-6 should give some idea of what is happening. At
Figure 7-4 no external magnetic influence was evident at the fluxvalve; consequently, both cores just
achieved saturation twice during each 360° phase cycle of the alternating current fed to the primary
coil. At Figure 7-6 the Earth's own magnetic field is acting upon the fluxvalve and its effect is to
apply a magnetic bias to the system. The result is that one core will become totally saturated at the
90° phase point and the other at the 270° phase point. Differing magnetic field strengths now result
in a current being induced to flow in the secondary winding.
20. It should be said at this point that the explanation given above does not represent the
complete picture, however the syllabus does not require a study of the hysteresis characteristics of the
soft iron cores. Without such a study it is necessary to accept that the explanation offered above is
factually correct, if incomplete.

21. Were the flux valve to be turned through 180° the bias effect of the terrestrial magnetic field
would be reversed, as would be the flow of current induced into the secondary coil.

22. Were the flux valve to be placed at 90° to the Earth's own magnetic field there would be no
current induced into the secondary coil.
23. A detector unit employs three flux valves, positioned 120° apart, as shown at Figure 7-7.
Appreciate that the detector unit is fixed in azimuth with respect to the aircraft. In other words, if
the aircraft turns through 90°, so does the detector unit. Therefore the orientation of the detector
unit to the Earth's magnetic field (and the currents generated within the secondary windings) vary
with aircraft heading.

24. At Figure 7-7 only the secondary windings are shown. The flux collector horns are simply
extensions of the soft iron cores and are employed to concentrate the terrestrial magnetic field.
FIGURE 7-7
Detector Unit/
Flux Valve System
25. The whole detector unit is required to lie in the Earth’s horizontal plane, so that it is the H
component of the terrestrial magnetic field which is sensed rather than the Z component. In order
that the detector can remain horizontal when the aircraft is pitching or rolling the unit is suspended
by a universal joint knows as a Hooke's Joint. This arrangement allows, typically, 25° of freedom in
pitch and roll.

26. When the freedom of movement limits imposed by the Hooke's joint are exceeded the
electrical outputs of the fluxvalve are isolated from the gyro unit. Since the detector unit in this
condition is no longer in the horizontal plane an element of the Earth's Z component would
necessarily be sensed at the detector and the resultant turning/acceleration errors would cause an
eventual misalignment of the gyro.

27. Even if the freedom of movement limits of the Hooke's joint were not exceeded during a
turning or acceleration manoeuvre the detector unit would still depart from the Earth's horizontal
plane as its own mass reacted under the effect of inertia. Again a part of the Earth's Z component
would be sensed and the gyro would eventually become misaligned. In order to minimise this error
the gyro unit is precessed to align itself to the detector output at a slow rate (only 2° per minute
typically) during normal operation. During any manoeuvre of limited duration the heading indicated
by the gyro magnetic compass will not therefore be significantly in error.

28. The next step is to consider the technique by which the gyro is maintained in alignment with
the detector unit output.

The Transmission System

29. The signals generated in the detector must somehow be transmitted to the gyro unit in order
to keep the gyro slaved to (or synchronised with) magnetic north as determined by the detector. This
is achieved within the synchronising unit by means of a self synchronous control unit (or selsyn).
30. The selsyn is effectively a detector unit in reverse. The electrical currents which are produced
in the secondary windings of the fluxvalves within the detector unit, and which synthesize the Earth's
magnetic field direction, are fed to the selsyn, as shown at Figure 7-1.
31. The stator coils within the synchronising unit are positioned mutually at 120° to each other,
as are the flux valves in the detector. The flux valve currents flowing through these stator coils will
produce a magnetic field which represents the Earth's magnetic field sensed at the detector. The null
seeking rotor coil of the selsyn will have a current induced into it whenever it lies at any angle other
than 90° to the magnetic lines of flux produced by the stator coils.

The Slaving System

32. The gyro unit itself is mechanically coupled to the null seeking rotor within the selsyn, as is
the compass rose of the heading indicator, see Figure 7-1.

33. In the event that the gyro is misaligned with Magnetic North as defined by the detector unit,
then necessarily the null seeking rotor must be at other than 90° to the magnetic field manufactured
within the selsyn, and consequently an error signal will be produced by the rotor. This error signal is
amplified, rectified and fed to the precession coil on the gyro itself, again as shown at Figure 7-1.
The precession coil now generates its own magnetic field which acts upon the semi-circular shaped
permanent magnet which is attached to the inner gimbal of the gyro. This exerts a downward force
on the inner gimbal, the consequence of which is that the gyro will precess in the aircraft's yawing
plane and, because of the mechanical linkage, both the null seeking rotor and the compass rose on
the face of the instrument will also rotate. This will continue until the error signal at the null seeking
rotor ceases, at which time the rotor will again lie at 90° to the selsyn's magnetic field and the gyro
will now be aligned with magnetic north as sensed at the detector unit.
34. An alternative to the precession coil and permanent magnet arrangement described above is a
torque motor, which is more commonly found in modern systems.

Annunciator Indicators
35. It is obviously desirable that the pilot should know when an error current is flowing from the
null seeking rotor, since at such times the heading indication will be erroneous. The annunciator
circuit is located between the precession amplifier and the precession coil. An indicator shows when
precession currents are flowing and therefore indicates that the compass rose is not aligned with
magnetic north as sensed by the detector unit. Two types of annunciator indicator are shown at
Figure 7-8.

36. It has already been mentioned that a typical rate for the gyro to automatically align with the
detector unit output is 2° per minute. Remember that this is deliberately kept to a low value so that
the system will not become grossly misaligned whenever the detector output is affected by the Z
component during turning or acceleration manoeuvres.

37. If the operator notices a gross misalignment, as may well occur when the equipment is first
switched on, then the system can be rapidly re-aligned using the manual synchronisation control.
Figure 7-9 shows the indicator of a G4F compass, the manual resetting control is positioned at
bottom right and the annunciator indicator (dot/cross type) is positioned at top right. The set
heading knob is used to position the heading ‘bug’, and the DG/COMP switch gives the operator the
option of operating in the pure DGI mode whenever the output of the detector unit is suspect,
following a lightning strike, or at very high magnetic latitudes.
FIGURE 7-8
Types of
Annunciator
Indicator
FIGURE 7-9
G4F Compass
indicator

The Gyro Self Levelling System

38. Finally it is necessary to consider the technique employed to maintain the gyro spin axis in the
yawing plane of the aircraft. Figure 7-10 shows schematically how this is achieved.
FIGURE 7-10
The gyro self-
levelling system
39. The commutator switch consists of two semi-circular contacts insulated from each other and
attached to the pivot joining the inner and outer gimbals. With the gyro spin axis lying in the yawing
plane (Figure 7-10(a)) the pick-off brushes are in contact with the insulating segments and no current
flows to the torque motor. With the gyro toppled (Figure 7-10(b)) the commutator contacts have
rotated under the pick-off brushes and an electrical current flows to the torque motor. The
precessing force from the torque motor is applied around the aircraft's normal (vertical) axis and the
resultant movement of the spin axis is back towards the yawing plane. When the spin axis again lies
in the correct plane the torque motor is de-energised as the pick-off brushes contact the insulating
segments.

Remote-Reading Compass System Errors

40. The remote reading compass system suffers from the following errors:

Fluxvalve Tilt Errors

41. Any horizontal accelerations which cause fluxvalve tilt can cause heading errors in a simple
uncompensated remote-reading compass system. Accelerations are caused by coriolis, vehicle
movement (rhumb line), aircraft turns, linear changes of velocity and flux valve vibrations.
Fluxvalve induced heading errors will not manifest themselves immediately and the rate of any
heading error introduction depends on the limiting precession rate and the response time of the
system (time constant).
(a) Turning Error. Although a high rate of turn in a fast aircraft would show the greatest
flux valve heading error, little of the error is displayed since the time spent in the turn
is minimal. Slow prolonged turns at high speeds generate the greatest errors. The
errors decay after level flight is resumed. Flux valve induced errors due to tilt can be
limited by switching the system to an unslaved directional gyro mode whenever turns
are sensed by suitable detection devices.

(b) Coriolis Error. An aircraft flies a curved path in space and in consequence there will
be a force acting to displace the pendulously suspended flux valve. The error is
calculable, depending on groundspeed, latitude, dip and track, and can be
compensated automatically.

(c) Vehicle Movement Error. Whenever flying a true or magnetic rhumb line the aircraft
must turn to maintain a constant track with reference to converging meridians. As
with coriolis error, the acceleration displaces the detector from the local horizontal
plane. A correction can be applied in a similar manner to the coriolis error.

(d) Fluxvalve Vibration. Fluxvalve vibration results in a heading oscillation, the mean of
which is not the actual mean heading. Since the gyro slaving loop tends to average
fluxvalve headings over a period of time, the gyro would eventually be precessed to
the erroneous fluxvalve mean heading. The effect can be limited to small values by
careful design of the pendulous detector damping mechanism and through
consideration of the location of the detector in the aircraft.
Northerly Instability
42. Northerly instability or weaving is a heading oscillation experienced in high speed aircraft
attempting to fly straight and level at or near a heading of magnetic North. Starboard bank of the
aircraft induces starboard tilt, and this causes an under reading of the heading. Thus, if an aircraft
on North banks to starboard to correct a small error, the magnetic meridian appears to rotate in the
same direction. The aircraft continues to turn and eventually reaches the false meridian. On
levelling out, the fluxvalve senses the correct meridian and starts to precess the gyro towards it. The
indicated heading changes and the aircraft is banked to port to regain a northerly indicated heading.
This tilts the fluxvalve which has the effeect of appearing to rotate the meridian to port. The new
false meridian is chased until, upon resuming level flight, the sensor detects the correct meridian
again and precesses the gyro to starboard. The pattern is repeated and the amplitude can be as great
as 6°. The amplitude of the weave tends to increase with an increase in dip and aircraft velocity.

Hang-Off Error
43. Gyroscopic drift is a constant source of error signal in a gyro-magnetic compass system, and
although it will be compensated for by the precession loop, at any given time there must be an
element of error present. This is known as hang-off error. Gyro drift may be due to:

(a) Real Drift. Real drift can only be reduced by the incorporation of a high quality
azimuth gyro having a low real drift rate.

(b) Earth Rate. Apparent azimuth gyro drift due to Earth rotation can be countered by
correcting the gyro at a rate of 15 sin lat °/hr. The correction can be supplied through
a manually set latitude correction mechanism or through a constantly biased gyro.
 (c) Transport Wander. To compensate for transport wander due to the convergence of
geographic meridians the gyro must be corrected at a rate equal to:

GS
----------tan lat /hr(where G/S = east-west groundspeed)
60

44. The correction can be applied manually or through a computer using inputs of groundspeed,
heading and latitude. However, although the gyro can be compensated in this way for the apparent
change in the direction of geographic North, the output from the fluxvalve is in terms of magnetic
North. Therefore, as the aircraft moves over the Earth there will be a difference between fluxvalve
and gyro since the variation is changing (unless the aircraft is flying along an isogonal). To remove
this error, variation must be applied to the output of the detector unit before the gyro error loop so
that both the gyro and fluxvalve give directional information relative to true North. The value of
variation can be inserted manually or by means of an automatic variation setting control unit.
Failure to update the variation value will result in small hang-off errors.

Gimbal Error
45. When a 2 degree of freedom gyroscope with a horizontal spin axis is both banked and rolled,
the outer gimbal must rotate to maintain orientation of the rotor axis, thereby inducing a heading
error at the outer gimbal pick-off. The magnitude of this error depends upon the angle of bank and
the angular difference between the spin axis and the longitudinal axis. In most systems the spin axis
direction is arbitrary, relative to North, so the error is not easily predicted.
Transmission Errors
46. Overall system accuracy is worsened by the errors in the synchro system. Typically, each
synchro might be expected to have an error in the order of 0.1°, with an overall system error of
perhaps 0.5°. This shows in a compass swing as a coefficient D or E error (not part of this syllabus).

Compass Swinging Errors

47. It is not possible to obtain absolute accuracy in compass swinging, and even refined methods
are considered to be only accurate to 0.2°.

Variation and Deviation Errors

48. Charted values of variation may be considered to vary between 0.1° and 2°. Over the UK the
uncertainty at height is considered to be within 1° but the value varies both with height and locality.
Setting of variation and deviation is likely to be accurate to 0.25°.

Advantages of the Slaved Gyro Compass

49. Some of the advantages of this type of system over a direct reading system have already been
mentioned, the main advantages are summarised below:

(a) The detector unit is located in an area which is low in aircraft magnetism.

(b) The compass rose is mechanically driven, giving a stable compass heading, notably in
turbulence.
(c) The compass rose is flat faced and located centrally in front of each pilot on the flight
instrument panel, removing the parallax error which occurs with direct reading
compasses.

(d) The electro/mechanical output of the compass system can be used to feed other
instruments and systems, for example RMIs or a Flight Management Computer.

(e) The compass rose can be electrically or mechanically corrected with variation to
enable true headings to be flown.

(f) Turning and acceleration errors are much reduced.

(g) The system can be operated as a DGI in high latitudes or in the vicinity of
thunderstorms, where magnetic compasses are unreliable.

(h) The detector unit senses rather than seeks the magnetic meridian, giving increased
sensitivity.
Pre-flight Checks
50. When power is available to the system, operate the synchronising control in the direction
indicated by the annunciator. Now check the heading readouts of the primary display and the RMI
against the other gyro slaved compass system (if two are fitted), the direct reading compass and the
known heading of the aircraft (with reference to the stand centre line markings and the aerodrome
manoeuvring area chart. Be aware that if the aircraft is on a stand and is surrounded by ground
power units, fuel bowsers and so on, the readings of each of the gyro compasses and the direct
reading compass may disagree. Whilst the aircraft is taxiing, compare the compass readouts against
each other, especially during the turns. If any doubt still exists, a final check can be conducted with
the aircraft aligned with the runway centre line.

51. In an aeroplane with two slaved gyro compasses, it is normal for the captain's primary
display (horizontal situation indicator, HSI) and the first officer's RMI to be driven by one gyro
compass. The first officer's HSI and the captain's RMI are naturally driven by the second gyro
compass. It is normal to include a compass comparator, which will warn the pilot's whenever a
discrepancy (of, for example, 5° or more exists for 5 seconds or more) is sensed between one compass
system and the other. Finally, it is normally possible for the pilots to drive all of the HSIs and RMIs
from a single gyro compass in the event that the other system fails.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 4

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

Describe the 5 main properties of a magnet.

QUESTION 2.
External lines of magnetic flux are said to have direction; from which pole do they emanate?

QUESTION 3.

State the units of measurement of magnetic force.

QUESTION 4.

Explain the term 'saturated' when applied to magnetic material.

QUESTION 5.

Define magnetic moment.

QUESTION 6.

State the convention for assigning colours to the Magnetic Poles.

QUESTION 7.

Define directive force.

QUESTION 8.

Define angle of dip.

QUESTION 9.

Define the Magnetic Equator.

QUESTION 10.
Define the term 'Magnetic Meridian'.

QUESTION 11.

Define an isoclinal line.

QUESTION 12.

Given that T=50mT and angle of dip=30°, calculate H and Z.

QUESTION 13.

Where on the Earth's surface is the vertical component of the Earth's magnetic field (Z) at a
maximum and a minimum?

QUESTION 14.

State the minimum strength of the directive force for operation of a magnetic compass system.
QUESTION 15.

Define variation.
QUESTION 16.

The maximum value of variation is 180°; state where on the Earth's surface this occurs.

QUESTION 17.

Explain why the value of variation for any given point on the Earth's surface changes with time.

QUESTION 18.
Define an agonic line.

QUESTION 19.

Define an isogonal.

QUESTION 20.

Define the term 'deviation'.

QUESTION 21.

Explain the terms 'hard iron magnetism' and 'soft iron magnetism'.

QUESTION 22.

Explain the effects that change in latitude and change in heading have on the deviating effect of hard
iron magnetism.
QUESTION 23.

Explain the effects that change in latitude and change in heading have on the deviating effect of
vertical soft iron magnetism.

QUESTION 24.

State the components of hard iron magnetism in an aircraft and with which aircraft axis each is
associated.
QUESTION 25.

State which components of hard iron magnetism are associated with which Coefficients of Deviation.

QUESTION 26.

State the three basic properties a direct reading compass should have.

QUESTION 27.

State the system of suspension employed to improve horizontality.

QUESTION 28.

State the methods of improving compass sensitivity.

QUESTION 29.

Define the aperiodicity of a compass.

QUESTION 30.

State the conditions in which the indications on a DRC may be unreliable or in error.

QUESTION 31.

State the causes of turning and acceleration errors.

QUESTION 32.
State the effect on a direct reading compass of an acceleration to the East in the Northern
Hemisphere.

QUESTION 33.

State the effect on a direct reading compass of an acceleration to the East in the Southern
Hemisphere.
QUESTION 34.

State the effect on a DRC's magnets (when viewed from above) when an aircraft at 45°N turns from
315°M through North to 045°M.

QUESTION 35.

State the general rule for the effect of liquid swirl on the magnets of a DRC.

QUESTION 36.

State the major components of a gyro magnetic compass.

QUESTION 37.

Explain the operation of the detector unit.

QUESTION 38.

Explain the function of the Hooke's Joint mounting for the detector unit.

QUESTION 39.
Explain the function of the Signal Selsyn in a gyro magnetic compass.

QUESTION 40.

Explain the operation of the Annunciator Indicators in a Gyro Magnetic Compass.

QUESTION 41.

State the advantages of a gyro magnetic compass over a direct reading compass.
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

1. The ability to attract other magnetic materials.

2. The tendency, when freely suspended, to align in an approximately North/South direction.

3. The attracting force tends to be concentrated at each end of the magnet.

4. Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.

5. The strength of the attracting or repelling force between two magnets decreases as the square of
the distance between them.

ANSWER 2.

Lines of magnetic flux are, by convention, assumed to emanate from the North-seeking pole of the
magnet and re-enter at the South-seeking pole. See figure 4-1.

ANSWER 3.

Tesla

ANSWER 4.

The strength of a magnetic field is measurable; the units are 'tesla'. The strength of a magnetic field
induced in a magnetic material can be increased only up to a certain point and no more, at which
point the material is said to be saturated.

061-4-3
ANSWER 5.

The magnetic moment of a magnet is the product of its pole strength multiplied by its length; it is a
measure of its tendency to turn or to be turned by another magnetic field.

ANSWER 6.
The north-seeking end is red; the south-seeking is blue.

ANSWER 7.

The force that causes the alignment of a magnet with the Earth's magnetic field. It is the horizontal
component, H, of the total magnetic field.

ANSWER 8.

Angle of dip is the angle a freely suspended magnet takes up below the local horizontal when aligning
itself with the Earth's total magnetic field.

ANSWER 9.

The Magnetic Equator is a line joining all the points where the lines of total force are horizontal to
the Earth's surface.

ANSWER 10.

A freely suspended magnet will align with the local lines of flux of the Earth's magnetic field. A great
circle line drawn from the magnet to the North Magnetic Pole would then define the local magnetic
meridian.
ANSWER 11.

An isoclinal line is a line joining points on the Earth's surface that have the same value of dip.

ANSWER 12.

H = T x cos dip Z = H x tan dip

= 50 x 0.866 = 34.64 x 0.577

= 34.64  T = 19.99  T

ANSWER 13.

Vertical component (Z) is at a maximum at the Magnetic Poles and at a minimum, zero, at the
Magnetic Equator.

ANSWER 14.

6 micro-tesla.

ANSWER 15.

The true and magnetic North Poles are not co-located; variation is the angular difference between
True North and Magnetic North at any point on the Earth's surface.
ANSWER 16.

The maximum value of variation occurs on the meridian between the True North Pole and the
Magnetic North Pole.
ANSWER 17.

Secular change. The Magnetic North Pole moves clockwise around the True North Pole every 960
years.

Annual change. A yearly cycle; maxima occurring at Spring and Autumn Equinoxes.

Daily changes associated with diurnal changes in the ionosphere.

Periodic changes due to 11 year sunspot cycle. Magnetic storms associated with sunspot activity
cause changes in variation.

ANSWER 18.

An agonic line is a line joining points of zero variation; it approximates the meridian passing through
the True North Pole and the Magnetic North Pole (except the portion actually between the poles)
and its anti-meridian.

ANSWER 19.

An isogonal is a line joining points of equal variation.

ANSWER 20.

Deviation is the angular difference between the compass indicated direction of North and the
direction of the local magnetic meridian (ie. the difference between Compass North and Magnetic
North).
ANSWER 21.

Hard iron magnetism is the name given to magnetism that is virtually permanent or decays only very
slowly. Soft iron magnetism is the name given to temporary magnetism.

ANSWER 22.

Although hard iron magnetism is permanent and does not change with magnetic latitude, the
deviating effect it produces will vary; H is weaker at higher latitudes and therefore the compass
magnets are more easily deflected. The deviation effect of hard iron magnetism varies with aircraft
heading.
ANSWER 23.

Vertical soft iron magnetism increases with increase in magnetic latitude because Z increases;
therefore, the deviation effect increases. The increase in deviating effect is compounded by the fact
that the H component is reducing and the compass magnet is more easily deflected. The deviating
effect of vertical soft iron magnetism will vary with aircraft heading.
ANSWER 24.

Component P is associated with the fore/aft axis (positive when blue pole is ahead of the compass
system); component Q is associated with the athwartships axis (positive when the blue pole is on the
starboard side); component R is associated with the vertical axis (positive when the blue pole is
below the compass system). See Figures 5-1 to 5-3.

ANSWER 25.

Component +P produces coefficient +B; component +Q produces coefficient +C.

ANSWER 26.

1. Horizontality

2. Sensitivity

3. Aperiodicity
ANSWER 27.

Pendulous suspension.
ANSWER 28.

1. Use several small magnets with high pole strengths.

2. Assembly is made as light as possible to reduce friction at the pivot.

3. Pivot itself incorporates a jewelled bearing that is lubricated by the viscous fluid that fills the bowl.

4. Viscous fluid effectively lightens the magnet system.

ANSWER 29.

The ability of the magnetic assembly to settle quickly, pointing towards the Magnetic North Pole,
following displacement during manoeuvres or turbulence.

ANSWER 30.

Incorrect readings can occur when the aircraft accelerates, decelerates and when the aircraft turns.
ANSWER 31.

1. Inertia

2. Z-field effect: the effect of the vertical component of the Earth's magnetic field on the displaced
magnets

ANSWER 32.

Inertia and Z-field effect are complementary, both causing the compass to under-read (ie. less than
090°). The compass appears to indicate a turn towards the North (nearer) Magnetic Pole.
ANSWER 33.

Inertia and Z-field effect are complementary, both causing the compass to over-read (ie. more than
090°). The compass appears to indicate a turn towards the South (nearer) Magnetic Pole.

ANSWER 34.

The magnets are displaced clockwise when viewed from above resulting in the compass under-
reading and being 'sluggish'. See figure 6-14

ANSWER 35.

When turning through the nearer pole, liquid swirl will increase any movement of the magnets; when
turning through the further pole, liquid swirl will decrease the movement of the magnets.
ANSWER 36.

The detector unit (in wingtip); the gyro unit; the precession amplifier; the synchronising unit (signal
selsyn); the annunciator circuit; the heading indicator (display). See Figure 7-1.
ANSWER 37.

See paragraph 6 to paragraph 24 061-7

Figure 7-2, Figure 7-3, Figure 7-4, Figure 7-5, Figure 7-6 and Figure 7-7.

ANSWER 38.

See paragraph 25 to paragraph 27 061-7

ANSWER 39.

See paragraph 29 to paragraph 31 061-7

ANSWER 40.

See paragraph 35 to paragraph 37 061-7

Figure 7-8 and Figure 7-9

ANSWER 41.

See paragraph 47 061-7

 Properties of a Chart

The Ideal Chart Projection

Orthomorphism
Conformality
Chart Scale
Projections
Properties of a Chart
1. Now that the properties of the Earth have been studied, it is logical to consider the maps or
charts which are used to portray the Earth in two dimensions.
2. To produce or project a chart, it is necessary to produce a spherical model of the Earth which
is called the reduced Earth. The actual size of the reduced Earth used for any projection determines
the scale of the resulting chart.

3. The terms map and chart are normally considered to be inter-changeable. To be totally
correct, a chart shows the parallels of latitude and meridians together with the minimum of
topographical features, and would normally be used for plotting purposes. A map normally shows
the graticule of latitude and longitude together with topographical detail in far greater depth, for
example the Ordinance Survey maps of Great Britain.

The Ideal Chart Projection

4. An ideal projection (which can not exist) should have the following properties:

(a) The scale should be both correct and constant at all points on the chart. Scale will be
discussed in depth later in the syllabus.

(b) Great circles and rhumb lines should be represented on the chart as straight lines
(clearly this is impossible).
 (c) Bearings on the chart should be identical to the corresponding bearing on the surface
of the Earth.

(d) Parallels of latitude and meridians should cross each other at right-angles on the chart,
as they do on the Earth. This is an essential property of any chart used for
navigational purposes.

(e) World-wide coverage should be possible.

(f) Adjacent sheets should fit together, with the graticule of latitude and longitude aligned
from one sheet to the next.

(g) Shapes (land masses, towns etc.) should be correctly represented.

(h) Areas should be correctly represented.

5. It is impossible to produce the perfect chart. Any chart which is to be used for navigation
must, however, be orthomorphic.

Orthomorphism
To be orthomorphic a chart must possess two properties:

(a) It must have equal scale expansion. This is achieved if the chart has a constant scale,
that is to say that there is no scale expansion. On a chart which has a varying scale,
orthomorphism still exists provided that the scale expansion at any point on the chart
is the same in all directions, over a relatively short distance.
 (b) The parallels of latitude must cross the meridians at right-angles on the chart, as they
do on the Earth. From a practical point of view this means that the bearing between
any two points on the Earth will be correctly represented on an orthomorphic chart
between the same two points.

Conformality
6. An orthomorphic chart which also has the property that a straight line approximates a great
circle is referred to as conformal eg. The Lamberts Conical orthormorphic chart is also referred to as
the Lamberts Conformal Chart.

Chart Scale
7. The scale of a map or chart is the ratio of a given distance on the map or chart to the actual
distance it represents on the Earth. The scale of a chart at any point may be expressed in several
ways. The four examples of scale descriptions given below refer to the same chart, and all four are
correct:
1
(a) -----------------
63 360

(b) 1 to 63,360

(c) 1: 63,360

(d) 1 inch to 1 statute mile (one statute mile being 63,360 inches).
8. Of the four examples given above, the first, the representative fraction, lends itself best to
mathematical manipulation.

9. The scale of this chart is such that 1 unit of distance on the chart (chart distance) represents
63,360 of the same units of distance on the surface of the Earth (Earth distance).

10. The scale, expressed as a representative fraction, is equal to the chart distance (CD) divided
by the Earth distance (ED) it represents providing that both CD and ED are expressed in the same
units of distance.
1 CD
Thus: =
--- --------
F ED
ED
or by transposition ------ = CD
F
and ED = CD x F

11. The smaller the denominator of the representative fraction, the larger the scale of the chart
described.
EXAMPLE 8-1
EXAMPLE
On chart A one inch represents 15.78 statute miles. Express the scale of this chart as a
representative fraction. The scale of chart B is given as 1: 850,000.
How many kilometres on the Earth are represented by a line 5 cm long on the chart?
Which of the two charts (A or B) has the larger scale ?
SOLUTION

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
1 1
---= -------------------------------
F 15.78  63360
1 1
---= --------------------
F 1,000,000
1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
1 5 cm
------------------- = -----------
850,000 ED
ED = 5  850,000 cm
5  850,000
ED = ----- ---
--------------------
100,000
ED = 5  8.5 km

ED = 42.5 km
Chart B has the larger scale
EXAMPLE 8-2
EXAMPLE
The scale of a chart is given as 1: 750,000. Determine the length in centimetres on this chart of a
straight line joining two points which are 75.5 nm apart.

SOLUTION

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
1 CD
------- ------
------ = ------------
---- ---
750,000 75.5 nm
75.5  6080  12 (inches)
CD = --------------------------- --------------------------
750,000
75.5  6080  12  2.54 (cm)
CD = -------------- --------------- -----------------------------------
750,000
CD = 18.66 cm
EXAMPLE 8-3
EXAMPLE
Given a constant scale chart with a published scale of 1: 500,000, determine the length in
centimetres of a straight line joining point A at 50°N 2°E with point B at 48°N 2°E.

SOLUTION
The two points lie on the same meridian (great circle) and are therefore 120 nm (120 minutes of
arc of latitude) apart.
1 CD
---= -------
F ED

1 CD
------------------- = --- -------------
500,000 120 nm

120  6080 - 12 (inches)

CD = --------------------------- ---------------------------
500,000

120  6080  12  2.54 (cm)

CD = ------------------------------- -----------------------------------
500,000

CD = 44.48 cm
Projections
12. Different chart projections have different properties and are therefore suitable for different
purposes. Chart selection is dependent on the purpose for which it is to be used and the area
involved. Projections may be grouped under four main headings:

(a) Mathematically constructed graticules not based on a geometric projection.

(b) Conical projections and their modifications. i.e. a cone placed on either pole of the
reduced earth.

(c) Cylindrical projections and their modifications i.e. a cylinder enclosing the reduced
earth.

(d) Azimuthal projections. i.e. a flat plane tangential to the reduced earths surface.

13. There are thirteen projections contained in these groups. However, only the following are
required to be studied in detail for this syllabus. They are:

(a) The Mercator projections: normal, transverse and oblique.

(b) The Lamberts conformal.

(c) The Polar stereographic.

061 General Navigation

The Mercator Projection

Mercator Scale Expansion

Measurement of Distance on a Mercator Chart
The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles
Plotting Radio Bearings on a Mercator Chart
Uses of the Mercator Chart
The Mercator Projection
1. The Mercator chart is a cylindrical projection. A cylinder having a radius identical to that of
the reduced Earth is placed over the reduced Earth such that the cylinder and the globe are touching
only at the equator.

2. The graticule of latitude and longitude, which is etched on to the reduced Earth, is projected
onto the cylinder using a light source at the centre of the globe.

3. Having fixed the graticule on to the cylinder, the cylinder is now laid flat and appears as
shown at Figure 9-1.
FIGURE 9-1
Mercator
Cylindrical
Projection
4. Refer to Figure 9-1 and note the following points:

(a) All meridians appear as parallel, vertical, straight lines, and they are equally spaced.

(b) The parallels of latitude also appear as straight parallel lines, but the distance between
them increases with increase of latitude.

(c) It is impossible to project the poles using this projection.

(d) The parallels of latitude cross the meridians at right-angles.

Mercator Scale Expansion

5. On a Mercator chart the distance between adjacent parallels of latitude increases as the
latitude increases. The Earth distance between adjacent parallels of latitude is constant (one degree
change of latitude equals 60 nm at all latitudes). Thus, as latitude increases, the chart distance
representing a constant Earth distance is increased, and consequently the chart scale becomes larger.
FIGURE 9-2
Mercator Scale
Expansion

6. If R is the equatorial radius of the earth, then the width of the chart representing 360° of
longitude is 2R  This width is constant over the whole chart. At latitude  the earth radius is r
and the earth distance for 360° of longitude at that latitude is 2r . However, r = R cos  ;
therefore, the earth distance is 2R cos  . This is represented on the chart by 2R .

From the scale formula:

Chart distance
Scale = ---------------------------------
Earth distance

Then 1 2R
-- = ------------------------= ---------
1
= sec 
F 2R cos  cos 
Thus the scale expands as the secant of the latitude.

7. Based on this principle, it can be demonstrated using a scale drawing that scale also expands
north/south at the same rate. Hence we have equal scale expansion.

8. Since parallels of latitude cross meridians at right angles, bearings on the Earth are correctly
represented on the chart; therefore, the chart can be described as orthomorphic.
EXAMPLE 9-1
EXAMPLE
The scale of a Mercator chart is given as 1: 500,000 at the equator. Determine the scale of this
chart at 60°S.

The scale at 60°S = The scale at the equator x the secant of 60°
1 1 =2
sec 60° = ------- ----- = --
------ ----
cos 60 0.5
The scale at 60°S 2
= -------------
------
500,000
1
= -------
------ -----
250,000
Remember that the secant of any angle is the reciprocal of the cosine of the same angle. Example 1
could therefore equally well have been written:
1
The scale at 60° = ---------------------- ------------------
500,0 cos 60
00
1
= ---------------------------------
500,0  0.5
00
1
= ------- -----
------
250,000
 9. Of course the answer is the same in both cases whichever technique is used. Always apply a
common-sense check to ensure that no gross mathematical errors have occurred. The scale at a
latitude other than 0° must be larger than that at the equator, and the denominator of the
representative fraction must therefore be smaller. The denominator decreases with increase of
latitude.

EXAMPLE 9-2
EXAMPLE
The scale of a Mercator chart is given as 1: 380,000 at the equator. Determine the scale of this
chart at 42°N.

SOLUTION

The scale at 42° = The scale at the equator x secant 42°

The secant of 42° 1 1 = 1.346
= ------- ----- = ----- ---
------
cos 42  0 ---
743
The scale at 42° N 1 ----
= -------
------  1.346
380,000
1.346
=
---------------
-- --
380,000
1
= -------
-----------
282,300
or

The scale at 42° N 1

= --------------------------------------------
380,000  cos 42
1
= ---------------------------------------
380,0 0.743
00
1
= -------
------ -----
282,300
EXAMPLE 9-3
EXAMPLE
The scale of a Mercator chart is given as 1:675,000 at 30°S. Determine the scale of this chart at the
equator.

SOLUTION
Obviously, if the scale of a Mercator chart expands as the secant of latitude as the latitude is
increased away from the equator, then the scale must contract as the reciprocal of the secant (the
cosine) of latitude as the latitude is decreased towards the equator.
Therefore:

The scale at the equator = The scale at a given latitude x the cosine of that latitude

The scale at the equator 1 ----

------  cos 30
= -------
675,000
1
------ ------  0.866
= -------
675,000
0.866
=
---------------
-- --
675,000
1
= -------
------------
779,400
or

The scale at the equator 1

= ---------------------- ------------------
675,0 sec 30
00
1
= ---------------------------------------
675,0  1.155
00
1
= -------
------------
779,400
EXAMPLE 9-4
EXAMPLE
Given that the scale of a Mercator chart is 1: 240,000 at 20°N, determine the scale of the same
chart at 40°S.

SOLUTION

The scale at 20o N = -------

1
------
------
240,000
The scale at the equator 1 -----
= -------
------  sec 20
240,000
The scale at 40o 1-----
------  sec 20 x sec 40
= -------
240,000
1
= -------------------------------- ------------------------------
240 000  s------   cos 40
ec 20
1
= ----------------------------
-------------------------------
240,000   0.766
1.064
1
= ---------
- ----------
195  00
6
The final latitude is greater than the initial latitude and therefore the scale should be greater and the
denominator of the representative fraction smaller.
Measurement of Distance on a Mercator Chart
10. Since the scale of a Mercator chart is expanding with increase of latitude, measurement of
distance poses a problem. In order to overcome this problem, it is necessary to use the meridian
distance scale (1° of latitude = 60 nm) at a point on the chart which is adjacent to the distance to be
measured.

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

11. Figure 9-3 shows two rhumb line tracks and two great circle tracks drawn on a Mercator
projection.
FIGURE 9-3
Rhumb Line and
Great Circle
Tracks on a
Mercator Chart

12. Note that all rhumb lines on this projection are shown as straight lines. All great circle tracks
(apart from meridians and the equator) are shown as curved lines which are concave to the equator,
ie. on the polar side of the rhumb line.

13. Earth convergency is only correctly shown on this projection at the equator. At zero degrees
latitude Earth convergency is zero (the meridians are parallel) and this is correctly portrayed on the
chart. At all other latitudes Earth meridians converge, but on the Mercator chart they are shown as
parallel straight lines, regardless of latitude.
Plotting Radio Bearings on a Mercator Chart
14. The concept of convergency on the Earth was discussed earlier in this section.

Remember that:

(a) Earth convergency = ch long x sin mean lat

(b) Conversion angle = 0.5 x ch long x sin mean lat

(c) The conversion angle is the angle between the rhumb line and great circle tracks joining
the same two points, measured at either of the two points.
EXAMPLE 9-5
EXAMPLE
Given that point A is at 30°N 40°E and point B is at 30°N 70°E determine:
The direction of the great circle track from A to B at A.
The direction of the great circle track from B to A at B.

SOLUTION
See Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5.

Conversion angle between A and B = 0.5  ch long  sin mean lat

= 0.5  30  sin 30

= 0.5  30  0.5

= 7.5
 FIGURE 9-4

By inspection:

(i) The great circle track A to B at A = 082.5°(T)

(ii) The great circle track B to A at B = 277.5°(T)

Now, suppose that the whole problem is presented on a Mercator chart rather than on the Earth.
The diagram would appear as at Figure 9-5, but the answers are still the same.
 FIGURE 9-5

15. The problem now arises of plotting radio bearings on a Mercator chart. Radio waves travel
along great circle paths. Unfortunately, great circles appear as curves on the Mercator chart, and are
therefore impossible to plot. Consequently, if the change of longitude between beacon and aircraft is
sufficiently great, the conversion angle must be determined and applied to the great circle bearing in
order to convert it to a rhumb line bearing for plotting.

16. Additional complications arise in that:

(a) With an NDB/ADF bearing, the bearing is measured at the aircraft.

(b) With VDF bearings, the bearing is measured at the station, whilst with VOR bearings,
the bearing is manufactured at the station.

17. Some significant facts emerge from the above statements, and they are very important.
 (a) When converting an NDB bearing from magnetic to true, apply the variation at the
aircraft.

(b) When converting a VOR or VDF bearing from magnetic to true, apply the variation at
the station.

(c) When converting NDB great circle bearings to equivalent rhumb line bearings, apply
the conversion angle at the aircraft.

(d) When converting VOR or VDF great circle bearing to equivalent rhumb line bearings,
apply the conversion angle at the station.

18. The best way to clarify the above statements is by worked examples.

EXAMPLE 9-6
EXAMPLE
An aircraft's position is estimated as 42°N 46°W. An NDB situated at 46°N 37°W bears 056°(M)
from the aircraft. Variation at the aircraft is 9°W. Determine the true bearing that you would plot
from the meridian passing through the NDB on a Mercator chart.

SOLUTION

Conversion angle = 0.5  9  sin 44

= 3
FIGURE 9-6
EXAMPLE 9-7
EXAMPLE
An aircraft's position is estimated as 52°S 121°E. An NDB situated at 56°S 112°E bears 221°(M)
from the aircraft. Variation at the aircraft is 15.5°E. Determine the true bearing to plot from the
NDB on a Mercator chart.

SOLUTION

Conversion angle = 0.5  9  sin 54

= 3.5
FIGURE 9-7
EXAMPLE 9-8
EXAMPLE
An aircraft's position is estimated as 60°N 11°W. A VOR station at 64°N 3°W gives a bearing
indication of 052°(M) TO the station. The variation at the VOR station is 8°W. Determine the
bearing to plot from the meridian passing through the VOR station on a Mercator chart.

SOLUTION

Conversion angle = 0.5 x 8° x sin 62°

The sin of 62° = 0.883
= 3.5°
Remember that, since the VOR bearing is manufactured at the ground station, the conversion angle
is applied at the ground station rather than at the aircraft.
FIGURE 9-8
EXAMPLE 9-9
EXAMPLE
An aircraft's position is estimated as 63°S 70°W. A VOR station at 66°S 78°W gives a bearing
indication of 242°(M) TO the station. The variation at the VOR station is 14°E. Determine the
true bearing to plot from the VOR station on a Mercator chart.

SOLUTION

Conversion angle = 0.5 x 8° x sin 64°30’

The sin of 64°30’ = 0.903
Conversion angle = 3.6°
FIGURE 9-9
Uses of the Mercator Chart
19. Mercator charts are used mainly for the following:

(a) Plotting charts for latitudes 70°N to 70°S where the requirement is to fly rhumb line
tracks rather than great circle tracks.

(b) Topographical maps of equatorial regions. In low latitudes the chart is almost
constant scale, since the value of the secant of small angles changes only slowly.
Consequently ground features are displayed with little distortion in shape in area.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 5

QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1.

Using FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, the chart distance from Boston (4220N 07105W) to
Detroit (4220N 08305W) is 32.9 cm along the rhumb line. What is the scale of the chart?
QUESTION 2.

The scale of the chart is 1:5 million. If the chart distance between two places is 19.7 cm; what is the
earth distance between them in statute miles?

QUESTION 3.

The distance between Cardiff (5130N 00310W) and Edinburgh (5555N 00310W) is 305 statute
miles. The chart distance is 7.7 inches; what is the chart scale?
QUESTION 4.

The chart distance between Ascension (0800S 01400W) and Freetown (0800N 01400W) is 5.84
inches; what is the scale of the chart?

QUESTION 5.

The rhumb line distance from Perth (3153S 11553E) to Broken Hill (3153S 14125E) is measured as
24.1 cm; what is the scale of the chart?
QUESTION 6.

Using the details given, fill in the Mercator scale table.

Lat F Number Lat F Number Lat F Number

1 0° 35°N 1,000,000 45°N
2 0° 20°N 250,000 35°N
3 0° 56°N 25°N 810,371
4 0° 75°N 30°N 300,000
5 0° 500,000 30°N 60°N
6 0° 60°N 250,000 30°N
7 0° 100,000 25°N 55°N
8 0° 52°N 10,000 56°N
9 0° 56°N 60°N 5,000
10 0° 52°N 56°N 100,000
QUESTION 7.

What is the scale of the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book at 60N?

QUESTION 8.

If the scale of the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book at 60N is 1:20 million, what is the scale
at 45N?
QUESTION 9.

Using the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, what is the great circle track from PWK to
THT, measured at PWK?

QUESTION 10.

Using the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, at DR position 60N 015W (variation 15W) a
bearing is obtained from YQX NDB (variation 24.5W) of 276.5(M) on the RMI. What is the bearing
to plot from the beacon?

QUESTION 11.

Using the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, what is the great circle track from YYQ to SF
measured at YYQ?

QUESTION 12.

From the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, what is the great circle track from YYQ to SF
measured at SF?

QUESTION 13.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. On a route from 60N 120W to 60N 010W at
what longitude does the great circle track reach its most northerly point?
QUESTION 14.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. On a route from 60N 120W to 60N 010W what
is the great circle track direction at its most northerly point?
QUESTION 15.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. At DR position 61N 030W (variation 16W) a
bearing is obtained from YG NDB (variation 8W) of 090 (RMI). What is the bearing to plot from the
beacon?
QUESTION 16.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. At DR position 61N 030W (variation 16W) a
bearing is obtained from OZN NDB (variation 20W) of 285.5 (RMI). What is the bearing to plot
from the beacon?
QUESTION 17.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. At DR position 55N 045W (variation 22W) a
bearing is obtained from YQX VOR (variation 24W) of 253 (RMI). What is the bearing to plot from
the beacon?
QUESTION 18.

Use the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book. At DR position 45N 105W (variation 20E) a
bearing is obtained from YWG VOR (variation 15E) of 039 (RMI). What is the bearing to plot from
the beacon?

QUESTION 19.

Using the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, what is the great circle track from YWR to
YQX, measured at YQX?
QUESTION 20.

Using the chart at FIGURE 87 in the Reference Book, at what longitude will the rhumb line track
and the great circle track be the same between YWR and YQX?
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

Rhumb line distance = 12 x 60 x cos 42.33 = 532.3 nm

532.3 nm = 532.3 x 1.854 x 100,000

= 98,666,647 cm

1 CD 32.9 1
---= -------= -----------------------------= -----------------------------
F ED 98 666 647 2 998 986F

scale is 1 : 3 million

ANSWER 2.

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
1 19.7
--------------------- = ---------
5 000 000 ED
ED = 19.7 x 5,000,000 cm
= 19.7 x 50 km
= 985 km
985
= ------------ st miles
1.610
= 611.8 statute miles
ANSWER 3.

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED

7.7 1
--------------------------------------- = --------------------
305  5280 12 2509 714

= 1: 2.5 million

ANSWER 4.

ED = 16 x 60 x 6080 x 12

= 70,041,600 inches

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
= 5.84
-----------------------
70 041 600

1
= -----------------------
11 993 425

= 1. 12 million
ANSWER 5.

ED = 15326 x cos (31.88) x 6080

= 7,909, 515 ft
7 909 515 ft
= --------------------  100 cm
3.28
= 241,143,760 cm
1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
24.1
= --------------------------------
241 143 760

1
= -----------------------
10 005 965

= 1: 10 million
ANSWER 6.

Lat F Number Lat F Number Lat F Number

1 0° 1,220,775 35°N 1,000,000 45°N 863,218
2 0° 266,044 20°N 250,000 35°N 217,931
3 0° 894,146 56°N 500,000 25°N 810,371
4 0° 346,410 75°N 89,658 30°N 300,000
5 0° 500,000 30°N 433,013 60°N 250,000
6 0° 500,000 60°N 250,000 30°N 433,013
7 0° 1,000,000 25°N 906,308 55°N 573,576
8 0° 16,243 52°N 10,000 56°N 9,083
9 0° 10,000 56°N 5,592 60°N 5,000
10 0° 178,829 52°N 110,098 56°N 100,000
ANSWER 7.

Chart Distance
Scale = -----------------------------------
Earth Distance

CD for 120° longitude = 23.7cm

ED for 120° longitude = 120 x 60 x cos 60
= 3600nm
CRP 5 3600nm = 6660Km
= 666,000,000cm
23.7
Scale = -----------------------------
666,000,000
1
= -----------------------------
28.1 million
= 1 : 28 million

ANSWER 8.

1
Scale at B = -----------
------ -----------------
 s A cos B
F co

1
= ---------------------------
------ ---------------------------
20000 0 00  0.5 0.71

= 1: 28.4 million
ANSWER 9.

Measured RL track = 311(T)

CA = ½ x ch. long x sin mean lat

= ½ x 64 x 0.91
= 29°
GC track = 311 + 29 = 340(T)

ANSWER 10.

BRG = 276.5(m) - 15W

= 261.5(T)
CA = ½ x 40 x 0.82
= 16.5
RL BRG = 261.5 - 16/5
= 245(T)
Plot 065(T)

ANSWER 11.

Measured RL track = 066½(T)

CA = ½ x 43 x 0.89
= 19°
GC track = 066½ - 19
= 047½(T)
ANSWER 12.

RL at SG = 066½(T)

GC at SG = 066½ + 19
= 085½(T)

ANSWER 13.
At mid-longitude = 65W

ANSWER 14.

090°(T)
ANSWER 15.

GC BRG VG = 090(M) - 16W

= 074(T)
CA = ½ x 23 x 0.88
= 10°
RL BRG VG = 074 + 10
= 084(T)
Plot 264(T) from VG
ANSWER 16.

GC BRG OZN = 285½(M) - 16W

= 269½(T)
CA = ½ x 13 x 0.87
= 5½°
RL BRG OZN = 269½(T) - 5½
= 264(T)
Plot 084(T) from OZN
ANSWER 17.

CA = ½ x 10 x 0.79

= 4°

GC BRG = 073(M) + 24W

= 049(T)

RL BRG = 249(T) + 4°

= 053(T)
ANSWER 18.

CA = ½ x 8 x 0.74

= 3°

GC BRG = 219(M) + 15E

= 234(T)
RL BRG = 234(T) - 3°

= 231(T)

ANSWER 19.

RL Track = 090(T)

CA = ½ x 68½ x 0.75

= 25.7°

GC at YQX = 090 + 25.7

= 115.7(T)

ANSWER 20.

088°45'W ie. mid-longitude

 The Lambert Projection

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

Chart Convergency
Calculations Involving the Lambert Projection
The Lambert Projection
1. The Lambert Projection, otherwise known as the Lambert's Conformal, is an improvement
on the Mercator projection in that it produces a very nearly constant-scale chart.
2. The Lambert chart is a conical projection. Figure 10-1 shows a reduced Earth with a cone
placed over it, such that the apex of the cone lies directly above the pole. This ensures that the cone
touches the reduced Earth at only one parallel of latitude. This latitude is known as the latitude of
the parallel of tangency or parallel of origin. The graticule of latitude/longitude is projected onto the
cone, using a light source at the centre of the reduced Earth.
FIGURE 10-1
Simple Conical
Map Projection

3. Figure 10-1 shows a simple conical projection, and the problem of scale expansion away from
the parallel of origin remains, as shown at Figure 10-2.
4. The Lambert projection overcomes this scale expansion problem as illustrated at Figure 10-3.
The cone is now inset into the reduced Earth. The angle  (half the value of the angle at the apex of
the cone) is still the latitude of the parallel of origin. The cone now cuts the reduced Earth at two
latitudes, which are approximately equidistant about the parallel of origin, and it is at these two
latitudes that the scale of the chart is correct. These two latitudes are described as being the standard
parallels.
FIGURE 10-2
Simple Conical
Projection
Showing Scale
Expansion
Problem
FIGURE 10-3
Lambert Conical
Projection

5. Figure 10-4 shows how the problem of scale distortion is affected by the insetting procedure.
Now the scale is correct at the standard parallels, is contracted between the standard parallels, and
expands outside the standard parallels. Although the rate of scale distortion is very much reduced, it
cannot be considered to be constant scale.
FIGURE 10-4
Lambert
Projection
Showing Reduced
Scale Distortion

6. With careful spacing of the standard parallels, the scale distortion may however be reduced
to one percent or less and the resulting chart may be considered to be constant in scale.
7. The rule of thumb which governs the spacing of the standard parallels is known as the Rule of
Two Thirds and takes account of the fact that scale expands at a greater rate outside the standard
parallels than it contracts between them. It states that scale distortion will be reduced to within
acceptable limits if:

(a) Two-thirds of the chart is contained within the standard parallels and one-sixth of the
chart lies above the upper standard parallel, and one-sixth of the chart lies below the
lower standard parallel.

(b) The spacing between the standard parallels should be limited to no more than 14° of
latitude.

8. Having fixed the graticule of latitude/longitude on to the cone, it will appear as shown at
Figure 10-5 when laid flat. Note that:

(a) The meridians appear as straight lines which converge towards the apex of the cone.

(b) The parallels of latitude appear as concentric arcs of circles centered on the apex of
the cone. The distance between them is (almost) constant.

(c) The parallels of latitude cross the meridians at right-angles.

The chart is therefore orthomorphic.

FIGURE 10-5
Conical Projection
Laid Flat

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

9. Rhumb lines, for example the parallels of latitude, appear as regular curves which are
concave to the nearer pole.

10. Great circles appear as very shallow curves which are concave to the parallel of origin. For
plotting purposes great circles are assumed to be straight lines.

11. Figure 10-6 and Figure 10-8 summarise the above paragraphs both for northern and southern
hemisphere charts.
FIGURE 10-6
Rhumb Line and
Great Circle
Tracks on a Flat
Conical Projection
(Northern
Hemisphere)
FIGURE 10-7
Rhumb Line and
Great Circle
Tracks on a
Conical Projection
(Southern
Hemisphere)

Chart Convergency
12. On a Lambert chart, chart convergency is equal to Earth convergency at the parallel of origin.

This is because:

Earth convergency (EC) = ch long (in degrees) x sine mean latitude

and:

13. On a Lambert chart, convergency for a given change of longitude must remain constant,
regardless of latitude, since the meridians are shown as straight lines. Therefore, for a Lambert
chart:

Chart convergency (CC) = ch long (in degrees) x the sine of the parallel of origin

14. From the above it can be seen that Earth convergency is equal to chart convergency only at
the parallel of origin.

15. At latitudes greater than the parallel of origin Earth convergency will be greater than chart
convergency, since the sine of the mean latitude (EC) will be greater than the sine of the parallel of
origin (CC).
16. At latitudes lower than the parallel of origin Earth convergency will be less than chart
convergency, since the sine of the mean latitude (EC) will be less than the sine of the parallel of origin
(CC).
17. The numerical value of the sine of the parallel of origin is sometimes referred to as the
Constant of the Cone or Convergence Factor.

18. Straight lines drawn on a Lambert chart are not precisely great circles and track angles
measured on the chart do not correspond exactly with the same track angles on the Earth (other than
at the parallel of origin). It might therefore appear that the Lambert chart is of limited use, but in
fact the above errors are acceptably small and are normally ignored for navigational purposes.
 Calculations Involving the Lambert Projection
19. The examples which follow are typical of the calculations required in the examination.

EXAMPLE 10-1
EXAMPLE
A straight line on a Lambert's chart is drawn from A at 30°N 10°W to B at 50°N 11°E. The
direction of this straight line is measured as 035°(T) at A. The parallel of origin of the chart is
38°N. Determine:
(i) The direction of the straight line track B to A as measured on the chart at B.

(ii) The approximate rhumb line bearing of B from A.

SOLUTION
See Figure 10-8.
(1) Straight line track direction A to B at A = 035°(T)

(2) Chart convergency 10°W to 11°E

= ch long x sine parallel of origin

= 21° x sine 38

= 13°
 (3) Straight line track B to A at B = 13° + 035° +180°

(i) = 228°

(4) Conversion angle = approximately half chart convergency

= 6.5°

(5) Approximate rhumb line track A-B = 035° + 6.5°

(ii) = 041.5°(T)
FIGURE 10-8
EXAMPLE 10-2
EXAMPLE
A straight line drawn on a Lambert's chart between point C at 65°S 50°W and point D at latitude
55°S. The straight line track C to D, measured at C, is 063°(T). The straight line track D to C,
measured at D, is 223°(T). The parallel of origin of the chart is 53°S. Determine:
(i) The longitude at point B

(ii) The approximate rhumb line bearing of D from C

SOLUTION
See Figure 10-9.
(1) Straight line track direction C to D at C = 063°(T)

(2) Straight line track direction D to C at C = 223°(T)

(3) Chart convergency C to D = 063 + 180 - 223

= 20°

Chart convergency = ch long x sine parallel of origin

chart convergency 20
therefore ch long = -------------------------------------------------- = ----- --------
-----
sine parallel of origin sine 53
= 25°

The longitude of D = 50°W - 25°

(i) = 25°W

(4) Conversion angle = approximately half chart convergency

= 10°

(5) Approximate rhumb line track C-D = 063° - 10°

(ii) = 053°(T)
FIGURE 10-9
Plotting Radio Bearings on a Lambert Chart
20. Plotting radio bearings on a Lambert chart is very much simpler than on a Mercator chart
since radio waves travel over great circle paths which are assumed to be straight lines (or plotting
purposes) on the Lambert chart.

21. Again, it is important to appreciate that if a magnetic bearing is obtained but the position line
is to be plotted with reference to true north, the variation must be applied at the correct point:
(a) For ADF/NDB bearings, apply the variation at the aircraft.

(b) For VOR or VDF bearings, apply the variation at the station.

22. VDF and VOR bearings are respectively measured and manufactured at the station. The
bearing thus achieved is relative to a north reference at the station.
23. To determine the bearing to plot for VOR or magnetic VDF bearings (QDM or QDR), simply
apply the variation at the station, add or subtract 180° if required (QDM or VOR TO indications),
and plot the resultant bearing using the meridian passing through the station. In this case there is no
requirement to consider convergency since the bearing is measured or manufactured at the station,
and it is the meridian passing through the station which is used as the true north reference to plot the
bearing.
24. ADF bearings are measured at the aircraft. It is therefore necessary to convert magnetic to
true bearings using variation at the aircraft. However a problem still exists. The bearing in degrees
true at the aircraft is given with reference to the meridian passing through the aircraft. If 180° is
applied to this bearing and it is then plotted from the station, with reference to the meridian passing
through the station, the resultant position line will be in error by the convergency between aircraft
and NDB. Either the bearing to plot must be corrected by convergency or the true north at the
aircraft must be transferred to the beacon and this datum used to plot the bearing.
EXAMPLE 10-3
EXAMPLE
An NDB bears 283°(M) from an aircraft. Variation at the aircraft is 13°W. The aircraft's
estimated position is 53°N 61°W, and the NDB is at 52°50'N 73°W. Determine the bearing to plot
from the meridian passing through the NDB on a Lambert chart, the parallel of origin of which is
58°N.

SOLUTION

(1) NDB bears 283°(M) from aircraft.

(2) NDB bears 270°(T) from aircraft.

(3) Aircraft bears 270° - 180° = 090°from NDB relative to the

aircraft transferred meridian

(4) Chart convergency aircraft to NDB = ch long x sine parallel of origin

= 12° x sine 58°

= 10° (approx)

(5) Bearing to plot (from the actual = 090° - 10°

meridian passing through the NDB) = 080°
FIGURE 10-10
EXAMPLE 10-4
EXAMPLE
An NDB bears 072°(M) from an aircraft. Variation at the aircraft is 12°E. The aircraft's position
is estimated as 63°S 132°E, and the NDB is at 61°15'S 143°48'E. Determine the bearing to plot
from the meridian passing through the NDB on a Lambert chart, the parallel of origin of which is
50°S.

SOLUTION

(1) NDB bears 072°(M) from aircraft.

(2) NDB bears 084°(T) from aircraft.

(3) Aircraft bears 084° + 180° = 264° from NDB relative to the
aircraft transferred meridian

(4) Chart convergency = ch x sine parallel of origin

= 11.8° x sine 50°

= 9° (approx)

(5) Bearing to plot (from the actual = 264° - 9°

meridian passing through the NDB)
= 255°(T)
 FIGURE 10-11

Uses of the Lambert Chart

25. Lambert charts are mainly used for the following purposes:

(a) Plotting charts where great circle tracks are to be flown.

(b) Topographical charts.

(c) Meteorological synoptic charts.

(d) Radio aid and radio navigation charts.

Self Assessed Exercise No. 6

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

Refer to FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book, what is the Parallel of Origin of the chart?

QUESTION 2.
At what latitude is the scale of the chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book correct?

QUESTION 3.

At what latitude does chart convergency equal Earth convergency on the chart at FIGURE 89 in the
Reference Book?

QUESTION 4.

Referring to FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book, what is the rhumb line track (T) from PWK to THT?

QUESTION 5.

At DR position 60N 015W (variation 19°W) a bearing is obtained from YQX NDB (variation
29°W) of 280°(M) on the RMI; what is the bearing (T) to plot from the NDB, on the chart at
FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book?
QUESTION 6.

From the chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book, what is the rhumb line track (T) from YYQ to
SF?
QUESTION 7.

From the chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book, what is the great circle track (T) from YYQ to
SF measured at SF?

QUESTION 8.

On a route from 60N 120W to 60N 010W, at what latitude and longitude does the great circle reach
its most northerly point and what is the track direction (T) at this point?
QUESTION 9.

At DR position 61N 030W (variation 30°W) a bearing is obtained from VG NDB (variation 14°W)
of 107°(RMI); what is the bearing (°T) to plot from the beacon, on the chart at FIGURE 89 in the
Reference Book?

QUESTION 10.

At DR position 61N 030W (variation 30°W), a bearing was obtained from OZN NDB (variation
36°W) of 299° (RMI); what is the bearing (T) to plot from the beacon on the chart at FIGURE 89 in
the Reference Book?
QUESTION 11.

At DR position 55N 045W (variation 32°W) a bearing is obtained from YQX VOR (variation
27°W) of 245°(RMI); what is the bearing (T) to plot from the beacon on the Chart at FIGURE 89 in
the Reference Book?
QUESTION 12.

Calculate the difference in values of convergence for 30° of longitude at 40N on the Earth and on the
chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book.

Sin 40 = 0.64; cos 40 = 0.77; tan 40 = 0.84

QUESTION 13.

At DR position 45N 105W (variation 20°E) a bearing is obtained from YWG VOR (variation 15°E)
of 032°(RMI); what is the bearing (T) to plot from the beacon on the chart at FIGURE 89 in the
Reference Book?

QUESTION 14.

On the chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book, what is the rhumb line track (T) from YWR to
YQX?

QUESTION 15.

Where on the chart at FIGURE 89 in the Reference Book is a great circle most closely represented by
a straight line?
QUESTION 16.

If the Chart distance of 120° of longitude at 45N is measured as 33 cm, what is the scale of the chart
at this latitude?
QUESTION 17.

Two aircraft depart overhead LHR en-route YWR. Aircraft A flies the great circle route direct to
YWR; aircraft B flies the great circle track to YQX and then the great circle track to YWR. Which
aircraft flies the shorter distance and by what percentage of the longer distance does it gain?

ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
Convergence factor quoted on the chart as 0.87036; need to find angle for which that is the sine
(called inverse sine) i.e. sin x = 0.87036, what is x? – 60°30’ 1.8"N
ANSWER 2.

47°N and 73°N (quoted as standard parallels on chart).

ANSWER 3.

At the parallel of origin – 60°30’1.8”N

ANSWER 4.

Great circle track at PWK measured as 335°(T)

CA = ½ x ch. long° x convergence factor (= sine of parallel of origin)
= ½ x 63° x 0.87 = 27.4°
RL TK at PWK = 335° + 27.4 = 307.6°
ANSWER 5.

Chart convergence = ch.long° x convergence factor

= 39° x 0.87 = 33.9° (34° approx)
Bearing = 280°(M) - 19°W
= 261°(T)
Apply convergence = 261° - 34° = 227°(T)
Take reciprocal = 047°(T) - bearing to plot
ANSWER 6.

Great circle track at YYQ measured as 048°(T)

CA = ½ x ch. long° x convergence factor (= sine of parallel of origin)
= ½ x 43° x 0.87 = 18.7°
RL TK at YYQ = 048° + 18.7 = 066.7°(T)

ANSWER 7.

GC Tk measured at SF = 085°(T)

ANSWER 8.

At mid-longitude GC and RL are parallel.

70° 30' N 065° 00' W; 090°(T)

ANSWER 9.

Chart convergence = ch.long° x convergence factor

= 23° x 0.87 = 20°
Bearing = 107°(M) - 30°W
= 077°(T)
Apply convergence = 077° + 20° = 097°(T)
Take reciprocal = 277°(T) - (bearing to plot)

ANSWER 10.

Chart convergence = ch.long° x convergence factor

= 14° x 0.87 = 12° (approx)
Bearing = 299°(M) - 30°W
= 269°(T)
Apply convergence = 269° - 12° = 257°(T)
Take reciprocal = 077°(T) - (bearing to plot)

ANSWER 11.

Bearing = 245°(RMI)
Variation = 27°W (at station)
True Bearing = 245° - 27°
= 218°(T)
Take reciprocal = 038°(T) - bearing to plot
ANSWER 12.

Earth convergency = ch. long° x sin (mean lat.)

= 30° x sin 40
= 19.3°
Chart convergence = ch. long° x convergence factor
= 30° x 0.87
= 26.1°
Difference = 26.1° - 19.3° = 6.8° = 6°48’ (with chart convergence greater)
ANSWER 13.

Bearing = 032°(RMI)
Variation = 15°E (at station)
True bearing = 032° + 15°
= 047°(T)
Take reciprocal = 227°(T) - bearing to plot.

ANSWER 14.

Great circle track at YWR measured as 060°(T)

CA = ½ x ch. long° x convergence factor (= since of parallel of origin)

= ½ x 69° x 0.87 = 30°
RL tk at YWR = 060° + 30° = 090°(T)
ANSWER 15.

Along the parallel of origin (60°30’ 1.8”N)

ANSWER 16.

Departure formula:
Earth distance = ch. long’ x cos (lat)
= 120 x 60’ x cos 45
= 5091 nm
Conversion using CRP-5 = 9437.3 km
= 943,730,000 cm
24.5 cm
Scale = --------------------------------------------
million cm
1
= ------------------------------------
38.5 million cm
Equates to 1 : 38,519,591
ANSWER 17.

Chart distance for A; LHR to YWR = 19.25cm

Chart distance for B; LHR to YQX = 9.6 cm
YQX to YWR = 12.4 cm
Bs total chart distance = 22cm

 A files the shorter distance

22 – 19.25
advantage = -------------------------
22
= 12.5%
 Chapter 11
The Polar Stereographic Projection

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

Plotting Radio Bearings on a Polar Stereographic Chart
The Polar Stereographic Projection
1. The polar stereographic projection is a logical progression from the Lambert projection.
With a Lambert projection the chart convergency is governed by the latitude of the parallel of origin,
which is itself governed by the angle at the apex of the cone. As the cone is made flatter (that is to
say the apex angle is increased) the latitude of the parallel of origin increases and the value of chart
convergency for a given change of longitude increases, since chart convergency is equal to the change
of longitude multiplied by the sine of the parallel of origin.

2. If the cone is made as flat as possible it becomes a flat sheet of paper and the parallel (or
point) of origin will be the pole (90°N or S). The chart convergency is now equal to the change of
longitude since the sine of 90° is 1.

3. We have now effectively produced a polar stereographic flat plate projection. The sheet is
laid on the reduced Earth such that it touches the globe only at one of the poles, being tangential to
that pole, see Figure 11-1.
FIGURE 11-1
Basic Polar
Stereographic
Chart Projection

4. In order to reduce the scale expansion at points remote from the pole the light source is
placed at the opposite pole and the graticule is fixed on to the flat sheet.
5. The projected graticule will appear as shown at Figure 11-2. The meridians are straight lines
radiating from the pole and the parallels of latitude are concentric circles centered on the pole. As
with all of the charts considered so far the polar stereographic chart is orthomorphic. It can be seen
at Figure 11-2 that all meridians and parallels of latitude cross at right angles. Although the scale is
not constant across the chart, the scale in any direction from a given point is constant for short
distances.
6. As can be seen at Figure 11-2 the scale expands away from the pole. This is apparent since
distances AB, BC and CD are all identical on the Earth (1800 nm) whereas on the chart, distance AB
is smaller than distance BC, which is itself smaller than distance CD.
FIGURE 11-2
Polar
Stereographic Map
Projection
 7. The scale expansion on a polar stereographic projection is given by the formula:
Scale at any latitude = Scale at the pole  ⎛ co-latitude ⎞ 2
secant of the-------------------------
⎝ 2
8. The co-latitude in the above formula is 90° minus the latitude in question.

EXAMPLE 11-1
EXAMPLE
Given that the scale of a polar stereographic chart is 1:1,000,000 at 90°N, determine the scale at
70°N.

SOLUTION
1----------- ⎛ ⎛ 90 – 70⎞⎞ 2
Scale at 70 = ----------  sec
----- ⎝----------------
1, 000,000 ⎝ 2
1 --------- 2
= ---------
----  ( sec 10)
1, 000
000,
1
---- -----  1.031
= ----------
1, 000
000,
1.031
= ---- -----
---------------
1,000,000
1
= ------ -------
----
969,84 6
 9. It is apparent from this calculation that the scale distortion at 70° latitude (north or south) is
limited to only 3%. It is therefore normal to accept this projection as being constant scale above this
latitude.

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

10. Rhumb lines appear as curves which are concave to the pole.

11. Any great circle passing through the pole (meridian/anti-meridian) will appear as a straight
line. All other great circles (for example the equator at Figure 11-2) will appear as a shallow curve
concave to the pole.
12. Great circles are assumed to be a straight line on the polar stereo for plotting purposes.

EXAMPLE 11-2
EXAMPLE
A straight line track is drawn on a polar stereographic chart from A (80°N 60°W) to B (80°N
150°E). Determine:
(i) The true track direction at A.
(ii) The true track direction at B.
(iii) The longitude at which the track will measure 270°(T).
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-3
(i) The triangle PAB is an isosceles triangle since A and B are at the same latitude and hence the
same distance from the Pole. The angles at A and B must therefore be the same. The angle at the
Pole (angle APB) can be calculated since we know the respective longitudes of A and B.
Angle APB = 360° - (Long A and Long B)
= 360° - (60° + 150°)
= 360° - 210°
= 150°
Any triangle contains a total of 180° therefore, the angles at A and B amount to:
180° - 150° = 30°
But the angles are the same, so each angle will be:
30° ÷ 2 = 15°The track A to B measured at A is the external angle at A ie. measured clockwise
from True North (represented by the meridian at A, the line AP)
Therefore: True track at A = 360° - 15°
= 345°(T)
(ii) The true track direction at B is measured from the meridian at B (the line BP) clockwise to the
track line
Track at B = Angle PBA + 180°
= 15° + 180°
= 195°T
(It follows, therefore that the track B to A would be 015°T)
(iii) The line bisecting the angle APB crosses the track A to B at right angles. That means the track
at that point is 270°T
Te bisecting line represents the meridian at the point where the track is 270°T and by definition
must halve the angle APB
Angle APB = 150° (as we have already seen)
Therefore the meridian represented by the bisecting line is 75° round from point A
Therefore the longitude of that point is:
60°W + 75 = 135°W
Note. When considering two points at the same latitude on a Polar Stereo chart, the track at the
half-way point will always be 090°T or 270°T.
EXAMPLE 11-3
EXAMPLE
A straight line track is drawn on a polar stereographic chart from C (70°S 15°E) to D (70°S
105°W).
Determine:
The initial true direction of the track at C.
The final true direction of the track at D.
The longitude at which the track will measure 270°(T).
Also:
State, giving a reason, whether the most southerly point along track is at a higher or lower latitude
than 80°S.
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-4
When polar stereographic problems are set in the southern hemisphere it can be confusing. At the
south pole all directions are north. The Greenwich meridian (GM) divides the 360° of longitude in
two hemispheres, the eastern hemisphere lies to the right and the western hemisphere to the left.

Change of longitude C to D = 120°

Change of longitude C to mid-point = 60°

(i) Track at C = 210°(T)

(ii) Track at D = 330°(T)
(iii) Longitude for track = 45°W
FIGURE 11-5
The angle PCE is already known to be 30°.
The straight line track CD is known to measure 210°(T) at C.
By a similar calculation the track CF can be calculated as 240°(T) at C.
Angle ECF is therefore 30°.
Side CE is common to both triangle CEF and triangle CEP.
Triangles CEF and CEP are therefore identical and point E is equidistant between points P and F.
Because of scale expansion the distance on the chart from the pole to the 80° parallel of latitude
will be slightly less than the distance between the 80°and 70°parallels of latitude.
On the chart the most southerly point on the track will appear to be at a latitude of slightly less
than 80°S.
EXAMPLE 11-4
EXAMPLE
On a polar stereographic chart the track from E at 80°S 112°E to F, which is also at latitude 80°S,
measures 035°(T) at F. Determine the longitude of F.
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-6

The track angle at F, 035°(T), is equal and opposite to base angle PFE. Therefore angle FPE =
[180° - (2 x 35°)] = 110°. The longitude of F = (360° - 110° - 112°) = 138°W.
EXAMPLE 11-5
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from G at 80°N 80°E to H at latitude 70°N. The track, on a polar
stereographic chart, passes closest to the north pole at longitude 20°E where it measures 270°(T).
Determine the longitude at which the track measures 200°(T).
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-7
 The track will measure 200°(T) at a longitude where the internal angle (angle ABC at Figure 11-7)
is 20°.
In triangle ABD, angle ABD is 20° and angle ADB is 90°. Therefore, angle BAD = 70°. This is the
change of longitude.
70°W of 20°E = 50W
The longitude of B, at which the track angle will be 200°(T), is therefore determined as 50°W

EXAMPLE 11-6
EXAMPLE
An aircraft flies from J at 80°N 70°W to K at 70N° 160°W. The track on a polar stereographic
chart reaches its highest latitude at 94°W where it measures 270°(T).
Determine the track direction at K.
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-8

In triangle KPL, angle KPL = (160 - 94)

= 66°.
Angle LKP = (180 - 66 - 90) = 24°
Track JK measured at K = 180° + 24°
= 204°(T).
 13. A further type of polar stereographic problem is shown at Example 11-7.

EXAMPLE 11-7
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs overhead point A (80°N 60°W), and maintains a constant Mach no. of 0.8.
The wind component is +25 kt and the temperature -40°C and both of these values remain
constant. The aircraft flies along the great circle track to B, taking 3 hours to fly to overhead B.
The initial track at A is 330°(T).
Using a polar stereographic construction (and assuming that the great circle track is represented by
a straight line on your diagram, and ignoring scale expansion), determine the latitude and
longitude of B.
SOLUTION

FIGURE 11-9
M 0.8 on navigation computer @ - 40°C

TAS 475 kt

Wind component +25 kt

Groundspeed 500 kt

Flight time 3 hours

Distance 1500 nm
The construction is as follows:
Construct a polar stereographic using a scale of 10 mm:100 nm. With this scale the 80°N parallel
is drawn as a 60 mm (600 nm) radius circle centred on the pole.
Plot the start position (A) on the chart at 60°W of the Greenwich Meridian on the latitude circle.
Draw in the great circle track on the chart, using the initial track angle of 330°(T) at A.
Measure 1500 nm (150 mm) along the track from A and plot position B using scale 10mm =
100nm.
Construct the meridian passing through B by joining B to the pole.
Measure the angle from the Greenwich meridian to the meridian passing through B to determine
the longitude of B (166°30'E). Determine the latitude of B (assuming that there is no scale
expansion, as stated in the question). The easiest way to do this is to determine the co-latitude by
measuring the distance along the meridian between the pole and B, in this case 102 mm or 1020
nm. Remember that 1 nm is equal to 1 minute of arc of latitude, when the distance is measured
along a meridian. Therefore, in this case, the co-latitude is 17° and the latitude of B as 73°N.
Plotting Radio Bearings on a Polar Stereographic
Chart
14. The principles applied to Lambert charts in respect of plotting radio bearings equally apply to
polar stereographic charts. For VDF/VOR bearings there is no consideration of convergency. For
ADF bearings convergency is applied in the normal way, but of course calculation of convergency is
much simplified since it is equal in magnitude to the change of longitude between aircraft and NDB.

Uses of the Polar Stereographic Chart

15. The main uses of the Polar Stereograph Chart are:

(a) Polar plotting chart from the pole to 70° latitude

(b) Topographical maps to 70° latitude

(c) Loran plotting charts.

Self Assessed Exercise No. 7
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

At what latitude on a Polar Stereographic Chart is scale correct?

QUESTION 2.
For the Polar Stereographic Projection, the light source is placed at the opposite pole; what purpose
does this serve?

QUESTION 3.

How does scale vary over the chart?

QUESTION 4.

At what latitude does Earth Convergency equal Chart Convergency?

QUESTION 5.

Describe the appearance of rhumb lines and great circles on a Polar Stereographic Chart

QUESTION 6.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, what is the true track of the great circle route
from YWR to OZN measured at OZN?
QUESTION 7.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, a bearing of 280°(M) is obtained from the
NDB at YQX, where the variation is 29°W. The aircraft's estimated position is 60°N 15°W, where
the variation is 19°W. What is the bearing (°T) to plot from the meridian passing through the NDB?
QUESTION 8.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, while en-route from 60°N 120°W to 60°N
160°E, at what longitude does the great circle track reach its most northerly point.
QUESTION 9.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, what is the difference in the values of Earth
Convergency and Chart Convergency for a change in longitude of 30° at a latitude of 60°N?

QUESTION 10.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, a great circle track is drawn from 70°N 00°E/
W to 70°N 120°E. Is the highest latitude along the track greater or less than 80°N?
QUESTION 11.

If the chart distance representing a change of longitude of 120° along the 60°N parallel of latitude is
25.6 cm, what is the scale of the chart at 60°N?

QUESTION 12.

Using the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, an aircraft departs from 50°N 015°W en route
to point B somewhere on the 80°W meridian. If the track reaches its highest latitude at the 36°W
meridian and measures 270°(T) at that point, what is the latitude of point B?
QUESTION 13.

An aircraft estimates its position to be 55°N 025°W where the variation is 22°W. With the OZN
NDB (60°N 043°W) selected, a bearing of 329° is noted on the RMI. What would be the bearing to
plot from the meridian passing through OZN NDB on the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference
Book?

QUESTION 14.

Use an accurate diagram or thumbnail sketch for this question. A straight line track is drawn from
point A at 80°N 60°W to point B at 80°N 150°E.
a) What is the track (°T) A to B measured at A?

b) What is the track (°T) B to A measured at B?

c) At what longitude will the track measure 270°(T)

QUESTION 15.

Use an accurate diagram or thumbnail sketch for this question. A straight line track is drawn from
point C (80°S 112°E) to point D also on 80°S. If the track D to C measured at D is 135°T, what is the
longitude of D?
(Hint: start your construction at point D)

QUESTION 16.

An aircraft sets off from 85°S 160°E on an initial great circle track of 150°(T). The aircraft cruises at
M0.75 at FL330 where the temperature is -15°C. The aircraft experiences a 15 kt headwind and the
flight takes 3 hours 27 minutes. Using a scale drawing, determine the latitude and longitude of the
finish point.

ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

At the pole of projection; either 90°N or 90°S. See 061-11-paragraph 6 to paragraph 9.

ANSWER 2.
Placing the light source at the opposite pole significantly reduces scale expansion.

See 061-11-paragraph 4

ANSWER 3.

⎛ co – lat ⎞
2
Scale expands away from the pole of projection at a rate of secant⎝------------------ .
2
See 061-11-paragraph 6 to paragraph 9
ANSWER 4.

At and only at the pole of projection.

Earth Convergency = d long x sin mean lat.

Chart Convergency = d long.

For those to be equal, the sine of the mean latitude must equal 1, so the mean latitude is 90°; ie. the
pole.
ANSWER 5.

Rhumb lines appear as curves concave to the pole of projection. Great circles are very slightly curved
concave to the pole of projection, but we accept that a straight line represents a great circle.
Meridians appear as straight lines; parallels of latitude appear as concentric circle. See 061-11-
paragraph 10 to paragraph 12

ANSWER 6.

120°(T)
ANSWER 7.

Bearing (°T) = 280°(M) - 19°W = 261°T

Reciprocal = 261° - 180° = 081°

By inspection the bearing to plot is smaller than the bearing at the aircraft, therefore, convergency
must be subtracted.

Convergency = d long = 39.5°

Bearing to plot = 081° - 39.5° = 041.5°T

ANSWER 8.

160°W (half way along the track).

ANSWER 9.

Earth Convergency = d lonx x sin mean lat

= 30° x sin 60°
= 26° (approx)
Chart Convergency = d long
= 30°
Difference = 30° - 26°
= 4°
ANSWER 10.

Less than, i.e. south of 80°N, due to chart scale expansion.

ANSWER 11.

1 CD
--- = -------
F ED
ED = Departure (rhumb line distance)
= d long’ x cos lat
= 120 x 60 x cos 60°
= 7200’ x 0.5
= 3600 nm
1 25.6 cm
-- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
F 3600  1.854  1000  100 cm
25.6
= --------------------------------
667 440 000

1
= -----------------------------
26071 875
1 : 26,000,000

ANSWER 12.

On the chart at FIGURE 94 in the Reference Book, construct the 36°W meridian. Place a square
protractor so that its edge touches 50°N 015°W and crosses the 36°W meridian at right angles. Mark
the track along the edge of the protractor. Using a ruler or straight edge continue the track to the
80°W meridian. The latitude should be 40°N at 80°W.
ANSWER 13.

See FIGURE 90 in the Reference Book

Bearing (T)= 329°M – 22°W

= 307°T
Reciprocal = 307° - 180°
= 127°

By inspection, the bearing to plot at the NDB is smaller than the bearing measured at the aircraft
hence convergency is subtracted.
Chart convergency = d long
= 18°
Bearing to plot = 127° - 18°
= 109°

ANSWER 14.

Great circle track at YWR measured as 060°(T)

CA = ½ x ch. long° x convergence factor (= sine of parallel of origin)
= ½ x 69° x 0.87 = 30°
RL Tk at YWR = 060° + 30° = 090°(T)

See FIGURE 91 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 15.

See FIGURE 92 in the Reference Book

1. Start the construction with point D

2. Draw the track D→C (135°T) which establishes the position of point C

3. We know point C is 112°E, so measure 112° west of point C to find the Greenwich Meridian
4. Measure the angle between Greenwich and the meridian at point D (22°)

Longitude of point D is therefore 22°E

ANSWER 16.

See FIGURE 93 in the Reference Book

Mach 0.75  G/S= 420kt

Temp -5 3hr 27 mins @ 420kt

TAS = 435kt = 1450nm

W/C -15 (equates to 7.25 cm)

SP→B= 5.95cm
= 1190nm

Along a meridian, so can convert to degrees and minutes of lat by  60 i.e. 1190  60 = 19° 50’ 
Lat of B = 90° - 19° 50’ = 70° 10’S

Long of B obtained by measuring c = 58° Long of B = 58°W Position of B = 70°10’S 58°

 The Transverse Mercator

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

The Transverse Mercator
1. The Transverse Mercator is a cylindrical projection placed horizontally on the reduced Earth
such that the cylinder and the globe touch along a chosen meridian and corresponding anti-meridian,
as shown at Figure 12-1. The chosen meridian and anti-meridian are known as the central
meridians, and the points at which the central meridians cross the equator are known as the points of
origin.
FIGURE 12-1
Transverse
Mercator Map
Projection
Cylindrical

2. The light source is at the centre of the reduced Earth and the graticule of latitude and
longitude is fixed on to the cylinder.
3. When the cylinder is unrolled the graticule appears as shown at Figure 12-2. At Figure 12-2
the 70°E and the 110°W meridians have been chosen as the central meridians. Although the chart is
orthomorphic, the curved lattice of latitude/longitude limit the value of the chart for plotting
purposes.

4. The scale is correct at all points along the central meridians and expands as a function of the
secant of the great circle distance in both directions perpendicular to the central meridians. This
means that within a distance of 300 nm from the central meridians the scale distortion is acceptably
small and the chart can be taken to be constant scale.
FIGURE 12-2
Transverse
Mercator Map
Projection with
Cylinder Unrolled
5. This projection is widely used for producing topographical charts of countries which extend
for considerable distances north-south, but not very far in an east-west direction. Such countries are
Italy, New Zealand and the United Kingdom where the projection is used for the Ordnance Survey
series.

The Appearance of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

6. Rhumb lines appear on this chart as complex curves which are concave to the nearer pole, for
example the parallels of latitude shown at Figure 12-2.

7. Certain great circles, namely the central meridians and any great circle tracks crossing the
central meridians at 90°, appear as straight lines. Other great circle tracks appear as curves which
are concave to the central meridian.
8. Earth convergency is correctly represented only at the poles and at the equator on this
projection.
The Oblique Mercator
The Oblique Mercator
1. The oblique Mercator is a cylindrical projection. In this case the cylinder touches the
reduced Earth along a chosen great circle of tangency (sometimes referred to as the False Equator)
see Figure 13-1.

2. The graticule of latitude and longitude associated with an oblique Mercator is complex in
appearance, as shown at Figure 13-2.

3. The scale of the chart expands as the secant of the great circle distance from the great circle of
tangency and is considered accurate enough for navigational purposes within 300m of the great
circle of tangency. As with all Mercators, the oblique projection is orthomorphic. Rhumb lines
appear as complex curves and great circles appear as curves which are concave to the great circle of
tangency, unless they cross the great circle of tangency at right angles, in which case they appear as
straight lines.

4. The oblique Mercator is used to produce ‘purpose built’ great circle route maps, normally in
a strip format, such that the great circle of tangency co-incides with the route to be flown. As with
the transverse Mercator, the oblique Mercator is ideal for producing topographical maps of countries
which are long and thin, but which this time do not lie predominantly north-south, for example the
Malaysian Peninsula.
FIGURE 13-1
Oblique Mercator
Map Projection
Cylindrical
FIGURE 13-2
Oblique Mercator
Map Projection
Grid Navigation
Grid Navigation
1. High latitude flights in Polar regions are subject to specific problems associated with the use
of magnetic variation to derive true heading from the output of a gyro magnetic compass. Firstly, in
the region immediately surrounding the North magnetic pole, accurate values of magnetic variation
are impossible to quantify and therefore navigation charts highlight this area as having magnetic
anomalies. Secondly, in high latitudes adjacent to this area, the value of magnetic variation changes
so rapidly that the true Great Circle track changes markedly with change of longitude.

2. For the above reasons flights in polar regions may require the use of the gyro magnetic
compass in the DG mode plus the adoption of a method of navigation called ‘grid navigation’.

3. The following paragraphs give a brief overview of the basics of the grid navigation technique.

Grid Navigation
4. The advantage of using a standard Mercator chart for plotting is that the true track direction
remains constant along each leg of the flight. The disadvantage is of course that a rhumb line track is
flown and this is not the shortest distance between each turning point.
5. When using either a Lambert or a polar stereographic chart any straight line is very close to a
great circle, but the true track direction changes with change of longitude particularly at high
latitudes.

6. A compromise is achieved by using either a Lambert or polar stereographic chart with a grid
overlay.
 7. The grid may be aligned with true north on any specified meridian. Usually the true north
used is that of the Greenwich meridian and occasionally the Greenwich anti-meridian.

8. Figure 14-1 shows a Lambert chart with such a grid overlay. Being a Lambert projection the
real meridians are portrayed as straight lines converging towards the pole. True north is defined by
the meridians and of course any track direction measured relative to true north will change with
change of longitude as a function of chart convergency. The parallel of origin of this chart is 40°N.

FIGURE 14-1
 9. The grid overlay shown in Figure 14-1 is aligned with the Greenwich meridian. The grid can
in fact be aligned with any convenient datum meridian. Notice that the grid lines are parallel to each
other and are therefore all parallel to the datum meridian. All of the grid lines define grid north.
Any track direction expressed in degrees grid and measured relative to the grid lines will remain at a
constant value for the entire length of the track.The angle between grid north and true north at any
point on the chart is known as convergence. The value of convergence increases with increasing
distance from the datum meridian.
10. Convergence is said to be easterly when true north lies to the east of grid north, as at
Figure 14-2. Conversely convergence is said to be westerly when the true north lies to the west of
grid north, see Figure 14-3.

FIGURE 14-2
FIGURE 14-3

When convergence is east true track is least.

When convergence is west true track is best
Returning to Figure 14-1, consider the convergence at various longitudes:
At longitude 0ºE/W grid north and true north are aligned and therefore convergence is zero.
At longitude 20ºW the chart convergency (between 0º E/W as the datum meridian and 20º
W)is:
Chart convergency = change of longitude x the sine of the parallel of origin
= 20º x sine 40º
= 13º
11. The calculated value of chart convergency between the datum meridian and the meridian at
20º W is also the value for convergence at longitude 20ºW.
Similarly the value of convergence at 40ºW is 26ºE, and at 60ºW is 39ºE.

12. Given that a straight line track drawn on the chart at Figure 14-1 from A at longitude 0ºE/W
to B at longitude 60ºW measures 240º(T) at A, it should now be obvious that:

The track will measure (240º - 13º) 227º (T) at 20ºW.

The track will measure (240º - 26º) 214º (T) at 40ºW.
The track will measure (240º - 39º) 201º (T) at 60ºW.
However the grid track will measure 240º at all points along track.
EXAMPLE 14-1
EXAMPLE
A straight line track is drawn on a Lambert chart (constant of the cone = 0.75) from C at 40ºN
110ºE to D at longitude 150ºE. The straight line track measures 070º (T) at C. The chart is
overprinted with a grid overlay which is based on a datum meridian at 90ºE. Determine the
direction of the track with reference to grid north.

SOLUTION
See Figure 14-4.
Remember that the constant of the cone is simply another way of expressing the value of the sine
of the parallel of origin.
 FIGURE 14-4

The value of convergence at 110ºE is the same as the value of chart convergency between 110ºE
and the datum meridian, which in this case (20º x 0.75) is 15º. By inspection convergence is
westerly (true north lies to the west of grid north) and therefore the grid track direction (070º -
15º) is 055º (G).
EXAMPLE 14-2
EXAMPLE
A straight line track is drawn on a polar stereographic chart from E at 70ºN 110ºE
to F at 70ºN 30ºE. Determine the track direction in degrees grid given that the
grid is aligned with the Greenwich meridian.

SOLUTION
See Figure 14-5.
Remember that on a polar stereo chart convergency is equal to change of
longitude.
 FIGURE 14-5

At the mid longitude between E and F (70ºE) the true track direction will be 270º. At 70ºE the
convergence is 70º and by inspection is westerly (true north lies to the west of grid north). The grid
track is therefore (270º - 70º), 200º (G).
EXAMPLE 14-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is at position 80ºN 150ºW and is making good a track of 330º (T). Express this track
in degrees grid assuming that a polar stereographic chart is being used and that the chart is overlaid
with a grid which is aligned with the Greenwich meridian.

SOLUTION
See Figure 14-6.
Convergence is equal to the change of longitude between the datum meridian and the merdian in
question (150º) and by inspection is easterly. The true track direction is therefore less than the grid
track direction by 150º, and the grid track is in this case (330º + 150º) = 120º (G).
 FIGURE 14-6

13. Grid navigation techniques really become useful at high latitudes, where magnetic compasses
are unreliable due to the proximity of the magnetic pole (weak H field). It is then necessary to steer
the aircraft with reference to a rigid unslaved directional gyro.
 14. In mid latitudes it is often convenient to use grid technique whilst steering magnetic headings.
In order to convert a grid track to the corresponding magnetic track it is necessary to correct for both
convergence and variation. To make life easier these two corrections are normally added
algebraically together and termed grivation.

15. For example, at a point on the chart where the convergence was 15ºE and the variation 10ºW,
the grivation would be given as 5ºE, as illustrated at Figure 14-7. At another point on the chart the
convergence might be 12ºW and the variation 25ºW, the grivation would now be 37ºW, as illustrated
at Figure 14-8.

FIGURE 14-7
FIGURE 14-8

• If grivation is east magnetic track is least.

• If grivation is west magnetic track is best.
16. Lines joining places having equal grivation are referred to as isogrives and are depicted on all
grid charts.
EXAMPLE 14-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft - Heading 090(M) is at a position where the variation is 48°W and the convergence is
20°W. Calculate the grid Heading.

SOLUTION
090° - 48° - 20° = 022°(G).
Self Assessed Exercise No. 8

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

On a Transverse Mercator where is the scale correct and at what rate does it change away from that
position?
QUESTION 2.

For what purpose is the Transverse Mercator used and which feature(s) make it suitable for this
purpose?

QUESTION 3.

Where on a Transverse Mercator is earth convergency correctly represented?

QUESTION 4.

Describe the appearance of rhumb lines and great circles on an Oblique Mercator.

QUESTION 5.

Why is the Oblique Mercator ideal for the production of strip route charts?

QUESTION 6.

Why is it common practice for trans polar flights to adopt grid navigation techniques?
QUESTION 7.

Why is it necessary to define a datum meridian for a grid overprint?

QUESTION 8.

What formula is used to calculate convergency for a grid superimposed on a Lamberts Conformal
chart?

QUESTION 9.
Define grivation and describe how it is depicted on a grid chart.
QUESTION 10.

Complete the following table by filling in the blank spaces.

True Track (°T) Convergence (°E/W) Grid Track (°G)

220° 20°E
240° 170°
60°W 060°
34°E 196°
047° 27°E
310° 355°
QUESTION 11.

Given: grid track 070°(G); convergence 45°W; variation 15°E.

Calculate the magnetic track (°M) and the grivation.

QUESTION 12.

Given: DR position 70°N 110°W; true track 320°(T). Grid datum Greenwich Meridian.
Calculate: (a) the grid track (°G) on a polar stereographic chart and (b) the grid track (°G) on a
Lamberts Conformal chart (constant of cone 0.8)

QUESTION 13.

Given: DR position 70°S 110°W; true track 230°(T). Grid north is true north on the Greenwich Anti-
Meridian:
Calculate (a) the grid track (°G) on a polar stereographic chart and (b) the grid track (°G) on a
Lamberts Conformal chart (constant of cone 0.8)

QUESTION 14.

Given: DR position 80°N 50°E; true track 330°(T). Grid datum Greenwich Anti-Meridian.

Calculate the grid track (°G) on a polar stereographic chart.

QUESTION 15.

Given: DR position 80°S 70°W; grid track 090°(G). Grid north is true north at the Greenwich
Meridian.

Calculate the true track (°T) on a polar stereographic chart.

ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

Page 12-1 para 4.

ANSWER 2.

Page 12-2 para 5. Because the central meridian would be along the countries north/south axis where
the scale is correct and the scale distortion is acceptably small up to 300 nm east and west of the
central meridian.

ANSWER 3.

Page 12-3 para 8

ANSWER 4.

Page 13-1 para 3

ANSWER 5.

Page 13-1. The cylinder may be adjusted in such a manner that the great circle of tangency lies along
the mean track of the route and permits deviations from the mean track up to 300 nm either side
without perceptible error. The scale is therefore accurate enough for navigational purposes.
ANSWER 6.

Page 14-1. There are two major reasons for using grid navigation techniques in polar regions:
1. The horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field is extremely weak at high latitudes
rendering the magnetic compass unreliable. Furthermore when passing close to the magnetic pole the
variation changes by large amounts over short distances and would be impossible to accurately
compensate.

2. A straight line track in high latitudes changes its true direction rapidly even over short distances.
The charts normally used for navigational purposes in these areas are either the Transverse Mercator
or the Polar Stereographic, on which a straight line approximates a great circle.
Using a gyro steering technique together with a chart overprinted with a grid overcomes both of
these problems.
ANSWER 7.

Page 14-1 paragraph 7. A grid is aligned with true north on the selected meridian, usually the
Greenwich Meridian, so that convergence can be determined for any point on the chart. The
advantage of using the Greenwich Meridian is that the change of longitude from the datum meridian
is equal to the longitude of that position
ANSWER 8.

Page 14-6 paragraph 10. Convergency = change of longitude x sine of parallel of origin.

ANSWER 9.

Grivation is the algebraic sum of convergence and variation. It is shown on a chart by lines joining
points of equal grivation, isogrivs, which are normally shown as a broken green line which is labelled
with its value.
ANSWER 10.

True Track (°T) Convergence (°E/W) Grid Track (°G)

220° 20°E 240°
240° 70°W 170°
120° 60°W 060°
162° 34°E 196°
047° 27°E 074°
310° 45°W 355°
ANSWER 11.

Grid track = 070°(G)

Convergence = +45°(W) (convergence west, true track best)
True track = 115°(T)
Variation = -15°E (variation east, magnetic least)
Magnetic track = 100°(M)
ANSWER 12.

See FIGURE 95 in the Reference Book

Convergence = 110°E on Polar Stereo

= 110 x 0.8 = 88°E on Lamberts
Polar Lamberts

True Track = 320°(T) 320°(T)

Convergence = +110°E +88°E
Grid track = 430°(G) 408°(G)
-360 -360
Grid track = 070°(G) 048°(G)

(or just measure it)

ANSWER 13.

See FIGURE 96 in the Reference Book

Convergence= 70° on Polar Stereo

= 70 x 0.8 = 56°E on Lamberts
Polar Lamberts

True track = 230°(T) 230°(T)

Convergence = + 70°E +56°E
Grid track = 300°(G) 286°(G)
ANSWER 14.

See FIGURE 97 in the Reference Book

Convergence = 130°E
True track = 330°(T)
Convergence = +130°E
Grid track = 460°(G)
-360
Grid track = 100°(G)

ANSWER 15.

See FIGURE 98 in the Reference Book

Grid track = 090°(G)

Convergence = +70°W

Grid track = 160°(T)

 The One in Sixty Rule

Uses of the One in Sixty Rule

Altering Heading to Parallel Track
Altering Heading to Regain Track in Equal Time
Altering Heading Direct to the Destination
Approach Height and Range Calculations
 The One in Sixty Rule
1. The tangent of an angle can be calculated by dividing the length of the side opposite the angle
by the length of that adjacent side which is not the hypotenuse. A practical application of this is
shown at Figure 15-1, which illustrates a navigation tracking problem.

FIGURE 15-1
Basic Navigation
Tracking Problem

2. In Figure 15-1, assuming the distance off track and the distance along track are known, the
value of the track error angle (TEA) can be found from the formula:

distance off  60
Track error angle = ---------------------------------------------- -
distance along track
 Uses of the One in Sixty Rule
3. There are many types of problem where the 1 in 60 rule will give an acceptably accurate
answer. The 1 in 60 rule is a very useful tool for pilot navigation, and various examples follow.

Altering Heading to Parallel Track

EXAMPLE 15-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs point A, intending to fly the direct track to point B. After travelling 40 nm, the
pilot pin-points his position as being 8 nm to the left of track. Determine the alteration of heading
required in order to track parallel to the original flight plan track.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 15-2
To find the track error angle, use the formula:

distance off  60
TEA = ---------------------------------
------
distance gone
8  60
= ----
---- -------
40
= 12

The track error angle is 12°. Accepting that the drift is unlikely to change significantly with an
alteration of heading of 12°, a turn to starboard of 12° will cause the aircraft to fly parallel to the
original track.

Altering Heading to Regain Track in Equal Time

EXAMPLE 15-2
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs from point C at time 1230, intending to fly the direct track to point D which is
120 nm away. At 1252 the pilot pin-points his position and finds that the aircraft has travelled 43
nm along track but is 5 nm to the right of track.
Determine:
The alteration of heading required at 1252 to regain track at 1314.
The alteration of heading required at 1314 to maintain the original track.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 15-3
 distance off  60
TEA = ---------------------------------
------
distance gone
5  60
= ------------
43
= 7
An alteration of heading to port of 7° would cause the aircraft to track parallel to the flight plan
track. An alteration of heading to port of 14° (2 x TEA) would cause the aircraft to regain the
flight plan track at 1314. Two assumptions are made, firstly, it is assumed that the drift will not
change significantly for a change of heading of 14°. Secondly it is assumed that the groundspeed
will not change significantly, when the aircraft changes heading by 14°.
At 1314 the aircraft will be back on the original track and an alteration of heading to starboard of
7° should keep the aircraft on the flight plan track.
 Altering Heading Direct to the Destination
EXAMPLE 15-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs from point E, intending to fly the direct track to point F, 160 nm away. Having
flown for 85 nm, a fix is obtained which puts the aircraft 11 nm to the port of the intended track.
Determine the alteration of heading required, if the aircraft is to track directly from the fix to point
F.

SOLUTION

11 60
TEA = ------ -----
85
An alteration of heading to starboard of 7.8° would cause the aircraft to track parallel to the
original track E to F. However the aircraft is required to turn further to track direct to F.
FIGURE 15-4
Required to turn is known as the closing angle (CA), see Figure 15-5. The closing angle is equal to
the angle subtended at the destination between the direct track E to F and the new track fix to F.
The CA is effectively a TEA in reverse. The formula therefore becomes:
distance off  60
CA = --------------------------------------
distance to go
therefore:
11 60
CA = ------ -----
75
= 8.8
The additional angle through which the aircraft is:
FIGURE 15-5

The aircraft is therefore required to alter heading at the fix position by:

TEA + CA = 7.8 + 8.8

= 16.6 to starboard
The ideal time to fix the aircraft's position is around the half-way point. In this case, the track
error angle is equal to the closing angle, giving an alteration of heading of twice the track error
angle.
Questions are often set whereby the TEA is known and the aircraft's displacement from track is
required.
EXAMPLE 15-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is tracking outbound from a VOR. The intention is to maintain the centreline of an
airway which is defined by the 300° radial from the VOR. A back-bearing from the VOR shows
the aircraft to be on the 295° radial, and at the same time the DME gives a range of 85 nm from
the VOR. Determine the aircraft's displacement from the airway centreline.

SOLUTION

distance off  60
TEA = ---------------------------------------
distance gone
therefore;
TEA  distance gone
Distance off track = -------- -- -------------------------------
60
5  85
= -----------------
60
= 7nm
 FIGURE 15-6

4. The One in 60 rule forms the basis of calculations in the vertical plane of height against range
for an aircraft on the ILS glidepath, and of cloud height determination using the airborne weather
radar. These calculations are covered in the relevant sections of the text.
Approach Height and Range Calculations
5. Calculation of required height above touchdown for a given glidepath angle and range from
touchdown can be achieved using the 1 in 60 rule formula.
This formula is:
Range from touchdown (ft) x Glidepath angle 
Ht above touchdown = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
60

Try the following example:

EXAMPLE 15-5
EXAMPLE
Determine the height above touchdown of an aircraft which is on a 3° glidepath at a range of 3 nm
from touchdown.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 15-7

Figure 15-7 illustrates the solution using the 1 in 60 rule:

( 3  6080 )  3
Height above touchdown = ---------------------------------- = 912 ft
60
EXAMPLE 15-6
EXAMPLE
Determine the height above touchdown of an aircraft which is on a 3.25° glidepath at a range of
3.75 nm from touchdown.

SOLUTION
Using the 1 in 60 rule:
(3.75  6080 )  3.25
---------------------------------------------------= 1235ft
60

6. It is important to appreciate that in both the previous examples the range has been given from
touchdown. If, in the question, the range is given from the runway threshold, the 1000 ft must be
added to the range because the touchdown is normally this distance from the threshold and height is
required above touchdown.
EXAMPLE 15-7
EXAMPLE
At what range from touchdown must an aeroplane, on a 2.7° glidepath be when at 1000ft above
touchdown.

SOLUTION
Using the 1 in 60 rule:
In this case the formula must be re-arranged as follows:
Height above Touchdown x 60
Range (ft) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
Glidepath Angle

1000  60
= -----------------------
2.7
= 22,222 ft
= 3.65nm
 Visual Navigation Techniques

Introduction
Topographical Maps
Map Preparation
Visual Check Points
Selection of Features
Estimating Bearing and Range
Fixing the Aircraft’s Position
Track and Time Keeping - Mental DR Techniques
Time Adjustments
Limitations
Visual Navigation Techniques
Introduction
1. Although most modern aircraft are fitted with a comprehensive suite of navigation systems,
occasions can arise when map reading is the only appropriate source of positional information. A
knowledge of map reading and visual navigation techniques is therefore an essential requirement for
any pilot. Map reading is the ability to relate observed ground features to the details portrayed on a
topographical map to establish the aircraft’s position. Whilst a natural aptitude is an advantage, map
reading is a skill that can be learnt through regular practice and careful application.

2. The principle of visual navigation is to compare an estimated or Dead Reckoning (DR)

position with visual references in order to determine the actual position of the aircraft and make the
necessary adjustments to speed and heading. Therefore the pilot must have the ability to:
(a) Select features

(b) Identify landmarks

(c) Estimate distance

(d) Estimate direction

3. The pilot will need the ability to build a mental picture of the terrain and features along the
planned route, estimating ranges and bearings of features relative to each other both in the air and on
the map will greatly assist the pilot in this task. It is also necessary to have a sound knowledge of the
map being used and the techniques of track keeping and timing. Thorough map preparation will
considerably reduce the complexities of map reading.

Topographical Maps
4. Visual navigation will invariably be carried out using a Topographical Map. We tend to use
the terms Map and Chart to mean one and the same thing; however, in aeronautical terms, there is an
important distinction. On the whole, plotting charts show very little in the way of ground features;
the less clutter on the chart when plotting, the better. Charts are therefore generally unsuitable for
map-reading. On the other hand, Topographical Maps for aeronautical use show as much detail as
the scale will permit and are produced specifically for the purpose of map-reading.

5. Aeronautical series Topographical Maps will show features such as rivers, roads, railways
and terrain. They will also contain information of special interest to pilots including the position of
airfields, radio beacons and airways. Remember: the larger the scale, the greater the detail available
on the chart.

6. The choice of map for any particular flight will depend on many factors, including the length
of the journey; the cruising height and speed; and other available means of navigation. Bad weather
can also considerably affect the choice; the worse the weather, the larger the scale of map that should
be used. The choice is then determined by the properties of the maps available for the area to be
flown over.
7. The CAA issues a series of 1:500,000 topographical charts; however, apart from some
important differences which will be highlighted, these notes will concentrate attention on the
Jeppesen 1:500,000 series Aeronautical charts.

Topographical Symbols and use of Colour

8. It is unusual to find two map series which use identical methods of representing
topographical information; however, by convention, certain colours are used to denote particular
features to aid visual navigation. These are as follows:

Feature Colour

Water Blue - whether sea, lake or river

Woods Green
Roads Red lines
Railways Black lines

9. Figure 16-1 gives the symbology used for aeronautical features on CAA Topographical Maps.
Figure 16-2 and Figure 16-3 give the symbology currently used on the Jeppesen 1:500,000 series
charts.
FIGURE 16-1
CAA Chart
Symbology
FIGURE 16-2
Jeppesen Chart
Symbology
FIGURE 16-3
Continued.
Representation of Relief
10. Relief information (the location and elevation of high ground) can be shown on
topographical charts in a variety of ways; note that this information can be presented either in feet or
in metres. It is essential for the pilot to ascertain which unit applies to the chart to be used. The
Jeppesen 1:500,000 series charts are marked in feet.

11. The main ways of presenting relief are as follows:

(a) Contours

(b) Spot Heights

(c) Layer Tinting

12. Contours. Contours are lines on a map joining points of equal elevation. The height interval
between adjacent contours is governed to a large extent by the scale of the map. The intervals are
standardised for a particular map series although the interval may not necessarily be constant. For
instance, small changes in height in a generally flat landscape may result in a significant hill feature;
therefore, contours at smaller intervals may be introduced.

13. The height interval between adjacent contours is called the vertical interval. The horizontal
distance on the earth between each contour is called the horizontal equivalent. It should be apparent
that dividing the vertical interval by the horizontal equivalent will give the gradient of the slope. The
closer together the contours appear, the steeper the slope.
FIGURE 16-4
Interpreting
Contours
14. Figure 16-4 depicts how contours might be used to illustrate a hill feature on a map. In order
to describe the appearance of a significant feature, it is necessary to produce a cross section through
the hill along the line from the departure point to the destination. It is not immediately apparent
from the contours alone exactly where the highest point on the hill (3375’ AMSL) is located.

15. To show the elevation of prominent peaks and to highlight the position of the highest point
on a peak, spot heights (given in figures) are used. On Jeppesen charts the highest spot height on the
chart is outlined in a white rectangle with a black perimeter and its position is given in the legend.
16. Different colours are used to represent ground elevation between contours in different height
bands; this is called layer tinting. A key to the layer tinting will always be found in the legend of the
chart; by convention, the lighter the colour, the lower the ground. As can be seen from the Jeppesen
chart legend, these charts use layer tinting. On the Jeppesen series charts, the colours used vary from
green through yellow to darkening shades of brown. This technique provides an immediate
impression of the relief in the area shown on the map.

17. Minimum Grid Area Altitudes are shown on Jeppesen charts within quadrangles bounded by
lines of each half degree of latitude and longitude. They are printed in red and are represented in
thousands and hundreds of feet above mean sea level. The values provide clearance of all terrain by
1000ft in areas where the highest points are 5000ft or below and clear all elevations by 2000ft in
areas where the highest points are 5001ft or higher. When planning a safe flight altitude, Jeppesen
‘recommend’ maintaining an altitude at or above the Minimum Grid Area Altitude.
18. On CAA topographical charts, maximum elevation figures indicate the highest known feature
in a given area. They are shown in quadrangles bounded by lines of each half degree of latitude/
longitude and are represented in thousands and hundreds of feet above mean sea level. As the
1:500,000 charts generally do not show obstacles that are less than 300 ft agl, it follows that for any
quadrangle, in the absence of a dominant obstacle, the MEF will be 300 ft higher than the highest
spot height or highest surface (rounded up to the next highest hundred feet). MEFs are not a safety
height - they indicate the highest known feature in each quadrangle including terrain and obstacles
and allowing for unknown features.
19. The CAA 1:500,000 series charts show the lateral and vertical limits of controlled airspace.
Where the controlled airspace has an upper limit which is below FL 245 both the lower and upper
limits are printed on the chart. When the upper limit is FL 245, this is indicated by a + (in order to
save space and avoid clutter on the chart). For example, an airway with a lower limit of 3000 ft amsl
and an upper limit of FL 245 would be annotated as 3000' ALT+ on the chart.

20. The CAA also publish 1:500,000 topographical charts which are specifically designed for low
level navigation. On these charts controlled airspace with a base above 5000 ft amsl is not shown.

Map Preparation
21. Careful and thorough preparation of the required maps for a flight can save a lot of valuable
time in the air and make the problem of map-reading simpler. Colour and highlighting should be
used to reduce the risk of confusion wherever possible. Preparation should include:
(a) Plot, circle and label the turning points.
(b) Draw in the tracks between turning points using fine felt-tipped pen; highlight the
tracks; measure the tracks and distances for each leg and write these in a circle near
the start of each leg. Be careful not to obscure valuable map information.

(c) Make distance to go marks along each track. (If a constant groundspeed is planned, it
will probably be better to make time to go marks.)

(d) Study the route to gain a mental picture of what to expect along the way and highlight
features along the track which will be suitable to use as visual check points. The
chosen features should be 5-10 minutes flying time apart and, if possible, spaced
equally over the leg distance. (Allow plenty of time for route study; initially, you can
expect to spend about the same length of time on route study as the flight is planned
to take.)

(e) Draw 5° drift lines either side of track extending not only from the start point (which
will give an indication of Track Error – TE), but also back from the turning point
(which will give an indication of Closing Angle – CA). This will assist with track-
keeping and calculating changes of heading. Use a different colour from the track
lines to avoid confusion.

(f) Make a note of any positions where the track crosses from one Altimeter Setting
Region (ASR) to another.

(g) Mark the forecast wind direction at a suitable place near the track together with the
maximum expected drift. (Calculating the maximum drift will be covered later.)
 (h) If more than one map is required, arrange them in the order they will be needed. If a
large number of maps will be used, number them in the sequence they will be required.
Fold the maps so that the required route is visible and easily accessible on each one.

Visual Check Points

22. A visual check point is a significant feature or landmark on or near the aircraft’s planned
track. It must be large enough to be visible, but small enough to pinpoint the aircraft’s position. It
should stand out from its surroundings and therefore should be unique. It is not always possible to
find such a feature, but combinations of features can provide useful alternatives.

Types of Feature
23. Coastlines can usually provide some position information, but an inlet on the coast will be of
more use than a long, straight, featureless, sandy beach. It may be possible to use the beach as a line
feature for checking track or groundspeed, but it will be difficult to identify exactly one’s position on
a beach without reference to another feature. An inlet, a promontory, a pier, a small wooded area or
some cliffs are the sort of features one would be looking for to pinpoint one’s position along a coast.
When crossing a coastline, checking the direction in which it lies with reference to the compass,
combined with a check feature should dispel any ambiguity in position.
24. Water features such as rivers, estuaries, canals and lakes can be invaluable visual checkpoints.
But beware: the changing seasons can drastically alter the appearance of such features. A river in
flood will be almost unrecognizable from the information presented on a map, whilst drought
conditions could cause a lake to disappear completely. In winter, a frozen lake may well be
indistinguishable from its surroundings if it is covered in snow.
25. Mountains and hills will often provide a valuable source of check points; however, it should
be remembered that the higher one flies, the flatter the ground beneath will appear. If the ground is
obscured by low cloud or fog, the tops of hills may still be visible and therefore usable as check
points. It is also possible for the tops of hills or mountains to be hidden in cloud, not only making
identification difficult, but also a potential flight safety hazard to the unwary.

26. When flying at low levels ground contours become more significant because even quite small
hills and hillocks become more obvious with the better perspective offered at that height.
27. Villages, being quite small, can make good check points, but when flying over an area where
many villages are scattered (as in much of the UK) it is important to cross-refer with other features.

28. Towns, being that much larger than villages can often be identified simply from their shape,
but it is a wise pilot that will cross-check with other features such as the roads and railways
associated with a town.

29. On the other hand a city can usually be identified from its sheer size, but being a large feature,
it also has its drawbacks. It will not be possible to fix one’s position accurately from such a large
feature and once again, it will only be by comparing smaller nearby features that one’s position will
be established precisely.

30. Railways are prominent features easily visible from the air, but identifying a particular stretch
of railway (as with any ‘line’ feature) may not be possible without reference to other features such as
bridges, level crossings etc. Where a railway is useful (and other line features for that matter) is when
it is parallel or nearly parallel to the desired track, then it will provide useful tracking information.
Alternatively, if the line feature crosses the desired track at right angles, then timing and groundspeed
information can be derived.
31. Roads can also be an invaluable aid to tracking and/or timing as well as being a source of
check points; however, a number of points should be borne in mind:

(a) Minor roads are more easily recognisable in sparsely populated areas; in towns there
will be too many roads to be able to identify any particular one.

(b) Roads can disappear from view, hidden by terrain or woodlands or urban complexes.

(c) Motorways, like railways are easily distinguishable from the air, but a long straight
stretch of motorway presents the same problem as a stretch of railway: it is
impossible to pinpoint position without reference to other features. A motorway
junction or service area, however, is much more useful.

32. Pinpointing the aircraft’s position is achieved by estimating the range and bearing from a
check point or by combining bearings from two different check points and referring that position to
the map. Adjustments can then be made to heading and speed in order to maintain the desired track
and timing.

Selection of Features
33. Selecting the right features along the planned route will make the task of map reading very
much simpler. The usefulness of any particular feature depends on how easily it can be identified. It
is important to separate significant features from less useful background. Factors to be borne in
mind when selecting features are as follows:

(a) The angle of observation.

(b) The size of the feature

 (c) The uniqueness of the feature

(d) Contrast and colour

Angle of Observation
34. The altitude at which we fly will affect how features appear. At low levels, masts and aerials
can provide very good check points, because of their vertical extent, but the higher one flies the larger
the mast needs to be to be clearly visible. Generally speaking, nearer objects will be identifiable from
their shape in plan form, whilst features at greater distances will be more easily identified from their
elevation. Hence towns, cities and lakes are useful close to track whereas masts, bridges, church
steeples and high ground will be easier to identify when some distance away.

Size of Feature
35. Large features are easily distinguished and identified as we have noted with cities, but an
accurate position is more likely to be obtained from a small or narrow feature.

Uniqueness of the Feature

36. Avoid choosing common or ambiguous features; choose features with characteristics which
make them unique in their vicinity. For example, we have noted that aerials and masts stand out
quite well at a distance because of their vertical extent, but beware of aerial ‘farms’. Similarly, an
isolated clump of trees may provide a useful check point, but a clump of trees in a wooded area will
be virtually impossible to distinguish and therefore useless. Be sure to use uniqueness in your criteria
for choosing a check point.
Contrast and Colour
37. Variations in contrast, colour, light, the position of the sun, the season of the year and the
amount of precipitation etc will all have an effect on the appearance of the features to be found.
Recognising and identifying features will be a lot easier if sufficient thought and imagination is
applied to these effects.

Estimating Bearing and Range

Bearings
38. There are a number of features on Jeppesen Maps to assist in estimating bearings:

(a) The latitude and longitude grid marked on the map is aligned to true north, so the
meridians indicate 000° and 180°. The parallels of latitude cross the meridians at 90°
and therefore indicate bearings of 090° and 270°. These lines can assist in estimating
bearings. It will also help to orientate the map so that the next turning point is at the
top and the track is along the fore and aft axis.

(b) Jeppesen maps mark the locations of VOR beacons with a compass rose (aligned with
magnetic north) which can be used to great effect to obtain bearings. Remember, to
mentally centre the compass rose on the current position and allow for variation.
39. Using the ‘clock code’ can help to estimate bearings to or from a visual check point. This
method is based on relative bearings and the fact that one hour on a 12 hour clock represents 30°.
The aircraft’s heading represents 12 o’clock; therefore, an object in the pilot’s 2 o’clock position is
60° right of the nose or 60° right of the aircraft’s heading. A bearing from the check point can then
be calculated and used to help fix the aircraft’s position.

40. Another useful technique for estimating bearing is called ‘Bisecting the Angle’. This
technique relies on the ability to bisect progressively an angle of 90 degrees. In your head, imagine a
right angle constructed at the relevant position and then imagine where the 45° line would halve the
angle; repeat the exercise to imagine the angle of 22°, then 11° then 5°; with practice this method can
achieve quite accurate estimates of bearings and angles.

41. The one-in-sixty rule covered in Chapter 15 is an extremely useful tool for estimating
bearings: remember, it is based on the fact that an angle of 1° will be subtended by a distance of 1nm
at a range of 60 nm.

Range
42. To assist with estimating range on a map it is useful to have a pencil or something similar
marked with 10, 20 and 30 nm ranges for the appropriate scale. The pencil can also be used to
measure the required length against the latitude scale.

43. You will be using a 1:500,000 scale map; it will be useful to know what distance on the map
your hand span represents; the average span is about 60nm. Measure your hand span against the
latitude scale on the chart and remember it. The average thumb from tip to first knuckle equates to
10nm; hence ‘Rule of Thumb’.
44. Clues to be obtained from a map include UK MATZ’s which are 10nm in diameter; Jeppesen
uses a blue circle to denote an airfield which is 5nm in diameter; and, of course, 1 minute of latitude
along a meridian equates to 1nm.
45. It is possible, using the one-in-sixty rule, to estimate the range from a feature by taking
successive bearings from it. For instance, if the aircraft is doing 120kts groundspeed, then in one
minute the aircraft will travel 2nm. Taking two bearings from the feature at an interval of one
minute will give a difference in the bearing. If the difference between the bearings is 10°, then we can
apply the one-in-sixty rule to find the range from the feature:

Dist Off x 60 = TEA

-----------------------
Dist Gone
So, in this case:
Dist Travelled x 60 = Change in Brg
----------------------------------------
Range to Feature
Therefore, Dist Travelled x 60 = Range to Feature
-----------------------------
Change in Brg
2 x 60 = Range to Feature
-----
10
Therefore, Range to Feature = 12nm
46. Alternatively a technique referred to as ‘Double the Angle on the Bow’ may be used. Observe
the relative bearing of an object and note the time. Wait for the relative bearing to double and note
the time. Use the groundspeed multiplied by the time interval, this then is the range of the object at
the second time.

47. It is also possible to obtain an approximate range from a landmark by using the sighting
angle and the flight altitude. For example, let us say that the aircraft is at 3000’ (approx ½ nm) and
the sighting or depression angle is 5° ie the landmark is estimated at an angle of 5° below the
aircraft’s horizon. Once again, using the one-in-sixty rule:

Dist Off x 60 = TEA

-----------------------
Dist Gone
So, in this case:
Aircraft Altitude (nm) x 60 = Sighting Angle
----------------------------------------------------
Range to Feature
Therefore, Aircraft Altitude (nm) x 60 = Range to Feature
----------------------------------------------------
Sighting Angle
1/2 x 60 = Range to Feature
-------
5
Therefore, Range to Feature = 6nm
Fixing the Aircraft’s Position
48. Once airborne, it will be necessary to determine the position of the aircraft in order to check
progress along the chosen route, make heading alterations and adjust the speed of the aircraft so as
to arrive at each turning point on time, and adhere to the flight plan.

49. To fix the position of the aircraft it is necessary to adopt the following procedure:

(a) A few minutes before flying over a pre-planned check point, establish the aircraft’s
approximate position, ie calculate a DR position.

(b) Determine the position of the check point relative to the DR position and decide
where the feature should be relative to the view from the cockpit.

(c) Relate the map information to what can be seen from the cockpit. Look for the chosen
feature in the predicted position. If the feature is exactly where you expect it to be,
then the aircraft is on track and on time. If, however, the feature is not immediately
visible, then the aircraft is either off track, or not on time, or a combination of the
two. (Bear in mind that it is possible that the feature may be obscured from view and
could become visible later). It is then necessary to widen the scan of the area around
the aircraft. Bear in mind that the aircraft’s DR position is constantly changing and,
therefore, the chosen feature’s relative position will be also changing.

(d) When the check feature is sighted, estimate the range and bearing and note the time.
Return to the map and using the observations, establish an accurate position of the
aircraft.
 (e) Having fixed the position of the aircraft, take action to keep or return to track and
adjust speed to achieve the required timing.

Track and Time Keeping - Mental DR Techniques

50. It is useful to be able to solve mentally the problems normally solved on the CRP-5, even
though the answers obtained will be approximate. For visual navigation, only approximate answers
are required. The track and time-keeping techniques used in visual navigation are usually referred to
as mental dead reckoning. It should be noted that all of these techniques require mental agility and a
reasonable level of mental arithmetic.

The Effect of Wind

51. Wind affects the aircraft’s flight path in two ways, namely drift and groundspeed. The angle
between aircraft track and the wind direction is called the wind angle; the actual values of drift and
changes to speed will vary depending on the wind angle and wind speed compared to the aircraft’s
track and TAS.
FIGURE 16-5
The Effect of Wind

52. If the wind angle is 90°, then drift will be at its maximum value, whereas the effect on speed
will be nil. If the wind angle is zero, then drift will be zero, but the effect on speed will be at a
maximum.
FIGURE 16-6
Wind Angle
53. Remember that there can be 4 wind angles of any given value; the wind could be coming from
the left or the right and can be a headwind or a tailwind. Care must be taken, therefore, to apply the
wind angle in the correct sense in order to obtain the correct drift (port or starboard) and
groundspeed. The diagram at Figure 16-6 shows the 4 possible effects of a wind angle of 40°.

54. Maximum Drift. To estimate the drift on a given heading, it is first necessary to calculate the
maximum possible value of drift for the forecast wind velocity for the route. It will make the
calculations in the air simpler if this is done before flight and a note of the maximum drift made in a
suitable place on the map. The method is as follows:

Maximum Drift = Windspeed

-----------------------------------------------------------
TAS in miles per minute

55. As the wind velocity used is forecast and may not be accurate the use of wind speed will only
give an approximate (though reasonable) value for maximum drift. For example, if the forecast
wind velocity is 270°/30 knots and the TAS is 180 kts, then:

Maximum Drift = 30 = 10°

-----
3

56. The actual drift expected can be calculated by considering the wind angle and using a clock
analogy. The wind angle is considered to be minutes of time and the proportion of an hour that this
number of minutes represents is the proportion of maximum drift that would be expected for a given
heading.
57. For example, if the planned track is 300°, the wind angle will be 30° which equates to 30
mins or ½ an hour. We would expect, therefore, ½ of the maximum drift to be experienced.

58. In our example, we expected 10° to be the maximum drift and with a wind angle of 30° we
would expect ½ of maximum drift. Therefore the drift expected would be 5°.

59. For wind angles of 60° or more it is assumed that the aircraft will experience maximum drift.

60. As mentioned before, care must be taken to apply the drift in the correct sense. Since the wind
is blowing from left to right, the drift will be starboard; therefore the heading required to make good
a planned track of 300° is 295°.

Groundspeed
61. Groundspeed is calculated in a similar manner to drift. The maximum effect will occur when
the wind is directly on the nose (groundspeed = airspeed – wind speed) or the tail (groundspeed =
airspeed + wind speed), but will be zero when the wind is at 90° to heading. Once again we can use
the clock analogy to determine the amount of head or tailwind to apply, but now we use 90° minus
the wind angle.
Following through with our example:
 Wind Velocity = 270°/30kts

Planned Track = 300°

Therefore, Wind Angle = 30°

Applying 90° - Wind Angle =

90° - 30° = 60°

When applied to the clocking analogy, 60° equates to 60 minutes ie 1 hour

Therefore, we apply all the windspeed

In this case we have a headwind component

TAS = 180kts

Therefore we can expect a groundspeed of 180 - 30 = 150kts

62. When a fix position is established it can be compared with the planned track, the 5 drift lines
and timing marks drawn on the map. It will then be necessary to decide what tracking and/or timing
action is required to make good the next turning point.
63. When discussing visual check points, it was noted that line features can be used to check
tracking when aligned with the track and to check timing when aligned across track. Similarly, a
single position line from a feature can be used for the same purposes. Tracking information can be
obtained from a feature on or close to track, whilst timing information can be obtained when passing
abeam a feature.

Time Adjustments
64. In Chapter 15 it was explained how we can use the one-in-sixty rule as a means of regaining
track, but it is often also necessary to maintain the planned timing. There are a number of ways of
adjusting a flight in order to arrive at a destination (or some point en route) at a given time, the most
commonly used methods are:

(a) Planning the route so that there is a convenient corner before the destination or
turning point which can be cut or extended to gain or lose time.

(b) Flying a ‘dog leg’ or similar alteration of heading to lose time.

(c) Adjusting the airspeed.

Cutting the Corner

65. When there is a large track alteration along the route, say 60 or more, it is possible to adjust
timing by extending or cutting the corner at that turning point.
FIGURE 16-7
Extending or
Cutting the
Corner

66. Given a route A – B – C as in Figure 16-7 timing is altered by turning at a point other than at
point B either early or late. The technique is to extend the track A – B beyond B on the map and then
to mark off distances representing 1, 2 and 3 minutes of groundspeed either side of the turning point.
If running late, time may be saved by turning at point L 1, L2 or L3; if running early, time can be
added on by extending beyond point B and turning at point E 1, E2 or E3. It should be borne in mind
that a heading adjustment will be required, because a different track from that originally planned will
be flown from B – C, for instance track L3 – C.
Losing Time by 60 Dog Leg
67. Flying a dog leg can serve to lose a lot of time in a short distance along track; see Figure 16-7.
The technique is to alter heading by 60 in either direction for the length of time to be lost, then to
turn through 120 in the opposite direction for the same length of time in order to regain track. The
aircraft will then have flown two sides of an equilateral triangle, and the time lost will be equal to the
time taken to fly one side.

68. The wind effect during the procedure must also be accounted for because this will affect the
final ground position at the end of the procedure. This is caused because the heading is altered by 60°
and 120° when it should have been the track. Of course in still-air the procedure will be correct.
FIGURE 16-8
60 Dog Leg
69. Heading to the next turning point is then resumed; however, it may be necessary to adjust the
heading and/or speed in order to make good the turning point on time.

Adjusting the Airspeed

70. Providing that the speed range of the aircraft permits and any fuel penalty is acceptable, small
timing errors can be corrected by altering speed. There are a number of ways of achieving this, but
two possible methods are as follows:
(a) Adjust the speed by a number of knots equal to the number of seconds late or early
and maintain the new speed for the number of minutes equal to the groundspeed in
nm/minute eg 180kts groundspeed, 30 seconds early; reduce speed to 150kts for 3
minutes.

(b) Adjust the speed by an amount equal to 5 times the groundspeed in nm/minute and
maintain that speed for a number of minutes equal to one fifth of the number of
seconds early or late eg 180kts groundspeed, 30 seconds early; reduce speed to 165kts
for 6 minutes.

71. In either case the speed adjustment can be halved and maintained for twice the time (or
doubled and maintained for half the time) if necessary.
The DR Turn
72. Although it is not generally desirable, there will be occasions when it is necessary to plan a
turning point where there is no obvious visual check point available. In this case it is essential to plan
a good fix on track as close to the turning point as possible and to work out in advance the time from
the fix to the turning point. It will also be necessary to highlight a number of alternative fix-points
after the turn.

73. The procedure in the air would be to fly over the fix point prior to the turn, observe the
stopwatch and then fly as accurately as possible the heading and speed required for the turn. At the
time worked out in advance, turn onto the next heading and immediately start to look for one of the
fix-points planned to be used after the turn. In this way it should be possible to establish very
quickly whether the aircraft is on the correct track or not.

Limitations
74. It should be noted that visual navigation is more difficult over some geographical areas than
others due to the nature of the terrain, the lack of distinctive features or possibly the lack of detailed
and accurate chart data.

75. Map reading in higher latitudes can be considerably more difficult than in lower latitudes
because the nature of the terrain is so different, maps are less detailed and less precise, and seasonal
changes may drastically alter the appearance of terrain or possibly hide it from view completely.

76. In areas where snow and ice cover the terrain from horizon to horizon and where the sky is
covered with a uniform layer of clouds so that no shadows are cast, the horizon disappears, causing
earth and sky to blend and making disorientation a real danger.
77. In a ‘white-out’ there is a complete lack of contrast; distance and height above ground are
virtually impossible to estimate.
 Plotting

Climbing and Descending

Flight on Airways
Fixing Position
Plotting Radio Bearings
VOR Bearings
VDF Bearings
NDB Bearings
DME Range Position Lines
Airborne Weather Radar Fixes
The Non-Simultaneous Fix
Doppler Information
Determining Wind Velocities
Doppler Wind Velocities
Dead Reckoning Following a Fix
Pilot Navigation
Selection of Fixing Aids
Revision of ETA and Fuel Endurance
Plotting
1. Teaching of the various plotting procedures and skills is primarily achieved in this chapter
using worked examples. The chart illustrated at various figures in the earlier part of the text is in fact
the ‘Instructional Plotting Chart - UK’ (for training purposes only, NOT for operational use). It is a
Lambert conical orthomorphic projection with a published scale of 1: 1,000,000. The latitudes of
the standard parallels and of the parallel of origin are not given on the chart.

2. In common with most if not all charts used primarily for airways navigation, this chart gives
airway centreline tracks in degrees magnetic. Turn to Figure 17-1 and check the track of airway
Delta White 11, 080°(M) from the Deans Cross VOR (DCS) to the Newcastle VOR (NEW), and of
course 260°(M) in the opposite direction. Additionally, the total distance DCS to NEW is given as
59 nm (22 nm + 37 nm), and this can be checked against the meridian scale using a pair of dividers.
On this particular chart the meridian scale is the only means of measuring distance, however on
many Lambert airways charts bar scales are provided at the top and/or bottom margins.
3. Figure 17-1 shows the symbology used on this particular chart. These symbols are typical of
those found on operational charts (Aerad and Jeppesen for example), however there are differences,
and the relevant chart legends should always be consulted.

4. To standardise plotting and make it easy to ‘read’ it is recommended that the standard
plotting symbols shown at Figure 17-2 be adopted.
5. So that the plotting shown on the chart should have some meaning it is necessary to keep a
record or ‘log’ of the associated calculations. To keep the log as brief as possible the abbreviations
shown at Figure 17-3 should be used. These abbreviations may be amended provided that the
meaning of the abbreviated form is obvious.

6. A formal log is not compulsory, although it is of great benefit and assists the logical processes
required to maintain the plot. Furthermore, should a mistake be made, it is relatively easy to
determine the origin from the log.
FIGURE 17-1
UK Instructional
Plotting Chart
FIGURE 17-2
Standard Plotting
Symbols
FIGURE 17-3
Standard
Abbreviations Alter heading A/H
Convergency Ccy
Conversion Angle CA
Dead reckoning position DR
Deviation Dev
Estimated time of arrival ETA
Groundspeed G/S
Overhead (a given position) O/H
Set heading S/H
Top of climb TOC
Top of descent TOD
Track Tk
Track made good TMG
True airspeed TAS
Variation Var

7. The track plot method of navigation is that which is required and is covered in detail in the
following pages. It is of benefit to practice the techniques involved and the following examples
should be completed.
8. A fix is an accurate ground position of the aircraft determined by visual, radio or radar
navigation aids. The accuracy of the fix is dependent on the accuracy of the aids used.

9. Dead reckoning (DR) is the practice of estimating the ground position of an aircraft using the
most recent information available. The purpose of establishing a DR position is:

(a) If a fix has shown the aircraft to be significantly off the planned track, then it enables
reasonably accurate calculations to be made to regain track or recover to the next
turning point.

(b) If there are no navigation fixing aids available then a DR position is required for
safety reasons, eg. high ground avoidance, maintaining the flight progress chart or
calculating the remaining endurance.

10. The information required to construct a DR position is obtained from instruments and
equipment contained within the aeroplane and requiring no external source. The DR position is
subject to error, the size of which is dependent on the accuracy of the following:
(1) The last fix and time interval since that fix;

(2) The maintenance of heading and speed;

(3) The wind velocity or drift and groundspeed;

(4) The calculation and plotting of the values determined.

11. Because of these inaccuracies, the DR position is only an approximation. There is, therefore,
a degree of uncertainty regarding this position. This is referred to as the circle of error. The size of
this circle is dependent on the time interval since the last positive fix. The longer the time interval,
the greater is the radius of the circle. The radius of the circle of error is approximately equal to 5%
of the TAS.

12. To plot a DR position, it is essential to accurately determine the track and distance travelled
along that track since the last fix. If the doppler computer is used to determine the DR position, then
if it was updated to last positive fix, the error around the DR position is an ellipse. The dimensions
of the ellipse are, along track 0.1% of the distance and across track 0.2% since the last fix.

Plotting on a Mercator Chart

13. Track. Because a straight-line on a Mercator is a rhumb line, it is only possible to plot rhumb
line tracks. If it is necessary to plot the shortest distance between two points a considerable distance
apart, then the great circle would have to be approximated by a series of rhumb line tracks; the
length of these tracks being dependent on the latitude and the distance between the points. The path
of the great circle would have to be transferred as a series of points from a gnomonic projection if the
route distance exceeds 1000 nm. Between 12°N and 12°S, the difference between the rhumb line and
great circle is small enough to be ignored.
14. Distance. The scale expansion of this chart makes the measurement of distance a more
difficult task than on other charts. As one minute of latitude equals one nautical mile, the latitude
graduations on the meridians must be used for this purpose. The track should be divided into
segments of approximately 100 nm to 200 nm. Lengths are measured against the nearest meridian to
the segment at the same latitude. An example is shown at Figure 17-4.
FIGURE 17-4
Plotting on a Polar Stereographic Chart
15. Track. Because this chart is not used for navigational purposes at latitudes less than 70°, then
great circles are almost straight lines. Those that pass through the pole are exact straight lines. For
navigational purposes then, a straight line is considered to be a great circle. Due to the convergence
of the meridians, the true direction changes rapidly along track. To accurately plot a track, its
direction should be plotted as a mean direction at the mid point of the track. Of course this is not
always possible when projecting a DR position ahead of the present position but because this
distance is relatively short it is sufficiently accurate to plot the initial track direction at the start time
and position.
16. Distance. The scale of this chart expands with latitude away from the pole. It is less than 1%
in error at 75° latitude. It is therefore considered to be a constant scale chart. Distance may be
measured from the latitude graduations on any meridian or from the scale bar in the legend of the
chart. See Figure 17-5.
FIGURE 17-5
Plotting on a Lambert Conformal Chart
17. Track. The convergence of the meridians on this chart is equal to a fraction of the change of
longitude, known as the constant of the cone or convergence factor. This means that the true
direction of a track changes progressively along the track. Because the DR ahead is usually only for
a short distance, it is accurate enough to use the initial track at the beginning of the track for this
purpose.

18. Distance. If the separation of the standard parallels (SP’s) on any plotting chart is less than
16°, the scale error, either contraction between the SP’s or expansion outside of the SP’s, is less than
1%. The scale is, therefore, considered to be constant. The latitude graduations on the meridians or
the scale bar in the legend may be used for measuring distances.

19. The Lambert Conformal Chart is that which will be used in the Navigation examination.
Hence the following examples are given to demonstrate the technique to be adopted.
EXAMPLE 17-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is overhead SAB VOR (5555N 02122W) at 1015, heading 150°(T), TAS 180 kt. The
W/V is given as 250°/30 kt. At 1032 heading is altered onto 217°(T). At 1038 heading is altered
onto 246°(T). Determine the aircraft's DR position at 1045.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-5 and Figure 17-7. Headings are given in degrees true in this example, and the
forecast wind is given in degrees true unless otherwise specified. Always plot track in degrees true.
From 1015 to 1032 (17 min) the track is computed as 141°(T) and the groundspeed as 188 kt. The
aircraft will therefore cover 53 nm over the ground.
Annotate SAB with the time 1015. Plot 141(T) distance 53 nm. Draw DR symbol annotate with
time 1032.
From 1032 to 1038 (6 min) the track is computed as 211°(T) and the groundspeed as 156 kt. The
aircraft will therefore cover 15½ nm over the ground.
Plot 211(T) distance 15½ nm. Draw DR symbol annotate with time 1038.
From 1038 to 1045 (7 min) the track is computed as 245°(T) and the groundspeed as 150 kt. The
aircraft will therefore cover 17½ nm over the ground.
Plot 245(T) distance 17½ nm. Draw DR symbol annotate with time 1045. Measure latitude and
longitude.
At 1045 the aircraft DR position is 5452N 0157W.
FIGURE 17-6

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1015 141 250/30 150 O/H SAB 180 188 53 17 1032
1032 211 217 A/H 156 15½ 6 1038
1038 245 246 A/H 150 17½ 7 1045
1045 DR 5452N 0157W
FIGURE 17-7
EXAMPLE 17-2

EXAMPLE
An aircraft is at DR position 5530N 0330W at time 1417, heading 178°(M), TAS 135 kt, forecast W/V 300°/15 kt. At
1428 heading is altered onto 090°(M).
Determine the aircraft's DR position at 1435.
Determine the magnetic heading required to fly from the 1435 DR position to the NEW VOR (5502N 0144W), and the
ETA at the VOR.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-7 and Figure 17-8. This time the headings are given in degrees magnetic and the W/V in degrees true.
Convert the headings to degrees true (using the dashed line isogonals) and use the true north reference.
FIGURE 17-8
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1417 164 300/15 169 9W 178 DR 5530N 0330W 135 146 27 11 1428
1428 085 081 9W 090 A/H 147 17 7 1435
1435 095 092 9W 101 (ii) DR 5505N 0247W 150 36 14½ 1449½
(i) A/H NEW
(ii)
FIGURE 17-9
From 1417 to 1428 (11 min) heading is 169°(T), track 164°(T), groundspeed 146 kt, and distance
covered over the ground 27 nm.
From 1428 to 1435 (7 min) heading is 081°(T), track 085°(T), groundspeed 147 kt, and distance
covered over the ground 17 nm.The DR position at 1435 is 5505N 0247W.
The track from the DR position to the NEW VOR is measured as 095°(T), and the distance as 36
nm. The heading is computed as 092°(T) + variation 9°W giving 101°(M). The groundspeed is
computed as 150 kt, the time is therefore 14½ min, and the ETA NEW VOR 1449½.
The heading required at 1435 is 101°(M), and the ETA NEW is 1449½.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 9

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

The principle of visual navigation is to compare an estimated position with visual references. What
skills are required for a pilot to be able to achieve this?
QUESTION 2.

Explain the difference between a map and a chart.

QUESTION 3.

Explain how scale effects the amount of detail on a map.

QUESTION 4.

Explain the colour convention used on topographical maps.

QUESTION 5.

Identify the CAA chart symbols at FIGURE 99 in the Reference Book.

QUESTION 6.

Identify the Jeppesen chart symbols at FIGURE 100 in the Reference Book.

QUESTION 7.

List the 3 main ways of depicting elevation on a Jeppesen map.

QUESTION 8.

Explain what is meant by Minimum Grid Area Altitude on a Jeppesen chart.

QUESTION 9.

List the factors to be borne in mind when selecting features for visual check points.

QUESTION 10.
State the One-in-Sixty Rule formula for Track Error Angle (TEA).

QUESTION 11.

An aircraft is en route from A to B. A and B are 200 nm apart. After travelling 80 nm, the pilot
pinpoints the position as being 8 nm right of track.

Determine the change in heading required to parallel the original track.

QUESTION 12.

An aircraft is en route from A to B. A and B are 200 nm apart. After travelling 80 nm, the pilot
pinpoints the position as being 8 nm right of track.
Determine the change in heading required to make good the destination, B.

QUESTION 13.

Given that an aircraft must follow a track of 090° and the forecast W/V is 210°/40, calculate the
maximum drift, the drift expected and the expected G/S if the TAS is 150kts.
QUESTION 14.

An aircraft is 20 seconds late flying from A to B. If the speed of the aircraft is 150kts, determine the
new speed required and for how long it should be flown.

ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

The pilot should have the ability to;

(a) Select features from a map

(b) Identify landmarks from the air

(c) Estimate distance on the map and in the air

(d) Estimate direction on the map and in the air

The pilot should be able to build a mental picture of the features along the planned route in order to
make it easier to identify those features once in the air.

ANSWER 2.

A chart is used for plotting and shows very little in the way of ground features.

A map on the other hand has as much topographical information as the scale will allow and is
designed for map-reading.
ANSWER 3.

The larger the scale the greater the detail available on the map.

ANSWER 4.

Feature Colour

Water Blue - sea, lakes or rivers

Woodland Areas Green

Roads Red lines

Railways Black lines

ANSWER 5.

Customs Aerodrome

Military Aerodrome Traffic Zone

Co-located VOR/DME beacons

ANSWER 6.

(a) Glider site

(b) Military Airport with a grass runway

(c) The highest spot elevation or man-made obstruction depicted on the chart

See figures 16-2 and 16-3

ANSWER 7.

(a) Contours

(b) Spot heights

(c) Layer tinting

ANSWER 8.
See 061-16-17 and also the Jeppesen Chart Legend at Figure 16-3.

ANSWER 9.

(a) The angle of observation

(b) The size of feature

(c) The uniqueness of the feature

(d) Contrast and colour

ANSWER 10.

TEA =
Distance Off
-------------------------------------  60
Distance Gone
ANSWER 11.

See FIGURE 101 in the Reference Book

To parallel the original track, the pilot must turn left by the TEA:

TEA= Distance Off x 60

Distance Gone
= 8 x 60
80
= 6°
 must turn left 6°

ANSWER 12.

See FIGURE 102 in the Reference Book

To make good the destination, the pilot must turn left through an angle TEA + Closing Angle (CA).

TEA= Distance Off x 60 CA = Distance Off x 60

Distance Gone Distance To Go
= 8 x 60 = 8 x 60
80 120
= 6° = 4°
 must turn left 6° + 4° = 10°
ANSWER 13.

a. Max Drift Windspeed 40

---------------------------------- = --------- = 16
TAS (nm/min) 2½

b. Expected Drift. Wind Angle = 60° from the right, therefore, expect Max Drift, 16° to the left.

c. Wind Angle = 60° (behind)

90 – 60 = 30° which equates to half an hour therefore apply half the wind speed = 20kts. Since the
wind is from behind, this will be a tailwind, therefore expected G/S = 170kts.

ANSWER 14.

Two methods:

Adjust speed by the number of seconds late and maintain for the number of minutes equal to the G/S
in nm/minute. i.e. increase speed by 20kts for 2.5 minutes (170kts).
Adjust speed by 5 times the G/S in nm/minute and maintain for the number of minutes equal to one
fifth of the number of seconds late. i.e. increase speed by 12.5kts for 4 minutes (162.5kts).
Climbing and Descending
20. Climbs and descents are usually calculated using DR principles, since it is not normal to fix
the aircraft's position during changes of altitude.
21. Assuming that an aircraft is required to climb at a constant CAS from one level to another,
then it is necessary to calculate the mean TAS at a point half way up the climb. Next determine a
mean wind, either by interpolation or inspection, and again the W/V half way up the climb is used.
EXAMPLE 17-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is required to climb from 2,000 ft to 25,000 ft on a track of 350°(T), at a constant CAS of 160 kt. The forecast
meteorological information is as follows

Altitude W/V Temperature

2,000 ft 270°/30 kt +5°
25,000 ft 330°/70 kt -37°
If the rate of climb is 1,500 ft per minute throughout the climb, determine the true heading required and the distance
covered during the climb.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-10. Half way up the climb ((2,000 + 25,000)  2) is 13,500 ft.
Interpolate the temperature = (+5 - 37)  2 = -16°C
At 13,500 ft the temperature is -16°C.
An RAS of 160 kt with an OAT of -16°C at a mean altitude of 13,500 ft gives a TAS of 195 kt.
Half way up the climb the wind velocity (by interpolation) is 300°/50 kt. The track is given as 350°(T) and the TAS is 195
kt, therefore the mean groundspeed is computed as 158 kt and the heading required as 338°(T).
Rate of climb of 1,500 ft/min the climb through 23,000 ft takes 23,000  1500 = 15½ minutes. At a mean groundspeed of
158 kt the distance covered in the climb is therefore 40½ nm.
The heading for the climb is 338(T), and the distance covered in the climb is 40½ nm.
FIGURE 17-10

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
350 300/50 338 2000 180 188 53 17 1032
25,000@
1500’/min
 EXAMPLE 17-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is on the direct track from NEW VOR (5502N 0144W) to SAB VOR (5555N 0212½W) at FL 250. The aircraft
is instructed to commence a descent at 5530N to cross the SAB VOR level at FL 90.
The forecast meteorological information is as follows:

Pressure altitude W/V Temperature

FL 200 050/60 kt -20°
FL 100 350°/20kt -6°

The aircraft will descend at a constant RAS of 140 kt.

Determine the magnetic heading required during the descent.
The minimum rate of descent required.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-11 and Figure 17-12.
The mean TAS for the descent is calculated at the mid level ([250 + 90]  2) of FL 170 using a temperature (interpolated for
FL 170 from the met information given) of -16°C, and an RAS of 140 kt. The mean TAS is therefore 183 kt. The mean W/
V for the descent (interpolated for FL 170 from the met information given) is 032°/48 kt.
The direct track is given on the chart as 352° magnetic which is 344(T). The heading required is 355(T)
The mean groundspeed during the descent is computed as 148 kt, and the heading as 003°(M).
The heading for the descent is 003°(M).
SOLUTION
The distance from 5530N to the SAB VOR is measured as 25 nm, and, at a groundspeed of 148 kt, the time taken in the
descent is 10 minutes.

The aircraft must descend (FL 250 to FL 90) through 16,000 ft in 10 minutes, therefore the minimum rate of descent
required is 1,600 ft/min.

The minimum rate of descent is 1,600 ft/min.

FIGURE 17-11
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M) (M)
352 240/48 003 (i) 530N DR TOD FL250 140 17000 -16 183 148 25 10
FL90
ROD = 1600’/min (ii)
FIGURE 17-12
 Flight on Airways
22. The centreline tracks of the airways are given in degrees magnetic. Route forecast wind
directions are given in degrees true. It is therefore necessary to convert everything to a common
north reference, and for flights along airways it is more convenient to convert the wind direction to
degrees magnetic.

EXAMPLE 17-5
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is overhead EDN NDB (5559N 0317W) at 1029, FL 120, routing W9 to DCS VOR (54432N 03202W). The W/
V is 250°/40 kt and the TAS 210 kt.
Determine: The magnetic heading for each leg. The ETA DCS.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-13 and Figure 17-14.
The W/V is 259°(M)/40 kt.
From EDN to TLA the track is 194°(M), the heading is therefore computed as 204°(M) and the groundspeed 190 kt.
The distance EDN to TLA is 29 nm and therefore the leg time is 9 min, giving an ETA at TLA of 1038.
From TLA to DCS the track is 189°(M), the heading is therefore computed as 199°(M), and the groundspeed 193 kt.
The distance TLA to DCS is 47 nm, and therefore the leg time is 14½ min giving an ETA at DCS of 1052½ (for examination
purposes you should calculate ETAs to the nearest half minute, but use only whole minutes on the R/T).
The headings required are 204°(M) to TLA, and 199°(M) to DCS. The ETA DCS is 1052.5.
FIGURE 17-13

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M) (M)
1029 194 259/40 204 (i) O/H EDN S/H TLA F120 210 190 29 9
1038 189 199 (i) O/H TLA S/H DCS 193 47 14½ 1052½
(ii)
FIGURE 17-14
Fixing Position
23. A fix is defined as the exact position of an aircraft at a specified time. It may be derived from
visual, radio or radar observations or any combination of these navigational aids. The observations
from different sources may be made simultaneously or at different times and transferred to a
common time to construct a fix.

24. The most accurate fix is that derived from the aids least likely to be in error and intersecting
at a large angle i.e. 60° or 90°. Therefore the most accurate fix is obtained from a twin DME fix
because the DME has the least error and the position lines can be chosen to cut at between 60° and
90°. If this is not possible, or the Airborne Search Radar cannot be used to obtain a similar fix, the
aids should be selected to produce three position lines intersecting at 120° because this will tend to
eliminate any errors inherent in the equipment. See Figure 17-15.
FIGURE 17-15
The Cocked Hat
 25. The plotted position lines illustrated do not intersect at one position but form a ‘cocked hat’.
However the centre of the cocked hat is at the same position as the correct fix should have been.

Plotting Radio Bearings

26. Refer to the section entitled Radio Aids on the methods of bearing presentation (RBI, RMI,
OBI) discussed below.

27. As a convenient abbreviation the Q code may be used when converting from indicated
bearings to bearings to plot, as shown at Figure 17-16.

FIGURE 17-16
QDM Magnetic great circle bearing of the station from the aircraft.
QDR Magnetic great circle bearing of the aircraft from the station (the radial).
QTE True great circle bearing of the aircraft from the station.
QUJ True great circle bearing of the station from the aircraft.

VOR Bearings
28. VOR bearings may be presented to the pilot on either an RMI (radio magnetic indicator) or
an OBI (omni-bearing indicator).

29. An RMI bearing, for example SAB VOR bears 067° RMI, will always be a QDM, since the
sharp end of the RMI needle points towards the station. The example given in the preceding
sentence would therefore put the aircraft on the centreline of airway DR23 (see Figure 17-14).
30. An OBI bearing may be given as either QDM or QDR (depending on whether the TO or the
FROM flag is showing).

31. Remember that, with a VOR, the variation at the station is used (rather than the variation at
the aircraft, as with an NDB). Since this is the case, the variation to be applied will remain constant
for each VOR regardless of the position of the aircraft. The bearing must be converted to become a
true bearing which is plotted against true north at the beacon.

32. To achieve a more accurate plot of the position line, draw the local meridian (true north)
passing through the VOR station position, and plot the position line as a QTE (true bearing) from
this local meridian.
 EXAMPLE 17-6
EXAMPLE
At time 1915 the following VOR bearings are obtained:
DCS VOR (5443½N 0320½W) bears 230° RMI
SAB VOR (5555N 02122W) bears 193° QDR
NEW VOR (5502N 0144W) bears 150° RMI
Determine the position at 1915

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-16 and Figure 17-18.
At time 1915 DCS VOR bears 230° RMI (QDM) - 180° = 050°QDR. Plot 041(T)
At time 1915 SAB VOR bears 193° QDR. Plot 201½(T)
At time 1915 NEW VOR bears 150° RMI (QDM) + 180° = 330° QDR. Plot 322(T).
The aircraft position is fixed as 5526N 0216W at time 1915.
FIGURE 17-17
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1915 DCS VOR brs 230°QDM, plot
050° QDR or 041°QTE
SAB VOR brs 193° QDR or
184½ QTE to plot
NEW VOR brs 150°QDM, plot
330° or 322° QTE
Fix 5526N 0216W
FIGURE 17-18
VDF Bearings
33. VHF Direction Finding stations normally provide either QTE or QDM bearings.

34. QTE bearings are plotted as given, using the meridian passing through the DF station as the
true north reference.

35. To plot a DF bearing given as a QDM it is necessary to convert to QDR, by adding or

subtracting 180° as appropriate, and then to apply the variation at the station to obtain the QTE.
The QTE is then plotted as before.
 EXAMPLE 17-7

At time 0825 the following VDF bearings were obtained:

VDF station A (5515N 0400W) gives QDM 272°
VDF station B (5544N 0305W) gives QTE 185°
Determine the position at 0825.

Plot the positions of the VDF Stations

See Figure 17-19 and Figure 17-20. VDF station A gives QDM 272°, - 180°, QDR 092°, variation at station 9½°W, plot
QTE 082½° (using meridian at station).
VDF station B gives QTE 185° to plot (using meridian at station).
Aircraft position at 0825 is 5518½N 0308½W
FIGURE 17-19

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
0825 DF Sta A gives 272°QDM,
092°QDR, var 9½°W, Plot
082½°QTE
DF Sta B gives 185°QTE to
plot
Fix 5518½°N 0308½W
FIGURE 17-20
NDB Bearings
36. The traditional way of presenting ADF bearing information to the pilot is by means of the
Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI). The sharp end of the needle points to the NDB, and the bearing
displayed on the RBI is relative to the forward end of the aircraft fore and aft axis. In order to obtain
a QDM it is therefore necessary to add the aircraft heading (°M) to the relative bearing. In order to
obtain a QDR it is then necessary to add or subtract 180° to the QDM. Finally, in order to obtain a
QTE (bearing to plot), it is necessary to apply the variation at the aircraft.
37. The more convenient method of presenting ADF bearing information is by means of the
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Again the sharp end of the needle points to the NDB and the top
of the instrument represents the forward end of the fore and aft axis. The compass rose within the
RMI is slaved to a suitable gyro magnetic compass, and therefore the aircraft's magnetic heading is
shown against the datum at the top of the instrument. The sharp end of the needle is thus pointing at
the QDM on the compass rose. In effect the RMI has done mechanically what the pilot is required to
do mentally (i.e. relative bearing + magnetic heading = QDM) when using the RBI.
EXAMPLE 17-8
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is at DR position 5530N 00230W at time 1315. The following ADF bearings are obtained whilst the aircraft is
maintaining a heading of 178°(M):
UW NDB (5554N 0330W) bears 133° relative
CL NDB (5457N 0248W) bears 028° relative
Determine the aircraft position at 1315.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-21 and Figure 17-22.
At 1315 UW NDB bears 133°(R), hdg 178°(M), QDM 311°, - 180°, QDR 131°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot 122° (using
the aircrafts meridian transferred to the NDB).
At 1315 CL NDB bears 028°(R), hdg 178°(M), QDM 206°, - 180°, QDR 026°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot 017° (using
the aircrafts meridian transferred to the NDB).
Aircraft position at 1315 is 5533N 0229W
FIGURE 17-21

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1315 169 9W 178 DR 5530N 0230W
UW NDB brs
311°QDM, QDR 131°
var 9°W, plot QTE
122°
CL NDB brs
206°QDM, QDR 026°
var 9°W, plot QTE
017°
Fix 5533N 0229W
FIGURE 17-22
38. To apply a correction for convergency, by far the easiest way is to transfer the meridian
passing through the aircraft (where the bearing is measured) to the NDB (where the bearing is
plotted). This procedure is shown in the following example. Of course, convergency is never applied
to VOR or VDF bearings, since with these position lines the bearing is either manufactured at the
station (VOR), or measured at the station (VDF).
 EXAMPLE 17-9
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is at DR position 5530N 00230W at time 1315. The following ADF bearings are obtained:
UW NDB (5554N 0330W) bears 311° RMI
CL NDB (5457N 0248W) bears 206° RMI
Determine the aircraft position at 1315.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-22 and Figure 17-23.
At 1315 UW NDB bears 311° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 131°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot 122° (using meridian at
aircraft transferred to NDB).
At 1315 CL NDB bears 206° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 026°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot 017° (using meridian at
aircraft transferred to NDB).
Aircraft position at 1315 is 5533N 0229W.
FIGURE 17-23

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1315 169 9W 178 DR 5530N 0230W
UW NDB brs 311°QDM,
QDR 131° var 9°W, plot QTE
122°
CL NDB brs 206°QDM, QDR
026° var 9°W, plot QTE 017°
Fix 5533N 0229W
 EXAMPLE 17-10
EXAMPLE
At time 1216 an aircraft at DR position 5255N 00130E, on a heading of 342°(M), obtains the following NDB bearings:
BK NDB (5326N 0013W) bears 303° RMI
WJ NDB (5236N 0028.5W) bears 279° Relative
Determine the aircraft position at 1216.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-24 and Figure 17-25. To transfer the meridian passing through the aircraft DR position to the NDB, align a
protractor with the DR meridian and then slide it along a straight edge to the NDB.
At 1216 BK NDB bears 303° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 123°, variation at aircraft 6°W, plot QTE 117°(T) using the
transferred aircraft meridian at the NDB.
At 1216 WJ NDB bears 279°(R), hdg 342°(M), QDM 261°, - 180°, QDR 081°, variation at aircraft 6°W, plot QTE 075°(T)
using the transferred aircraft meridian at the NDB.
The aircraft position at 1216 is 5256½N 0127E.
FIGURE 17-24

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1216 336 6W 342 DR 5255N 0130E
BK NDB brs 303°QDM, QDR
123°, var 6°W QTE 117° (ccy
on chart
WJ NDB brs 279°(R), hdg
342°(M), QDM 261°, QDR
081°, var 6°W, plot QTE 075°
(ccy on chart)
Fix 5256½N 0127E
FIGURE 17-25
DME Range Position Lines
39. To plot a DME range position line, arc a curve of the appropriate radius from the DME
station, as shown in the following example. It is not normal to account for the difference between
indicated (slant) range and true (horizontal) range. Remember that a TACAN is effectively a military
DME, and that a VORTAC is effectively a co-located VOR and DME.
 EXAMPLE 17-11
EXAMPLE
At time 1847 an aircraft is at DR position 5330N 0120E, heading 089° (C), deviation 2°E. The following fixing information
is obtained:
OTR VOR (5342N 0006W) bears 294° RMI
OTR DME (5342N 0006W) gives range 50nm
WJ NDB (5236N 0028W) bears 147° Relative
Determine the aircraft position at 1847.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-26 and Figure 17-27.
At 1847 OTR VOR bears 294° RMI (QDM), - 180° = QDR 114°. Plot 107(T)
OTR DME 50 nm. Arc a circle radius 50 nm from QTR to cut through the bearing position line.
At 1847 WJ NDB bears 147° (R), hdg 091° (M) (dev 2°E), QDM 238°, - 180°, QDR 058°, variation at aircraft 6° W, plot
QTE 052° (using the transferred DR meridian at the NDB).
The aircraft position at 1847 is 5326½ N 0115E.
FIGURE 17-26

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1847 085 6W 091 2E 089 DR 5330N 0130E
OTR VOR brs 294°QDM,
plot 114° QDR
OTR DME range 50nm
WJ NDB brs 147°(R), hdg
085°(T) QUJ 232°, plot QTE
052° (ccy on chart)
Fix 5326½ 0115E
FIGURE 17-27
Airborne Weather Radar Fixes
40. The airborne weather radar may be used as a basic map painting radar to fix the aircraft
position. The technique is to set the radar up for ground mapping, to find a unique ground feature
which is painting on the radar screen, and to identify this feature on the chart. At a convenient time
simply note the relative bearing of the feature using the etched lines on the face of the screen, the
range of the feature using the electronically painted range rings, the aircraft heading and the time of
the observation. The bearing to plot is calculated as if the bearing were from an NDB, taking the
variation at the aircraft, and applying convergency if necessary. This is perhaps unlikely, since the
radar is limited to line of sight range. The range arc is plotted as for a DME.
 EXAMPLE 17-12

EXAMPLE
At time 1017 an aircraft is at DR position 5305N 00055E, heading 013° (M). The tip of the peninsula at position 5334N
0007E bears 055° left of the nose at a range of 48nm, using the AWR.
Determine the aircraft position at 1017.

SOLUTION
At 1017 point X bears (360° - 55° left) 305° Relative, hdg 013°(M), QDM 318°, - 180°, QDR 138°, variation at aircraft
6°W, plot QTE 132° and range 48 nm.
Aircraft position at 1017 is 5302½N 0106E
FIGURE 17-28

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1017 007 6W 013 DR 5305N 0055E
X (5334N 0007E) brs 055°
left, range 48nm. X brs
305°(R), hdg 007°(T), QUJ
312°, plot QTE 132°
Fix 5302½N 0106E
FIGURE 17-29
The Non-Simultaneous Fix
41. In the previous examples the two or three position lines which have together comprised a fix
have all been obtained at the same time. More realistically, it is likely that bearings and/or ranges
will be obtained one at a time, a few minutes apart, and then brought together to manufacture a fix.

42. The following example illustrates the basic procedure for the transfer of position lines using
the track-plot technique. The golden rule is to transfer the position line along the best known track
for the appropriate time, using the best known groundspeed to calculate the transfer distance.
EXAMPLE 17-13
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is tracking eastwards along DW 11 with a groundspeed of 240 kt. The following
bearings are obtained from the CL NDB (5457N 0248W):

0826 CL NDB bears 040° RMI

0828 CL NDB bears 349° RMI
0830 CL NDB bears 300° RMI

Determine the aircraft position at 0830.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-30 and Figure 17-31. Since all of the bearings in this example are from one station
this non-simultaneous fix is known as a running fix. Invariably the time used for any
manufactured fix is the time of the LAST position line.
For examination purposes the candidate is expected to use all of the bearings and/or ranges
provided when manufacturing a fix. In reality you might well discard a long range NDB position
line of dubious accuracy in favour of a VORTAC range and bearing. In the examination, however,
one should assume that if the NDB bearing is given, it is expected that you will use it, together
with the other two position lines, to manufacture a three position line fix.
There is no consideration of convergency in this example, since the change of longitude between
NDB and aircraft is well below 2°.
At 0826 CL NDB bears 040° RMI (QDM), + 180°, QDR 220°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot
QTE 211°.
At 0828 CL NDB bears 349° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 169°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot QTE
160°.
At 0830 CL NDB bears 300° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 120°, variation at aircraft 9°W, plot QTE
111°.
Transfer the 0826 position line by 4 minutes along the best known track (in this case the centre-
line of DW 11), using the best known groundspeed of 240 kt, giving a transfer distance of 16 nm.
Similarly, the 0828 position line is transferred along track by 8 nm (2 minutes at 240 kt).
Aircraft position at 0830 is 5453N 0232W.
FIGURE 17-30

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
0826 071 CL NDB brs 040°QDM, 240
220°QDR, var 9°W, plot QTE
211°T’fer 4min/240kt = 16nm
0828 ✓ CL NDB brs 349°QDM, 169° ✓
QDR, var 9°W, plot QTE 160°
T’fer 2min/240kt = 8nm
0830 ✓ CL NDB brs 300°QDM,120° ✓
QDR, var 9°W, plot QTE 111°
✓ Fix 5453N 0232W
FIGURE 17-31

43. There are occasions when a back bearing is used to establish the aircraft's track made good,
and this TMG is subsequently used for the transfer of position lines. Similarly, a position line which
crosses track at more or less 90° can be used to determine the groundspeed, and this speed used to
calculate transfer distances for position lines.
EXAMPLE 17-14
EXAMPLE
At time 1238 an aircraft is overhead the OTR VOR (5342N 0006W), maintaining a constant heading of 090 °(M), and a
constant TAS of 178 kt. At time 1244 OTR VOR bears 275° RMIAt time 1246 VDF station C (5258N 0035E) gives a QTE
of 358°At time 1249 BK NDB (5326N 0013W) bears 252° RMI
Determine the aircraft position at 1249.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-32, and Figure 17-33
At 1238 the aircraft is overhead OTR VOR.
AT 1244 OTR VOR bears 275° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 095° to plot using the compass rose at the VOR.
The track made good is therefore 095°(M), and it is along this track that position line transfer should be made. Note that
the 095° radial is a position line in its own right.
At 1246 DF station C gives QTE 358° to plot.
The distance travelled between 1238 and 1246 (along the TMG of 095°M) is measured as 22.5 nm. The lapsed time is 8
minutes, and therefore the groundspeed is 169 kt. It is this groundspeed which is used for position line transfer.
At 1249 BK NDB bears 252° RMI (QDM), - 180°, QDR 072°, variation at aircraft 7°W, plot QTE 065°(T).
The 1244 position line obviously needs no transfer, since it is itself the best known track.
The 1246 position line needs transferring (along the 095° radial) by 8½ nm (3 minutes at 169 kt) to time 1249.
Aircraft position at 1249 is 5342½N 0047E
FIGURE 17-32

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1238 083 7W 090 O/H OTR 178
1244 TMG ✓ OTR VOR brs 275°QDM,
088 plot 095° QDR

1246 VDF Stn C gives QTE 358° 169 22½ 8

to plot
1249 BK NDB brs 252°QDM,
072°QDR, var 7°W, plot
QTE 065° (nil ccy)
T’fer 1246 p/l (3min/
169kt) 8½ nm
✓ Fix 5342½N 0047E
FIGURE 17-33
44. DME, Tacan and AWR range lines are curved position lines and therefore require a different
approach for transfer. The technique is to transfer the DME (or Tacan, VORTAC, or AWR fix
ground feature) in a direction which is parallel to the best known track at the best known
groundspeed, for the requisite period of time. The original range arc is now plotted from the
transferred origin, thus the resulting position line has been transferred forward for the required time.
This technique is illustrated in the following example.
EXAMPLE 17-15
SOLUTION
At 1637 an aircraft is overhead the KNI NDB (5232½N 0314W), routing White 39, LFS (5315N
0530W), maintaining FL 150. The RAS is 140 kt with an outside air temperature of -12°C and a
forecast W/V of 270°/40 kt.
Determine the magnetic heading required from KNI to LFS.
Determine the ETA at LFS.
At time 1647 VYL Tacan (5315N 0433W) gives a range of 41 nm. At time 1700 VYL Tacan gives
a range of 21 nm
At time 1704 VDF Station D (5231N 0359W) gives a QTE of 314°
Determine the aircraft position at 1704.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-34, and Figure 17-35
The track required is 306°(M).
The W/V is 279°(M)/40 kt.
RAS is 140 kt, FL 150/-12°C, TAS is 177 kt.
The heading required is computed as 300°(M).
The groundspeed is 140 kt, the distance KNI to LFS is 93 nm. The lapsed time is computed as 40
min and the ETA LFS is therefore 1717.
The ETA LFS is 1717. At 1647 VYL Tacan range is 41 nm. The fix is required at 1704, it is
therefore necessary to transfer the VYL Tacan by (17 min at 140 kt) 40 nm along a line parallel to
the best known track of 306°(M), and then to plot the 41 nm range arc from this transferred
origin.
At 1700 VYL Tacan range is 21 nm. Transfer the VYL Tacan by (4 min at 140 kt) 9 nm along the
same line which is parallel to track. The 21 nm range arc is then plotted from the transferred
origin.
At 1704 DF Station D gives QTE 314°. Plotting the three position lines for time 1704 gives a
triangle known as a cocked hat. This is by no means an unusual phenomenon, and is due to slight
inaccuracies in the bearings and/or ranges, plus plotting and transfer inaccuracies. For
examination purposes take the centre of the cocked hat as the fix position.
The aircraft position at 1704 is 5300N° 0450W
FIGURE 17-34
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M) (M) (ii)
1637 306 279/ 300 (i) O/H KNI S/H LFS 140 F150 -12 177 140 93 40 1717
40
1647 ✓ VYL Tacan range 41nm ✓
T’fer (17min/140kt)
40nm
1700 ✓ VYL Tacan range 21nm ✓
T’fer (4min/140kt) 9nm
1704 VDF Sta D gives QTE
314° to plot
✓ Fix 5300N 0450W (iii)
FIGURE 17-35
 Doppler Information
45. Doppler gives a continuous readout of drift and groundspeed, and therefore enables the pilot
to adjust the heading to maintain the required track, and to periodically update the ETA.

EXAMPLE 17-16
EXAMPLE
At time 2347 an aircraft is overhead the OTR VOR (5342N 0006W), routing B1 eastbound, heading 105°(M). At time 2348
the doppler gives drift 7° left, groundspeed 347 kt.
Determine the required heading to maintain the airway centre-line, and the ETA at DOGGER.

SOLUTION
See Figure 17-36 and Figure 17-37. The centre-line track is 100°(M), doppler drift is 7° left, therefore the required heading is
107°(M). The distance OTR to DGR is 57 nm, the groundspeed 347 kt, the leg time 10 min, and the ETA at DGR 2357.The
required heading is 107°(M), the ETA DGR is 2357.
FIGURE 17-36
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M)
2347 100 105 O/H OTR S/H 347 57 10 2357
DGR
2348 100 Dop 7°P 107 A/H parallel track
FIGURE 17-37

Determining Wind Velocities

46. To determine the wind velocity between two successive fixes:

(a) Join the fixes with a straight line and measure the TMG at the mid position against the
local meridian.

(b) Measure the distance between the two fixes.

(c) Note the mean heading steered between fixes.

 (d) Note the TAS.

(e) Use the navigation computer with the above values to find the mean wind velocity.

Note. This procedure assumes no change of heading and/or TAS between the fixes. Usually the
minimum time interval between fixes is 20 minutes.

Doppler Wind Velocities

47. The wind velocity determined from the information given by the doppler equipment is only a
local wind at the instant the readings are taken. It is not, therefore, a mean wind although it is better
than not having a recent wind at all.

Dead Reckoning Following a Fix

48. It takes a certain amount of time to plot a fix. Should the fix indicate that it is necessary to
alter heading to make the next turning point it is no use calculating the new heading from the fix
position, since the aircraft has by now flown beyond this point. It is therefore necessary to DR
AHEAD, and to calculate an alteration of heading from a point ahead of the aircraft.
EXAMPLE 17-17
EXAMPLE
At time 1615 an aircraft is overhead NH NDB (5240½N 0123½E), en route to the OTR VOR
(5342N 0006W). The aircraft is maintaining a TAS of 130 kt, the forecast wind velocity is 280°/
20 kt.
Determine the heading (°M) and the ETA for the OTR VOR.
At time 1628 the aircraft is observed to be crossing the coast.
At time 1638 the tip of the peninsula at 5334N 00007E shows at zero degrees relative, range
32nm.
Determine the aircraft position at 1638.
Determine the mean wind velocity affecting the aircraft since 1615.
At time 1644 the aircraft alters heading for OTR.
Give the mean heading required (°M) for OTR, and the revised ETA at OTR.

SOLUTION
At 1615 the aircraft is overhead NH NDB, on course for OTR VOR. Track 319°(T), W/V 280°/20
kt, TAS 130 kt, heading 314°(T), variation 7°W, heading 321°(M), groundspeed 114 kt, distance
82 nm, time 43 min, ETA 1658.
Mean heading 321°(M), ETA OTR 1658.
At 1628 the aircraft coasts out (to the best of our knowledge on track), construct the position line
(see Figure 17-38).
At 1638 point X bears 0° relative, range 32 nm. Heading 314°(T), 0° rel, QUJ 314°, plot QTE
134°.
Transfer 1628 position line (10 min at G/S 114 kt) 19 nm along track.
The aircraft position at 1638 is 5312N 00045E.

1615 to 1638: TMG 324°(T)

Dist (NH to fix) 39 nm
G/S (39 nm in 23 min) 102 kt
Heading 314°(T)
TAS 130 kt

The mean W/V 1615 to 1638 is 283°/34 kt.

1638 to 1644 (the DR ahead). The aircraft is maintaining a heading of 314°(T) and a TAS of 130
kt. The wind expected to affect the aircraft is 283°/34 kt. The best available information therefore
suggests that the aircraft will continue along a track of 324°(T) at a groundspeed 102 kt. The DR
position for 1644 is therefore 10.2 nm beyond the fix on the extended TMG line.
At 1644 the heading is altered for OTR.
Track 312°(T), TAS 130 kt, W/V 283°/34 kt, heading 305°(T), variation 7°W, heading 312°(M),
groundspeed 99 kt, distance 32 nm, time 19½ min, ETA OTR 1703½.
At 1644 mean heading is 312°(M), ETA OTR 1703½
FIGURE 17-38

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1615 319 280/20 314 7W 321 (i) O/H NH S/H OTR 130 114 82 43 1658
1628 Coasting out T’fer (i)
(10min/114kt)
19nm
1638 X brs 0°(R) range
32nm AWR. QUJ
314° plot QTE 134°
✓ Fix 5312N 0045E
(ii)
✓ TMG Drift 314 7W 321 W/V 283°/34kt (iii) 130 102 39 23
324 10°S (1615 to 1638)
✓ 324 314 ✓ ✓ 102 6 1644
1644 312 283/34 305 7W 312 (iv) DR A/H OTR 130 99 32 19½ 1703½
(iv)
FIGURE 17-39
 EXAMPLE 17-18
EXAMPLE
At 0342 an aircraft is at DR position 5308N 0305W, heading 271°(M), TAS 125 kt, flight plan W/V 340°/15 kt.
At 0354 VYL Tacan (5315½N 00433W) gives a range of 34 nm.
At 0400 WAL VOR (5323N 00308W) bears 060° RMI.
At 0400 WAZ Tacan (5325N 00308W) gives a range of 44 nm.
Determine the aircraft position at 0400.
At 0406 heading is altered for LFS (5315N 00530W).
Determine the mean heading (°M) for LFS, and the ETA LFS.

SOLUTION
At 0342 the aircraft is at DR position 5308N 00305W, heading 271°(M), variation 9°W, heading 262°(T), TAS 125 kt, W/V
340°/15 kt, track 256°(T), groundspeed 123 kt. At 0354 VYL Tacan gives range 34 nm. Transfer VYL Tacan (0354 to 0400
= 6 min at 123 kt) 12.3 nm along a line parallel to the track of 256°(T). Plot a 34 nm range arc from the transferred origin.
At 0400 WAL VOR bears 060° RMI (QDM), + 180° = QDR 240°. Plot 231½°(T) At 0400 WAZ Tacan gives range 44 nm
to plot. The aircraft position at 0400 is 5256½N 00402½W. 0400 to 0406 (the DR ahead). The aircraft is maintaining a
heading of 262°(T) at a TAS of 125 kt. There is no way of updating the wind velocity since the start position at 0342 was a
dead reckoning position and not a fix. The best available track and groundspeed for the DR ahead leg is therefore, still, a
track of 256°(T) and a groundspeed of 123 kt, giving a distance (fix to DR position) of 12.3 nm.
At 0406 the heading is altered for LFS, track 299(T), TAS 125 kt,W/V 340/15 kt, heading 303(T), variation 9W, heading
312(M), groundspeed 114 kt, distance 46 nm, time 24 min, ETA 0430. Heading required at 0406 is 312M, ETA LFS is
0430.
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
0342 256 340/15 264 9W 271 DR 5308N 0305W 125 123
0354 VYL Tacan range 34nm
T’fer (6min/123kt)
12.3nm
0400 WAL VOR brs
060×QDM, plot
240×QDR
✓ WAZ DME range 44nm
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Fix 5256½n 0402½W (i) ✓ ✓ 123 6 0406
0406 299 340/15 303 312 (ii) A/H LFS 125 114 46 24 0430
(ii)
FIGURE 17-41
49. One of the most common mistakes made by candidates in respect of plotting questions
involves a failure to understand the subtle but important difference between the situation with the
DR ahead considered at Example 17-17 and the DR ahead considered at Example 17-18.
50. At Example 17-17, the aircraft flew from one fix to another, the straight line joining the two
fixes accurately represented the track made good (since the heading and TAS had remained constant
throughout), and the DR position following the fix lay on an extension of this track made good.

51. At Example 17-18, the start position was a DR position (an estimated position). The line
joining this start position to the subsequent fix is meaningless (because of the uncertain accuracy of
the start position). Therefore the DR position following the fix is unlikely to lie on an extension of
this line. In this case the DR position following the fix must be determined using the original W/V
and the aircraft heading and TAS.

Pilot Navigation
52. The type of plotting discussed so far in this section, namely the construction of fixes, the
calculation of wind velocities and the DR ahead, sensibly requires a plotting table and a flight
navigator. When flying on airways it is necessary to adopt a more approximate approach to the
problem, namely pilot navigation techniques.

53. Pilot navigation is a sensible combination of such things as the 1 in 60 rule, back bearings,
QDMs and cross-cuts, the DME and doppler information. For examination purposes Flight Director
Systems, VLF/Omega and INS are not carried aboard the aircraft.
 EXAMPLE 17-19
EXAMPLE
At 1307 an aircraft is overhead WAL VOR (5323.5N 00308W) routing B1 to LFY, heading 292°(M). At 1310 WAL VOR
bears 107° RMI. At 1310 heading is altered to parallel the centre-line of B1.
Determine the heading required (°M) at 1310.

SOLUTION
The centre-line of B1 is 284°(M). The back bearing from the WAL VOR gives a track made good of 287°(M). The track
error is 3° right, and the actual drift being experienced is therefore 5° left. In order to maintain a track of 284°(M) it is
therefore necessary to alter heading on to 289°(M).
The heading required at 1310 is 289°(M).
FIGURE 17-42
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M)
1307 284 292 O/H WAL VOR S/H LFY
1310 284 Drift 289 WAL VOR brs 107°QDM,
5°P 287°QDR,
A/H 3° left to parallel track
FIGURE 17-43
EXAMPLE 17-20
EXAMPLE
At 0321 an aircraft is overhead KNI NDB (5233N 0314W) routing W39 to LFS (5315N 0530W), TAS 240 kt, forecast W/
V 345°/40 kt.
Determine the mean heading (°M) for LFS, and the ETA LFS.
At 0334 KNI NDB bears 169° relative.
Suggest a sensible heading for LFS.

SOLUTION
The required heading is 313°(M), ETA LFS is 0347.5.
The back bearing from KNI NDB gives a track made good of 302°(M), and therefore the track error is 4° left. The back
bearing is taken at the halfway time, and therefore a heading correction of twice the track error (8° right) should find LFS.
The heading after 0334 should be 321°(M).
FIGURE 17-44

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
(M)
0321 306 354/40 313 (i) O/H KNI S/H LFS 240 211 93 26½ 0347½
0334 313 KNI NDB brs 169°(R)
hdg 313°(M) QDM
122° QDR 302° Track
error 4° left half way
along track.
✓ 321 (ii) A/H 8° right

Selection of Fixing Aids

54. It may be that the candidate is asked to decide which of the available navigation aids should
be used to fix the aircraft position, given the aircraft's DR position and altitude. When making this
decision, consider the following points:
(a) For bearing information, a VOR is invariably more accurate than an NDB.

(b) Both VOR and DME are limited to line of sight range, therefore aircraft height and
range from the station must be checked before electing to use a distant VOR/DME or
VORTAC.
 (c) For two position line fixing, the best angle of cut between one position line and the
other is 90°. The ideal two position line fix is therefore a range and bearing from co-
located or adjacent VOR/DME facilities.

(d) If possible, use a VOR/DME or VORTAC situated on the aircraft's track. In this way,
the VOR bearing is used for tracking and the DME range to check the groundspeed
and ETA.

(e) If you have to use NDB bearings because the aircraft is outside of VOR/DME fixing
range, then it is likely that the aircraft will be over the sea. In this case, use NDBs
which are close to the coast, to minimise the errors caused by coastal refraction.
Alternatively, use an inland NDB such that the bearing line between the NDB and the
aircraft crosses the coast at approximately 90°.

55. The previous worked examples have all been based on the UK Instructional Plotting Chart. It
is now necessary to consider plotting on a somewhat smaller scale Lambert chart. None of the
principles previously discussed change because of the reduced scale, however the need for a sharp
pencil and overall accuracy of both plotting and calculation is even more apparent.

56. Plotting on a small scale Lambert simply means that, for a given chart track length, the earth
distance covered will be considerably greater. In the event that the track in question is predominantly
east-west, the amount of convergency involved (that is to say the difference between the initial and
the final track angles) will be larger. The measurement of track angles must therefore be made with
care.
 57. Similarly, since the convergence of adjacent meridians is quite marked on these small scale
charts, plotting a bearing or track line with respect to true north from a station or point which does
not lie on a printed meridian on the chart can lead to significant errors. In order to overcome this
problem, it is often wise to construct a meridian passing through the station or point in question.
This procedure is illustrated in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 17-21
EXAMPLE
Use the Lambert chart at Figure 17-45, and the log forms provided.
1000. An aircraft is overhead STN VOR (5810N 00620W), FL 230, RAS 190, OAT -31°C, W/V
270°/50 kt. Set heading for SXZ (6050N 0052W). The mean heading (°M) for SXZ is:
(a) 055

(b) 052

(c) 046

(d) 049

The ETA SXZ is:

(a) 1046½

(b) 1049½

(c) 1052½

(d) 1043½
1020 A pinpoint fix is obtained, which fixes the aircraft at 5920N 00330W.
The mean W/V affecting the aircraft since 1000 is:
(a) 276°/97 kt

(b) 092°/70 kt

(c) 250°/82 kt

(d) 234°/68 kt

1026 Heading is altered for SXZ. The revised heading (°M) for SXZ is:
(a) 038

(b) 020

(c) 029

(d) 045

The revised ETA for SXZ is:

(a) 1044

(b) 1038

(c) 1048

(d) 1052
1044 The aircraft is overhead SXZ, alter heading for turning point B (6230N 00800W), FL 225,
OAT -30°C, W/V 270°/90 kt, RAS 190 kt. The mean heading (°M) for B is:
(a) 300

(b) 308

(c) 305M

(d) 296

The ETA at B is:

(a) 1159

(b) 1202

(c) 1205

(d) 1154
1054 Alter heading onto 320°(M) to avoid weather. 1100 Alter heading onto 300°(M). 1112 Alter
heading for B. The aircraft's DR position at 1112 is:
(a) 6148N 00305W

(b) 6139N 00320W

(c) 6202N 00340W

(d) 6125N 00320W

The revised mean heading (°M) for B is:

(a) 297

(b) 285

(c) 301

(d) 292

The revised ETA at B is:

(a) 1200

(b) 1208

(c) 1204.5

(d) 1155.5
1124 AB NDB (6124N 0640W) bears 308° relative, heading 285°(T). 1133 SRE NDB (6204N
0659W) bears 344° relative, heading 285°(T). The aircraft position at 1133 is:
(a) 6225N° 0555W

(b) 6205N° 0615W

(c) 6148N° 0602W

(d) 6140N° 0545W

FIGURE 17-45
SOLUTION

FIGURE 17-46

Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1000 046 270/ 038 11W 042 (i) O/H STN S/H SXZ 190 230 -31 270 303 234 46½ 1046½
50 (2)
1020 052 038 Fix 5920N 0330W 270 330 110 20
W/V 276/97 (3)
1026 037 276/ 019 10W 029 (4) DR A/H SXZ 270 305 91 18 1044
97 (5)
1044 296 270/ 288 12W 300 (6) O/H SXZ A/H B 190 225 -30 267 183 228 75 1159
90 (7)
✓ ✓ 183 30 10
1054 326 270/ 310 10W 320 A/H 320°(M) ✓ 203 20 6
90
1110 297 ✓ 289 11W 300 A/H 300°(M) ✓ 184 37 12
1112 291 ✓ 284 13W 297 (9) DR 6139N 0320W (8) A/H ✓ 180 144 48 1200
B (10)
1124 285 AB NDB brs 308°(R) +
285° = 593° - 360° = 233° -
180° = 053° to plot (ccy on
chart) T’fer (9min/180kt)
27nm
1133 ✓ SRE NDB brs 344°(R) +
285° = 629° - 360° = 269°
- 180° = 089° to plot (nil
ccy)
✓ Fix 6205N 0615W (11)
FIGURE 17-47
EXAMPLE 17-22
EXAMPLE
Use the Lambert plotting chart at Figure 17-47, and the log forms provided.
0657. An aircraft is overhead WIK (5828N 00305W) at 4,000 ft and climbing to FL 260, RAS 200
kt, rate of climb 1,500 ft/min. The aircraft is maintaining a heading for 60°N 005°W. The
meteorological information is as follows:

F/L 300 090°/80 kt -45°C

The mean heading (°M) for the top of climb is:

(a) 345

(b) 350

(c) 347

(d) 355

The distance covered over the ground in the climb is:

(a) 59 nm

(b) 69 nm

(c) 71 nm

(d) 63 nm
On reaching the top of climb the aircraft will maintain a RAS of 200 kt.
The mean heading (°M) from the top of climb to 60°N 005°W is:
(a) 350

(b) 345

(c) 355

(d) 343

The ETA for 60°N 5°W is:

(a) 0720

(b) 0723

(c) 0724

(d) 0719
0720 Aircraft is at DR position 60°N 005°W, alter heading for the FM NDB (6350N 01641W).
The mean heading (°T) for the FM NDB is:
(a) 318

(b) 322

(c) 312

(d) 330

The ETA at the FM NDB is:

(a) 0829.5

(b) 0835

(c) 0827.5

(d) 0826

0730 STN VOR/DME (5810N 0620W) gives QDR 013°, range 135 nm. The position at 0730 is:
(a) 6045N 00600W

(b) 6125N 00630W

(c) 6025N 00615W

(d) 5945N 00530W

0743 STN DME gives range 195 nm. Assuming that STN DME is at 500 ft amsl, the maximum
range at which the DME would unlock is:
(a) 203 nm

(b) 229 nm

(c) 163 nm

(d) 183 nm

0747 SRE NDB (6204N 0659W) bears 096° relative, heading 312°(T). 0752 AB NDB (6124N
0640W) bears 160° relative, heading 312°(T). The position at 0752 is:
(a) 6134N 00905W

(b) 6145N 00920W

(c) 6215N 00910W

(d) 6154N 00900W

The mean W/V affecting the aircraft since 0730 is:
(a) 134°/44 kt

(b) 177°/40 kt

(c) 172°/25 kt

(d) 336°/30 kt

0804 Alter heading for the FM NDB. The mean heading (°M) for the FM NDB is:
(a) 303

(b) 311

(c) 315

(d) 294

The revised ETA for the FM NDB is:

(a) 0835.5

(b) 0845

(c) 0838.5

(d) 0849
It is planned to commence a descent at a range of 80 nm from the FM NDB, to be at an altitude of
4,000 ft on crossing the beacon. The RAS for the descent is 180 kt. The meteorological
information is as follows:

FL 200 210°/30 kt 28°C

FL 100 190°/20 kt -12°C

The minimum rate of descent required is:

(a) 823 ft/min

(b) 1023 ft/min

(c) 1223 ft/min

(d) 1443 ft/min

FIGURE 17-48
FIGURE 17-49
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
0657 328 075/ 340 10W 035 O/H WIK 4000‰ FL260 200 F150 -15 250 260 63 14½ 0711½
57 (1) (2)
0711½ 327 086/ 339 11W 350 DR TOC A/H 60N 5W 200 F260 -37 299 326 47 8½ 0720
74 (3) (4)
0720 304 ✓ 312 DR 60N 5W A/H FM ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 352 408 69½ 0829½
(5) (6)
0730 STN VOR/DME brs
013°QDR plot 001°(T)
range 135nm
✓ Fix 6025N 0615W (7)
0743 STN DME 195nm, t’fer
origin (9min/352kt)
53nm
Max theoretical range =
1.25 (÷500 + ÷†26000) =
229nm (8)
0747 312 SRE NDB brs 096°(R) +
312° = 408° - 360° =
048° + 180° = 228°(T)
T’fer 5min/352kt) 29nm
0752 312 AB NDB brs 096°(R) +
312° =408° - 360° =
048° + 180° = 228°(T) to
plot (ccy on chart)
✓ TMG 5°R 312 Fix 6154N 0900W (9) 299 327 120 22
317 W/V 177/40 (10)

0804 292 177/ 285 18W 303 DR A/H FM 299 312 180 34½ 0838½
40 (11) (12)
0823½ 292 200/ 285 TODÊ 4000ftm 22000ft 180 F150 -20 222 221 80 21½
25 in 21½ min = 1023 ft/
min(13)

Answers to Example 21-22 1. b 5. c 9. d 13. b

2. d 6. a 10. b
3. a 7. c 11. a
4. a 8. b 12. c
FIGURE 17-50
58. The final example of plotting on a small scale chart uses a Polar Stereographic projection
rather than a Lambert.

59. The best way to think of the Polar Stereographic chart is as an easy Lambert chart, in that, on
the Polar Stereo, chart convergency is equal to the change of longitude. If you are sensible and apply
convergency ‘by construction’ on the chart, even this subtle distinction ceases to bear any relevance.
As with a Lambert, when plotting on a Polar Stereo, convergency is applied only when plotting NDB
bearings, and never when plotting VOR bearings.
EXAMPLE 17-23
EXAMPLE
Use the Polar Stereo chart at Figure 17-51 and the log forms provided. 1825 Aircraft position is
fixed as 7920N 01100W, set heading 75°N 010°E,FL 290, JSA -5°C, Mach 0.75, W/V 030°/60 kt.
The mean heading (°M) required is:
(a) 143

(b) 146

(c) 149

(d) 152

The ETA 75°N 010°E is:

(a) 1911

(b) 1914

(c) 1917

(d) 1920
1840 VORTAC W (7555N 0830W, not on chart) gives 233° RMI, range 142 nm.
The aircraft position at 1840 is:
(a) 7820N 0310W

(b) 7730N 0325W

(c) 7755N 0320W

(d) 7745N 0210W

The mean W/V affecting the aircraft since 1825 is:

(a) 360°/80 kt

(b) 030°/60 kt

(c) 330°/100 kt

(d) 175°/78 kt

846 Alter heading 75°N 010°E. The mean heading (°M) required is:
(a) 139

(b) 132

(c) 156

(d) 147
The revised ETA 75°N 010°E is:
(a) 1913

(b) 1917

(c) 1922

(d) 1919

1914 Aircraft at position 75°N 010°E, set heading VORTAC Y (6940N 01900E), maintaining
Mach 0.75, JSA -5°C at FL 290. Use W/V 340°/70 kt. The mean heading (°M) required is:
(a) 165

(b) 171

(c) 186

(d) 179

The ETA VORTAC Y is:

(a) 1954

(b) 1957

(c) 2000

(d) 1951
The range at which you would expect to achieve a range lock-on from VORTAC Y, which is at
mean sea level is:
(a) 213

(b) 172

(c) 195

(d) 236

The time at which you would expect to achieve a range lock-on from VORTAC Y, which is at mean
sea level is:
(a) 1931½

(b) 1926

(c) 1947

(d) 1934½
The QDM which you would use to track inbound to VORTAC Y is:
(a) 174

(b) 163

(c) 343

(d) 354

1920 VOR X (7430N 01900E) bears 107° RMI. 1929 VOR X bears 072° RMI. 1938 VOR X
bears 044° RMI. The aircraft position at 1938 is:
(a) 7133N 01610E

(b) 7237N 01520E

(c) 7142N 01610E

(d) 7207N 01540E

FIGURE 17-51
SOLUTION

FIGURE 17-52
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1825 133 030/ 125 24W 149(1) O/H 7920N 11W S/ MJ.75 F290 -48 438 444 385 52 1917
60 H 75N 10E (2)
1840 VORTAC W brs
233°RMI 053°QDR
var at VOR 25°W
plot 028°(T) range
142nm
✓ TMG 8°R 125 Fix 7755N 0320W ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 488 122 15
133 (3) W/V 360/80 (4)
1846 132 360/ 124 23W 147 A/H 75N 10E ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 486 219 27 1913
80 (5) (6)
1914 152 340/ 151 20W 171 (7) O/H 75N 10E S/H ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 507 362 43 1957
70 VORTAC Y (8)
 Range = 1.25 507 149 17½ 1931½
÷29,000 = 213nm (9) (10)
Inbound track (great
circle measured at
the VOR)) = 157°(T)
var at VOR 17°W
inbound QDM
174°(11)
1920 VOR X brs
107°RMI 287°WDR
var at VOR 20°W
plot 267° T’fer
(18min/507kt)
152nm
1929 VOR X brs
072°RMI, 252°WDR
var at VOR 20°W
plot 232° T’fer
(9min/507kt) 76nm
1938 VOR X brs
044°RMI 224° QDR
var at VOR 20°W
plot 204°
✓ Fix 7207N 1540E
(12)
FIGURE 17-53
Answers to Example 21-23
1. c 7. b
2. c 8. b
3. c 9. a
4. a 10. a
5. d 11. a
6. a 12. d
FIGURE 17-54
 FIGURE 17-55
Time Tk W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg Observations RAS Press Temp TAS Gnd Dist Time ETA
(T) (T) (M) (C) Alt Spd
1825 133 030/60 125 24W 149 O/H 7920N 11W M.75 F290 -48 438 444 385 52 1917
(1) S/H 75N 10E (2)
1840 VORTAC W brs
233’RMI 053c
QDR var at VOR
25°W, plot 0.28°
(T), range 142nm
✓ TMG 8°R 125 Fix 7755N ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 488 122 15
133 0320W (3) W/V
360/80 (4)
1846 132 360/80 124 32W 147 A/H 75N 10E ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 486 219 27 1913
(5) (6)
1914 152 340/70 151 20W 171 O/H 75N 10E S/H ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 507 362 43 1957
(7) VORTAC Y (8)
Range = 1.25 507 149 17½ 1931
÷29,000 = 213am ½
(9) (10)
 Inbound track
(great circle
measured at the
VOR) = 157°(T)
var at VOR 17°W
inbound QDM
174° (11)
1920 VOR X brs 107°
RMI 287°QDR var
at VOR 20°W plot
267° T’fer (18 min/
507kt) 152nm
1929 VOR X brs 072°
RMI 252°QDR var
at VOR 20°W plot
232° T’fer (9 min/
507 kt) 76nm
1938 VOR X brs 044°
RMI 224°QDR var
at VOR 20°W plot
204°
✓ Fix 7202N 1540E
(12)
1. c 6. a 11. a
2. c 7. b 12. d
3. c 8. b
4. a 9. a
5. d 10. a
FIGURE 17-56
Revision of ETA and Fuel Endurance
60. We have practised revising ETAs following a fix in many of the preceding examples. The
question of fuel endurance, fuel reserves and fuel contingency planning is fully addressed in flight
planning (in the chapters dealing with fuel efficiency, the data sheets, the howgozit and computer
flight planning). It is important to appreciate that there is a relationship between ETAs and safe fuel
margins.

61. The fuel load carried by an aircraft engaged on a public transport flight would typically be
made up of taxi fuel; the planned fuel required to fly from departure to destination; a contingency
allowance; diversion fuel and holding fuel.

62. The contingency fuel would typically amount to 5% of the departure to destination fuel and
5% of one hour is only 3 minutes. Were the ETAs to slip by 3 minutes in each hour of the flight, due
to adverse winds, the contingency allowance would be used up and there would be no margin
between the fuel required and the fuel available.

63. Bear in mind that the contingency fuel is carried for reasons other than adverse winds, for
example an ATC restriction which puts the aircraft at a flight level other than that planned; an
increase in track distance due to weather avoidance, prolonged flight with the anti-icing systems
operating; en-route holding. When the aircraft's position is fixed and the ETA revised it is therefore
essential that the actual fuel remaining be compared with the planned fuel remaining.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 10

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

Climb

Plot on FIGURE 108 and also use FIGURE 107 in the Reference Book

1000 Overhead (O/H) ‘O’ 37°00’N 008°00’W at 4000 ft climbing to FL340. The initial heading
for the climb is 210°(M) and the rate of climb is 2000 ft/min at a constant CAS of 200 kts.

The Met Forecast is:

W/V Temp
4000 ft 240/50 -5°C
FL340 300/90 -55°C
Determine:

The mean TAS in the climb

The DR Track (°T)

The time to Top of Climb

The distance covered in the climb

The latitude and longitude of TOC

QUESTION 2.

Descent

Plot on FIGURE 108 and also use FIGURE 107 in the Reference Book

1215 DR position 40°00’N 015°00’W at FL350 and M0.75. Cleared by ATC to descend as
required to be O/H ‘O’ 37°00’N 008°00’W at FL 050. Descend at constant CAS 210
kts, with rate of descent 1500 ft/min.

The Met Forecast is:

W/V Temp

FL050 240/40 +5°C

FL350 210/60 -55°C

Determine:

The mean TAS in the descent

The heading (°T) in the descent

The time taken to descend to FL050

The distance covered in the descent

The latitude and longitude of the top of descent (TOD) point
QUESTION 3.

Simultaneous fixing

Plot on FIGURE 108 and also use FIGURE 107 in the Reference Book

1510 O/H Beacon ‘N’ (33° 40’ N 008° 00’ W) en route to 37°00’N 011°00’W. Heading
327°(M), FL310, M0.75, temp –37°C
1525 From AWR, fix point ‘A’ (37° 00’ N 009° 00’ W) bears 045°(R) at a range of 120 nm
(ignore convergency).
1545 DR position 37°00’N 011°00’W alters heading (A/H) to 45°00’N 010°00’W, FL330.
1555 ‘P’ (39° 00’ N 009° 00’ W) VOR 063°(RMI), DME 90 nm.
1625 From AWR, fix point ‘B’ (42° 56’ N 009° 18’ W) bears 054°(R) at a range of 75 nm
(ignore convergency).
1631 DR position 42°56’N 010°45’W.
Determine:

The fix position at 1525

The Track Made Good (TMG) (°T) between 1510 and 1525.

The average G/S between 1510 and 1525.

The mean W/V between 1510 and 1525

The revised ETA for 37°00’N 011°00’W calculated at 1525.

The mean heading (°M) to fly to 45°00’N 010°00’W calculated at 1545 (use a forecast wind of 240/
40 and temp of –42°C).

The fix position at 1555.

The fix position at 1625.

The ETA at 45°00’N 010°00’W calculated at 1631 using W/V of 250/50
 ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

(a) In order to determine the mean TAS in the climb, it is first necessary to find the mid-altitude of the climb and the
temperature at that altitude. To work out the mid-altitude we simply calculate the arithmetic average of the base
height and the cruising level.
In this case
Base height + Crui sin g level
Mid - altitude = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
2
4000 + 34000
= ---------------------------------
2
= 1900 (or FL190)
To determine the temperature at FL190, we find the arithmetic average of the temperature at the base height (–5°C)
and the temperature at the cruising level (–55°C).
Therefore:
– 5 + (–55)
The temperature at FL190 = -----------------------------
2
– 60
= ----------
2
= -30°C
We can now use these figures together with the CAS of 200 kts on the Nav Computer to determine TAS.
TAS = 264 kts
(b) To determine DR track we use the Nav Computer. We need: Hdg (°T), TAS and W/V
Hdg (°M) = 210°(M)
Variation = 7°W
 Hdg (°T) = 203°(T)
We have already calculated TAS (264 kts)
We need to determine mean W/V for the climb, again, an arithmetic average.
240 + 300
Wind Direction = -----------------------
2
= 270°
50 + 90
Wind Speed = ----------------
2
= 70 kts
We can now put this information on the Nav Computer to determine the DR Track.
With these conditions we get 15° Port drift.
Track(°T) = Hdg(°T) – drift(°P)
= 203 – 15 = 188°(T)
(c) The time to Top of Climb (TOC) is obtained from the change in height in this case from 4000 ft to FL340) and the
rate of climb (given as 2000 ft/min)
34000 – 4000
Time in Climb = ---------------------------------
2000 ft/min
30000
= ---------------------------
2000 ft/min
= 15 mins
(d) The distance covered in the climb comes from a speed/distance/time calculation. From (c), the time in the climb is 15
mins. When determining the Track in (b) we should also note the G/S (264 kts).
Dis tance (nm)
Speed (kts) = -----------------------------------
x 60
Time (min)
Speed x Time
----------------------------------- = Distance
60
246 x 15
---------------------- = 61½ nm
2

(e) To determine the lat and long of TOC must plot a DR position on a bearing of 188°(T) from beacon ‘O’ at a range of
61½ nm and then extract the position.
Position of TOC = 35°59’N 008°11’W
 ANSWER 2.

(a) As for the climb, in order to calculate a mean TAS for the descent, we require the mid-altitude and a mean
temperature.
5000 + 35000
Mid - altitude = ---------------------------------
2
= 20000 (FL200)
+5 + –55 ( )
Mean temperature = --------------------------
2
–50
= --------
2
= -25°C
Using the CAS given (210 kts) we can now determine the TAS from the Nav Computer.
Mean TAS = 286 kts
(b) In order to determine the heading to fly in the descent, we require Track (°T), mean W/V and mean TAS.
In this case we do not know where the descent will commence, so by convention we use the final track, ie. measure the
back bearing of the track at the destination and then take the reciprocal, hence 121°T. The mean W/V is again the
arithmetical average of the forecast winds:
240 + 210
Mean wind direction = ----------------------- = 225°
2
40 + 60
Mean wind Speed = ------------------= 50 kts
2
We are now in a position to determine the heading on the Nav Computer:
Hdg(°T) = 131°T
(c) The time taken in the descent comes from the height through which we descend and the rate of descent.
Time for the Descent = 35000 – 5000
--------------------------------
1500 ft/min
= 20 mins
(d) In order to reduce the possibility of errors in measurement, the solution in the navigation log shows the total distance
between 40°N 15°W and ‘O’ in a triangle, ie. 376 nm.
From the Nav Computer, the G/S is 293 kts and we know the time in the descent is 20 mins, hence the distance
covered in the descent will be 98 nm.
It is then possible to calculate the distance from 40°N 15°W to TOD without even plotting the position of TOD. i.e.
376 – 98 = 278 nm
(e) To find the position of TOD, measure back along track from ‘O’ the distance covered in the descent, i.e. 98 nm. Mark
the position with the DR symbol.
TOD is at 37°50’N 009°46’W
Although not asked for in the worksheet it is now possible to complete the line in the Navigation Log from 45°N
15°W to TOD and hence determine the ETA at TOD.
ETA at TOD = 1253.9
 ANSWER 3.

See FIGURE 17 and FIGURE 341 in the reference book.

(a) At 1525 a relative bearing of 045°(R) is obtained on the AWR from point ‘A’. The aircraft is heading 327°(M), but
we must add a true heading to the relative bearing in order to obtain a true bearing to plot.
Since the bearing is measured in the aircraft we need to apply variation at the aircraft position but we are given no
indication of aircraft groundspeed in order to work out a DR position, but we are flying towards the 8°W isogonal,
so apply that.
Hdg(°M) = 327°(M)
Variation = 8°W
Hdg (°T) = 319°(T)
Rel Brg = 045°(R)
True Brg = 319°(T) + 045°(R) – 360° = 004°T
Reciprocal = 184°(T)
The bearing to plot from ‘A’ = 184°(T)
Plot the range line 75 nm from ‘A’.
Fix position = 35°00’N 009°10’W
(b) At 1510 we were overhead beacon ‘N’, at 1525 we know from the fix we are at position 35°00’N 009°10’W. The line
joining these 2 positions represents Track Made Good (TMG).
TMG measured at 327°(T)
(c) Measure the distance from ‘N’ to the 1525 fix position: 109 nm
The aircraft has covered this distance in 15 mins → G/S = 436 kts.
(d) We now have track (327°), G/S (436 kts) and heading (319°).
We can obtain TAS from Nav Computer using M0.75 and temp –37°C
TAS = 450 kts
 mean W/V (1510 – 1525) = 246/64.
(e) Distance from 1525 fix to 37°N 11°W = 148 nm
G/S = 436 kts
 time = 20.4 mins
ETA = 1545.4
(f) Mean Tk is measured as 005°T. Using new temp –42°C and M0.75, new TAS is 445 kts.
The mean heading to fly is 001°(T), but the question asked for magnetic heading. Variation at the mid-point is about
9°W
 new heading to fly = 001° + 9°W = 010°(M)
(g) VOR brg to ‘P’ 063°(RMI)
Variation at ‘P’ is 8°W
True brg to ‘P’ 055°(T)
Reciprocal 235°(T)
 brg to plot = 235°(T)
The range to plot from DME ‘P’ is given as 90 nm
Fix position = 38°09’N 010°32’W
 Relative brg to radar point ‘C’ = 054°(R)
Aircraft hdg = 001°(T)
True brg to ‘C’ = 055°(T)
Reciprocal = 235°(T)
 Bearing to plot = 235°(T)
The range to plot from ’C’ is given as 75 nm
Fix position = 42°10’N 010°44’W
(i) We need to establish a DR position for 1631. To do that we need to know Track and G/S. If we draw a line between
the fix positions at 1555 and 1625, that represents the TMG. Measure the distance between the two fixes to establish
the distance flown in 30 mins.
Distance between fixes = 241 nm
 G/S = 482 kts
To establish the DR position for 1631, extend the TMG beyond the fix position at 1625 for 6 minute’s worth of G/S,
ie. 48 nm.
From the DR position draw in the new track to 45°N 10°W, measure the new track angle and the distance.
Using the wind given, 250/50 we can find Hdg and G/S from the Nav Computer. Hdg is not required but we need the
G/S.
Distance to run to 45°N 10°W = 123 nm
G/S from Nav Computer = 472 kts
 time to 45°N 10°W = 15.6 mins
ETA at 45°N 10°W = 1646.6
 Point of Equal Time

Multi – Leg Point of Equal Time

Point of Equal Time
1. As its name suggests, the point of equal time (PET), sometimes called the critical point (CP), is
that point along track at which it will take equal time to reach either of two nominated points, in the
configuration being considered.

2. A PET can be calculated for any configuration for example all engines operating, one engine
inoperative, pressurisation failure etc. In other words a PET can be found for any event that could
occur in flight which will affect the TAS. It is simply a decision point for the pilot. If the event occurs
before the PET it will take less time to reach the departure point than it will to continue to the
destination. If the incident happens after the PET it is quicker to continue to the destination than it is
to return to the departure point.

3. The PET is particularly important for long oceanic legs or tracks across remote areas such as
the polar regions and large desert areas where there are no suitable alternate aerodromes along the
route and it is vital to land as soon as possible. Such a case would be a passenger having a heart
attack in flight on a route from Los Angeles to Hawaii. It is essential to land as soon as possible.
There are no alternate aerodromes along the route. The only course of action is to continue to
Hawaii or return to Los Angeles. The position of the incident relative to PET will determine which
course of action the pilot must take.

4. The simple case is that of a single track from departure to destination in still air. The PET is
exactly at the mid-point between the two because it will take exactly the same time to continue as to
return to the departure point.
5. The effect of the along track wind component is to offset the PET. The groundspeed into wind
is lower than it is downwind. Therefore the PET will have to be moved from the mid-point into wind
to maintain the equality of time.

6. The time from the PET to the destination is equal to the distance divided by the groundspeed
on to the destination, and the time to the departure point (home) is equal to the distance from the
PET to the departure point divided by the groundspeed home.

7. If the total distance from departure to destination is D nm and the distance from departure to
the PET is X nm then the distance from the PET to the destination is equal to (D - X) nm.

8. It follows then that if the time on is equal to the time home then the following is true:
X (D – X)
--- = ------------------
H O
From this formula the distance from departure to PET may be derived;

by cross multiplication XO = H(D – X)

open the brackets XO = DH – XH

transpose the formula XO + XH = DH

isolate X X(O + H) = DH

DH
transpose the formula X = --------------
O+H
 where:

X = distance from departure to PET in nm

D = distance from departure to destination in nm.

O = groundspeed on from PET to destination in Kts

H = groundspeed home from PET to departure on Kts.

FIGURE 18-1
The Single Track
PET
EXAMPLE 18-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from A to B. Given:

Distance A to 960 nm
TAS 240 kt
Wind Component Out +60 kt (Tailwind)
Determine:
(a) The distance from A to the point of equal time between A and B.
(b) The time taken to fly from A to the point of equal time.

SOLUTION
Calculate the G/S(O) and the G/S(H)
G/S(O) = 240 + 60 = 300 kt
G/S(H) = 240 – 60 = 180 kt
Note that the reciprocal value of the wind component is used to calculate the G/S(H) unless a
specific value is given. Apply the PET formula to calculate the distance to the PET:
DH 960  180
Distance to the PET (X) = -- - = ---- = 360 nm
----------- ----------- --------
O+H 300 + 180
 Calculate the time from A to the PET. Note that the all engines operating groundspeed out from the
departure point, G/S(G), is always used to calculate the time from the point of departure to the
PET. In the all engines operating case G/S(G) = G/S(O). This is not so for the one engine inoperative
case.
Distance (x) 360
Time = ---------------------------- 60 = --------
 60 = 72 mins
G/S(G) 300

9. Logically, with a tail wind component from A to B, the point of equal time lies nearer to A
than B. A simple check sum can verify this since, by definition, the time taken to fly from the PET to
the point of departure should be equal to the time that it would take to fly from the PET on to the
destination.

Distance PET to A 360

Time PET to A = --------------------------------------------  60 = --------  60 = 120 min
G/S/(O) 180

Distance PET to B 600

Time PET to B = --------------------------------------------  60 = --------  60 = 120 min
G/S(O) 300

10. The point of equal time calculation takes no account of fuel. The fact that the position of the
PET has been calculated does not necessarily ensure that the aircraft has sufficient fuel to reach either
of the airfields considered.
EXAMPLE 18-2
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from E to F:

Given: Distance E to F 990 nm

TAS 210 kt

WC(O) -33 kt

WC(H) +31 kt
Determine the time and distance from E to the PET between E and F.
(a) Calculate G/S(O) and G/S(H).
G/S(O) = 210 – 33 = 177 kt
G/S(H) = 210 + 31 = 241 kt

(b) Calculate distance and time A to PET

DH 990  241
Distance to PET (x) = -- -- = - -- = 571 nm
---------- ---------- -----
O+H 177 + 241
Distance (x) 571
Time A to PET =--------------------------  60 = -------- 60 = 193.5 min
G/S(G) 177
Point of Equal Time – 1 Engine Inoperative
11. PETs are calculated so that, in the event of an emergency, the pilot will know in which
direction to fly to land in the shortest possible time. The choice is either to continue to the
destination or to return to the departure aerodrome.

12. In an emergency which does not affect the aeroplane’s performance the normal cruising TAS
can be maintained. If such is the case this TAS is used to calculate the G/S(O) and the G/S(H) for use
in the critical point formula.
13. On a multi-engine aircraft, an engine failure is an emergency in which the normal cruising
TAS cannot be maintained. If such is the case, the one-engine inoperative point of equal time is
determined using the reduced groundspeed in the formula. The worst case being where the engine
failure occurs at the one-engine inoperative point of equal time, because flight in either direction is at
reduced power for the largest period of time.

14. However, when calculating the time from the point of departure out to the one engine
inoperative PET, the full power G/S Out (G) must be used. The assumption is that the engine failure
does not occur until the one-engine inoperative PET is reached; the journey out to the PET being at
the full power TAS.

15. To summarise, when calculating the time and distance to the one-engine inoperative PET:

(a) The reduced power G/S(O) and G/S(H) are used in the formula to calculate the
distance to the CP.

(b) The full power G/S Out (G) is used to calculate the time to the PET.
EXAMPLE 18-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from S to T.

Given: Distance S to T = 690 nm

TAS (4Eng) = 260 kt

TAS (3Eng) = 210kt

WC(O) = -50 kt

WC(H) = -50 kt

Determine the time and distance from S to the point of equal time between S and T
for the one engine inoperative configuration.
SOLUTION

(a) Calculate the groundspeeds.

3 ENG 4 ENG

G/S(O) 160 kt G/S(G) 210 kt

G/S(H) 260 kt

(b) Calculate the distance to the one-engine inoperative PET.

Remember to use the 3 engine groundspeeds in the formula.
690  260
Distance to PET (x) = ---- = 427 nm
----------- ---------
260 + 160
(c) Calculate the time to the PET using the 4 Engine G/S Out.
Distance (x) 427
Time =----------------------------  60 = -------- 60 = 122 mins
G/S(G) 210
Multi – Leg Point of Equal Time
16. As with the single leg point of equal time, the solution of multi-leg problems is based on the
simple premise that the time from the PET on to the destination must equal the time from the PET
home to the point of departure.

17. In general terms, the method used to resolve the multi-leg problem is to initially eliminate
sections of the route to leave a simple single leg problem. This single leg problem is then solved in
the manner already detailed in the previous section.
EXAMPLE 18-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from A to C via B. Details are as follows:

Leg Distance TAS Wind Component

A-B 120 nm 120 kt -30 kt

B-A 120 nm 120 kt +30 kt

B-C 160 nm 120 kt -24 kt

C-B 160 nm 120 kt +20 kt

Determine the time and distance from A to the PET between A and C.
SOLUTION

(a) To accomplish the solution systematically complete the calculation

of groundspeeds and times in tabular form as below.

Leg G/S Time

A-B 90 kt 80 min

B-C 96 kt 100 min

C-B 140 kt 68.5 min

B-A 150 kt 48 min

 (b) Having calculated the time in each direction on each leg follow the convention in the
construction of the diagram below.

FIGURE 18-2

From Figure 18-2 it can be seen that point B is not the point of equal time between A and C, as the
time from B home to A is 48 minutes whereas the time from B on to C is 100 min.
The next step is to introduce a false point (Z) from which it will take , in this example, 48 min to
fly on to C. (The lesser time value of the two used in Figure 18-2 is always used). We now have
two equal brackets of time on the diagram; from B home to A takes 48 minutes and from Z on to
C also takes 48 minutes. The times are balanced and need no further consideration
FIGURE 18-3
Now consider the leg BZ in Figure 18-3. If the point of equal time between B and Z is now found
it will also be the point of equal time between A and C.
(c) The leg BZ is now treated as a single leg for which the point of equal time formula
can be used to solve the problem:
DH
Distance to PET (x) = -----------
-- -
O+H
Figure 18-4 is an extract from the main diagram:
FIGURE 18-4

All factors in the formula are known except the distance (D) which is the distance BZ. The distance
BZ can be determined as follows:
(a) Take the difference in the times on the leg BC in the construction: 100 min – 48 min
= 52 min = leg time BZ.

(b) Use the groundspeed in the direction of the arrow on the leg BC (i.e. in this case the
groundspeed on of 96 kt) and the time above to calculate the distance BZ (which
remember is D in the formula):
 96
Distance BZ = -----  52 = 83 nm
60
All factors in the formula are now known. Remember that the single leg BZ is part of the leg BC
and so the G/S(O) and G/S(H) for the leg BC must be used in the formula.
Now calculate the distance B to PET:
DH 83  140
Distance to PET (x) = -- -- = - --- = 49 nm
--------- ---- ---------
O+H 96 + 140
Next calculate the time from B to the PET:
Distance 49
Time =--------------------  60 = ----- 60 = 30.6 min
G/S Out 96
G/S out is the all engines operating groundspeed from the departure point and is that used to
calculate the time to the point of equal time irrespective of which type of point of equal time it is.
The groundspeeds used to determine the position of the PET are those for the configuration of the
PET e.g. one engine inoperative.
The distance and time between B and PET are now known and the original question must now be
addressed which was to find the distance and time from A to the PET.
This is found by adding the tabulated values of time and distance for the leg AB to the values
calculated over.
Distance A to PET = 120 + 49 = 169 nm
Time A to PET = 80 + 30.6 = 110.6 min
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from K to N (via L and M). Details are as follows:

Leg Distance Track

K to L 175nm 135(T)

L to M 348 nm 105(T)

M to N 197 nm 087(T)

4 Engine TAS is 380 kt The W/V is 145/45 kt

3 Engine TAS is 315 kt
Determine the time and distance from K to the PET between K and N for the one engine
inoperative configuration.
SOLUTION

Leg Dist GS(3Eng) Time(3Eng) GS(4Eng) Time(4Eng)

K to L 175 271 38.5 334 31.4

L to K 175 359 29

L to M 348 280 74.5 342

M to L 348 347 60

M to N 197 290 41 352

N to M 197 335 35.5

Because the one-engine inoperative PET is required, the 3 engine G/S(O) and G/S(H) is used in the
diagram and formula but the 4 engine G/S Out (G) is used to calculate the time to the PET.
The following construction is initially required:
 FIGURE 18-5

In this construction there is a greater amount of time ON (i.e. 41 min) than there is HOME (29
min). In an attempt to balance the time ON and HOME the time of leg M to L is now used (i.e.
more time going HOME) to attempt to achieve a balance.
FIGURE 18-6

In Figure 18-6 it can be seen that the total amount of time of 89 minutes HOME and 41 minutes
going ON. Obviously M is not the PET but the procedure is now the same as the previous two leg
problem. Take the lesser of the two time values (41 min) and construct point Z as shown in
Figure 18-7 below. This identifies the leg Z to M as the single leg problem which can be resolved
using the point of equal time formula.
The point of equal time lies somewhere on the leg Z to M and the distance(x) is that between Z and
the PET.
 FIGURE 18-7

The first step is to calculate the distance Z to M which will become the distance (D) in the formula.
To calculate this distance adopt the following procedure:
Take the time difference between 89 min and 41 min; 89min – 41 min = 48 min
Use the groundspeed on this leg (ZM is part of the leg ML) in the direction of the arrow on that leg.
In this case this will be the groundspeed ML (347 kt).
347
Distance ZM =-------- 48 = 277.6
60
Next, resolve the single leg problem using the point of equal time formula (remember to use 3 Eng
G/S):
DH 277.6  347
Distance to PET (x) = --- -= -- = 153.6 nm
---------- --------------- ----------
O+H 280 + 347
At this stage because the distance (x), Z to PET, lies in the ‘middle’ of the leg L to M there is no
point in calculating the time because the time L to PET will have to be calculated later.
Next calculate the TOTAL DISTANCE from K to PET:
Distance K to PET = Distance K to L + Distance L to Z + Distance (x).
Distance K to L is tabulated: 175 nm
Distance L to Z = Distance L to M minus Distance Z to M calculated in an earlier step = 348 –
227.6 = 120.4 nm
Distance (x) = 153.6 nm
Therefore, distance K to PET = 175 + 120.4 + 153.6 = 449 nm.
Next, calculate the TOTAL TIME from K to PET (remember to use 4 Eng G/S OUT on each leg):
Time K to PET = Time K to L + Time L to PET
Time K to L is tabulated: 31.4 min
Distance L to PET 274
Time L to PET =--------------------------------------  60 = -------- 60 = 48 min
4 eng G/S Out 342
Therefore Time K to PET = 31.4 + 48 = 79.4 min
 Point of Safe Return

R of A Formula Method 1
Multi-Leg PSRs
Multi–Leg PSR using the R of A Formulae
 Point of Safe Return
1. The point of safe return (PSR) is the most distant point along track from which it is possible
to return to a nominated point arriving with a specified reserve of fuel.

FIGURE 19-1
The Radius of
Action

2. The radius of action is very similar to the PSR except the return is to the point of departure.
For instance an aeroplane en route from Montreal to London overflies Gander which is 300 nm from
Montreal. However the whole of Europe is fog bound and the forecasters are unable to predict the
time of clearance. The operators instruct the pilot to continue towards Europe until the PSR for
Gander is reached and if the fog has not cleared by that time to return to Gander. He/she is
subsequently informed that only Montreal has sufficient accommodation available for all the
passengers. Therefore the latest time to turn back to Montreal would be at the limit of the radius of
action from Montreal allowing for a safe reserve of fuel at Montreal.

3. The determination of a PSR or R of A can be made by calculation, by fuel graph or plotting.

In this Chapter only the calculation method is considered. This is by a formula which is the same for
both the PSR and R of A. There are two formula methods. The first assumes a constant fuel flow and
a constant TAS. The second accounts a change of fuel flow and TAS on the return.
R of A Formula Method 1
4. The distance travelled from the departure aerodrome to the limit of the radius of action and
back to the departure point are the same. The endurance is calculated in hours. First subtract the
reserve fuel from the total fuel available on departure then divide the remainder by the fuel flow. The
total of the time outbound and the time inbound must not exceed the calculated endurance.

The formula can be derived from the above as:

Time out + Time home = Safe Endurance
R of A R of A
---------------- + -------------- = E
O H

Multiply by O and H: (R of A)  H  + (R of A)  O  = EOH

Isolate R of A: R of A  O + H  = EOH
EOH
R of A = --------------nm
O+H

Where E is endurance in hours

O = groundspeed outbound
H = groundspeed inbound (home)

To find the time to the R of A divide the distance by the groundspeed outbound.
 EH
Time to radius of action = --------------hours
O+H

Because the calculation method can deal only with alternate aerodromes along the route, then the
fuel available overhead the alternate must be calculated before this method may be used.

In the following example both formulae are demonstrated:

EXAMPLE 19-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly outbound from A on a track of 270(T). Given:

Total Endurance 8 hours

Reserve endurance required in return to A 2 hours
W/V 270/45 kt
TAS 240 kt

Determine the time and distance from A to the R of A.

SOLUTION

R of A Endurance = 8 hour-2 hours

= 6 hours
G/S(O) = 195 kt
G/S(H) = 285 kt
 Time to R of A (in hours) = 6 285
------
-- ------
-
195 + 285
= 3.56 hours
= 3 hours 34 minutes
= 3.56 hours @ G/S(O) 195 kt
Distance to R of A = 695 nm

Logically, as the outbound portion of the flight is into a headwind, the flight out to the R of A will
take more than half of the R of A endurance; and this is the case.
A check sum can be made to confirm the R of A principle that the total time taken for the flight out
and back should equal the R of A endurance.
The flight out took 3.56 hours. The flight back will take:

Distance R of A to A = 695 nm
Groundspeed R of A to A = 285 kt
Time R of A to A = 2.44 hours
=
Total flight time = 3.56 + 2.44
= 6 hours
= original R of A endurance
 Therefore the answers are correct.
The alternate formula gives identical results. Remember to use endurance in hours and decimals in
this formula, not minutes.
Example 5-1 is reworked below:

Distance to R of A = EOH
------------------------
O+H
= 6 (hrs)  195  285
----------------------------------------------
195  285
= 695 nm
Time to R of A = 695 nm @ G/S(O) 195 k
3.56 hrs
3 hrs 34 mins

5. Both formulae considered above require that the endurance of the aircraft be known. The
endurance can only be calculated if the TAS and Fuel Flow throughout the period of flight are
constant (or assumed to be). If the TAS or Fuel Flow change then the endurance cannot be calculated
and the R of A formulae cannot be used.

6. A number of situations can cause a change in TAS and/or Fuel Flow, the most obvious
example being an engine failure which will cause an instantaneous change. As in all of these
situations, the engine failure is assumed to take place at the worst possible time i.e. when the aircraft
is at the furthest possible point from base. Engine failure is therefore assumed to occur at the R of A.
7. As it is not known how long the aircraft has flown on full power and how long it has flown
on reduced power then the endurance cannot be calculated and therefore the PNR formulae cannot
be used. The problem can now only be resolved by using the Gross Fuel Flow concept. This method
is the only way to solve the problem if, even without engine failure, the aircraft has to change the
cruising level on the return flight for ATC reasons. In such a case the TAS, fuel flow and probably
the wind component will all be different.

The Radius of Action Method 2

8. The Gross Fuel Flow (GFF) formula calculates the fuel used (in kg) for each ground nautical
mile travelled.
Fuel Flow Kgs/hr F  F
------------------------------------------ = ---------= GFF(kg/gnm)
Groundspeed kts G  S
9. If the fuel used for each nautical mile travelled out to the R of A is added to the fuel used for
each nautical mile travelled back from the R of A then the result is the fuel used per nautical mile of
radius of action along the track considered.

10. The leg out to the R of A and the leg back from the R of A are considered separately in the
application of the GFF formula and the subsequent values are added together to give the radius of
action GFF. The following basic example illustrates these principles:
EXAMPLE 19-2
EXAMPLE
Given:
An aircraft is flying from A to B. The F/F and G/S values are indicated in Figure 19-2.
R of A fuel available is 36,000 kg.
FIGURE 19-2

Determine the time and distance from A to R of A assuming the change in F/F and G/S
occurs at the R of A because of a change of flight level on return.
 SOLUTION

A to R of A GFF Out F/F 4200 = 9.5 kg/gnm

= -------- = -----------
G/S 440
R of A to A GFF Home F/F 3500 = 9.2 kg/gnm
= -------- = -----------
G/S 380
Total GFF = 9.5 + 9.2 = 18.7 kg/gnm

If this GFF figure is divided into the R of A fuel available then the distance to the R of
A can be calculated
R of A fuel available 36000
Distance to R of A =------------------------------------------- = --------------= 1925.1 nm
Total GFF 18.7
If it is required to calculate the time to the R of A:
Dis tance 1925.1
Time to the R of A =---------------------- = --------------- = 4.375 hrs = 4 hrs 22.5 mins
G/S(O) 440
Note that the G/S(O) is always used to calculate the time to the R of A.
EXAMPLE 19-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from Q to R.

Given: TAS (4 engines) = 310 kt

TAS (3 engines) = 270 kt
Fuel flow (4 engines) = 2100 kg/hr
Fuel flow (3 engines) = 1700 kg/hr
Wind component outbound = + 45 kt
Fuel on board (excluding reserves) 9500 kg

Determine the time and distance to the R of A assuming the loss of one
engine at the R of A and consequent change of flight level.
SOLUTION
1) Determine the groundspeed out G/S(O) on 4 engines and the groundspeed home G/S(H) on
3 engines.
G/S(O) = TAS 310 kt + 45 kt Wind component = 355 kt.
G/S(H) = TAS 270 kt – 45 kt Wind component = 225 kt
2) The diagram below Figure 19-4 illustrates the flight details:
FIGURE 19-3
Now apply the GFF formula:

Q to R of A GFF Out F/F 2100 = 5.92 kg/gnm

= -------- = -----------
G/S 355
R of A to Q GFF Home F/F 1700 = 7.56 kg/gnm
= -------- = -----------
G/S 225
Total GFF = 5.92 + 7.56 = 13.48 kg/gnm

3) Calculate the distance to the R of A:

RofA fuel available 9500
Distance to R of A = ------------------------------------------= = 704.7 nm
-------------
GFF 13.48
4) Calculate the time to the R of A:
Distance to R of A 704.7
Time to R of A = --------------------------------------= -----------
= 1.99 hrs = 1 hr 59 mins
G/S(O) 355
A check sum can be carried out by calculating the fuel used out to the PNR and the fuel used
home from the PNR. The sum of the two should approximately equal the PNR fuel.
 Time to R of A = 1.99 hrs
Fuel flow Q to R of A = 2100 kg/hr
Fuel used Q to R of A = 4179 kgs

Time R of A to Q (704.7nm @ G/S(H) 225 kt = 3.13 hrs

Fuel flow R of A to Q = 1700 kg/hr
Fuel used R of A to Q = 5321 kgs

Fuel used Q to R of A to Q = 9500 kgs

Multi-Leg PSRs
11. Multi-leg R of A questions are an additional area of study required at ATPL level; a slightly
more complex method of working is required to achieve the solution.

12. The more common examination questions deal with the Gross Fuel Flow formula, covered in
the previous single leg R of A section, and this will be dealt with first. The use of the basic R of A
formulae will be covered later in this chapter.
13. To solve the multi-leg R of A question requires a process of calculating the fuel required for
each leg in turn for the outbound and return flight on that leg. This fuel required is deducted from
the total fuel available and, in effect, that leg and its associated fuel required is eliminated from the
calculation. The fuel available reduces throughout this process. Each leg is addressed in turn until
there is insufficient fuel available to complete the return journey on the next leg addressed. The R of
A lies on that leg and the Gross Fuel Formula is used to complete the calculation to determine the
time and distance from the point of departure to the R of A.

14. First complete all of the flight details on a standard flight log card for the outbound and the
return passage of each leg of the flight. This will also need to include the fuel flow and fuel required
for the outbound and return passage on each leg.

15. The following example illustrates the process of compiling this information and how it is used
in the elimination process mentioned above.
EXAMPLE 19-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from K to N via two other points at L and M. Flight details are:

Leg Dist W/C

K to L 285 nm + 28 kt
L to M 380 nm +15 kt
M to N 340 nm +23 kt
TAS 4 engines 320 kt
TAS 3 engines 290 kt
Fuel flow 4 engines 4320 kg/hr
Fuel flow 3 engines 3960 kg/hr
Fuel on board at take-off 25,000 kg
Reserve Fuel required on return to K 3,500 kg
Determine the time and distance from K to the R of A from K, assuming the loss of one engine at
the R of A.
SOLUTION
1. Calculate the R of A fuel available at K:
R of A fuel available at K for R of A = 25,000 – 3500 = 21,500 kg.
2. Calculate the fuel required on the outbound and return elements of each leg.
Note that the loss of one engine at the R of A means that you fly out to the R of A on 4 engines
and return on 3 engines. Therefore, 4 engine values must be used in the calculation of the fuel
required on the outbound element of each leg and 3 engine values used for the calculation of the
fuel required for the return element of each leg.

Leg Dist G/S Time F/Flow Fuel Reqd

K to L 285 348 49 4320 3540
L to K 285 262 65.5 3960 4310
L to M 380 335 68 4320 4900
M to L 380 275 83 3960 5470
M to N 340 343 61 4320 4392
N to M 340 267 76 3960 5016
3. Next, address and eliminate each leg in turn until the leg on which the R of A lies is identified.
Firstly, calculate the fuel required for the leg K to L and L to K.
 Leg Dist G/S Time F/Flow Fuel Reqd
K to L 285 348 49 4320 3540
L to K 285 262 65.5 3960 4310
FIGURE 19-4

Subtract this 7,850 kg from the R of A fuel available.

R of A fuel remaining at L = 21.500 – 7850 = 13,650 kg.
The leg K to L, and the fuel required to travel from K to L and L to K, has now been eliminated
from the calculation.
Now address the next leg, L to M and calculate the fuel required for the leg L to M and M to L

Leg Dist G/S Time F/Flow Fuel Reqd

L to M 380 335 68 4320 4900
M to L 380 275 83 3960 5470
 FIGURE 19-5

Fuel required=10,370kg
Subtract this 10,370 kg from the R of A fuel available.
R of A fuel remaining at M = 13,650 – 10,370 = 3,280 kg
The leg L to M, and the fuel required to travel from L to M and M to L, has now been eliminated
from the calculation.
The final leg M to N must now be addressed
From the initial log card it can be seen that the fuel required from M to N and back to M is 9,408
kg.

Leg Dist G/S Time F/Flow Fuel Reqd

M to N 340 343 61 4320 4392
N to M 340 267 76 3960 5016
However, as there is only 3,280 kg of fuel available at M then obviously the return journey over
the full distance of this leg cannot be completed and therefore the R of A must lie somewhere on
the leg M to N.
To determine the exact position of the R of A apply the Gross Fuel Flow formula as before.
The Gross Fuel Flow Formula is:
F F
GFF = --
---- -----
GS
We can initially treat the leg M to N as a single leg problem to determine the position of the R of
A on this leg and then go back and address the multi- leg problem.
FIGURE 19-6

Note. In the elimination of the previous legs we have been dealing with fuel required which we
have been subtracting from the R of A fuel available. In the Gross Fuel Flow formula we are now
dealing with fuel flow. These figures may be similar in value to one another on your flight log
card, as can be seen below, and care must be taken to work with figures from the correct column
 Leg Dist G/S Time F/Flow Fuel Reqd
M to N 340 343 61 4320 4392
N to M 340 267 76 3960 5016
As in the single leg R of A problem, the values of fuel flow and ground speed on the outbound and
on the return leg are considered in the Gross Fuel Flow calculation.
As already determined, the R of A fuel available at M = 3280 kg
F/F 4230
GFF out = -------- = ---------- = 12.59 kg/gnm
G/S 343
F/F 3960
GFF home = -------- = ----------- = 14.83 kg/gnm
G/S 267
Total GFF = 12.59 + 14.83 = 27.42 kg/gnm
3280
Distance M to R of A = --------------= 119.6 nm
27042
Dist 120
Time from M to R of A = ----------  60 = --------  60 = 21 min
G/S 343
This last section of working has dealt entirely with the single leg problem. It is now necessary to
address the initial multi–leg problem which was to determine the time and distance from K to the R
of A.
 FIGURE 19-7

From the flight log card the distances and times out for the legs K to L and L to M are tabulated. It
is now simply a matter of adding these times and distances to the time and distance calculated from
M to the R of A.
The total distance from K to R of A:

Total distance = Dist K to L + Dist L to M + Dist M to R of A

= 285 + 380 + 120
= 785 nm
The total time from K to the R of A ( ensure you use the time OUT on each leg ):

Total time = Time K to L + Time L to M + Time M to R of A

= 49 + 68 + 21
= 138 min
= 2 hrs 18 mins
 Multi–Leg PSR using the R of A Formulae
16. It is possible that an examination question may be orientated towards working with
‘endurance available’ instead of ‘fuel available’.
In this type of question the R of A Formulae can be used in the final stages of the calculation.
However, as this is a multi-leg question it will be necessary once again to adopt the same method of
eliminating some legs, as described in the previous example, to determine a single leg problem on
which the R of A formulae can be used.

EXAMPLE 19-5
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is to fly from A to D, via B and C. The aircraft has sufficient fuel onboard for 6 hours
flying but, in the event of returning to A it must have a reserve of 60 minutes fuel onboard on
arrival.
Flight details are:

Leg Dist W/C

A to B 320 nm -30 kt
B to C 245 nm -20 kt
C to D 485 nm -35 kt
TAS for the flight is 280 kt.
Determine the time and distance from A to the R of A.
SOLUTION
1) R of A endurance = 360 – 60 = 300 min
2) Compile the Flight Log Card as in the previous example without the fuel columns.

Leg Dist G/S Time

A to B 320 250 77
B to A 320 310 62
B to C 245 260 56.5
C to B 245 300 49
C to D 485 245 118.8
D to C 485 315 92.4

3) Address each leg in turn, subtracting the time taken (out and back) from the R of A endurance
available.

Leg Dist G/S Time

A to B 320 250 77
B to A 320 310 62
Total 139 min
Endurance remaining at B = 300 – 139 = 161 min.

Leg Dist G/S Time

B to C 245 260 56.5
C to B 245 300 49
Total 105.5 min
Endurance remaining at C = 161 – 105.5 = 55.5 min.

Leg Dist G/S Time

C to D 485 245 118.8
D to C 485 315 92.4
Total 211.2 min
Obviously there is insufficient endurance available at C, only 55 min, to complete the leg C to D
and back to C and hence the R of A lies on this leg.
The R of A formula can now be used to determine, on the leg C to D, the distance and time from C
to the R of A.
E H 55.5  315
Time from C to R of A = ---- = ----- = 31 min
------ ---- ------ ---------
O+H 245 + 315
245
Distance from C to R of A = --------  31 = 127 nm
60
The final step is to then answer the multi-leg question; determine the time and distance from A to
the R of A.
From the flight log card details above:
Total distance = 320 + 245 + 127 = 692 nm
For total time remember to use the time OUT on each leg:
Total time = 77 + 56.5 + 31 = 164.5 min.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 11

QUESTION:
QUESTION 1.

See FIGURE 114 and FIGURE 116 in the reference book.

1125 O/H ‘W’ 52° 00’ N 010° 00’ W en route to ‘S’ 43° 25’ N 004° 00’ W at FL330; MO.70.
Forecast Met information: temp -60°C; W/V 230/90.

1135 ‘W’ VOR/DME 350° (RMI) /64nm; TAS 400 kts.

1138 Doppler information: 7° port drift; G/S 390kts. A/H to parallel (//) Track.

1145 ‘U’ DME 139 nm.

1200 ‘T’ VOR 096° (RMI).

1202 A/H // Track.

 1215 ‘T’ NDB 049° (RMI) Doppler G/S 380 kts.

1225 ‘S’ VOR 157° (RMI).

1231 DR A/H for ‘S’.

Determine

What is the initial Hdg (°M) calculated at 1125?

What is the fix position obtained at 1135?

What was the Mean W/V 1125-1135 (use mean heading 165°T and TAS 400 kts)?

Given a desired track of 153°(T) what is the heading (°T) to fly calculated at 1138 to parallel track?

What is the fix position obtained at 1200?

What is the fix position obtained at 1225?

What is the mean heading (°M) for ‘S’ calculated at 1231? (use the forecast W/V 210/70; TAS 400
kts).
What is the revised ETA for ‘S’ calculated at 1231?
ANSWER 1.

(a) Initial heading is based on initial Tk (153°T) gives 166°(T) as heading. Variation is 11°W
at ‘W’; therefore, heading is 177° (M)
(b) Simultaneous fix: 51° 00’N 009° 23’W
(c) TMG from ‘W’ to fix position is 159°(T); distance covered in 10 minutes is 64 nm giving
G/S 384 kts. Heading and TAS are given. Mean W/V (from Nav Computer) is 233/43.
(d) Using the Nav Computer, set 153° (required track) against 7° port drift on the drift scale;
read off the heading under the True Heading marker: 160°T
(e) First line is from DME; therefore, must transfer the beacon. Altered heading to parallel
track at 1138; therefore, transfer the beacon parallel to planned track for 15 minutes of G/
S (390 kts) i.e. 97½ nm. Plot the range (139 nm) from the false origin / DME position.
The 2nd position line gives a bearing to plot of 268°T.
The fix position obtained was: 47° 56’N 007° 05’W
(f) The first line is from NDB ‘T’; therefore, a DR position must be constructed using latest
available Track and G/S from the last fix position. The DR position is required to obtain
the variation at the aircraft (8°W) and to transfer the aircraft’s meridian to the NDB
(006°W) to allow for convergency.
At 1202 the narrative tells us we are paralleling track; the ground speed then was 390kts.
The DR position can be constructed starting from the 1200 fix position by drawing the
track vector parallel to track for 97½ nm (15 mins at 090 kts)
The bearing to plot from NDB is 221° (remembering to measure from the aircraft’s
transferred meridian). The NDB position line must be transferred along track for 10
minutes of the G/S noted at 1215 (380 kts – 63 nm).
The bearing to plot from the VOR is 330°T (variation at the beacon = 7°W).
The fix position obtained at 1225 is then: 45° 33’N 005° 44’W.
(g) In order to work out the new heading to fly, must first produce a DR position for 1231
from which the new required track can be drawn to the destination, ‘S’.
There is no change in heading between 1225 and 1231 so we can assume we are still
paralleling track. The G/S at 1215 was 380kts; 6 minutes at 380kts = 38nm.
A mean heading is required, so measure the mean Tk (148°T); this gives a true heading
157°. Apply variation at the mid-point (7°W), resulting in a heading of 164° (M).
(h) The distance from the DR position to the destination is 111nm; G/S from the Nav
Computer is 360kts giving a time of 18.5 minutes. ETA is therefore, 1249½
See FIGURE 66 for completed Flight Navigational Log and FIGURE 180 for Plotting
Chart in the Reference Book
 Relative Velocity

Collision Risk Principle

Aircraft Velocity Relative to a Fixed Point
Relative Velocities by Calculation
Changing Speed Problems
Relative Velocity
1. Relative velocity problems, solved either by construction or by calculation, are dealt with in
this chapter.

Collision Risk Principle

2. The first type of problem is the determination of the point and/or time of collision of two
aircraft having constant velocities.

3. The solution is by scale diagram. There is a risk of collision if the relative bearing of another
aircraft at the same height remains constant. The line joining the two aircraft is known as the line of
constant bearing (LCB), Figure 20-1 illustrates. Any wind which is present is assumed to equally
affect both aircraft, and is therefore ignored.
FIGURE 20-1

Aircraft Velocity Relative to a Fixed Point

4. This type of problem, which is also solved by construction, concerns an aircraft's changing
position relative to a fixed point on the ground. These problems may be set in the context of fixes
obtained using the airborne weather radar in the mapping mode.
EXAMPLE 20-1
EXAMPLE
The following observations were obtained of an unidentified ground feature using
an airborne weather radar in the mapping mode:

Time Relative Bearing Range

1234 015° 95 mm
1255 060° 40 mm
Assuming that the aircraft TAS is 350 kt and that the heading is 105°(T), determine
(a) The average groundspeed

The mean wind velocity

SOLUTION
See Figure 20-2.
The method of solution is as follows:
FIGURE 20-2
(i) Determine the bearings to plot from the ground feature to the aircraft at 1243 & 1255.

1243 Hdg 105°(T), Rel brg 015° = 120° +180°

= 300°(T) to plot

1255 Hdg 105°(T), Rel brg 060° = 165° +180°

= 345°(T) to plot

(ii) Position the unidentified ground feature at a convenient point on the paper, in this case
the bottom right hand corner since the bearings to plot are to the north-west.

(iii) Choose a suitable scale and plot the aircraft fix positions for times 1243 and 1255.

(iv) Join the two fix positions and measure the track made good, in this case 097°(T).
Measure the distance between the fixes and calculate the groundspeed.

(a) 72 nm in 12 mins, groundspeed = 360 kt.

(v) Knowing that: Hdg = 105° TAS = 350 kt

Tk = 097°(T) G/S = 360 kt

(b) Compute the W/V as 200°(T)/50 kt.

EXAMPLE 20-2:
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is heading 016°(T), drift 10° starboard, groundspeed 350 kt. Two bearings of a
ground feature are obtained using the airborne weather radar. The first bearing is 330° (relative)
and the second bearing, which is taken 6 minutes later, is 270° (relative). Determine the true
bearing and the range of the aircraft from the ground feature at the time of the second bearing.
See Figure 20-3. The method of solution is as follows:
SOLUTION
(i) Determine the bearings to plot, this time from the aircraft's estimated ground positions
at the times of both observations.

Time 0 Hdg 016°(T), Rel brg 330° = 346°(T) (to the feature)

Time 0+6 Hdg 016°(T), Rel brg 270° = 286°(T) (to the feature)

(ii) Plot the aircraft's ground position for time 0 at bottom centre of the paper.

(iii) Draw a line representing the bearing of 346°(T), originating at the aircraft's position.

(iv) Draw a line representing the aircraft's track (hdg 016° + 10° stbd) of 026°(T), again
originating at the aircraft's position at time 0.

(v) Using a sensible scale, measure a distance of 35 nm (6 minutes at a groundspeed of 350

kt) from the aircraft's original position, along the track to establish the aircraft's
position at the time of the second observation.

(vi) From the second aircraft position draw a line representing the bearing of 286°(T). The
point where the two bearing lines cross represents the ground feature.

(vii) Using the original scale, measure the distance from the aircraft's position at the time of
the second observation to the ground feature. In this case the range is measured as 26
nm. The true bearing of the aircraft from the ground feature is of course (286 - 180)
106°(T).
FIGURE 20-3
Relative Velocities by Calculation
5. Aircraft travelling along the same track in the same or opposite directions have a relative
velocity. For this type of problem the solution may be found by calculator. Plotting is unnecessary
although it is beneficial to draw a diagram.

6. If the aircraft are travelling in the same direction along a given track, the relative velocity is
the difference between their groundspeeds but in opposite directions it is the sum of their
groundspeeds.
EXAMPLE 20-3
EXAMPLE
At time 1130 aircraft A is overhead point X, tracking 090°(T) and maintaining a groundspeed of
320 kt.
At time 1130 aircraft B is 120 nm west of point X, tracking 090°(T) and maintaining a
groundspeed of 480 kt.
Calculate the time and distance from X at which aircraft B will pass aircraft A.

SOLUTION
See Figure 20-4
FIGURE 20-4
The relative velocity of B to A is (480 - 320) = 160kt. The distance to close = 120 nm. The time to
120
close = -------- 60 = 45 mins. Ground distance travelled in 45 mins is:
160
A = 45 mins @ 320kt = 240 nm
B = 45 mins @ 480kt = 360 nm
The aircraft will pass at 1130 + 45 = 1215 at a position 240 nm of point X.
EXAMPLE 20-4
EXAMPLE
Aircraft C at FL 360, TAS 460 kt, wind component -75 kt, estimates point Q at 1825.
Aircraft D at FL 320, TAS 500 kt, wind component -60 kt, estimates point Q at 1830.
Both aircraft are on the same track.
Determine the time at which aircraft D will pass aircraft C.

SOLUTION
See Figure 20-5
Aircraft C, groundspeed (460 - 75) = 385 kt. At 1825 the aircraft should be overhead point
Q.
Aircraft D, groundspeed (500 - 60) = 440 kt. At 1825 the aircraft should be (5 minutes at
440 kt) 36.5 nm short of point Q.
The speed of D relative to C is (440 - 385) = 55 kt.
At this relative speed (55 kt) it will take aircraft D (36.5 nm at 55 kt) 40 minutes to catch
aircraft C.
The aircraft will pass at 1905
 FIGURE 20-5

If two aircraft are maintaining reciprocal tracks, the relative speed of one aircraft with respect to the
other is the sum of the groundspeeds.
EXAMPLE 20-5
EXAMPLE
Points R and S are 2875 nm apart.
Aircraft E sets heading from R to S at 1430 hrs and maintains a groundspeed of 450 kt.
Aircraft F sets heading from S to R at 1442 hrs and maintains a groundspeed of 360 kt.
Determine the time and distance from R at which the aircraft will pass.

SOLUTION
At time 1442 aircraft E will be (12 minutes at 450 kt) 90 nm from point R. The distance
between the aircraft at 1442 is (2875 - 90) 2785 nm.
The relative (closing) speed of the aircraft (450 + 360) is 810 kt. The aircraft will therefore
pass in (2785 nm at 810 kt) 206 minutes.
The aircraft will pass at time (1442 hrs + 206 min) 1808.
At time 1808 aircraft E will have travelled (218 minutes at G/S 450 kt) 1635 nm from point
R.
The aircraft will pass at a point 1635 nm from R.
 FIGURE 20-6

Changing Speed Problems

7. The final type of problem involves a change of speed either, of one aircraft relative to another,
or of an aircraft relative to a fixed point.
EXAMPLE 20-6
EXAMPLE
Aircraft G has a groundspeed of 300 kt and is overhead point X at 1100. Aircraft H is following
aircraft G at a groundspeed of 360 kt. Aircraft H estimates point X at 1125. Both aircraft are
following the same track to point Y which is 220 nm distant from point X.
(a) Determine the time at which the separation between the aircraft will be 120 nm.

(b) Determine the minimum reduction in groundspeed which the faster aircraft would
have to make at X in order to ensure a separation of 120 nm when the slower
aircraft is overhead point Y.

SOLUTION
a) See Figure 20-10
At time 1100 aircraft H will be (25 minutes at G/S 360 kt) 150 nm short of point X.
For a separation of 120 nm the distance to close (150 - 120) is 30 nm at a relative speed (360 -
300) of 60 kt. The time to the 120 nm separation situation is therefore (30 nm at 60 kt) 30
minutes, and this will occur at 1130
 FIGURE 20-7

b) See Figure 20-8

At 1125 aircraft H will be overhead at point X. Aircraft G will be overhead point Y at 1100 +
⎛ 220 ⎞
⎝--------  60 = 1144. Aircraft H must be 120 nm from Y at 1144. Therefore aircraft H must
300
travel (220 - 120) = 100 nm in (1144 - 1125) = 19 mins.
100
Groundspeed required =  60= 315.8kts
--------
19
Reduction in groundspeed = (360 - 315.8) = 44.2 kts.
FIGURE 20-8
EXAMPLE 20-7
EXAMPLE
On a flight from A to B, distance 800 nm, an aircraft whose groundspeed is 480 kt is instructed to
delay arrival over B by 8 minutes. It is decided that this will be accomplished by reducing speed to
give a groundspeed of 360 kt. Determine the maximum distance from A at which this reduction
must be carried out.

SOLUTION
See Figure 20-9.
Were the aircraft to continue at a groundspeed of 480 kt, at the required time for overhead B it
would be (8 minutes at 480 kt) 64 nm beyond B.
The aircraft is to slow down to a groundspeed of 360 kt, the relative difference in groundspeed is
therefore 120 kt. At 120 kt it would take 32 minutes to lose the distance of 64 nm.
The aircraft must therefore reduce speed (32 minutes at reduced speed 360 kt) 192 nm before
point B. Speed reduction must occur not after a point (800 - 192) 608 nm from A.
FIGURE 20-9
EXAMPLE 20-8
EXAMPLE
At 0823, when 500 nm from point C, you are requested by ATC not to cross point C before 0947.
Your present cruise conditions are FL 310, temperature -46°C, Mach 0.83 and wind component -
85 kt. Assuming no change in ambient conditions, determine:
The latest time at which speed may be reduced to Mach .69 in order to comply with ATC.
The distance from point C at the instant of speed reduction.

SOLUTION
Before speed reduction:
M .83/-46°C, TAS 487 kt
W/C -85 kt, G/S 402 kt
After speed reduction:
M .69/-46°C, TAS 405 kt
W/C -85 kt, G/S 320 kt
Without a speed reduction, by 0947 the aircraft would have covered 563 nm, and would therefore
be 63 nm beyond C.
The aircraft is to slow down to a groundspeed of 320 kt, the relative difference in groundspeed is
therefore 82 kt. At 82 kt it would take 46 minutes to lose 63 nm.
The aircraft must reduce speed (46 minutes at reduced speed of 320 kt) 245 nm before point C.
The time to the speed reduction point is 46 mins before 0947 = 0901
FIGURE 20-10
EXAMPLE 20-9
EXAMPLE
An aircraft at FL 120, OAT -5°C, IAS 200 kt, wind component 30 kt tail is required to arrive
overhead the next reporting point 100 nm away 5 minutes earlier than planned. Determine the
immediate increase in IAS that is required.

SOLUTION

Original TAS = 241 kt

Original G/S = 271 kt
Original time to reporting point = 100 nm @ 271 kt
= 22.1 min
Revised time to reporting point = 17.1 min
Revised G/S to reporting point = 100 nm in 17.1 min
= 351 kt
Revised TAS = 351 - 30 kt
= 321 kt
Revised IAS = 265 kt
Increase in IAS = 265 - 200
(ignoring compressibility) = 65 kt
 The Solar System

The Earth’s Place in Space

The Celestial Sphere
Declination and Hour Angle
The Solar System
The Year
The Solar System
The Earth’s Place in Space
1. The Universe is made up of a countless number of galaxies, each galaxy consisting of a vast
number of stars. One such galaxy is our own which we know as the Milky Way.
2. Our Sun is a relatively small star within the Milky Way and, in common with many other
stars, is accompanied by a number of planets of which the Earth is one. The planets are often
accompanied by moons. Our system of the Sun, 9 major Planets and their associated Moons is
known as the Solar System.

3. The huge distances involved are such that, to an observer on Earth, the stars (except for the
Sun) all appear to be positioned at the same distance from the Earth. In addition, although the stars
are moving through space at different speeds and in different directions, they apparently maintain
constant positions relative to each other thus forming the recognisable patterns we call
constellations. This gives rise to the notion that the stars are positioned on the inside surface of a
sphere whose centre is the same as that of the Earth; this imaginary sphere is termed the celestial
sphere.
The Celestial Sphere
4. The relative positions of stars on the celestial sphere change only very slowly and therefore we
consider them to be fixed. The positions of the Sun, planets and Moon move relative to the stars; the
Planets revolve around the Sun in their respective orbits and the Moon orbits the Earth. The
positions of these bodies can be predicted and hence plotted on the celestial sphere at any time. To
do this we must first produce a position reference system for the celestial sphere.

5. In order to define position on the celestial sphere, we need to establish a datum against which
we can determine position. Due to the Earth’s daily rotation from west to east, the celestial sphere
appears to rotate from east to west about the Earth. Extending the Earth’s spin axis to the celestial
sphere creates the North and South Celestial Poles. By projecting the earth’s equator and meridians
onto the celestial sphere we create the ‘celestial equator’ (‘equinoctial’) and ‘celestial meridians’. See
Figure 21-1.

6. Each celestial body is positioned on an ‘hour circle’ which is a semi-great circle between the
celestial poles and which passes through the body in question. Although hour circles are similar to
celestial meridians there is one major difference: hour circles move with the celestial sphere as it
rotates (or appears to rotate) about the Earth; whereas the celestial meridians remain fixed, thus the
stars and other celestial bodies continually move with time relative to the celestial meridians.
FIGURE 21-1
Polar Axis,
Equinoctial and
Celestial Meridian

Declination and Hour Angle

7. It is now possible, within the framework of the equinoctial and the celestial meridians, to
establish position on the celestial sphere. The first system we look at is similar to the latitude and
longitude system we use on the Earth.
 8. Declination. Latitude is replaced by declination. Declination is defined as the angular
distance to the celestial body measured in degrees north or south of the equinoctial along the hour
circle of the body; it is measured from 0 at the equinoctial to 90 at the celestial poles as shown in
Figure 21-2.

FIGURE 21-2
Declination and
Hour Angle
9. Greenwich Hour Angle. Longitude is replaced by ‘hour angle’. The hour angle is the angular
distance between a datum hour circle and the hour circle of the celestial body; it is measured west of
the datum hour circle from 0 to 360 along the equinoctial. A number of datum hour circles are
available; one such datum is the Greenwich Meridian projected on to the celestial sphere which is
termed the celestial meridian of Greenwich. The hour angle measured from the celestial meridian of
Greenwich to the celestial body is referred to as the Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA). See Figure 21-3.
FIGURE 21-3
10. Sidereal Hour Angle. An alternative datum which is commonly used is the First Point of
Aries. The First Point of Aries is defined as the point of intersection of the ecliptic (the path the Sun
follows around the Celestial Sphere) and the equinoctial where the sun is moving from south to north
declination. In simple terms, it is the position of the sun on the Celestial Sphere on 21st March. The
hour angle measured westwards from the celestial meridian of the First Point of Aries to the celestial
meridian of the body is referred to as the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). See Figure 21-3.

11. Local Hour Angle. Another common term in astronomy is Local Hour Angle (LHA) which is
defined as the arc of the equinoctial measured westwards from an observer’s celestial meridian to the
Earth Co-ordinates.

Azimuth and Altitude

12. An alternative method of defining position on the Celestial Sphere can be derived from an
observer’s position on the Earth.

13. Zenith and Nadir. The zenith is the point on the celestial sphere immediately overhead the
observer. The nadir is the point diametrically opposite the zenith. This establishes an axis between
the zenith and nadir; as shown in Figure 21-4, the axis passes through the observer’s position and the
centre of the Celestial Sphere.
FIGURE 21-4

For an observer situated at the North Pole, the Zenith/Nadir diagram would be shown in
Figure 21-5.
FIGURE 21-5
14. The observer’s celestial horizon is then defined as a great circle whose plane is perpendicular
to the zenith/nadir axis and also passes through the centre of the Celestial Sphere. The zenith/nadir
axis combined with the observer’s celestial horizon now forms the framework of a system that uses
azimuth and altitude to define position. Just as the north pole is joined to the south pole by
meridians, so the zenith is joined to the nadir by semi-great circles which are called vertical circles.

15. The observer’s vertical circle passes through the north and south celestial poles and hence is
the same line as the observer’s celestial meridian. A celestial body’s altitude can then be defined as
the angle between the observer’s celestial horizon and the body; the angle is measured at the centre of
the celestial sphere along the body’s vertical circle.

16. The azimuth of the body is the angle at the zenith measured clockwise from the observer’s
celestial meridian to the body’s vertical circle, as shown in Figure 21-6.
FIGURE 21-6
The Solar System
17. The Earth is one of the planets in the Solar system. Each of the planets describes an elliptical
orbit around the Sun. The Sun, therefore, can be considered to be the stationary centre of the solar
system. Each planet takes a year to complete one orbit of the Sun, but since the planets are
positioned at different distances from the sun and they are travelling at different speeds through
space, each planet’s year is different. The Earth’s year is equivalent to 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes
and 45 seconds.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

18. The astronomer, Kepler, developed 2 laws to describe planetary motion:

(a) Kepler’s First Law states that the orbit of each planet describes an ellipse around the
sun, with the Sun positioned at one of the foci of the ellipse;

(b) Kepler’s Second Law states that the radius vector of any planet sweeps out an equal
area in equal time.

19. These Laws are illustrated at Figure 21-7.

FIGURE 21-7
Kepler’s Laws

20. The average distance of the Earth from the sun is approximately 93 million miles, but
Figure 21-9 shows that the Earth is closest to the sun during January (ie during the northern
hemisphere’s winter). Figure 21-9 also suggests that for Kepler’s Second Law to hold true, the Earth
must be moving through space at a greater rate in January than it is in July. (This can be explained
by the fact that the sun’s gravity will accelerate the Earth as it moves through space towards the Sun
and decelerate the Earth as it moves away. In simple terms, this means that the Earth will be
travelling fastest when it is closest to the Sun ie the ‘slingshot effect’; this fact has implications as
discussed in Chapter 22.)
The Seasons
21. During the course of the year, the position of the sun relative to the equator varies; this is
because the Earth’s spin axis is tilted at an angle of 66.5° to the plane of the Earth’s orbit. If the spin
axis was perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, the Sun would remain directly above the Equator the
whole year round and there would be no seasons. The orbit is inclined at an angle of 23.5 to the
celestial equator and it is this inclination which causes the seasons during the course of a year. As
already mentioned the apparent path of the sun across the celestial sphere is called the ecliptic. The
angle between the earth’s celestial equator and the ecliptic (23.5) is known as the ‘Obliquity of the
Ecliptic’; Figure 21-8 refers.
FIGURE 21-8
The Obliquity of
the Ecliptic
 Figure 21-9 shows the position of the Earth on its orbit at some significant dates during the year
together with an indication of the effect of the Earth’s inclination to its orbital plane.

FIGURE 21-9
Seasonal Dates
22.

23. The northern hemisphere summer solstice (June 21) occurs when the northern end of the
Earth’s spin axis (ie the north pole) is inclined to its maximum value towards the Sun. It is on this
day of the year that the Sun appears to be directly above an observer at latitude 23 30’N (the Tropic
of Cancer); northern hemisphere days are longest and the nights shortest on this date.

24. The northern hemisphere winter solstice (December 21) occurs when the northern end of the
Earth’s spin axis is inclined to its maximum value away from the Sun. It is on this day of the year
that the Sun appears to be directly above an observer at latitude 23 30’S (the Tropic of Capricorn);
northern hemisphere days are shortest and the nights longest on this date.
25. The point on the Earth’s elliptical orbit where it is closest to the sun is called the perihelion
and occurs on January 3rd; the point where the earth is furthest from the sun is called the aphelion
and occurs on July 3rd.
26. Between the summer and winter solstices the sun crosses the celestial equator from north to
south on or about September 21; this is called the autumn equinox. Similarly, the sun will cross the
celestial equator from south to north on or about March 21; this is called the vernal or spring
equinox. On these dates the Sun appears to be vertically above an observer on the Equator and day
and night are of equal duration in both hemispheres. The vernal equinox is also known as the First
Point of Aries. See Figure 21-10.
FIGURE 21-10
The First Point of
Aries (Spring
Equinox) and
Autumn Equinox
The Year
27. A period of one year is defined as the time taken for a planet to describe one orbit around the
sun. For the earth, this orbit takes approximately 365.25 days. A leap year every 4 years corrects for
the fractional quarter of a day of orbit time.

28. This familiar leap year correction is, however, not quite exact. There is a further correction
needed which will lose 3 days every 400 years. This is achieved by suppressing 3 leap years every 4
centuries. Every century year is classified as an ordinary year of 365 days, except when the century
number is divisible by 4, in which case it is classified as a leap year. So 1700, 1800, 1900 were not
leap years, while 2000 was a leap year.

29. Sidereal day. A ‘sidereal’ day refers to one rotation of the earth about its axis where the time
interval is measured from a star which is not the sun. The star chosen for this definition is the First
Point of Aries. The definition of a ‘sidereal day’ is the time interval between two consecutive transits
of the First Point of Aries over a given meridian. Since the First Point of Aries is assumed to be fixed
in space, it follows that a ‘sidereal day’ is of constant duration.
 Time and Time Conversions

Background
Local Mean Time
Co-ordinated Universal Time
The International Dateline
Standard Time
Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight
Extacts from the Air Alamanac
Time and Time Conversions
Background
Origin of the Solar Day
1. Before the invention and widespread use of the clock, time was usually kept by noting the
position of the sun. Midday (12 noon) was the time the sun reached its highest elevation in the sky
and coincided with the time at which its azimuth was along the observer’s meridian. Midnight was
halfway between noons.

2. Time, therefore, varied with location even in parts of the same country at different longitudes.
The length of the day measured in this way i.e. between successive transits of the real sun across the
observer’s meridian (noon to noon) is known as the ‘apparent solar day’.

Variations in the Length of the Apparent Solar Day

3. The period between successive transits of the sun over a given meridian varies because the
Earth is orbiting the sun following an elliptical path, and also because the speed of movement of the
Earth along the ellipse is continuously changing (Kepler’s second law). See Figure 22-1.

4. Although the average length of an apparent solar day is 24 hours, the actual length will vary
about this mean value.
FIGURE 22-1
The Mean and
Apparent Solar
Day in January
The Mean Solar Day
5. To overcome the variations in the length of the day, the mean solar day is used, which is
always exactly 24 hours long. The mean solar day may be considered as being the time between
successive transits of a non-existent average or mean sun over a given meridian.

The Mean Sun

6. The ‘mean sun’ travels at a constant angular velocity in the plane of the Equator. This means
that the position of the mean sun is always overhead the Equator. It follows that an observer in the
northern hemisphere will ‘see’ the apparent (visual) sun higher in the sky than the mean sun between
the spring and autumn equinoxes, and lower in the sky between the autumn and spring equinoxes.

7. The time (period) of the orbit of the mean sun is the same as that of the orbit of the apparent
sun. However, as described by Kepler’s Second Law, the angular velocity of the apparent sun is not
constant. At perihelion (3 January) the angular velocity is at a maximum, while at aphelion (3 July)
it is at a minimum.

8. At perihelion, the mean sun and the apparent sun will transit a given meridian
simultaneously. After 3 January, the apparent sun begins to draw ahead of the mean sun. By
aphelion (3 July), the mean sun has slowed down and both suns will again transit a given meridian
simultaneously. After aphelion, the apparent sun falls behind the mean sun until by the following 3
January, after the apparent sun has speeded up again, the two suns are again in a line on a meridian.
The Equation of Time
9. The ‘Equation of Time’ is the name given to the time difference between the noon transit
times of the two suns across a given meridian and therefore represents the difference in the length of
the apparent solar and mean solar days. The Equation of Time is not an equation in the conventional
sense, but merely represents a time difference. As a result, the maximum time differences occur in
mid-February when the real sun is approximately 14 minutes behind the mean sun and in early
November when the real sun is 16 minutes ahead of the mean sun. Since a change of around 30
minutes occurs over these three months, it follows that the maximum rate of change in the length of
the apparent solar day is about the third week in December (which is around the winter solstice in
the northern hemisphere).

10. The position of the real sun is of importance to astronomers, however all calculations
concerning time are based on the position of the mean sun and therefore relate to mean time.

Local Mean Time

11. The beginning of a day at any point on the Earth is midnight, local mean time (0000 LMT).
At midnight LMT, for an observer at 050°W, the mean sun is overhead the meridian at 130°E (the
observer's anti-meridian). Twelve hours later, the mean sun will be overhead the observer's meridian
(050°W). By now it will be noon LMT (1200 LMT) for the observer and the time at the observer's
anti-meridian (130°E) will be midnight LMT. The local mean time at any point is therefore governed
by the passage of the mean sun.
Arc to Time
12. The mean sun is assumed to travel around the Earth once every 24 hours. Since the Earth is a
spheroid, that apparent movement represents 360°, therefore, in one hour the sun travels through 15
degrees of arc, and in four minutes through one degree of arc. (In one minute of time the sun travels
through 15 minutes of arc, and in four seconds of time through one minute of arc).

13. Arc to time therefore, permits the calculation of the LMT at one longitude on the earth from
a knowledge of the LMT at another, based on the difference of longitude between the two points.

Co-ordinated Universal Time

14. To provide one time reference for the whole world it is necessary to choose one meridian to
which all LMTs are referenced. The chosen meridian is the Greenwich or Prime meridian (0° east/
west). Local mean time at Greenwich meridian is termed Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

15. GMT is based on the motion of the Earth, which fluctuates very slightly each day. The advent
of highly accurate atomic clocks (based on the fundamental properties of the caesium atom) has,
since 1 January 1972, provided the basis for international time-keeping, on that date, Co-ordinated
Universal Time (UTC) came into effect.

16. UTC runs at the rate of International Atomic Time. The International UTC scale is
coordinated in Paris by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. When the difference
between UTC and GMT approaches one second, an adjustment (a ‘leap second’) is made in UTC.
For this reason UTC and GMT can be regarded as one and the same thing for all normal navigation
purposes.
17. 0000 UTC occurs when the mean sun is in transit with the anti-meridian of Greenwich (180°
east/west). Since the sun appears to travel from east to west, it will transit easterly meridians before
crossing the Greenwich meridian. LMT at positions east of the Greenwich meridian is therefore
ahead of UTC, and LMT at positions west of the Greenwich meridian is behind UTC.

Putting this simple but important relationship another way:

Observer east (of Greenwich) UTC least (slow on LMT)

Observer west (of Greenwich) UTC best (fast on LMT)

The numerical difference between LMT and UTC at any point is related to the rate of rotation of the
Earth and is determined using the arc to time conversion factors previously described.
18. Here are some examples of conversions from LMT to UTC and vice versa:
EXAMPLE 22-1
EXAMPLE
An observer is at position 29°N 94°30'W at time 1215 LMT on the 1st January. Express the time
in UTC.

SOLUTION
The observer is west of Greenwich and therefore UTC is best (fast on LMT). 94°30' of arc of
longitude expressed in time gives:
 94° of arc at 4 minutes per degree = 376 minutes

30’ of arc at 1 minute per 15’ of arc = 2 minutes

Therefore, 94°30’ of arc = 378 mins total arc to time

= 6 hours and 18 minutes

Therefore,
1215 LMT on 1 January

Arc to time (west) = +0618

= 1833 UTC on 1 January

Note. When carrying out these calculations, it is advantageous always to show the date next to the
time, changing the date appropriately as midnight is passed.
EXAMPLE 22-2
EXAMPLE
An observer is at position 47°32'S 126°17'E at time 0237 LMT on 4th April.
Express the time in UTC.

SOLUTION
The observer is east of Greenwich and therefore UTC is least (slow on LMT)
126°17’ of arc of longitude expressed in time gives;
 126° of arc at 4 minutes per degree = 504 minutes

17’ of arc at 1 minute per 15’ of arc = 1 minute (to nearest min)

Therefore, 126°17’ of arc = 505 mins total arc to time

= 8 hours and 25 minutes

Therefore,
0237 LMT on 4 April

Arc to time (east) = -0825

= 1812 UTC on 3 April

In this example arc to time has taken us through midnight into the previous day,
hence the change of date.
EXAMPLE 22-3
EXAMPLE
An observer is at position 73°21'N 74°57'W at time 2117 on the 17th July. Express the time in
UTC.

SOLUTION
The observer is west of Greenwich and so UTC is best (fast on LMT). Arc to time for 74°57'W
gives:
 74° = 296 minutes

57’ = 4 minutes (to nearest minute)

Therefore, 74°57’ of arc = 300 minutes total arc to time

= 5 hours and 00 minutes

Therefore,
2117 LMT on 17 July

Arc to time (west) = +0500

= 0217 UTC on 18 July

In this example arc to time has taken us through midnight into the following day, hence the change
of date.

19. The following examples go one step further, and involve calculating LMT at one point given
LMT at another point. The important thing to remember is always to work through UTC.
EXAMPLE 22-4
EXAMPLE
The time is 1437 LMT on 3rd May at position A (27°31'N 127°43'E). Determine
the LMT at position B (43°26'S 40°15'W).

SOLUTION

At position A 1437 LMT 3 May

Arc to time (127°43’E) = -0831

= 0606 UTC 3 May

Arc to time (40°15’W) = -0241

At position B 0325 LMT 3 May

EXAMPLE 22-5
EXAMPLE
The time is 2219 LMT on 16th June at position C (00°15'N 163°21'W).
Determine the LMT at position D (05°17'N 83°13'W).

SOLUTION

At position C 2219 LMT 16 June

Arc to time (163°21’W) = +1053

= 0912 UTC 17 June

Arc to time (83°13’W) = -0533

At position D 0339 LMT 17 June

Some problems include flight time. If such is the case, calculate the T/O time in
UTC. Then add the flight time to obtain the landing time UTC and if required,
convert to LMT. ALWAYS WORK IN UTC.
EXAMPLE 22-6
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs point E (23°16'N 47°20'E) at 1921 LMT on 21st August. The flight
time to F (46°29'N 8316'E) is 8 hours 30 minutes. Determine the LMT of arrival at F.

SOLUTION

Departure E 1921 LMT 21 August

Arc to time (47°20’E) = -0309

Departure E 1612 UTC 21 August

Flight Time = +0830

Arrival F 0042 UTC 22 August

Arc to time (83°16’E) = +0533

Arrival F 0615 LMT 22 August

EXAMPLE 22-7
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs airfield G (43°16'N 169°35'E) and flies to airfield H (36°59'N 147°26'W).
The aircraft departs G at 2015 LMT on 15th January. The flight time is 10 hours 25 minutes.
Determine the LMT of arrival at H.

SOLUTION

Departure G 2015 LMT 15 January

Arc to time (169°35’E) = -1118

Departure G 0857 UTC 15 January

Flight Time = +1025

Arrival H 1922 UTC 15 January

Arc to time (147°26’W) = +0950

Arrival H 0932 LMT 15 January

20. At first glance it may seem odd that the aircraft arrives before it departs! In fact, the aircraft
has crossed the International Dateline. It is by working through UTC, the change of date on crossing
the dateline takes care of itself.
EXAMPLE 22-8
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs airfield J (63°16'S 153°45'W) and flies to airfield K (58°01'N 150°19'E). The
aircraft departs J at 1935 LMT on September 13. The flight time is 8 hours 30 minutes.
Determine the LMT of arrival at K.

SOLUTION

Departure J 1935 LMT 13 September

Arc to time (153°45’W) = +1015

Departure J 0550 UTC 14 September

Flight Time = +0830

Arrival K 1420 UTC 14 September

Arc to time (150°19’E) = +1001

Arrival K 0021 LMT 15 September

21. Now the flight appears to have spanned two whole days! In fact the aircraft has crossed the
dateline, this time in the opposite direction. Again, by working through UTC, the change of date has
taken care of itself.
22. Having asked you to solve the conversion of arc of longitude to time using simple
mathematics, we can now reveal that you will find at the end of this chapter, extracts from (see
Figure 22-11) the Air Almanac a table which will do the conversion for you. The use of the table is
quite straightforward, the columns of the table come in pairs, and all but the last pair of columns
convert whole degrees of longitude into hours and minutes of time. The last column converts
minutes of arc into minutes and seconds of time. There are even instructions at the foot of the table
which tell you how and which way to apply arc to time conversions. Try reworking some of the
previous examples in order to become familiar with the use of this table.

The International Dateline

23. When travelling eastwards from Greenwich, an observer would eventually arrive at longitude
179°59'E, where the LMT is about to become 12 hours more than UTC. Similarly, an observer
travelling westwards from Greenwich would eventually arrive at 179°59'W, where the LMT is about
to become 12 hours less than UTC. There is a full day of 24 hours difference between the two
observers, although they are both about to cross the same meridian.
24. When the anti-meridian of Greenwich is crossed, one day is gained or lost, depending upon
the direction of travel. When travelling west, a day is gained (added); when travelling east, a day is
lost (subtracted).
As already emphasised in Example 23-7 and Example 23-8, the problem of the date difference, on
either side of the International Dateline (principally the 180° east/west meridian) resolves itself,
providing that you solve all time problems by reverting to UTC before moving across the surface of
the Earth.

Note. The dateline does not follow the Greenwich anti-meridian entirely. For administrative
reasons, certain groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean are included in what should be the opposite
date zone according to their longitudes eg Chatham Island is 12 hours 45 mins.

Standard Time
25. LMT changes with change of longitude. If LMT were to be used as a means of timekeeping
nationally, it would be necessary to adjust one's watch when travelling east-west across a country.
Obviously, this is not satisfactory and so countries use Standard Time, sometimes referred to as
‘clock time’, which usually apply to the whole country. For countries having a large East/West extent
such as the USA, however, several different standard times apply; these are broken down broadly
speaking into 15° bands of longitude or by states.

26. The Standard Time difference for any given country, or state within a country, is usually
determined by a combination of geographical position (ie longitude) and political will. For instance,
much of France is in the same geographical span of longitude as the United Kingdom and so might be
expected to be on the same time ‘zone’. However, the French Government has decided that it would
be more convenient for France to be on the same time as the majority of her trading partners within
the European Union. Therefore France is one hour ahead of the United Kingdom.

27. At the end of this chapter you will find extracts from an Air Almanac. Included in these
extracts are three tables or 1 ‘Lists’ for Standard Time difference with respect to UTC (which is still
referred to as GMT in the almanac):
 (a) List 1 deals with countries whose Standard Time is fast on UTC/GMT (mainly those
at easterly longitudes). See Figure 22-7.

(b) List 2 deals with countries normally keeping UTC/GMT. See Figure 22-9.

(c) List 3 deals with countries whose Standard Time is normally slow on UTC/GMT
(mainly those countries at westerly longitudes). See Figure 22-9.

Notice that, at the top of lists 1 and 3, there is guidance as to how to apply the relevant correction.
At the bottom of each list you will find various footnotes. When you are looking up the standard
time difference for a given location you must pay particular attention to the symbol or footnote
number which may follow the location name (for example Crete*, Marshall Islands1 ) and comply
with the footnote, if possible.

28. Some instructions accompanying the footnotes are non-specific eg ‘Summer time may be kept
in these countries’, but equally, summer time may not be kept in those countries; we do not know for
sure and therefore we cannot apply a correction. On the other hand, the information for some
countries is quite specific such as for USA and UK. The footnote applying to the United Kingdom is
specific in terms of how and when to apply British Summer Time and therefore we must comply with
the footnote in order to arrive at the correct Standard Time. The Standard Time being kept in a
country should be checked in the appropriate Flight-information Handbook or AIP.
EXAMPLE 22-9
EXAMPLE
Given that an aircraft departs the Azores at 2215 standard time on Jan. 15th to fly to New York,
and that the flight time is 7 hrs 20 mins, determine the Standard Time of arrival in New York.

SOLUTION
As with previous examples, the key to the correct solution to example 9 is to work through UTC.

Departure Azores 2215 ST 15 January

Standard Time difference = +0100

Departure Azores 2315 UTC 15 January

Flight Time = +0720

Arrival New York 0635 UTC 16 January

Standard Time difference = -0500

Arrival New York 0135 ST 16 January

EXAMPLE 22-10
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs Djibouti at 0215 standard time on March 21st. The flight to Morocco
takes 7 hours 15 minutes. Determine the standard time of arrival in Morocco.

SOLUTION

Departure Djibouti 0215 ST 21 March

Standard Time difference = -0300

Departure Djibouti 2315 UTC 20 March

Flight Time = +0715

Arrival Morocco 0630 UTC 21 March

Standard Time difference = 0000

Arrival Morocco 0630 ST 21 March

Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight
Sunrise and Sunset
29. Turn to the extract of the Air Almanac dealing with sunrise, sunset and twilight; a quick
perusal of the tables will indicate that the time of any of these events varies with both the date
considered and the latitude of the observer. The times tabulated are LMT.
30. Check the tables and confirm that the sun rises later and sets earlier with increase of latitude
in the winter hemisphere, but rises earlier and sets later with increase of latitude in the summer
hemisphere. The extreme examples of this are the midnight sun (24 hours of daylight) in the polar
regions of the summer hemisphere, and the continuous periods when the sun never rises in the polar
regions of the winter hemisphere.

31. Note that the latitude band covered by these tables extends from 72°N to 60°S. At higher
latitudes it is necessary to use graphs to determine the time of sunrise, sunset and twilight, and these
are outside the scope of this syllabus.

32. Three symbols are used in these tables to replace the four-figure time group. The meaning of
these symbols is given at Figure 22-2.
 Time and Time Conversions

FIGURE 22-2
Symbols found in
Sunset, Sunrise
and Twilight Tables

33. Refer now to the Air Almanac extracts and check the use of these symbols. Note, for
example, that the white rectangle symbol never appears at a lower latitude than 66 (in June in the
northern hemisphere, and assumed to be the same latitude in December in the southern hemisphere).
Whereas the black rectangle symbol never appears at a lower latitude than 68 (in December in the
northern hemisphere).

34. The sunrise, sunset and twilight tables list the Local Mean Time for the phenomenon. When
the upper limb (edge) of the sun appears to be co-incident with the horizon of an observer it is sunrise
or sunset. Twilight is assumed to begin or end when the centre of the sun is 6 below the sensible
horizon.
35. Atmospheric refraction causes an observer to observe objects which are actually below his/her
sensible horizon. At sunrise and sunset, the sun’s upper edge is 34’ of arc below the observer’s
sensible horizon at mean sea level.
36. Sunrise at the Equator is always at approximately (within 20 minutes of) 0600 LMT, and
sunset is always at approximately 1800 LMT.
37. When interpolating between dates and latitudes in the tables, work to the nearest whole
minute of time. The tables are divided in columns listed every 3 days over a 45 day period on each
page. The latitude lines are listed at 2 intervals from 72N to 50N, then at 5 intervals to 30N and at
10 intervals to the equator. The same latitude intervals are used in the Southern Hemisphere. The
latitude spacing indicates the degree of accuracy required with the interpretation of latitude. For
instance, a high latitude, such as 6243N requires a greater accuracy of interpretation than 1043N
because a few minutes of latitude can make a considerable difference to the answer. At low latitudes,
rounding to the nearest ½ of latitude is accurate enough.

38. The following examples are based around sunrise and sunset times:
EXAMPLE 22-11
EXAMPLE
An aircraft departs Gibraltar (36°07'N 05°21'W) one hour after sunrise on 14 July
and flies to Hamilton, Ontario (43°10'N 79°56'W). The flight time is 7 hours 45
minutes. Determine the LMT of arrival at Hamilton.
SOLUTION

Sunrise Gibraltar 0453 LMT 14 July

Take off 1 hour after sunrise +0100

Depart Gibraltar 0553 LMT 14 July

Arc to time (05°21’W) = +0021

Depart Gibraltar = 0614 UTC 14 July

Flight Time = 0745

Arrive Hamilton = 1359 UTC 14 July

Arc to time (79°56’W) = 0520

Arrive Hamilton 0839 LMT 14 July

EXAMPLE 22-12
EXAMPLE
An aircraft leaves Gander, Newfoundland (48°57'N 54°34'W) one hour before sunset on July 5th.
The flight time to Los Angeles, California, USA is 8 hours 45 minutes. Determine the standard
(summer) time of arrival at Los Angeles.
SOLUTION

Sunset Gander 2007 LMT 5 July

Take off 1 hour before sunrise -0100

Depart Gander 1907 LMT 5 July

Arc to time (54°34’W) = +0338

Depart Gander 2245 UTC 5 July

Flight Time = 0845

Arrive Los Angeles 0730 UTC 6 July

Standard Time difference = -0800
= 2330 ST 5 July
Summer Time adjustment (See footnote 3 at list III (continued)) = +0100
Arrive Los Angeles 0030 ST 6 July
39. An examination of the complete Air Almanac would show that at mid-latitudes the time
interval between sunrise and sunset changes most rapidly around the spring and autumn equinoxes.

Twilight
40. When the sun is just below the horizon, an observer on the Earth will still receive light which
has been refracted and scattered by the atmosphere; this light is called twilight. Figure 22-3 shows
the four degrees of twilight:
(a) When the sun is between the horizon and a point six degrees below the horizon, civil
twilight is said to exist. During Civil Twilight, the use of artificial light is not
necessary. The time of the beginning of morning civil twilight and the end of evening
civil twilight are tabulated in the almanac. The times listed are for when the centre of
the sun’s disc is 6 below the horizon.

(b) When the sun is between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon, nautical twilight is said
to exist.

(c) When the sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon, astronomical twilight
is said to exist.

(d) Legal twilight is defined by individual states (for the United Kingdom it exists from 30
minutes before sunrise, until sunrise, and from sunset to 30 minutes after sunset).
FIGURE 22-3

41. As with the sunrise and sunset tables, the twilight tables in the almanac give the LMT of the
event for an observer at mean sea level. When interpolating between dates and latitudes in the tables,
work to the nearest whole minute of time.

The Duration of Twilight

42. The duration of civil twilight is the time period from the beginning of morning civil twilight
to sunrise or from sunset to the end of evening civil twilight. It will be the same at both ends of the
day. On occasions the combination of sun’s declination and observers latitude may cause one minute
of difference between the two durations.
43. The duration of twilight is affected by the following factors:

(a) The declination of the sun, and therefore by implication the time of year. When the
sun is in observer’s hemisphere the duration of twilight increases as the sun’s
declination increases.

(b) The observer’s latitude. As latitude increases so the duration of twilight increases. At
high latitudes, it is possible for civil twilight to exist all night.

(c) The observer’s altitude. Although only MSL tables are provided for the course and the
examination, there are tables available at 1000ft intervals up to 50,000ft above MSL.
The high altitude tables show that twilight commences earlier and ends later than at
MSL but has a shorter duration. This is because of the rarer atmosphere and
decreased scattering effect with increased altitude.
EXAMPLE 22-13
EXAMPLE
Determine the duration of morning civil twilight at Nicosia, Cyprus (35°09'N 33°16'E) on 6
August.

SOLUTION

Sunrise (35°09’N) 0512 LMT 6 August

Start of MCT (35°09’N) -0445 LMT 6 August

Therefore, duration of MCT = 27 minutes

44. Figure 22-4 depicts the effect of declination for an observer at 60°N on June 21st and
December 21st. Notice for June 21st, sunrise is at 0230 LMT and the beginning of morning civil
twilight is at 0045 LMT. Hence the duration of twilight is 1 hour 45 mins. Whereas on 21st
December sunrise is at 0910 LMT and the beginning of MCT 0813 LMT so the duration of twilight
is 57 minutes.
FIGURE 22-4

45. Figure 22-5 depicts the effect of declination for an observer at 10°N on 21st June and 21st
December. For 21st June sunrise is at 0540 LMT and the beginning of morning civil twilight is at
0517 LMT. The duration of twilight is 23mins. On 21st December sunrise is at 0615 LMT and the
beginning of MCT occurs at 0552 LMT. Therefore the duration of twilight is only 23mins.
FIGURE 22-5

46. Comparison of the two sets of times reveals that at high latitudes with the sun in the same
hemisphere sunrise occurs earlier and the duration of twilight is longer than at low latitudes. The
higher the latitude of the observer and the greater the declination of the sun in the same hemisphere
the greater is this effect. When the sun is in the opposite hemisphere i.e. in winter sunrise occurs later
and the duration of twilight is shorter. The effect being less at the lower latitude.
FIGURE 22-6 21st June 21st December
Sunrise Duration of twilight Sunrise Duration of twilight
60 N 0230 LMT 1 hr 45 mins 0910 LMT 57 mins
10 N 0540 LMT 23 mins 0615 LMT 23 mins

47. If the latitude is above 72° then in summer an observer can experience 24 hours of daylight
and in winter 24 hours of darkness.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 12

QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1.

What is the definition of the 'declination' of a star?

QUESTION 2.
What is the definition of the 'hour angle' of a star?

QUESTION 3.

State Kepler's First Law.

QUESTION 4.

State Kepler's Second Law.

QUESTION 5.

Define an apparent solar day.

QUESTION 6.

Why is an apparent solar day sometimes longer and sometimes shorter than a mean solar day?

QUESTION 7.

What is the duration of morning civil twilight at Rashim in Korea (4230N, 13020E) on 16th July?
QUESTION 8.

What is the LMT of sunrise on Lord Howe Island (3131S, 15904E) on 17th July.

QUESTION 9.

It is 1200 LMT on 4th May at 1000N, 09000E. What is the corresponding UTC time?

QUESTION 10.
It is 1104 ST in Mexico City (1930N, 09900W) on 14th February. Express this time in UTC.

QUESTION 11.

What is the UTC time corresponding to 2115 LMT at 6115S, 17235W on 2nd February?

QUESTION 12.

What is the UTC time equivalent to 0011 ST in Hong Kong (2219N, 11412E) on 21st December?

QUESTION 13.

What is the standard time of sunrise at Wellington, New Zealand (4110S, 17445E) on the 19th July?

QUESTION 14.

At 0900 LMT on 22nd July at 1000N 05000W, what is the LMT at 1000S 09000W?

QUESTION 15.

When it is 1210 ST in Kuwait on 15th July, what is the standard time in Algeria?
QUESTION 16.

An aircraft departs at 1910 LMT on 16th March from 'A' (47°N, 63°W) and flies to 'B' (37°N,
49°W). If the flight time is 3hours 20minutes, what is the LMT and date of arrival at B?

QUESTION 17.

An aircraft departs at 1230 ST on 14th August from Los Angeles, California, USA and flies to Tokyo,
Japan. If the flight time is 11 hours 10 minutes, what is the standard time and date of arrival in
Tokyo.

QUESTION 18.

An aircraft leaves C (longitude 175°E) at 0900 LMT on 7th July to fly to Samoa. If the flight time is
6hours 20 minutes, what is the standard time and date of arrival in Samoa?

QUESTION 19.

An aircraft departs Hong Kong (2219N), 11412E) one hour before sunset on 24th July to fly to
Guam (1330N, 14445E). If the flight time is 6 hours 30 minutes, what is the standard time and date
of arrival in Guam?
QUESTION 20.

An aircraft arrives at Karachi, Pakistan at 1615 ST. If the time of departure from Ankara, Turkey
(3958N, 3225E) for this direct flight was 0825 LMT, what was the flight time?
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

The 'declination' of a star is the angular distance (along the hour circle) of the star measured in
degrees north or south of the equinoctial. (It is similar to latitude.)

ANSWER 2.

The 'hour angle' of a star in the angular distance measured in degrees west along the equinoctial
between a datum hour circle and the hour circle of the star. (It is similar to longitude except that it is
measured west from 0° to 360°.)
ANSWER 3.

The orbit of each planet describes an ellipse around the sun, with the sun positioned at one of the foci
of the ellipse.
ANSWER 4.

The radius vector of any planet sweeps out an equal area in equal time.

ANSWER 5.

An apparent solar day is the time between successive transits of the real (visual) sun across the
observer's meridian.
ANSWER 6.

A mean solar day in always exactly 24 hours long. The length of an apparent solar day varies
because the earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse (Kepler's first law) and because the earth's speed
along its orbit is continuously changing (Kepler's second law).
ANSWER 7.

Start of MCT 0402 LMT

Sunrise 0436 LMT

Duration of MCT 34 minutes

ANSWER 8.

16th July (17th July) 19th July

30° S 0654 (0654) 0653

31°S 31’S 0657

35° S 0705 (0705) 0704

Answer: 0657 LMT

ANSWER 9.

1200 LMT 4th May

Arc to time (90°E) 0600 -
0600 UTC 4th May
ANSWER 10.

1104 ST 14th February

ST difference lists 0600 +
1704 UTC 14th February

ANSWER 11.

2115 LMT 2nd February

Arc to time (172° 35’W) 1130 +
(3245)
0845 UTC 3rd February
ANSWER 12.

0011 ST 21st December

ST difference list 0800-
1611 UTC 20th December

ANSWER 13.

Sunrise (tables) 0719½ LMT 19th July

Arc to time (17445E) 1139 -
Sunrise 1940½ UTC 18th July
ST difference lists 1200 +
(3140½)
Sunrise 0740½ ST 19th July
ANSWER 14.

0900 LMT 22nd July

Arc to time (50°W) 0320 +
1220 UTC 22nd July
Arc to time (90°W) 0600 -
0620 LMT 22nd July

ANSWER 15.

Kuwait 1210 ST 15th July

ST difference lists 0300 -
0910 UTC 15th July
ST difference lists 0100 +
Algeria 1010 ST 15th July
ANSWER 16.

Depart ‘A’ 1910 LMT 16th March

Arc to time (63°W) 0412 +
Depart ‘A’ 2322 UTC 16th March
Flight time 0320 +
(2642)
Arrive ‘B’ 0242 UTC 17th March
Arc to time (49°W) 0316 -
Arrive ‘B’ 2326 LMT 16th March
ANSWER 17.

Depart Los Angeles 1230 ST 14th August

ST difference lists 0700 +
Depart Los Angeles 1930 UTC 14th August
Flight time 1110 +
(3040)
Arrive Tokyo 0640 UTC 15th August
ST difference lists 0900 +
Arrive Tokyo 1540 ST 15th August

The apparently long duration of this flight is explained by its crossing the prime anti-meridian from
east to west.
ANSWER 18.

Depart ‘C’ 0900 LMT 7th July

Arc to time (175°E) 1140 -
Depart ‘C’ 2120 UTC 6th July
Flight time 0620 +
(2740)
Arrive Samoa 0340 UTC 7th July
ST difference lists 1100 -
Arrive Samoa 1640 ST 6th July

The fact that this flight apparently lands before it has taken off is explained by its crossing the prime
anti-meridian from west to east.
ANSWER 19.

Sunset in Hong Kong 1844 LMT (from tables)

Depart Hong Kong 1744 LMT 24th July

Arc to time (114°12E) 0737 -
Depart Hong Kong 1007 UTC 24th July
Flight time 0630 +
Arrive Guam 1637 UTC 24th July
ST difference lists 1000 +
(2637)
Arrive Guam 0237 ST 25th July

ANSWER 20.
Depart Ankara 0825 LMT
Arc to time (32° 25’E) 0210 -
Depart Ankara 0615 UTC
Arrive Karachi 1615 ST
ST difference lists 0500 -
Arrive Karachi 1115 UTC

The flight time is the difference between departure times in UTC. In this example, the flight time is 5
hours.
Extracts from the Air Alamanac
Extracts from
THE AIR ALMANAC
(July - December 1977)
Reproduced by kind Permission
of the Controller,
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
FIGURE 22-7
FIGURE 22-8
FIGURE 22-9
FIGURE 22-10
FIGURE 22-11
FIGURE 22-12
FIGURE 22-13
 Inertial Navigation Systems

Stable Platform Systems

Accelerometers
Rate Integrating Gyros
The Stable Platform
Strapped Down Systems
Inertial Data - Processing and Presentation
INS Control and Display Panels
Visual Presentation of INS Data
INS Errors
System Accuracy
The Development of Inertial Systems
Inertial Navigation Systems
1. Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) are self-contained navigation systems which give
continuous and accurate information regarding the position of the aircraft to which they are fitted.
2. No inertial system can operate without accelerometers. These acceleration measuring devices
sense any change in the aircraft velocity (acceleration/deceleration) very accurately. This information
is then integrated once to give velocity (speed in a given direction) and a second time to give change
of position (distance travelled in a given direction).

3. Necessarily the aircraft to which the INS is fitted will itself pitch, roll and yaw, and
accelerations due to these manoeuvres must not be processed by the integrators. Furthermore, the
aircraft is moving across the surface of a sphere which is itself moving through space. It is therefore a
complex procedure to isolate those accelerations which are relevant to the aircraft's changing
horizontal position relative to the Earth.

4. Two approaches for isolating the required horizontal accelerations are available, the first of
which utilises a stable platform.

Stable Platform Systems

5. Stable platforms themselves come in two forms, the north aligned system and the wander
angle system.
North Aligned Platforms
6. The north aligned system involves a stable platform upon which two accelerometers are
mounted at right angles to each other. One accelerometer is maintained in alignment with true north.
The second accelerometer, which is set at 90° to the first, will therefore be aligned east-west. There
may be a third (vertical) accelerometer, but for the time being we will ignore this.

7. As well as being stable in direction, that is to say that the north-aligned accelerometer will
continue to point to true north regardless of the aircraft heading, the platform is also maintained in a
state of horizontal stability. This means that the platform, and therefore the accelerometers, will be
maintained Earth horizontal regardless of any pitching or rolling movements of the aircraft. The
accelerometers will not therefore measure the effect of gravity and erroneously interpret this as an
acceleration. Since the Earth is itself rotating, and the aircraft moving across the Earth's surface, the
INS computer is required to calculate the rate at which to topple the platform with respect to space
in order to maintain the platform in an Earth horizontal attitude.

Wander Angle Platforms

8. A development of the north aligned system described above is the wander angle system. The
hardware is exactly the same as for a north aligned platform and again requires that two
accelerometers are mounted at right angles to each other on a platform which is maintained Earth
horizontal. With some systems the operator has the choice of operating in either the north aligned or
the wander angle mode.

9. In the wander angle system no effort is made to maintain north alignment. Instead, the angle
by which the platform would have to be skewed (in the horizontal plane) in order to re-align the
platform with north is calculated, and used to correct the outputs of the accelerometers so that the
outputs appear to be coming from a north aligned system.
10. The notes which follow deal principally with the north aligned system.

Accelerometers
11. Newton's laws of motion give a clue as to the principle of operation of accelerometers:

(a) Newton's First Law. A body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion unless
compelled to change that state by a force acting upon it.

(b) Newton's Second Law. The rate of change of motion of a body is proportional to the
applied force causing the change, and takes place in the direction of the applied force.

(c) Newton's Third Law. To every applied force there is an equal and opposite reaction.

12. The most commonly used accelerometer is based on a pendulum and a closed loop feedback
system and is called a force balance or force re-balance accelerometer. A schematic diagram of such
an accelerometer is shown at Figure 23-1.

13. The pivot of the pendulum allows it to swing along only one axis, known as the alignment
axis. In the example shown at Figure 23-1 the pendulum is aligned with an east-west axis and this
accelerometer is therefore insensitive to any acceleration/deceleration which is entirely in a north-
south direction.

14. The greater the rate of change of speed, the greater is the displacement of the pendulum as it
lags behind the pivot. As the pendulum swings, the state of equilibrium at the E and I bar detector is
disturbed and a greater current is induced to flow in one or other of the pick-off coils.
15. At Figure 23-1 the acceleration is to the west, the pendulum swings to the east (right) and a
greater current flows to the left-hand pick-off coil, since the air gap between the E and the I bars is
now smaller at the left hand end.
16. The difference in pick-off coil currents is sensed within the INS computer, which produces a
DC current in the appropriate force feed-back coil. This current energises the associated electro-
magnet which attracts the pendulum back to the vertical. The strength of the current required to
maintain a vertical pendulum is proportional to the acceleration attempting to displace the
pendulum, and it is the magnitude of this current which is used by the computer to measure the
acceleration along the sensitive axis of the accelerometer.
FIGURE 23-1
Force Balance
Accelerometer
17. The accelerometer itself is extremely accurate and will measure precisely even the smallest
change in aircraft velocity, subject to two very important constraints:

(a) If the accelerometer is not Earth horizontal a continuous current will be required at
one or other of the force-feedback coils to maintain the equal air gaps between the I
bar and the outer arms of the E bar. This bias current is caused to flow because of
gravity, but unfortunately the computer will integrate this bias current as an erroneous
groundspeed. It is therefore essential that the stable platform is maintained Earth
horizontal.

(b) If the accelerometer is directionally misaligned, that is to say that the sensitive axes of
the north-south and east-west accelerometers are not lying precisely in north-south
and east-west planes, then the direction of acceleration will be incorrectly computed,
as illustrated at Figure 23-2. It is therefore essential that the platform maintains a high
degree of directional alignment.
 Inertial Navigation Systems

FIGURE 23-2
Effect of Mis-
Alignment of
Accelerometers

Rate Integrating Gyros

18. The sensing gyros mounted on the platform are rate type gyros. Unlike the rate gyro found in
the turn and slip indicator, the inertial rate gyros have no springs to inhibit the gyro wheel as it
precesses. As the aircraft manoeuvres the relevant gyro (pitch, roll or azimuth) is allowed to precess,
and this precession is sensed by a pick-off coil on the inner can pivot. The output of the pick-off coil
is fed via the INS computer to the associated motor to cancel the platform movement as it attempts
to follow the changing attitude of the aircraft, which would cause it to depart from an Earth
horizontal and/or north aligned condition.
19. It is necessary that the gyros used in inertial systems are very accurate indeed. A real wander
rate of 0.01°/hr is about all that is acceptable. In order to achieve this level of accuracy the gimbal
and rotor assemblies of the gyro are floated in a fluid. The viscosity of the fluid controls the amount
of precession which results from a given input. As viscosity varies with temperature, it is necessary
that the gyros reach their operating temperature before the platform is switched into the navigation
mode.

20. Like the rate gyro in the turn and slip indicator, the INS rate gyros have freedom of movement
about only one axis (apart from the spin axis). Figure 23-3 shows a schematic breakdown of a typical
rate integrating gyro. Note that the spin axis, the sensitive axis and the insensitive axis are all at right
angles to each other.

21. The sensitive axis of the gyro at Figure 23-3 is Z - Z1. Any movement about this axis results
in precession of the gyro about the axis Y - Y1. This rotation is picked off electrically at the pivot (the
output axis Y - Y1).

22. Also located at the pivot is a torque motor. This motor is fed from the INS computer with a
signal which causes the motor to apply a torque to the gyro to correct for Earth rate and transport
wander, in order to keep the platform Earth horizontal and north aligned.
FIGURE 23-3
INS Rate
Integrating Gyro

The Stable Platform

23. In order that the platform can remain Earth horizontal and directionally aligned as the
aircraft manoeuvres, it is necessary to mount the platform within a two-gimbal system, as illustrated
at Figure 23-4.
24. The platform is kept Earth horizontal and in directional alignment by means of sensing gyros,
error signals from which are used to drive motors attached to the gimbal spindles, as shown at
Figure 23-4. The sensing gyros and motors correct for any and all aircraft movements in the pitching,
rolling and yawing planes.

25. In the diagram at Figure 23-4 the aircraft is heading north. Any movement of the aircraft
about its rolling axis will be sensed entirely by the north gyro, the output of which will be fed via the
INS computer to the roll motor. On this heading any movement of the aircraft about its pitching axis
will equally be entirely sensed by the east gyro, the output of which is used to drive the pitch motor.

26. Were the aircraft to be heading due east, the north gyro would sense only pitching movement
and the east gyro would sense only rolling movement.

27. On all non-cardinal headings the pitch and roll motors are driven by composite outputs from
both the north and east gyros, the computer takes care of the mathematics.
28. The azimuth gyro is sensitive to any yawing motion, and its output is always fed via the
computer to the azimuth motor. The azimuth motor is also used to isolate the platform from aircraft
heading changes.
FIGURE 23-4
The Stable
Platform - Aircraft
Heading True
North
Corrections for Earth Rate and Transport Wander
29. In order to maintain the platform Earth horizontal and north aligned, corrections are
required to compensate for the rotation of the Earth, otherwise the platform will be controlled by the
gyros to remain rigid in space rather than rigid with reference to the Earth. The gyro torque motors
must therefore be continuously fed with Earth rate corrections. These corrections are considered in
terms of topple and drift.

30. A stable platform which was levelled at either pole and remained there would not topple as a
result of the rotation of the Earth. Another platform which was levelled at the equator and neither
moved or corrected for Earth rotation would topple through 90° in 6 hours as a result of the Earth's
rotation, as shown at Figure 23-5.

31. At the equator, the correction required to maintain the platform Earth horizontal is 15°/hour.
At any other latitude the correction required is 15 x the cosine of the latitude °/hr.

32. Conversely, a platform which was aligned with true north at the equator and neither moved
or corrected for Earth rate will continue to point true north as the Earth rotates, since the meridians
are parallel at the equator. At latitudes other than the equator it will be necessary to correct the
alignment of the platform by applying a current to the torque motor on the azimuth gyro so that the
azimuth motor can maintain north alignment. The magnitude of this correction is 15 x the sine of the
latitude °/hr.
 Inertial Navigation Systems

FIGURE 23-5
Platform Topple at
the Equator and
Poles

33. The problem of keeping the platform level and aligned is of course complicated by the fact
that the platform is being transported across the surface of the Earth. The mathematics for transport
wander as it affects the alignment of the INS platform are the same as the transport wander which
we previously considered when looking at unslaved directional gyros. The computation of the
correction required to maintain north alignment is based on the formula:
 East/West component of groundspeed  Tan latitude
The alignment rate = --------------------------------------------------------------- /hr
60
34. Transporting the platform also produces a requirement to topple the platform in order to
keep it in the Earth horizontal. For example, in Figure 23-6 a platform is flown from the equator due
north to the pole. In order that it remains horizontal throughout, the platform must be toppled
through a total of 90°. In this case the rate of required topple is a function of the groundspeed north/
south. Suppose that the aircraft's groundspeed was 600 kt. The journey time from the equator to the
pole (5400 nm @ 600 kt) would be 9 hours and the required topple rate would be 10°/hr. The
correction required can therefore be expressed as groundspeed north/south ÷ 60 °/hr. Similarly, any
component of the groundspeed in an east/west direction would require a correction of groundspeed
east/west ÷ 60 °/hr. On anything other than a true cardinal track, the required correction would be a
composite of both of the above and the correction would be achieved by means of error signals fed to
the torque motors attached to both the north and east gyros which would result in activity at both
the pitch and roll motors.
FIGURE 23-6
Platform Topple -
Equator to Pole
Transit

Coriolis Correction
35. Accelerometers mounted on a stable platform are subject to errors caused by coriolis.
36. Coriolis effect, put simply, is the force which acts on any body which is moving across the
surface of the Earth, and which tends to deflect that body to the right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere. Coriolis force is due to the Earth's rotation about its own spin
axis, and is fully described in the Meteorology Theory syllabus, where its effect on moving bodies of
air is considered. Any force which acts upon the accelerometers will be assumed to be a change of
velocity (acceleration or deceleration), and so it is necessary for the system to ‘compute out’ the
coriolis effect on the accelerometers. In order to do this the INS computer requires values of aircraft
latitude, track and groundspeed, but of course this presents no problem, since all of these values are
themselves computed by the system.

Levelling and Gyro-compassing

37. As already emphasised, the output of the INS will only be of a high standard of accuracy if
the platform is maintained Earth horizontal and correctly aligned with true north. The first step is
obviously to set up the platform on the ground. This procedure can only be satisfactorily completed
whilst the aircraft is stationary.

38. Initially the platform is levelled to aircraft horizontal and if necessary coarsely aligned by
manually slewing the platform so that it is aligned with the aircraft's compass heading, corrected for
variation (in modern systems the coarse manual alignment is not normally required). With the
platform selected to the align mode fine levelling is now commenced. During this process the
accelerometer outputs are assumed to be due to gravity, hence the requirement that the aircraft must
not be moved at this stage. The outputs of the accelerometers are used in a servo loop principle to
level the platform. This process is also known as the accelerometer null technique and is completed in
1 to 1½ minutes.
39. Once the fine levelling procedure is complete, the platform automatically commences the
gyro-compassing process for which it is essential that the present position is correctly inserted into
the INS. In fact it is an incorrect latitude which will prevent successful gyro-compassing and
consequent accurate north alignment, we will see why shortly.

40. During the gyro-compassing process the outputs of gyros and accelerometers are combined to
achieve a precise alignment. Refer again to Figure 23-4 and let us examine the gyro-compassing
process for the platform shown, which is in an aircraft which is facing north. Were the platform to be
precisely aligned with true north, the east gyro (which has a north/south spin axis) would be
insensitive to movement of the platform about the north/south (Earth) axis as the platform is toppled
by the torque motor on the north gyro, which (in this case) is driving the roll motor to keep the
platform Earth horizontal.

41. Suppose now that the platform is mis-aligned, and that therefore the spin axis of the east gyro
is no longer exactly north/south oriented. The east gyro will now detect a component of the Earth
rate topple, and will precess. This precession is picked off and used by the INS computer to tilt the
platform. The platform is now no longer Earth horizontal and the north/south accelerometer will
sense gravity. The output from the north/south accelerometer is used by the computer to feed an
error signal to the azimuth motor to re-align the platform and an error signal to the pitch motor (in
this case since the aircraft is facing north) to re-level the platform. This process continues until the
output from the north/south accelerometer is zero. Now the east gyro is insensitive to Earth rotation,
since the platform is precisely aligned. The two basic inputs which are used to achieve gyro-
compassing are therefore Earth rate and gravity.
42. Since the Earth rate corrections which are fed from the computer are at a rate of 15° x the
cosine of the latitude °/hr, it follows that gyro-compassing will not be achieved at high latitudes (the
cosine of 90° is zero). With modern systems 70° N/S is about the limit. Furthermore, the time taken
to achieve alignment will increase as the latitude at which gyro-compassing occurs increases. If the
computer is using an incorrect latitude during the gyro-compassing process, the platform will not
align. In the best case, if the latitude which has been entered as the start (ramp) position is wildly in
error, the computer will realise that something is wrong and will invite you to check the ramp
position. In the worst case, if the entered latitude is only slightly in error, a false north alignment will
occur, which will give rise to an ever increasing (unbounded) error in the INS position as the flight
progresses.

43. Once the levelling and alignment processes are complete the platform ready light will
illuminate and the navigation mode can be selected. The aircraft can now be moved. The story of
what happens next (the way in which the outputs from the platform are processed and presented to
the pilots) is continued in the Inertial Data - Processing and Presentation section.

Strapped Down Systems

44. The strapped down type of inertial navigation system became feasible with the advent of high
speed large capacity digital microprocessors and the introduction of the ring laser gyro.

45. There is no stabilised platform and three accelerometers are mounted rigidly inside the
inertial navigation unit, which is simply bolted to the aircraft structure. The accelerometers are
therefore effectively fixed to the airframe, and are aligned with the aircraft's pitch, roll and yaw axes.
Three ring laser gyros are also mounted in the same unit, and again their sensitive axes are aligned
with the aircraft's pitch, roll and yaw axes.
Solid State or Ring Laser Gyros
46. The ring laser gyro (RLG) is just about as different from a conventional gyro as it is possible
to get. The RLG operates on the principle of the relative movement of two beams of laser light,
whereas a conventional gyro operates on the principle of stored mechanical energy (inertia). RLGs
are a solid state alternative to the conventional rate integrating gyro.

Construction
47. The construction of a triangular ring laser gyro is shown at Figure 23-7. Figure 23-7 shows a
cross section through the sensitive plane of the RLG, the sensitive axis passes perpendicularly
through the page. Square RLGs are also manufactured, the principle of operation is much the same.
FIGURE 23-7
Ring Laser Gyro
48. The RLG is formed from a solid block of cer-vit (glass/ceramic) material which is used
because it has a very low temperature co-efficient. It does not distort with age, which would degrade
the accuracy and perhaps destroy the gas tight seal necessary to contain the helium and neon gases.
Channels are drilled very accurately in the block to form two triangular laser paths which are filled
with a low pressure helium/neon mixture.

49. Two anodes and a common cathode are used to create electrical discharges within the gases
which cause the channels to act as ‘gain tubes’, producing laser beams. These beams travel in
opposite directions around the triangular block.
50. At each of the three corners of the block are flat mirrors which reflect the laser beams into the
next channel. Two of these mirrors (B and C at Figure 23-7) are movable and are controlled by piezo-
electric actuators operating in a closed loop system to adjust the optical path length to within precise
limits, and so to correct for the small expansions/contractions of the block with changing
temperatures within the permitted operating temperature band. It is necessary that the optical path is
maintained at a length which is an integral multiple of the lasing wavelength, that is to say an exact
number of wavelengths of the light waves at the frequency achieved when the lasers are operating at
peak power. The third mirror (A at Figure 23-7) permits a small portion of the laser light beams to
pass through the mirror and to be presented at the photoelectric cells of the detector. One of these
beams is necessarily routed via a prism and a further mirror (as shown at Figure 23-7) so that the
beams approach the detector from the same direction.
Principle of Operation
51. As in many applications of laser oscillators, the RLG makes use of the high sensitivity of the
laser’s oscillating frequency to variations of the dimensions of the resonant structure. The resonant
structure, in this case the triangular block, is designed such that each beam will only sustain
oscillation (that is to say resonate) at one particular spot frequency. If the RLG is stationary, the
resonant frequency for both clockwise and anti-clockwise laser beams will be identical since the path
lengths travelled by the beams is identical. When the beams combine at the detector they interfere
with each other to form a fringe pattern of light bars at the photoelectric cells of the detector.

52. Assume now that the RLG shown at Figure 23-7 is rotating in a clockwise direction. The light
beam which is travelling in the same direction as the rotation must travel a slightly longer path to
complete one revolution, whilst the opposite beam will travel over a correspondingly shorter path.
The resonant frequencies of the two beams will therefore be different and there will be a resultant
change in the interference pattern, causing the light bars produced at the photoelectric cells of the
detector to move. The direction of movement of the light bars will depend upon the direction of
rotation of the RLG and the distance by which the light bars move will depend on the rate of
rotation.

53. At first glance it might appear that the RLG shown at Figure 23-7 cannot work in the manner
described above. The laser beam which is travelling clockwise is travelling further than the laser
beam which is travelling anti-clockwise, since it is necessarily routed via the prism and one further
mirror. In fact the clockwise beam, having passed through mirror A, travels a precise extra distance
which ensures that it arrives at the detector at exactly the same phase as it would have done with a
direct path. The effect of the additional path length is therefore cancelled.
54. The output of the photoelectric cells which comprise the detector unit are converted to pulse
signals which are representative of the rate and direction of rotation of the RLG in the sensitive
plane.
55. One problem remains to be solved. When the RLG is not rotating in its sensitive plane, scatter
from the mirrored surfaces causes the opposing beams to lock together in a phenomenon known as
frequency lock. The beams then tend to remain locked together until the rotation of the RLG reaches
a certain rate, preventing small rates of rotation from being detected. To overcome this problem a
dither is introduced by an external vibration device which vibrates the gyro at a resonant frequency.
This breaks the frequency lock and allows much smaller rotations to be measured.

56. If we consider that the sensitive axis of the RLG shown at Figure 23-7 lies parallel to the
lateral axis of the aircraft, then the gyro would measure the rate and direction of roll of the aircraft,
since the aircraft would be rolling in the sensitive plane of the gyro.

57. The laser gyro is employed to perform the same functions as a conventional rate integrating
gyro, however because of the high cost of RLGs it is likely that their use will continue to be restricted
to systems requiring high levels of accuracy combined with low weight. In modern inertial
navigation/reference systems (strapped down systems), three RLGs mounted orthogonally are used to
provide the same outputs as the three mechanical rate integrating gyros which were used in older
(stable platform) inertial navigation systems.

Advantages of the RLG

58. The principle advantages of the RLG over its mechanical counterpart are summarised below;

(a) high reliability (up to 60,000 hours before failure has been demonstrated)

(b) sensitive to a wide range of rotation rates (0.004 to 400 degrees/second)

 (c) the RLG does not suffer from mechanical precession, and cannot topple

(d) much lower power inputs are required

(e) there is no spin up time required, and the stable operating temperature is quickly
achieved

Strapped Down System Operation

59. In the strapped down system the accelerometers will clearly measure total acceleration, which
will now be due to gravity (the accelerometers are not stabilised Earth horizontal), to aircraft
manoeuvres and to the aircraft movement over the surface of the Earth. Of these only the third is
required, and the other two output components must be isolated.

60. In order to achieve this the INS computer needs to determine the difference between the
horizontal plane of the strapped down unit (aircraft horizontal) and Earth horizontal, and also the
angle between the aircraft's roll (fore and aft) axis and true north during what is still referred to as
the alignment (initial setting up) process. It does this by analysing the outputs of the accelerometers
due to gravity. As with platform systems the aircraft must not be moved with the equipment in the
align mode.

61. Once in the navigation mode the fast/high capacity processor within the INS computer uses
the outputs of the RLGs in order to isolate the outputs of the accelerometers which are due solely to
the movement of the aircraft relative to the Earth's surface and to relate these outputs to the Earth's
north/south, east/west and vertical axes. Corrections for Earth rate and transport wander are
achieved by adjusting the perceived angles between aircraft horizontal and Earth horizontal and
between true north and the aircraft's roll axis.
62. The main advantage of the strapped down system over the stable platform system is that there
are virtually no moving parts, making the system far more reliable, and much lighter. If a strapped
down system does go unserviceable, replacement of the navigation unit is a much simpler procedure
than with a stabilised platform. Initial alignment times are faster with a strapped down system since
there is no platform to be aligned and the ring laser gyros achieve their stable operating temperatures
much faster than their mechanical counterparts.

63. All strapped-down systems work on the same principles described above. Whereas many use
the triangular ring-laser gyroscope previously described, some use a square or four-sided RLG. A
further type patented by Litton Aero Products uses a four-mode laser gyroscope, with four laser
paths in two planes, which together with circular light polarisation effectively combines two LRGs
into one and eliminates the requirement for dither.

Inertial Data - Processing and Presentation

64. Having considered the nuts and bolts of inertial platforms and briefly discussed strapped
down systems, it is now time to consider how the raw output from the system is converted into useful
data, and how this is presented to the pilots.

Integration
65. Regardless of which type of inertial system is considered, they all have one thing in common.
They all detect components of acceleration which are truly sensed in the Earth horizontal plane along
the north/south and east/west axes (the north aligned platform). Alternatively the accelerometer
outputs are corrected so that they give an output which represents that which would occur were the
accelerometers so aligned (wander angle platforms and strapped down systems).
66. To produce the navigation parameters of track, groundspeed, distance and position the raw
inputs of acceleration north/south and east/west must be summed (integrated) by time. Acceleration
integrated with respect to time is speed, and speed integrated with respect to time is distance. These
are the two necessary stages of integration which are required and which are shown at Figure 23-8.

67. Note that the distance travelled north/south in nautical miles equates to change of latitude,
however in order to obtain change of longitude from the east/west distance travelled requires a
further stage of computation, which is achieved within the secant unit of the computer.
68. Remember that east/west distance is known as departure and:

Departure (nm) = Change of longitude (minutes of arc)  Cosine Latitude

This formula must be re-arranged since in this case it is the change of longitude which is the
unknown quantity, therefore:

Departure (nm)
Change of longitude (minutes of arc) =------------------------------------
Cosine latitude
or:
Change of longitude = Departure (nm)  Secant latitude
FIGURE 23-8
Stages of
Integration
The Schuler Cycle
69. The key factor involved in the Schuler principle is that a stable platform which is maintained
Earth horizontal behaves like a pendulum with a length equal to the radius of the Earth. The time
taken for a pendulum to swing through one cycle is directly proportional to its length. Where this
length is the same as the Earth's radius, the time taken for one cycle of the pendulum is 84.4 minutes.

70. Stable platforms possessing this property are said to be Schuler tuned.
71. In theory, once levelled the platform should remain stable and undisturbed, however
vibration and turbulence shocks in flight are likely to create small disturbances. Consequently the
platform is likely to be swinging continuously, hopefully by only a small amount.

72. The effect of this swing is that the outputs from the accelerometers will be in error by a
maximum amount when the platform is at the extremity of its swing. The period of the swing is 84.4
minutes regardless of the magnitude of the disturbance which caused it, and so two important facts
emerge:

(a) The Schuler tuned platform produces its maximum error at 21.1 and 63.3 minutes
through each 84.4 minute cycle.

(b) The magnitude of the maximum error depends on the size of the disturbance which
caused it, however the mean error remains at zero (assuming no inherent
accelerometer error).

73. From the above it should be apparent that any error in the outputs of the accelerometers
which is caused by Schuler tuning is bounded, that is to say that the error does not increase with time
beyond its original maximum value.
74. Furthermore, since the output error of any accelerometer will not increase with time, the
output of the first stage integrator associated with it (velocity) will also be bounded. For example, for
an aircraft flying at a groundspeed of 600 kt the INS output of groundspeed might be 600 kt at
minute zero, 602 kt at minute 21.1, 600 kt at minute 42.2, 598 kt at minute 63.3 and again 600 kt at
minute 84.4. The mean output of groundspeed is correct at 600 kt.

75. We have discussed Schuler tuning as it applies to stable platforms which are maintained Earth
horizontal. Appreciate, however, that strapped down systems are designed to deliver accelerometer
outputs which are corrected (processed) to be representative of those which would be achieved were
the accelerometers to be maintained Earth horizontal rather than aircraft horizontal. Strapped down
systems are therefore also considered to be Schuler tuned, and to suffer similar bounded errors as a
consequence.

INS Control and Display Panels

76. There are many types of inertial navigation systems currently in use and the final paragraphs
of this section summarise the evolution of this invaluable aid to navigation. Suffice for the moment to
say that the system which is described in the following pages is an older type of INS, the operation of
which is perhaps easier to understand than that of its more sophisticated successors.

The Mode Selector Panel

77. The traditional INS system comprises two control panels for control and display plus an
Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) which contains the gyros, accelerometers, integration circuits etc. The
simpler of the two control panels, the mode selector unit (MSU), is shown at Figure 23-9.
FIGURE 23-9
Mode Selector
Unit (MSU)

78. The positions of the mode selector switch and the purpose of the two lights (Ready Nav and
Batt) are discussed in the following paragraphs.
79. Standby. In this mode power is supplied to all parts of the system. It is normal to insert the
start position (the aircraft's ramp position in latitude/longitude to the nearest tenth of a minute of
arc) at this stage. Remember that an accurate latitude is essential for successful platform alignment.
80. Align. Having inserted the start position, with the aircraft stationary and with a stable power
source, the align mode can now be selected to enable levelling and gyro-compassing to commence. If
necessary, the system's progress through this phase can be checked by selecting status (STS) on the
control display unit. Numbers will appear in the left numerical display window, starting at 90 as the
levelling procedure commences and reaching zero as gyro-compassing is completed. The power
source should remain constant during this period, switching from external to internal aircraft power
at this stage can persuade the INS to restart the levelling/alignment process.

81. Ready Nav. When the levelling/alignment process is complete the green Ready Nav light will
be illuminated, to indicate that the system is now ready for use in the navigation mode.

82. Nav. Selection of the navigation mode means that the INS is open for business, and the
aircraft can now be moved. The nav position on the control panel is detented or spring biased to
prevent an inattentive first officer from de-selecting the navigation mode in flight and ruining his
command prospects for a year or two.

83. Att Ref. This position is normally for use following a computer/processing failure. All
navigation computations are removed, however the platform may still be used to supply pitch, roll
and heading information.
84. Batt. In the event that the power supply to the INS is interrupted, the system will continue to
operate on its own internal (battery) DC supply, for approximately 15 minutes. The red Batt light on
the mode selector panel will illuminate when the battery supply is exhausted.

The Control and Display Unit (CDU)

85. The operation of the INS computer is controlled by the control and display unit (CDU): on a
modern aircraft this unit may also be referred to as the Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU).
86. The INS computer is able to determine aircraft heading. In a north aligned platform system
the true heading is simply the angle between the north/south axis of the platform and the aircraft fore
and aft axis. The INS computer's memory may contain a ‘look up table’ of magnetic variation
worldwide. Using this memory and the INS position enables the INS to display heading in degrees
magnetic. For commercial transport operations it is normal for the INS to express both headings and
tracks in degrees magnetic, however appreciate that the INS is referenced to true north.

87. The other primary outputs of the system are track made good, drift, groundspeed and aircraft
present position expressed as latitude and longitude.
88. With an input of TAS from the air data computer, the INS computer can also resolve the
triangle of velocities and give an output of wind velocity.

89. Providing that the INS computer is fed with details of the route, in other words it is fed with
waypoints (the latitude and longitude of all points on the route at which the aircraft is required to
change track), the computer uses spherical trigonometry logic to determine the great circle tracks and
distances between one waypoint and the next. Should the aircraft be cleared at any time to a
waypoint which is not the next waypoint, the computer will re-compute the great circle track and
distance from the present position to the specified waypoint. Waypoints are identified by number
(departure aerodrome as waypoint 1, the first turning point as waypoint 2 and so on) and, by
convention, waypoint 0 is a floating waypoint which is the aircraft's present position. When cleared
to a distant waypoint (for example waypoint number 5) the operator input would therefore request a
track change 0 to 5.

90. Rather than express aircraft position in terms of latitude and longitude, the computer will
normally be required to express the position of the aircraft relative to the desired track between the
waypoints which define the route.
91. The CDU also provides a means of monitoring the operation of the INS by means of status
displays and annunciator lights.

92. A typical CDU is shown at Figure 23-10.

FIGURE 23-10
Typical Control
and Display Unit
 93. The functions of the display selector switch and of other controls and displays on the CDU
will now be discussed in general terms

FIGURE 23-11
Track and
Groundspeed
Selected

94. TK/GS (Track and groundspeed). The INS derived aircraft track (against a north reference
specified by the operator on the bench prior to installation, normally magnetic north) is shown to the
nearest tenth of a degree in the LH window. The INS derived groundspeed is shown to the nearest
knot in the RH window. The track is 040.0 and the groundspeed 502 kt at Figure 23-11.
FIGURE 23-12
Heading and Drift
Angle Selected

95. HDG/DA (Heading and drift angle). The INS derived heading is shown to the nearest tenth of
a degree in the LH window. The INS derived drift angle is shown to the nearest tenth of a degree is
shown in the RH window, and is preceded by an L (left/port drift) or an R (right/starboard drift). The
heading is 050.0° and the drift 10° left at Figure 23-12.
96. XTK/TKE (Cross track distance and track error angle). The cross track distance (the
displacement of the aircraft perpendicularly from the direct great circle track between the two
waypoints selected) is shown to the nearest tenth of a nautical mile in the LH window. This figure is
preceded by an L or an R to indicate that the aircraft is left or right of the direct track. The track
angle error (the angle between the track which the aircraft would require to make good were it flying
along the great circle route between the specified waypoints and the track which it is actually making
good) is shown to the nearest tenth of a degree in the RH window. The L or R which precedes this
value indicates that the actual track is to the left or right of the required track. The cross track error
is 12.0 nm to the right and the track angle error is 20.0° to the left at Figure 23-13. The geometry of
the situation is also shown at Figure 23-13.
FIGURE 23-13
Cross Track
Distance and
Track Error Angle
Selected
 97. POS (Present position). The aircraft's present latitude is shown to the nearest tenth of a
minute of arc, followed by an N (north) or S (south) as appropriate, in the LH window. The aircraft's
present longitude is shown to the nearest tenth of a minute of arc, again followed by an E (east) or W
(west) as appropriate, in the RH window. The aircraft's position is shown as 34 31.5'N 117
11.3'W at Figure 23-14.

FIGURE 23-14
Present Position
Selected
 98. WPT (Waypoint positions). The waypoint positions are shown in latitude (LH window) and
longitude (RH window) to the nearest tenth of a minute of arc. In the system which we are
considering there are 10 possible waypoint selections (0 through 9). Waypoints 1 through 9 are
simply selected turning points, and are normally punched into the system by the operator before the
flight. Waypoint 0 represents the aircraft's position at the last time a track change from present
position to a specified waypoint was selected by the operator. The position of waypoint one is shown
as 36° 01.4'N 115° 00.0'W at Figure 23-15.

FIGURE 23-15
Waypoint Position
Selected
 99. DIS/TIME (Distance and time to the next waypoint). The distance to go from the aircraft's
present position to the next selected waypoint is shown to the nearest nautical mile in the LH
window. The lapsed time from the aircraft's present position to the next waypoint is shown to the
nearest tenth of a minute in the RH window. The distance to go is shown as 140 nm and the time to
go as 16.7 minutes at Figure 23-16.

FIGURE 23-16
Distance/Time
Selected
 100. WIND (Wind velocity). INS derived wind direction is shown to the nearest degree in the LH
window. INS derived wind speed is shown to the nearest knot in the RH window. The W/V is shown
as 155°/85 kt at Figure 23-17.

FIGURE 23-17
Wind Direction
and Speed
Selected
101. DSR TK/STS (Desired track and status). Assume for the moment that the aircraft is on the
great circle track between two specified waypoints. The desired track is the track required to fly from
one waypoint to the next and is shown to the nearest tenth of a degree in the LH window. The value
of the desired track will change as the aircraft travels from one waypoint to the next. Remember that
the INS uses great circle tracks and appreciate that therefore the desired track angle will change to
account for Earth convergency. Assuming that a magnetic north reference has been specified by the
operator on installation, the desired track will also change as the variation change with aircraft
position is pulled from the INS computer's memory. Appreciate that the desired track always
assumes that the aircraft will remain on the great circle track between specified waypoints. Should
the aircraft depart from this track the desired track readout will show the track angle which is
parallel to the original track as defined by the great circle between the chosen waypoints and not (as
you might expect) the track from the present position to the next waypoint. The desired track is
060.0° at Figure 23-18. You may by now have reached the conclusion that the programme upon
which the INS computer operates assumes that the INS will normally operate coupled to the flight
director/autopilot, so that across track errors do not occur.
FIGURE 23-18
Desired Track and
Status Selected

102. The use of the status function has already been discussed in terms of initial alignment. When
airborne the status (RH) window should be blank, however, should the INS develop a fault, the
status window will give a value which will identify the nature of the problem after reference to the
system operating handbook.
103. Test (Light emitting diode test). The CDU illustrated at Figure 23-10 shows the function
switch in the test position, and consequently all of the digits on the various displays are illuminated
and show a number 8. This enables the operator to check that all of the LEDs are operating
satisfactorily.

104. This concludes the discussion of the functions of the display selector switch. Before we
continue to consider the purpose of the other buttons, selectors and annunciators on the CDU, take a
look at the diagrams at Figure 23-19 and ensure that you agree with the INS navigation geometry
shown there, both for the on track and the off track situations.
FIGURE 23-19
INS Navigation
Geometry
105. With reference to Figure 23-10, the functions of the remaining controls are described in the
following paragraphs.

106. The waypoint selector switch is thumbed to the appropriate waypoint number (shown in the
window to the left of the thumbwheel) when loading the waypoint latitude/longitudes before flight,
reloading new waypoints in flight, or checking that waypoints are correctly loaded.
107. The from/to waypoint display shows the two waypoints between which the INS assumes that
it is flying. All digital readouts, flight director displays and autopilot commands will be based on this
information, and so you can imagine the consequences of either giving the equipment the wrong to/
from waypoint numbers or feeding the system with the wrong waypoint latitude/longitude to begin
with.

108. The track change push button enables the operator to tell the system between which two
waypoints the aircraft is required to fly (in the event that the system is not set up to fly sequentially
through the loaded waypoints). This would normally be used to tell the INS to fly from the present
position (waypoint 0) to a waypoint which is not the next waypoint, following a direct routing from
ATC.

109. The dim control governs the brightness of the LED displays and the panel lighting.

110. The alert annunciator flashes to warn the operator that the aircraft is approaching the next
waypoint. Typically, the alert light will come on with 2 minutes to run to the waypoint and will flash
when the waypoint is crossed. If for some reason the INS is not in the automatic mode (see below),
the alert annunciator will continue to flash until cleared (cancelled) by the pilot.
111. As already discussed, the red battery light on the mode selector panel illuminates when the
back up power supply is exhausted. The purpose of the battery annunciator on the CDU is to warn
the operator that the INS is operating on battery power. When the INS is initially powered up prior
to levelling/alignment the internal back up power source and associated circuitry are self tested and
during this test the battery annunciator is illuminated. In the event that the test is unsatisfactory the
battery annunciator will remain on.

112. The warning annunciator illuminates when a system malfunction occurs, in this event refer to
the status display, which will give a number that will identify the nature of the malfunction.
113. The auto/manual/remote switch determines the level of pilot intervention necessary to fly the
aircraft. In the automatic mode the INS will automatically switch from one track to the next as each
waypoint is overflown. In the manual mode the pilot is required to switch to the next track as a
waypoint is overflown. The remote position enables the pilot to cross load route information
(waypoints) from this INS to a second INS (if fitted) in order to avoid having to load the second INS
manually. If this facility is to be used, it is even more important that the accuracy of the waypoints is
checked. If a waypoint is incorrectly loaded into one INS and the data is then cross loaded the error
will be duplicated. Apart from redundancy (the failure of one of the two systems is allowed for), the
main advantage of having two INS is that one monitors the other. If both are loaded with erroneous
route data, no discrepancy will exist between the systems (and no warning given to the pilots) despite
the fact that the aircraft will at some point be heading towards an incorrect geographical location.

114. The insert pushbutton is used in conjunction with the data input keyboard to enter
information into the system.
115. Finally, the hold pushbutton is primarily used for manually updating the INS position with a
reliable fix, for example a radio fix or GPS position. The hold button is depressed as the fix position
is noted, the function switch is placed in the POS (position) mode, the exact latitude/longitude of the
radio fix is punched into the machine, and the hold button is then released. Appreciate that if this is
done, the radial error rate assessment (discussed shortly) will be invalid, unless the position update
vector is accounted for.

Checking Manually Entered Positions

116. At the initial setting up stage the start position must be fed into the INS computer with a high
degree of accuracy.

117. If the initial latitude is slightly in error the platform will not remain Earth horizontal once the
equipment is switched into the navigation mode, since the torque motors will be tilting the platform
at an inappropriate rate, due to computer calculations based on an incorrect latitude. Likewise, and
for the same reasons, the platform will not remain directionally aligned with respect to north. The
same problems will apply to wander angle and strapped down systems, but for different reasons.

118. If the initial latitude setting is grossly in error the system will detect the error and warn the
operator (this is one of the principal functions of the warning annunciator on the CDU whilst the
equipment is in the align mode). The equipment is able to sense a gross latitude input error since the
apparent drift and topple rates sensed by the rate gyros will not correspond to the corrections being
applied by the torque motors.
119. An incorrect operator input of longitude will not affect the stability of the platform, but
obviously the track and distance from the departure point to the first waypoint will be incorrectly
computed. Furthermore, all subsequent indications of longitude will be in error by the amount of the
initial input error.
120. For the reasons discussed above it is obviously essential that the ramp position is carefully
entered and checked (ideally entered by one pilot and checked by the other).

121. An incorrect input of the latitude/longitude of any of the waypoints will have serious
consequences. The INS will navigate very accurately between waypoints, but it is incapable of
detecting operator malfunctions. A favourite error occurs when punching in a waypoint where either
the latitude or the longitude is a whole number of minutes of arc, say 50° 30'N. If you punch in 5030
(instead of 50300) your waypoint is in error by 2,727 nm! It would be unwise to assume that,
because a waypoint is stored in the computer memory (data base), it is necessarily correct. A
waypoint position may have been incorrectly inserted in the data loader, it may have been corrupted
during the data transfer, or it may have been incorrectly entered/amended by one of your colleagues.
122. In order to check that the waypoints have been correctly inserted they should be recalled from
store onto the LED display, and rechecked before flight.

123. A second check is to call up the initial great circle track and distances between consecutive
waypoints, and to compare these values against those shown on the computer/manual flight plan.
 Visual Presentation of INS Data
FIGURE 23-20
INS Data
Displayed on HSI
124. We have previously discussed how INS data is shown on the numerical displays of the CDU.
Much of this data may be displayed on either a conventional horizontal situation indicator (HSI) or
on an electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) in the map mode (in a glass cockpit aeroplane).
HSIs and EHSIs are described subsequently in the chapter entitled Flight Directors and Electronic
Flight Information Systems, however for now we will look at a conventional HSI which is coupled to
an INS output. Appreciate that the instrument (which is illustrated at Figure 23-20) is essentially a
compass rose together with a track deviation indicator. The track deviation indicator can give
deviations from tracks defined by VOR, ILS or (as in this case) INS. The vertical scale on the right
hand side of the instrument gives glidepath deviations (fly up or fly down) and is active only when an
ILS is tuned and selected to the HSI.

125. HDG. Aircraft heading, in this case 040° true, is displayed against the central lubber index at
the top of the display.

126. TK. The solid diamond, in this case against 025° true, is the present track.

127. DA. This is the drift angle (the angle between the track diamond and the true heading lubber
index line), in this case 15° left drift.
128. DSR TK. The desired track is indicated by the course bar or arrow, presently showing 065°T.

129. XTK. The horizontal deviation bar shows the distance that the aircraft is displaced from
desired track (the cross track distance) with reference to the five dots. Each dot represents 3.75 nm,
and therefore the display shown indicates that the aircraft is to the left of desired track by
approximately 7 nm.

130. TKE. The track error is the angle between the track diamond and the desired track course
arrow or bar. In this case the track error is 40° to the left (tracking 025°T, DSR TK 065°T).
131. Distance to go to the next waypoint is indicated in the top left window, and presently-
computed groundspeed in the top right window. The window in the bottom left of the display
indicates that the HSI is presently coupled to No 1 inertial navigation system, since the INS
equipment is often duplicated or even triplicated.

INS Errors
132. The following may be considered, in addition to the Schuler tuning bounded errors already
discussed, as likely to produce small but significant errors in the system.

Initial Levelling
133. As already discussed, if the platform is not truly Earth horizontal at the outset (when
switched from the align to the nav mode) the accelerometers will sense a component of gravity which
will cause a bounded error in groundspeed at the first integration stage and an unbounded error in
distance travelled at the second integration stage. With a strapped down system, a similar error will
exist in the event that any difference which exists between Earth horizontal and aircraft horizontal is
not correctly assessed during the initial levelling/alignment procedure.

Initial Alignment
134. Again, as already discussed, if the platform is not correctly aligned with north at the outset
the direction of acceleration sensed will be in error by the amount of misalignment. This will give rise
to a bounded error in all track made good computations, leading to an unbounded error in
indications of aircraft position. With a wander angle or strapped down system a similar error will
exist in the event that the angular difference between the platform/aircraft fore and aft axis and the
local meridian (true north) is incorrectly computed during the initial alignment procedure.
Real Wander of the Rate Integrating Gyros
135. The rate integrating gyros used on inertial platforms are of a very high order of accuracy, and
are normally required to give real wander rates (those due to engineering imperfections) of less than
0.01°/hr. Despite this high degree of accuracy it is these real wander rates within the gyros which give
rise to the most significant unbounded errors in the system. The ring laser gyros which are used with
strapped down systems do not suffer from any form of mechanical precession.

Accelerometer and Integrator Errors

136. Slight imperfections in these components can give rise to errors at all stages of computation.
These errors are normally much smaller than those caused by real wander of the rate gyros.

Latitude and Height Errors

137. The INS computer is programmed to correct for the varying length of the nautical mile (one
minute of arc of latitude at the surface) due to the shape of the Earth. Similarly, aircraft altitude will
also introduce small distance errors and, on platforms which are designed to correct for this error, it
is necessary to employ a third accelerometer with its sensitive axis lying along the platform/Earth
vertical axis, so that the INS computer can integrate vertical accelerations to determine altitude. All
strapped down systems necessarily employ an aircraft vertical accelerometer, the output of which is
integrated to give aircraft altitude.
System Accuracy
138. The minimum standards of accuracy which are specified for inertial navigation systems
require a maximum circular position error rate of 2 nm/hr (on 95% of occasions) on flights of up to
10 hours duration. For flights of over 10 hours duration a cross track error of ±20 nm and an along
track error of ±25 nm (on 95% of occasions) is permitted.

139. Modern systems achieve accuracies which are well within these limits and terminal errors of
less than 1 nm after 10 hour flights are common, using integrated navigation systems which are
discussed shortly. Large errors can occur in individual inertial systems following component failure,
however INS equipped aircraft normally employ two (737) or three (747, 757 and 767) independent
inertial systems, the outputs of which are continuously compared in order to identify system
malfunctions.

Radial Error Rates

140. At the end of each flight the actual ramp position should be checked against the indicated
ramp position shown on the INS. A radial error rate may then be calculated using the formula:

Distance ramp position to INS position (nm)

Radial error rate (nm/hr) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time in the navigational mode (hours)
EXAMPLE 23-1
EXAMPLE
Following a flight from New York to London the INS showed a position of 51° 16.5'N 00°18.0'W
when the aircraft was stationary on the ramp at London Gatwick. The ramp position was given as
51° 08.5'N 00° 12.0'W. The time in the navigation mode was 5 hours and 24 minutes. Using this
information determine the INS radial error rate.

SOLUTION
Whilst the INS computer bases all calculations on spherical trigonometry, the human solution of
radial rate error can be achieved to a satisfactory degree of accuracy using two-dimensional
trigonometry
The distance in longitude between the INS position and the ramp position is calculated using the
departure formula:

distance (nm) = d long (')  cos (mid) lat

= 6  cos 5112.5'

cos 5112.5' = 0.626

distance (nm) = 3.76 nm

Using Pythagoras:

2 = 2 2
distance ramp to INS position 8 + 3.76

= 78

distance ramp to INS position = 78

= 8.8 nm
the radial error rate = 8.8 nm
----------------
5.4 hrs
= 1.63 nm/hr

If, in the examination, you are not given the value of the cosine of the precise mid latitude, use the
cosine of the nearest whole degree from the table provided.
141. The examiner is also fond of asking questions of the type illustrated in the following example.
Providing that you appreciate that inertial systems always navigate along great circle tracks, you
should have no difficulty in answering this type of question.
EXAMPLE 23-2
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is flying from waypoint 4 at 35° 00.0'S 20° 00.0'W to waypoint 5 at 35° 00.0'S 30°
00.0'W. The INS is programmed to display tracks and headings with reference to true north. The
INS is coupled to the flight control system/autopilot. Using this information answer the following
questions:
1) With DSR TK/ST selected on the CDU the desired track readout which is displayed as the
aircraft overflies waypoint 4 is:
(a) 270.0°

(b) 090.0°

(c) 272.9°

(d) 267.1°

2) With DIS/TIME selected on the CDU the distance to go which is displayed as the aircraft
overflies waypoint 4 is:
(a) 491.5

(b) 600

(c) less than 491.5

(d) more than 491.5

3) With POS selected on the CDU and the longitude readout showing 25° 00.0'W the latitude
readout will show a latitude which is:
(a) 35° 00.0'S

(b) south of 35° 00.0'S

(c) north of 35° 00.0’S

4) With XTK/TKE selected on the CDU, when the aircraft is mid way between the waypoints the
cross track readout distance will show:
(a) 00.0

(b) R05.7

(c) L05.7

5) The total change in the track angle between waypoints 4 and 5 is:
(a) less than 10°, decreasing

(b) more than 10°, decreasing

(c) less than 10°, increasing

(d) more than 10°, increasing

SOLUTION
1) The answer is (d). The parallel of latitude defines 270°(T), whereas the INS flies the great circle
track which lies to the south of the parallel. There is no need to calculate the value of the
conversion angle since only one of the options given can be correct.

2) The answer is (c). The distance of 491.5 nm, which is achieved by means of the departure
formula, represents the distance between the waypoints along the parallel of latitude (the rhumb
line distance). The great circle distance must therefore be less than 491.5 nm.

3) The answer is (b), as shown above.

 4) The answer is (a). With the INS coupled to the autopilot the aircraft will remain on the great
circle track and there will be no cross track displacement.
5) The answer is (c). Earth convergency increases the track direction as the aircraft flies west. The
total change of track direction is obviously less than 10° since the change of longitude is only 10°
and Earth convergency = change of longitude x sine latitude.

The Development of Inertial Systems

142. The preceding notes have dealt with inertial systems as stand alone aids to aircraft navigation.
Furthermore, for the sake of simplicity, the mode selector panel, control display unit and associated
computer hardware/software which were considered were of a fairly early vintage. Over the last 20
years aircraft navigation systems have evolved very rapidly in parallel with other aircraft systems,
which is why the 747-400 was designed to be operated with only two people on the flight deck.

143. What follows is a potted history of the way in which inertial navigation, as it applies to civil
transport aeroplanes, has evolved.

144. The first INS systems used north aligned platforms and relatively slow processors with limited
memory banks. Reliability was a problem and the limited storage capacity of the computer memory
meant that the system was limited to 10 waypoints which had to be replaced in flight as they were
overflown on routes which required more than 10 waypoints. It was not possible at this time to store
the look up table of variation and consequently the system operated only in °(T).
145. Faster processors and larger memory banks meant that the next generation of inertial systems
employed wander angle platforms and had the ability to display track and heading information in
degrees magnetic. This is about where the system which we discussed fits into the story.
146. Still larger memory capacities enabled the next generation of INS to ‘store’ typically a
thousand waypoints which could be used to produce up to something in the order of 100 routes,
which could also be stored in the memory. By now the systems were becoming more reliable and
duplicated INS platforms were replacing the navigator on even long oceanic sectors.

147. With the advent of strapped down systems, very high speed processors and very large
memories the INS has evolved into the IRS, the inertial reference system. Now the inertial system is
no longer a stand alone equipment, but rather the inertial input into an integrated system (the flight
management system or FMS) which not only looks after all of the navigation requirements but also
has many other functions.

148. With two or three highly reliable IRS in the system it is now possible to dispense with the gyro
slaved compasses and the remote gyro compasses, since each IRS is capable of giving accurate
outputs of aircraft heading and attitude, the outputs of each IRS being constantly monitored against
the other(s).

149. Updating of the position determined by the inertial reference systems is now continuously
achieved by the navigation module within the active flight management computer (obviously
redundancy is built in here as well), providing that the aircraft is within range of suitable VOR/DME
stations. The updating process is achieved using either VOR/DME or preferably DME/DME fixes
which are more accurate, especially when slant range corrections are applied. Suitable VOR/DME
stations are selected by the navigation module using a map of suitable stations which is automatically
loaded into the active memory when the pilot types in the route number prior to departure.
150. The number of waypoints which comprise an individual route is now virtually unlimited. The
basic route is entered, followed by the relevant standard instrument departure once the clearance is
received. Similarly, the standard instrument approach is entered once this is known.
151. VOR/DMEs are automatically selected and the aircraft is navigated using composite data
comprising the IRS outputs as updated by DME/DME or VOR/DME inputs. With a glass (EFIS)
cockpit the normal mode for the screen which replaces the horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is the
map mode, which gives a pictorial representation of the route as defined by the IRS waypoints; the
VOR/DME stations which are stored in the navigation module (the stations currently in use are
highlighted); the aircraft's present position; the output of the airborne weather radar and various
other codes and symbols to indicate the operational status of the system. Navigation errors do occur,
and when these are due to operator errors (principally the incorrect insertion of data) they may not
be identified by the system, which cannot therefore warn the pilots. The role of the pilots as the final
arbiters of the integrity of the system is absolutely paramount.

152. In addition to providing accurate navigation data, strapped down inertial systems have now
replaced the remote gyro compasses and the vertical gyros and supply heading, pitch and roll
information to the pilots (human and automatic). In the event an individual IRS suffers a component
failure in flight which means that it is no longer capable of supplying position information (for
example an integrator), or is deprived of its AC power input whilst airborne for a period which
exceeds the duration of the internal battery pack, it might appear that the system will no longer be
capable of supplying heading or attitude data. By selecting the attitude reference position the IRS
reverts to a basic mode which isolates the navigation functions and supplies only heading and
attitude data, albeit of a degraded accuracy. The important thing to appreciate is that, in the basic
mode, the system is capable of achieving an acceptable level of accuracy following an airborne
levelling/alignment process, but that the information supplied by the system is now limited to aircraft
heading and attitude.
153. What comes next? With the advent of satellite navigation systems which are capable of
determining aircraft position which is accurate to within metres anywhere in the world and for which
the aircraft equipment is light, simple (reliable) and inexpensive, the future of inertial reference
systems which provide the primary navigation data would appear to be limited. It is likely that, in the
not too distant future, strapped down systems will be used to supply attitude and heading data
(AHRS, or attitude and heading reference systems), whilst satellite systems will be used to supply
primary navigation data.
Purposes of a Flight Management Systems
(FMS)

The Flight Management and Guidance Computer

The FMC Data Base
Modes of Operation for Dual FMC Installations
Lateral Navigation Guidance
Vertical Navigation Guidance
The Use of the MCDU
Purposes of a Flight Management
Systems (FMS)
1. The Flight Management System (FMS) is an integration of the aircraft subsystems, the
purpose of which is to assist the flight crew in controlling and managing the flight path of the
aircraft. The flight path is divided into lateral and vertical profiles, commonly known as LNAV and
VNAV. The system allows the pilots to select the degree of automation required at all stages of flight
and consequently the need for many routine tasks and computations is eliminated.
2. Primarily the FMS provides automatic three-dimensional navigation, fuel management and
fuel monitoring together with the optimising of aircraft performance. It also provides information to
the appropriate displays, including the electronic map, which is fully described in the Flight Director
and Electronic Flight Information Systems (EFIS) part of the syllabus. FMS also provides airspeed
and engine thrust cues.

3. The main components of an FMS are:

(a) Flight Management and Guidance Computer (FMC)
- uses both manual and automatic inputs of data to compute 3 dimensional position,
performance data etc in order to fly the aircraft accurately and efficiently along a pre-
defined route.

(b) Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU)

- the interface between the pilots and FMC.

(c) Flight Control Unit

- supplies the commands to control the lateral and vertical flight path of the aircraft.

(d) Flight Management Source Selector

- selects the sources of input to be used by the FMC.

(e) Display System

- any means of displaying the required data/ information to the pilots.
The Flight Management and Guidance Computer
4. A schematic diagram of the component parts of a typical flight management system is shown
at Figure 24-1. The heart of the system is the Flight Management Computer (FMC) and its associated
Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU). A CDU of the type found in the Boeing 737 is
illustrated at Figure 24-2.
FIGURE 24-1
A Typical FMS
FIGURE 24-2
A Typical FMS
Multipurpose
Control and
Display Unit
(MCDU)
5. The MCDU combines flight plan information entered by the pilots with information supplied
from supporting systems and information contained in memory. This enables the FMC to determine
the aircraft position and to provide pitch, roll and thrust information in order to fly the profile
required. Commands are sent by the FMC to the autopilot, the flight director and the autothrottle
(autothrust) system. FMC navigational and performance computations are displayed on the MCDUs
for reference or monitoring. Related FMC commands for lateral and vertical navigation are coupled
to the AFDS and Autothrottle through the Mode Control Panel (LNAV and VNAV). The IRSs and
other aircraft sensors provide additional required data. MCDUs also permit interface with the
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). Additionally, map
information is sent to the Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) and displayed in the
manner described in the PPSC notes dealing with EFIS.

The FMC Data Base

6. The information which is stored in the FMC data base is divided into two main sections,
namely navigation information and aircraft performance information.
7. The navigation data includes the location of radio navigation aids, SIDs, STARs, company
routes, airports, runways, approach aids and airways structures. The data base is tailored to the
needs of the individual carrier. This navigation data base is produced by a specialist agency (such as
Jeppesen) and is normally updated on a 28 day cycle. Data transfer hardware (using a magnetic tape
cassette) is provided to enable the operator to load a new data base into the aircraft FMCs. In order
that flight operations do not come to a grinding halt at midnight on the last day of validity of the
expiring data base, the current data base together with the next effective data base are both stored in
the FMCs. For the pilot then, step one when setting up the FMCs is to ensure that the correct data
base for the date of the flight is the operational one.
8. Within a given 28 day period it is likely that certain information contained in the navigation
data base will become invalid, for example NOTAMs may inform us that a given VOR is out of
service for a period of time. The pilot can access the data base and delete that VOR, but only for the
duration of the flight. It is therefore impossible for the pilot to corrupt the data base itself. It is
important to remember that the data base is produced by another human being and may therefore
contain errors. Because of the high degree of automation involved when, basically, the FMC is
driving the aeroplane, it is essential that the pilots monitor the aircraft’s progress using conventional
navigation techniques (raw data), and also that any errors in the data base are fed back through
reporting channels so that they can be remedied.

9. During flight the FMC will search the navigation data base and automatically select the best
two DME stations with which to determine the aircraft’s present position. In the absence of suitable
DME/DME crosscuts the system will use co-located VORs and DMEs. When DME/DME or DME/
VOR fixing is not possible, for example on an oceanic leg, the aircraft’s position is determined by the
inertial reference systems plus a correction vector that has been developed by a Kalman filter over a
period of time. In those systems that use GPS position as an input into the FMC, it is usually possible
for the pilot to delete any satellite that has automatically been selected by the GPS receiver, in order
to obtain the best fix geometry.

10. The Kalman filter uses hybrid navigation techniques. It takes, for example, position
information from a number of sources and then statistically analyses that data (taking into account
the possible errors) to produce a final solution which, in the case of position, would be the FMC
position. The filter also produces the correction vector discussed in paragraph 9.

11. Take the situation where an aircraft, equipped with say 3 inertial systems, is flying from
Europe to the USA. As the aircraft crosses the UK, on its way to join the NAT track system, the FMS
will be using DME/DME radio ranges to assist in determining position. Figure 24-3 gives a pictorial
presentation of the computations involved.
FIGURE 24-3
Position
Determination by
an FMC

12. In simple terms the FMC first averages out the 3 IRS positions to determine a ‘mean’ inertial
position. Secondly, it compares the mean inertial position with the radio aid position (in this case
DME/DME ranging is used) and, taking account of the likely error in each position, it computes a
final FMC position which is used to steer the aircraft along the planned track.

13. The position correction vector in the above example stretches between the mean inertial
position and the final FMC computed position. (In an aircraft equipped with a single inertial system
the vector would obviously start from that single position).
14. It will be obvious from the above explanation that, in order to develop the position correction
vector over a given time, there must be a continuous supply of radio information. However, once the
aircraft leaves the area of ground based radio aids the FMC can still use the ‘history’ of the vector to
develop it further, and hence continues to provide the best possible estimate of position. As the
aircraft coasts in again over the USA radio aid fixing will once again be used to ‘tie down’ the FMC
position.

15. The accuracy of a Kalman filtering system such as the one described is dependent upon two
main factors :
(a) The quality and complexity of the Kalman filter design.

(b) The error characteristics of the various ‘navigation’ sensors used by the system must
be complementary. (i.e. any single system input which is subject to a lot of ‘noise/
variation’, or ‘drifts’ in value, may cause a significant error in FMC computed
position).

16. The FMCs will automatically select the VOR/DME stations which are displayed on the EHSI
needles, the standby RMI needles and the DME range readouts. The system will decode the morse
identifier and display letters on the screen. If a satisfactory identifier decode is not achieved, the
frequency will be displayed rather than the identifier. In this event it is up to the pilot to identify
ground station in the conventional manner. Similarly, providing that the FMC has been informed that
the intention is to fly an ILS approach to a given runway at the destination/alternate aerodrome, the
relevant ILS will be autotuned and identified, again with the morse identifier displayed to the pilot,
but this time on the Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EADI). Where the departure is from an
ILS runway, the FMC will again autotune the ILS in order to provide centre line guidance
immediately after take-off. When NDBs form part of a SID, STAR approach procedure or (unusually
these days) an airways structure, these are also autotuned and identified by the FMC. The option
always exists for the pilot to override the automatics by ‘hard tuning’ stations of his or her choice.

17. The performance data base contains all of the information normally contained within the
performance manual, such as engine characteristics, the aircraft limiting speeds for the various
configurations, optimum/maximum cruise altitudes and an aerodynamic model of the aeroplane. The
data base may be individually tailored for an individual aeroplane within a fleet. Variables such as
fuel quantity, zero fuel weight and a company cost index are entered by the flight crew. This data is
peculiar to the next sector only and is automatically dumped by the FMC following the next landing
and engine shutdown. The simplest explanation of the cost index is that it is a numerical value which
tells the FMC whether the operator considers that fuel economy (with longer sector times) or
minimum sector times (with a resultant higher fuel burn) is the preferred option. Please note that
fixed costs, as a general rule, remain the same no matter what speed is flown. The cost index can
therefore be altered on a sector by sector basis to account for the circumstances of that flight.

Modes of Operation for Dual FMC Installations

18. FMC systems are normally duplicated and each FMC has its own CDU. There are 4 modes
of operation:
Dual Mode. With the system operating normally the two CDU/FMCs are interconnected and
pilot entered data which is entered at one CDU is automatically transferred to the other one. In other
words, one FMC provides the master function and the other the slave function. The pilots may select
their own EHSI display (full or expanded VOR, full or expanded ILS, map or plan) regardless of
what is displayed on the other EHSI.

Independent. The first stage of degradation of the system occurs when a disparity is sensed
between the outputs of the two FMCs. Now each CDU/FMC works independently of the other and
the pilots are left to identify the serviceable system. Each CDU will supply its own EHSI, however
now the pictures on each of the EHSIs (assuming that they are in the same mode with the same range
option selected) will differ.

Single. The next stage of degradation of the system when one FMC or CDU fails altogether. You are
now down to a single system operation, however both EHSIs can be driven from the same FMC/ CDU
providing only that both pilots select the same mode and range setting.

Back-Up Navigation. Finally, should both FMC/CDUs fail, the pilots are left with blank EHSIs
and the prospect of limited use of the FMS. Navigation is achieved by manually tuning en route and
approach aids which are subsequently displayed on a conventional RMI and analogue DME readout.

19. The control of the different FMS modes is described in the Aircraft Operation Manual
(AOM)
Lateral Navigation Guidance
20. The FMC calculates the great circle tracks and distances between successive waypoints in the
active flight plan. These are the track lines which are shown on the EHSI map display. The active
flight plan includes the SID, the STAR and any relevant holding patterns. Under normal
circumstances (managed guidance) the FMC will command the autopilot to maintain the defined
track (at a particular altitude and speed). With the aircraft flown manually (selected guidance) the
FMC commands the human pilot to maintain a particular value of a parameter (heading, speed etc.)
by making selections on the Flight Control Panel (FCP). At any time the pilot can take control of the
lateral navigation of the aircraft by going into heading mode. The FMC will automatically revert to
heading mode whenever LNAV capture parameters are out of limits or when, for example, a
waypoint is reached and no route is defined beyond that point.

Vertical Navigation Guidance

21. Providing that the pilot does not modify the climb profile, the FMC will command a climb
with thrust at the airspeed limit associated with the departure airfield until above the speed limit
altitude or flight level. Thereafter the climb will continue at climb thrust and economy speed to the
demanded cruise level. Where altitude/level constraints are imposed by the SID (cross point X at/at or
below/at or above a given altitude or flight level), these constraints will be shown on the EHSI map
and plan displays. The aircraft will comply with these constraints providing that the FMC remains in
the fully managed mode. In the event that ATC impose an altitude constraint, this can be entered by
the pilot as a vertical revision to the waypoint to which the constraint applies. If, during the climb,
the FMC senses that the aircraft will not be able to comply with the constraint due to an insufficient
rate of climb, the pilot will be warned. The FMC will capture any altitude which is selected and
armed on the Mode Control Panel (MCP)/Flight Control Unit (FCU).
22. During the cruise, economy speed will be used until the top of descent point.

23. The top of descent point is computed by the FMC, as it were, from touchdown backwards.
The FMC has knowledge of the aerodrome elevation, and the QNH is manually entered by the
pilots. The exact vertical distance from the cruise level to touch down is therefore known. Flight level
or altitude constraints, as defined by the STAR and the approach procedure are stored in the
navigational data base, and the descent profile is computed to account for these constraints. The
descent will normally be computed such that, wherever possible, the engines will be at idle power
(which is fuel efficient). The descent will be computed at economy speed down to the point where
the STAR imposes a maximum speed constraint, and thereafter at speeds which will enable the slats/
flaps/landing gear to be extended at the appropriate points. Wind velocities for the descent can be
manually entered by the pilots in order to refine the computation.

24. Typical VNAV climb, cruise and descent profiles for a B757 are illustrated at Figure 24-4 and
Figure 24-5.
FIGURE 24-4
Typical VNAV
Climb / Cruise
Profile
FIGURE 24-5
Typical VNAV
Descent Profile
The Use of the MCDU
25. The remainder of this chapter describes in general terms, the use of the MCDU and gives brief
details of some of the displayed information that is available to the operator.

MCDU Page Layout - Information Blocks

26. Figure 24-6 gives details of a typical page layout on an MCDU.
FIGURE 24-6
MCDU
Information Blocks
MCDU Messages
27. There are two categories of MCDU messages (see Scratch Pad in Figure 24-6). Alerting
Messages have the highest priority and identify a condition which must be acknowledged and
corrected by the crew before further FMC-guided flight is advisable or possible. Advisory Messages
have lower priority and inform the crew of MCDU entry errors or system status.

28. The generation of any message causes the white MCDU MSG light to illuminate. Alerting
messages also illuminate the amber FMC Alert Light on each pilot’s instrument panel.
29. If the Scratch Pad is empty, any message is displayed immediately when generated. Some
messages will displace an existing Scratch Pad entry and are also displayed immediately when
generated. Other messages will not be displayed until the Scratch Pad has been cleared; however, the
MSG light will still be illuminated. A new entry in the Scratch Pad overrides any displayed message.
Messages caused by MCDU entry errors are displayed only on the associated MCDU; other messages
are displayed on both MCDUs.

30. When multiple messages have been generated, they will be ‘stacked’ for display in priority
sequence, or in the order of their occurrence if of the same priority. As each message is cleared, the
next message in the stack is displayed. Most messages are cleared with the CLR key on the MCDU,
or by correcting the condition. Other messages are cleared by changing the displayed page; this will
delete the entry which caused the message.
 31. The FMC/MCDU is designed to automatically preserve the most capable modes of navigation
and guidance that can be maintained with the equipment and navigation aids available. If an error
or system failure results in reduced capability (downmoding), then the FMC may generate a crew
message for display in the MCDU Scratch Pad. (If other system inputs to the FMC should fail,
affected MCDU Displays are blanked to prevent the display of misleading or erroneous data. For
example, loss of the total fuel input causes all performance-related data to be blank).

Page Status
32. Figure 24-7 shows how page status is indicated on the MCDU.

FIGURE 24-7
MCDU Page
Status Indications

Function and Mode Keys

33. Figure 24-8 and Figure 24-9 outline the purpose of various function and mode keys.
FIGURE 24-8
MCDU Function
and Mode Keys
FIGURE 24-9
MCDU Mode Keys
(cont’d)
MCDU Warning Lights
34. Figure 24-10 outlines the purpose of the various MCDU warning lights.
FIGURE 24-10
MCDU Warning
Lights
MCDU Page Sequencing Following Power Application
35. Although the FMC contains many displayable pages, proper page selection and execution are
not difficult. Automatic display of some pages by phase of flight, as well as access prompts on many
displays, provide assistance with the proper sequence of steps to initialise, activate, and fly the
desired flight plan.

36. For example, Figure 24-11 shows how the FMC guides the crew through the required pages
of a normal preflight. Upon initial power application, the IDENT page normally appears. If the IDENT
page does not appear, then it may be accessed via the INIT/REF INDEX page, as shown at the
bottom of the diagram. After checking the displayed data, line select key 6R is pressed in order to
display the next logical page, POS INIT. The crew continues with each page, checking and entering
data as required, then line selecting 6R, until preflight is complete.

37. If a Standard Instrument Departure (SID) must be entered into the route, press the DEP/ARR
mode key for access to the DEPARTURES page. Following selection of the SID, line selection of 6R
returns the display to the RTE page.

38. When the EXEC key illuminates, it must be pressed before continuing in order to activate the
entered data. The RTE page requires line selection of the ACTIVATE prompt before the EXEC key
will illuminate. This two-step procedure protects the crew from inadvertent activation of unintended
data.
FIGURE 24-11
Preflight MCDU
Page Sequencing
Self Assessed Exercise No. 13

QUESTION:
QUESTION 1.

The product of the first integration of the output from the N-S accelerometer is:

QUESTION 2.
The product of a double integration of the east-west accelerometer is:

QUESTION 3.

With reference to a north-referenced inertial navigation system, gyrocompassing is:

QUESTION 4.

The corrections fed to the platform gimbal motors of a north-referenced inertial navigation system,
during the align mode, use inputs from:

QUESTION 5.

The computer of a north-referenced INS, in flight, provides compensation for:

QUESTION 6.

In a stable platform, north-referenced INS, the mean groundspeed is 550kt. After 21.1mins. the
indicated groundspeed is overreading by 5kt. The indicated groundspeed after 63.3mins. is:
QUESTION 7.

In an Inertial Reference System the gyros are strapdown/non-strapdown, and the accelerometers are
strapdown/non-strapdown. (Delete as appropriate)

QUESTION 8.
In an INS which is Schuler tuned, the largest unbounded errors are due to:

QUESTION 9.

A stable north-referenced INS is able to display computed wind. The inputs used for this calculation
are:

QUESTION 10.

At the end of a 6 hour 24 minute flight an aircraft is parked on a ramp where the coordinates are
S36°52.0' E152°17.0'. The INS readout is S37°08.0' E151°52.0'. The radial error rate for the flight
is:

QUESTION 11.

An INS-equipped aircraft flies from 56°N 20°W (waypoint 3) to 56°N 30°W (waypoint 4).

The initial track at waypoint 3 is:

QUESTION 12.
An INS-equipped aircraft flies from 56°N 20°W (waypoint 3) to 56°N 30°W (waypoint 4).

With constant drift during flight the aircrafts heading will decrease by:
QUESTION 13.

See FIGURE 122 in the Reference Book. – This diagram shows the situation after an INS equipped
aircraft has passed waypoint 1 and is tracking along the dashed line marked TK. With HDG/DA
selected, the DA readout will be:
QUESTION 14.

See FIGURE 122 in the Reference Book. - This diagram shows the situation after an INS equipped
aircraft has passed waypoint 1 and is tracking along the dashed line marked TK. If track change, 0,
2, are inserted at the aircrafts present position (i.e. to make the present position WPT 0), the DSR TK
readout will be:

QUESTION 15.

During the cruise, which information channels does the FMC provide to the AFDS:

QUESTION 16.

When a box prompt appears on the MCDU page, is the data input mandatory or optional:

QUESTION 17.

Where do scratch pad entries appear on the MCDU page layout:

QUESTION 18.

What is the normal period of validity of the navigation database?

QUESTION 19.

In an aircraft fitted with multi-inertial systems, what two positions does the FMC position correction
vector joint together?

QUESTION 20.

FMC systems are normally duplicated in large commercial aircraft. What is the normal mode of
operation for using such systems?
QUESTION 21.

What does the term managed guidance mean, in connection with FMC operation:

QUESTION 22.

What are the two categories of message that can be displayed on an MCDU?

QUESTION 23.

What is the purpose of the DEP/ARR key on the MCDU?

QUESTION 24.

Upon initial power application, what page is normally displayed on the MCDU:

QUESTION 25.

The initialisation of the FMC via the MCDU keyboard/screen requires the operator to enter/check
data on each separate screen display before proceeding to the next page. Which is the main key that
is pressed to cycle from page to page.
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

The product of the first integration from the N-S accelerometer is N-S velocity/speed along the local
meridian.

ANSWER 2.

The second integration of the east-west accelerometer is speed integrated with respect to time, which
gives distance east-west. Distance east-west (nm) is also departure, or distance along the parallel of
latitude.
ANSWER 3.

Gyrocompassing is the process by which the platform is aligned with true north, using earth gravity,
in the align mode.
ANSWER 4.

During the align mode a north-referenced inertial navigation system uses inputs from the latitude
setting, the accelerometers and the east gyro.

ANSWER 5.

The computer of a north referenced INS, in flight, provides corrections for earth rotation, transport
wander and coriolis.
ANSWER 6.

After 63.3 mins the groundspeed will be under reading by 5kts (i.e. 545kts).
ANSWER 7.

In an IRS the gyros and accelerometers are both strapdown.

ANSWER 8.

The largest unbounded errors are due to the real wander of the platform gyroscopes.

ANSWER 9.
The inputs used in the computation of wind velocity are Heading (true), Track (true), Groundspeed,
TAS.

ANSWER 10.

See FIGURE 117 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 11.

See FIGURE 118 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 12.

See FIGURE 119 in the Reference Book

Heading will decrease by 2 x Conversion angle (ca)

= 2 x 4.145°

= 8.29°
ANSWER 13.

See FIGURE 120 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 14.

See FIGURE 121 in the Reference Book

ANSWER 15.
During the cruise the FMC provides both LNAV and VNAV information to the AFDS.

ANSWER 16.

In the case of a box prompt, data input is mandatory.

ANSWER 17.

Scratch pad entries appear at the bottom of the screen, below the display division line.

ANSWER 18.

The information in the navigation database is normally valid for a 28-day period.

ANSWER 19.

The vector goes between the 'mean' inertial position and the FMC displayed position.

ANSWER 20.

Duplicate FMC systems are normally operated in dual mode.

ANSWER 21.

Managed guidance means that the FMC will command the autopilot to maintain the defined track
(at a particular altitude and speed).

ANSWER 22.

The two categories of message that can be displayed on an MCDU are Alerting and Advisory
Messages.

ANSWER 23.

The DEP/ARR key permits selection of departure and arrival/approach procedures for entry into the
flight plan route.

ANSWER 24.

When power is initially applied to an MCDU the IDENT page normally appears.

ANSWER 25.

The initialisation process requires the user to cycle from page to page on the MCDU by using line
select key 6R.
 The Compass Swing

Co-efficient A
Co-efficient B
Co-efficient C
Deviation on Any Heading
Calculation of Sine and Cosine Values
Compass Swinging
The Correcting Swing
Removing Co-efficients A, B and C
Adjusting Direct Reading Compasses
Residual Deviation
The Calibration Swing
Mathematically Derived Residual Deviations
Permissible Levels of Residual Deviation
The Compass Swing
1. Purpose. The purpose of a compass swing is to calculate and if necessary, correct for
deviation of the compass system.
2. Deviation. The following points about deviation should be noted:

(a) Deviation is the angular difference between magnetic heading and compass heading.

(b) Deviation is caused by the effect of the magnetic or magnetised elements of the aircraft
itself upon the compass magnets (in a direct reading compass) or upon the detector
unit (in a gyro magnetic compass). Deviation may also be caused by mis-alignment of
the direct reading compass lubber line or of the gyro compass detector with the
aircraft's fore and aft axis.

(c) Deviation is not constant. It changes with change of heading and with change of
magnetic latitude.

(d) Deviation is said to be westerly (or negative) if compass north lies to the west of
magnetic north, see Figure 25-1. In this event the compass heading will be greater
than the magnetic heading (deviation west compass heading best). Alternatively
deviation is said to be easterly (or positive) if compass north lies to the east of
magnetic north, see Figure 25-2. In this event the compass heading will be less than
the magnetic heading (deviation east compass heading least).
 (e) Deviation is mathematically expressed as the correction that is required to convert the
compass reading to the correct magnetic value (with easterly deviation the compass
reading is less than the magnetic heading and therefore the deviation is given a positive
value).

FIGURE 25-1
Effect of Westerly
Deviation
FIGURE 25-2
Effect of Easterly
Deviation

3. Components of total deviation. The total deviation present in an aircraft compass system are
resolved into several ‘coefficients’. Coefficient A is the error created usually (but not always) by a
misalignment of the compass datum or ‘lubber’ line or detector unit. Coefficient B is created by a
magnetic influence in the fore and aft axis. Coefficient C is created by a magnetic influence in the
athwartships axis. The objective of the compass swing is to isolate the value of each of these
coefficients and if necessary, correct for them.
Co-efficient A
4. For a direct reading compass to correctly indicate magnetic heading two criteria must be
realised:
(a) The aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the compass magnets.

(b) The lubber line of the compass must be correctly aligned with the aircraft fore and aft
axis.

5. With a gyro magnetic compass again the aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the
sensing element (the detector unit), and now the detector unit (rather than the lubber line) must be
correctly aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis.

6. The effect of a misaligned lubber line in a direct reading compass is illustrated at Figure 25-3.
FIGURE 25-3
Effect of
Misaligned Lubber
Line
FIGURE 25-4
Effect of
Misaligned Lubber
Line

7. In Figure 25-3 the aircraft is heading 000°(M). The aircraft is assumed to have no deviating
magnetic fields to affect the compass, and therefore the magnets within the compass are pointing to
magnetic north and are aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis. Unfortunately the lubber line is
misaligned with respect to the aircraft fore and aft axis and so the compass, in this case, is reading
350°.

8. Figure 25-4 shows the same aircraft on a heading of 270°(M), and the compass is now
reading 260°. The compass is still in error by 10° and is still under-reading. In this case a constant
deviation of 10° east (+) exists on all headings and at all latitudes because of the misalignment of the
lubber line.

9. The deviation caused by co-efficient A in the above example may be graphically illustrated as
shown at Figure 25-5.
FIGURE 25-5
Graphical
Representation of
a Coefficient A of
+10°

Co-efficient B
10. Assume for the moment that the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft is
represented by a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft fore and aft axis. The deviating influence
of this mythical bar magnet would depend upon the aircraft's heading.

11. Figure 25-6(a) shows such a bar magnet with its south-seeking end in the nose of the aircraft.
The aircraft is heading 000°(M) and all other deviating factors (co-efficients A and C) are ignored.
The bar magnet which represents the aircraft's own magnetic field is lying parallel to the sensing
magnets within the direct reading compass and therefore no deviation is evident on this heading.
12. Figure 25-6(b) shows the same aircraft on a heading of 090°(M). Remembering that unlike
poles attract whilst like poles repel it can be seen that the compass magnets are partially attracted to
the magnetism in the nose of the aircraft and are no longer pointing to the correct direction of
magnetic north.

13. Figure 25-6(c) shows the aircraft on a heading of 180°(M) and again the bar magnet
representing the aircraft's magnetic field causes no deviation at the compass.

14. Figure 25-6(d) shows the aircraft on a heading of 270°(M), and now compass north lies to the
left of magnetic north.
FIGURE 25-6
Coefficient +B
FIGURE 25-7
Graphical
Presentation of
Deviation due to
Coefficient +B
15. Figure 25-7 shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a co-efficient +B on all
headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10°. Deviation due to co-efficient B
varies as a function of the sine of the aircraft's magnetic heading. Because it is co-efficient +B which
is considered, the sine relationship means that the value of deviation is maximum, and positive, on
east and maximum, but negative, on west. Were we to repeat the process for a co-efficient -B (with
the north-seeking end of our mythical bar magnet in the nose of the aircraft) the deviation would be
maximum, but negative, on east and maximum, and positive, on west.

16. The formula which equates the deviation due to a co-efficient B to the value (and sign) of that
co-efficient is:

The deviation due to co-efficient B = Co-efficient B x sine heading

Co-efficient C
17. Assume for the moment that the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft is
represented by a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft lateral axis. The deviating influence of
this mythical bar magnet would again depend upon the aircraft's heading.

18. Figure 25-8(a) shows such a bar magnet with its south-seeking end in the starboard wing of
the aircraft. The aircraft is heading 360°(M) and all other deviating factors (co-efficients A and B)
are ignored. The bar magnet which represents the aircraft's own magnetic field is lying at 90° to the
Earth's field and therefore deviation is at a maximum.

19. Figure 25-8(b) shows the same aircraft on a heading of 090°(M). Now the aircraft's magnetic
field lies parallel to the Earth's magnetic field and there is no deviation.
20. Figure 25-8(c) shows that the deviation on 180°(M) is again at a maximum but now in the
opposite direction to that suffered on north.

21. Figure 25-8(d) shows that the deviation on 270°(M) is again zero.

22. Figure 25-10 shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a co-efficient +C on
all headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10°. Deviation due to co-efficient
C varies as a function of the cosine of the aircraft's magnetic heading. Because it is co-efficient +C
which is considered the cosine relationship means that the value of deviation is maximum, and
positive, on north and maximum, but negative, on south. Were we to repeat the process for a co-
efficient -C (with the north-seeking end of our mythical bar magnet in the starboard wing of the
aircraft) the deviation would be negative on north and positive on south.
FIGURE 25-8
Coefficient + C
FIGURE 25-9
Graphical
Presentation of
Deviation due to
Coefficient +C

23. The formula which equates the deviation due to a co-efficient C to the value (and sign) of that
co-efficient is:

Deviation due to co-efficient C = co-efficient C x cosine heading

Deviation on Any Heading
24. From the foregoing it is evident that the total deviation on any heading is a combination of co-
efficients A, B and C. The formula for calculating the total deviation on any heading is:

Deviation on any heading = A+ (B x sin heading) + (C x cos heading)

Calculation of Sine and Cosine Values

25. Since the use of scientific calculators is not permitted in the examination, it is necessary to
calculate the sign and magnitude of the sine or cosine of any angle between 0° and 360°. The natural
value tables which are issued during the examination give values between 0° and 90° and therefore
the first step is to calculate the angle to be used, and for this it is necessary to consider Figure 25-10
FIGURE 25-10
Sine/Cosine
.

Angles

26. The angle required is found by comparing the angle given and the nearest vertical reference
line. The angle between the two is the required angle. For example, if the angle given is 130° then
the angle whose sine and cosine value has the same numeric value is 50°. If the angle given is 250°,
then the sine or cosine value will be numerically the same as 70°. For 340°, the required angle is 20°.

27. Having found the necessary angle which will be used in the tables, it is now necessary to
establish whether the sine or cosine is positive or negative, and for this it is necessary to refer to
Figure 25-11.
FIGURE 25-11
Sine/Cosine Signs

28. At Figure 25-11 we see that the sine values of angles between 0° and 180° are positive, and
between 180° and 360° are negative. Similarly we see that cosine values of angles between 270° and
90° are positive, and between 90° and 270° are negative.
29. Armed with Figure 25-10 and Figure 25-11 we can establish the correct value and sign of the
sine or cosine of any angle.
EXAMPLE 25-1
EXAMPLE
Determine the natural sine and cosine values of 157°, 223° and 356°.

For sine 157° use 23° and the value is positive = +0.391
For cosine 157° use 23° and the value is negative = -0.920
For sine 223° use 43° and the value is negative = -0.682
For cosine 223° use 43° and the value is negative = -0.731
For sine 356° use 4° and the value is negative = -0.070
For cosine 356° use 4° and the value is positive = +0.998

30. One final piece of mathematics revision before we continue. Remember that, if you multiply
a positive value by another positive value, the product is positive; if you multiply a positive value by
a negative value, the product is negative; and if you multiply a negative value by another negative
value the result is positive.
EXAMPLE 25-2
EXAMPLE
Given that co-efficient A is -0.5°, co-efficient B is -1.5° and co-efficient C is +0.5°,
determine the total deviation on a heading of 253°(C).

Deviation on 253° = A + (B.sin 253°) + (C.cos 253°)

Sin 253° = -0.956
Cos 253° = -0.292
Deviation on 253° = -0.5 + (-1.5 x -0.956) + (+0.5 x -0.292)
= -0.5 + (+1.43) + (-0.14)
= + 0.79
EXAMPLE 25-3
EXAMPLE
Given that co-efficient A is +1°, co-efficient B is -1° and co-efficient C is +2°,
determine the total deviation on a heading of 240°(C).

SOLUTION

Deviation on 240° = A + (B.sin 240°) + (C.cos 240°)

Sin 240° = -0.866
Cos 240° = -0.5
Deviation on 240° = +1 + (-1 x -0.866) + (+2 x -0.5)
= +1 + (+0.866) + (-1)
= + 0.866

Now for a slightly different type of question.

EXAMPLE 25-4
EXAMPLE
Given that co-efficient A is -2°, what would be the signs of co-efficients B and C, given that the
heading on which the maximum deviation occurs is 330°(C)?

SOLUTION
Deviation on any heading = A+(B X Sin heading)+C Cos heading
The maximum deviation will occur on a heading where the signs of the deviations caused by co-
efficients A, B and C are all the same. Co-efficient A is -2° and therefore the deviation caused by
co-efficient A is negative on all headings.
The deviation caused by co-efficient B must be negative on 330°. In order to achieve this, co-
efficient B must be a positive value since the sine of 330° is -0.5, and a positive value multiplied by
a negative value gives a negative product.
The deviation caused by co-efficient C must also be negative on 330°. In order to achieve this, co-
efficient C must be a negative value since the cosine of 330° is +0.866, and again a positive value
multiplied by a negative value gives a negative product.

Compass Swinging
31. In order to minimise the compass deviation it is necessary to keep the aircraft's own magnetic
field as small as possible. This is considered at the design stage and influences the choice of materials
used, and the design and location of electrical equipment.
32. Having minimised the deviating effect of the aircraft on the compass at the design stage, it is
periodically necessary to compass swing the aircraft. During this procedure the magnitude and
direction of the remaining deviations are measured on various headings. These deviations are then
reduced by producing magnetic fields within the compass which are hopefully equal in magnitude
but opposite in polarity to the aircraft's own magnetic fields.

33. Compass swings are carried out in a surveyed area which is relatively clear of external
magnetic influences such as might be caused by underground electric cables. During the compass
swing, normal flying conditions are simulated as far as possible, with the engines running and all
electrical services switched on.

34. Compass swings should be carried out on the following occasions:

(a) On installation of the compass.

(b) Periodically as specified in the relevant BCAR (British Civil Airworthiness

Requirements).

(c) Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.

(d) When the compass has been subjected to shock (such as a heavy landing).

(e) Following a lightning strike.

(f) If the aircraft has been left standing on one heading for a long period of time.

(g) Following a move to a new magnetic latitude.

 (h) Following any significant modification, repair or replacement of a component
containing significant amounts of magnetic materials (such as an engine change).

(i) Following any significant addition of, or modification to, electrical or radio/
navigation systems.

(j) Prior to flight, following the loading or off-loading of a cargo containing significant
amounts of ferro-magnetic materials.

35. There are many procedures for measuring the magnitude of the co-efficients affecting an
aircraft compass. Most of these techniques involve an accurate datum compass (such as a Medium
Landing Compass), the reading of which is compared with the reading of the aircraft compass on
various headings.

36. The Medium Landing Compass is a small portable bearing compass, having a high degree of
accuracy, which can be used for ground calibration of aircraft compasses. It is designed to use on
the ground and is fitted with a tripod and a bubble level. The horizontal compass card is read
through a prism which forms part of the sighting head.

37. If the datum compass is to give an accurate reading with reference to magnetic north it must
itself be free from any deviating magnetic fields. The person who is aligning the datum compass and
taking the readings should therefore remove all metal objects from his person before the swing. If
you are so involved, and normally wear a trouser belt with a metal buckle, think ahead!
38. In order to compare the reading of the datum compass with that of the aircraft compass(es)
the datum compass is sighted along the aircraft's fore and aft axis. With larger aircraft this is
normally achieved by suspending sighting rods vertically beneath the aircraft. At a distance of a least
50 metres from the aircraft the hair lines of the datum compass are aligned with the sighting rods.
The reading of the datum compass is then noted.

39. There are many ways of completing a compass swing, for the purpose of this syllabus we need
to consider only a simple four point correcting swing.

The Correcting Swing

40. The swing is commenced on a cardinal heading, it does not matter which cardinal. We will
start on a heading of east, that is to say a compass heading which is fairly close to 090°, it does not
have to be exact. In this case the next comparison between aircraft and datum compass would be
made on south, and the next on west. It is then necessary to stop, calculate the value of co-efficient
B, and adjust the aircraft compass if necessary.

41. Returning to Figure 25-7 should convince the reader that deviation caused solely by co-
efficient B is a maximum on headings of east and west, and is of equal magnitude and opposite sign
on these headings.

42. Co-efficient C will not affect the readings on headings of east and west (see Figure 25-9). Co-
efficient A is effectively eliminated from the formulae for co-efficients B and C since it will cause
equal deviation on all headings (Figure 25-5).
43. The formula for calculating co-efficient B is:
 Devi ation on east Deviation on west
Co-efficient B = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2

44. Let us now put figures to this swing and see just how simple the procedure really is:

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass

089° 091°
182° 179°
272° 268°

45. From the above figures the deviation is calculated. Appreciate that the aircraft compass
readings are in effect compass headings (subject to deviation) and that the datum compass readings
are in effect magnetic headings (the datum compass is remote from the aircraft and is therefore free
from deviation). Remember that, if the aircraft compass heading is least deviation is east (+) and
that, if the aircraft compass heading is best deviation is west (-).

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass Deviation

089° 091° +2°
182° 179° -3°
272° 268° -4°

46. Using the formula:

 Co-efficient B (+2 ) – ( – 4 )
= -----------------------------
2

+2 + 4 
= -------------------
2

+6 
= --------
2

= +3

47. It may be necessary to correct for co-efficient B at this stage (if it is outside limits), and this
procedure will be covered shortly.
48. Continuing with the swing the aircraft compass and datum compass readings are now taken
on a heading which is close to north.

49. The logic which gave us our simple formula for co-efficient B will also give the following
simple formula for co-efficient C:

Deviation on north - Deviation on south

Co-efficient C = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------
2
50. Continuing with the swing:
 Aircraft Compass Datum Compass Deviation
089° 091° +2°
182° 179° -3°
272° 268° -4°
358° 359° +1°

51. Using the formula:

Co-efficient C Dev N – Dev S

= -----------------------------------
2

+1 – ( – 3 )
= --------------------------
2

+1  + 3 
= -------------------
2

+4 
= --------
2

= +2

52. Again a correction for co-efficient C could be made here if required.

53. The formula for calculating co-efficient A is:

Sum of observed deviations

Co-efficient A = -------------------------------------------------------------
The number of observations

54. In this case the sum of the deviations (+2) + (-3) + (–4) + (+1) is -4°.

Co-efficient A –4 
= --------
4

= –1

55. If necessary, co-efficient A can be removed at this stage, the method will be discussed shortly.

56. In the event that any of the three co-efficients are outside limits and have been removed, a
further four point correcting swing will be required and hopefully the co-efficients will now be within
limits.
EXAMPLE 25-5
EXAMPLE
Using the following readings which were obtained during the swing of a direct
reading compass, determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass

359° 000°
090° 086°
180° 175°
269° 273°

SOLUTION

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass Deviation

359° 000° +1°
090° 086° -4°
180° 175° -5°
269° 273° +4°

Sum of observed deviations

Co-efficient A = -------------------------------------------------------------
The number of observations
In this case the sum of the deviations (+1) + (-4) + (–5) + (+4) is -4°.

Co-efficient A –4o
= --------
4
= –1o
Co-efficient B E – Dev W
= Dev
-------------------------------------
2
(–4 o) o
= ---------------+--------------------
(+4)
2
–8 o
= --------
2
= –4o
Co-efficient C N – Dev S
= Dev
-----------------------------------
2
+1 o– ( – 5 )o
= -------------------------------
2
+6 o
= --------
2

= +3o
Removing Co-efficients A, B and C
57. The principles for removing co-efficients are the same, regardless of whether it is a direct
reading compass or a gyro magnetic compass which is considered.
58. Co-efficient A results from misalignment. Co-efficient A errors are therefore removed by re-
alignment of the lubber line in the direct reading compass, or the detector unit in the gyro magnetic
system.
59. Errors due to co-efficients B and C are minimised by deliberately introducing magnetic fields
which have an equal but opposite effect to that of the aircraft's own magnetic fields. This is achieved
by means of scissor magnets in direct reading compasses and electro magnets in gyro slaved
compasses.

Adjusting Direct Reading Compasses

60. It is the E type compass which is discussed in the following paragraphs. The compass is fitted
to its mountings using slotted channels which enable the entire compass to be rotated once the
retaining screws are loosened (using a non-magnetic screwdriver).
61. Co-efficient A can be removed on any heading, since it has the same deviating effect on all
headings.

62. If it is necessary to remove a positive (easterly) co-efficient A the compass is physically rotated
in a clockwise direction by the required number of degrees. This will cause the compass reading to
increase.
EXAMPLE 25-6
EXAMPLE
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient A of +2°, and this is to be removed on a
compass heading of 329°. What should the compass read after compensation, and how is
compensation achieved?

SOLUTION
Co-efficient A = +2° (east), the compass is therefore under-reading before compensation. It is
necessary to increase the compass reading to 331° (329° + 2°) and this is achieved by loosening the
retaining screws (using non-magnetic tools) and rotating the body of the compass in a clockwise
direction until 331° appears under the lubber line. The retaining screws are then secured without
disturbing the reading.

63. Conversely, to remove a negative (westerly) co-efficient A the compass is rotated in an anti-
clockwise direction, and this causes the compass reading to decrease.

64. To remove co-efficients B and C scissor magnets are adjusted using grub screws located under
a cover on the instrument face. These scissor magnets are attached to the compass casing and
therefore change position relative to the sensing magnets as the aircraft alters heading. Their effect
upon the compass reading will therefore depend on the aircraft heading, in much the same way as the
aircraft magnetic fields causing deviations B and C.

65. Figure 25-12 shows an aircraft with co-efficient +C represented by a magnet with its south-
seeking end in the starboard wing. At Figure 25-12 the scissor magnets used to compensate for co-
efficient C are in their neutral position.
66. These two small scissor magnets have equal pole strengths and when set in the neutral
position they exert no influence on the pendulously suspended sensing magnets of the compass.

67. Figure 25-13 shows the same aircraft, but now the scissor magnets have been adjusted to
compensate for deviations caused by the co-efficient +C.
FIGURE 25-12
Compass Scissors
Magnets
FIGURE 25-13
Compass Scissor
Magnets after
Adjustment for
Co-efficient +C

68. Figure 25-14 shows the grub screws on an E type direct reading compass, the cover has been
removed. It is necessary to work with non-magnetic tools when making the adjustments.
FIGURE 25-14
Coefficient B & C
Correctors

69. Compensation is achieved by turning the appropriate grub screw until the required heading is
shown beneath the lubber line. In order to avoid turning the grub screw the wrong way remember
that negative co-efficients are removed by turning the appropriate grub screw clockwise, whilst
positive co-efficients are removed by turning the appropriate grub screw anti-clockwise.

70. Co-efficient B is removed on headings of east or west, whilst co-efficient C is removed on

headings of north or south. It is on these headings that the deviation caused by the appropriate co-
efficient will be at a maximum. That is to say that the deviation caused by the co-efficient will be
equal in magnitude to the co-efficient itself.

71. When compensating for co-efficient B on an easterly heading obey the sign of the co-efficient
when calculating the compass reading after compensation.
 72. When compensating for co-efficient B on a westerly heading the sign of the co-efficient is
reversed when calculating the compass reading after compensation (the sine of 270° is negative).

EXAMPLE 25-7
EXAMPLE
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient B of +3°, and this is to be removed on an
easterly heading. Before compensation the compass is reading 089°. What should the compass
read after compensation, and how is this compensation achieved?

SOLUTION
The compass should be made to read 092° (089° + 3°), and this is achieved by turning the B grub
screw in an anti-clockwise direction.

EXAMPLE 25-8
EXAMPLE
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient B of +4°, and this is to be removed on a
westerly heading. Before compensation the compass is reading 272°. What should the compass
read after compensation, and how is this compensation achieved?

SOLUTION
The compass should be made to read 268° (272° - 4°), and this is achieved by turning the B grub
screw in an anti-clockwise direction.
NOTE:
Note that the grub screw is turned in an anti-clockwise direction since,
although the correction is subtractive, the deviation being compensated is itself
positive.

73. The same logic applies to compensation for co-efficient C, but now it is the C grub screw
which is turned in the appropriate direction. When removing co-efficient C on a northerly heading
obey the sign of the co-efficient to calculate heading after compensation. When removing co-efficient
C on a southerly heading reverse the sign of the co-efficient.

74. You are not now required to know how to adjust gyro slaved compasses.

Residual Deviation
75. Unfortunately, since neither the original assessment of co-efficients, nor the compensation,
will be totally accurate, small residual deviations will persist after compensation. It is necessary to
determine the values of these remaining deviations, and to tabulate them on the compass deviation
card which is then attached to the aircraft adjacent to the compass. It is an airworthiness
requirement that the residual deviation is stated at no more than 45° intervals on a deviation card
which is to be located close to the compass in the case of a direct reading compass (and close to the
master compass indicator and to each remote compass indicator, in the case of a gyro slaved
compass).

76. There are two options available to determine the magnitude and sign of the residual
deviations in order to complete the deviation card. The first method is to conduct a calibration
swing.
The Calibration Swing
77. Having completed the correcting swing(s) and ensured that the residual values of the co-
efficients are (now) within limits, a calibration swing is completed. This normally requires that the
deviations are observed on twelve headings 30° apart, which may include the four cardinal heading
observations from the final correcting swing. The observed deviations on these twelve heading may
be used in their raw state to complete the deviation card.

Mathematically Derived Residual Deviations

78. Unfortunately, when the raw data from a calibrating swing is used to determine the residual
deviations for the deviation card, these observed values may themselves be subject to error. BCARs
may therefore dictate that a mathematical approach is used to determine the residual deviations. For
the sake of simplicity, the mathematics of residual deviation is considered only on the cardinal
headings in the following paragraphs. We will tackle the problem by working step by step through
the following example.
EXAMPLE 25-9
EXAMPLE
The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic compass:

Aircraft Compass (compass Datum Compass

heading) (magnetic heading)
359° 004°
092° 091°
181° 184°
268° 273°
(a) Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.

(b) Having compensated for co-efficients A, B and C determine the values of the
residual deviations remaining on the magnetic headings 004°, 091°, 184° and 273°.
(a) The first step is to determine the values of the three co-efficients.

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass Deviation

359° 004° +5°
092° 091° -1°
181° 184° +3°
268° 273° +5°
+12°
Co-efficient A = Sum of deviations
4
= +12°
4
= +3°

Co-efficient B = Dev E - Dev W

2
= (-1) - (+5)
2
= -6
2
= -3°

Co-efficient C = Dev N - Dev S

2
= (+5) - (+3)
2
= +2
2
= +1°
 (b) Now we need to step carefully through the calculation of the residual deviations,
assuming that the co-efficients determined above have been removed. If we are
insulting your intelligence by going too slowly I apologise, however it is a procedure
which is best tackled methodically.

All that has happened in the table below is that the aircraft compass headings,
datum compass readings and the consequent deviations have been transferred to the
first three columns.

(c)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation Deviations removed Sum of deviations Residual
Hdg Hdg before A B sin C cos removed (columns deviations
compensation hdg hdg 4, 5 and 6) (column 3 minus
column 7)
359 004 +5
092 091 -1
181 184 +3
268 273 +5

The next step is to consider the sign and the magnitude of the deviations which would have been
caused by the co-efficients A, B and C on the four headings, had they not been removed.
Completing column 4 presents no problem, since the co-efficient A of +3° would have resulted in a
deviation of +3° on each heading.
When completing column 5 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient B of -3°
would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On north and south this co-
efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the sine of 0° and 180° is zero). On east the
deviation caused by this co-efficient would have been maximum and negative and on west
maximum and positive.
When completing column 6 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient C of +1°
would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On east and west this co-
efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the cosine of 090° and 270° is zero). On north
the deviation caused by this co-efficient would have maximum and positive and on south
maximum and negative.
Please note that, since all of the headings considered are very close to the cardinal points, it is
acceptable to take the sine of small angles as zero, the cosine of the same angles as unity (1), the
sine of angles close to 90° as unity (1), and the cosine of the same angles as zero.
The table can now be completed as far as column 6.
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation Deviations removed Sum of deviations Residual
Hdg Hdg before A B sin C cos removed deviations
compensation hdg hdg (columns 4, 5 and (column 3 minus
6) column 7)
359 004 +5 +3 0 +1
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0
The next step is to add algebraically the values given in columns 4, 5 and 6 for each of the headings
and to enter the sum of these deviations in column 7. The values in column 7 therefore represent
the total deviation which would have been suffered on each of the headings, due to co-efficients A,
B and C, had these co-efficients not been removed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation Deviations removed Sum of Residual deviations
Hdg Hdg before A B sin C cos deviationsremoved (column 3 minus
compensation hdg hdg (columns 4, 5 & 6) column 7)

359 004 +5 +3 0 +1 +4
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0 0
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1 +2
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0 +6
Finally, by subtracting algebraically the values in column 7 from the values for the same heading in
column 3, the residual deviation is established for that heading. Column 3 gives the deviation
which was observed before the co-efficients were removed. Column 7 gives the mathematical
summation of the deviating effects of these co-efficients. By correcting for these co-efficients we
have reduced the original deviations (column 3) by the values in column 7 to give the residual
deviations in column 8.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation Deviations removed Sum of deviations Residual
Hdg Hdg before A B sin C cos removed (columns deviations
compensation hdg hdg 4, 5 and 6) (column 3 minus
column 7)
359 004 +5 +3 0 +1 +4 +1°
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0 0 -1°
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1 +2 +1°
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0 +6 -1°

79. One final example to consider before we leave the problems of residual deviation behind us.
EXAMPLE 25-10
EXAMPLE
The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic compass.

Compass Heading Magnetic Heading

359° 000°
090° 086°
180° 175°
269° 273°
(a) Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.

(b) Determine the compass heading required, after compensation for co-efficients A,
B and C, to obtain a true heading of 288° in a position where the local magnetic
variation is 15°E
SOLUTION

(a)
Compass Heading Magnetic Heading Deviation
359° 000° +1°
090° 086° -4°
180° 175° -5°
269° 273° +4°
-4°

Co-efficient A –4 o
= --------
4
= –1o
Co-efficient B ( –4 )– ( + 4)
= -----------------------------
2
= –4o
Co-efficient C (+1) – ( – 5)
= -----------------------------
2

= +3o
(b) The second part of this question is capable of inducing panic into some
candidates when encountered in the examination because the heading given
isn't a cardinal. By adjusting the given true heading for variation the magnetic
heading which was used in the correcting swing is achieved - end of panic.

Heading true = 288°

Variation = 15°E
Heading magnetic = 273°

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation Deviations removed Sum of Residual
Hdg Hdg before A B C deviations deviations
compensation sin cos removed (column 3
hdg hdg (columns minus
4, 5 and 6) column 7)
269 273 +4 -1 +4 0 +3 +1°

Heading magnetic = 273°

Deviation = +1°
Heading compass = 272°
Permissible Levels of Residual Deviation
80. British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCARs) state that after correction, the greatest
deviation on any heading shall be 3° for a direct reading compass which is used as a primary heading
reference and 10° for a direct reading compass which is used as a standby heading reference. The
greatest deviation (after correction) on any heading which is permitted for remote reading (gyro
slaved) compasses is 1°.

81. Furthermore BCARs state that the maximum permissible level of co-efficients B and C, after
correction, shall not exceed 15° for direct reading compasses, and 5° for remote reading compasses.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 14

QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.

Variation only varies with the position of the aircraft on the Earth relative to the True and Magnetic
Poles.
State the factor(s) which affect deviation

QUESTION 2.

State the 2 components of aircraft magnetism which represent the major deviating influences on a
compass.

QUESTION 3.

Deviation comprises 3 coefficients: A, B, C

a. The effect of Coefficient A is at a maximum on headings.

b. The effect of Coefficient B is at a maximum on _ headings.

c. The effect of Coefficient C is at a maximum on _ headings.

QUESTION 4.

State the formula for total deviation on any heading.

QUESTION 5.

Given that Coefficient A = -2°, Coefficient B = +1° and Coefficient C = -2°, determine the total
deviation on a heading of 120°

QUESTION 6.
List the occasions when a full compass calibrating swing is required.

QUESTION 7.

Explain how Coefficient A is compensated for following a correcting swing on a Direct Reading
Compass (DRC).

QUESTION 8.

Explain how Coefficient A is compensated for following a correcting swing on a Gyro Slaved/
Remote Reading Compass.

QUESTION 9.

Explain what is meant by Compass Safe Distance.

QUESTION 10.

The following readings were obtained during a compass swing:

Magnetic (Datum) Hdg Compass Hdg

360° 006°

090° 088°
180° 182°

270° 272°

Determine the value of coefficients A, B and C

QUESTION 11.

During a compass swing the coefficients of deviation were determined as follows:

Coeff A = +2 Coeff B = -2 Coeff C = +3 Using this information, determine the following

a. The deviation caused by these coefficients on a heading of 266°M

b. The deviation caused by these coefficients on a heading of 183°M

c. The compass reading when the aircraft is parked on a datum heading of 272°M

The correct magnetic heading when the aircraft is parked on 178°C

QUESTION 12.

The following readings were obtained during a compass swing:

Magnetic (Datum) Hdg Compass Hdg

355° 360°
088° 091°

182° 181°

271° 268°

Using this information, determine the following:

a. The magnetic heading (after correction) when on a compass heading of 269C

b. The compass heading (after correction) when on a magnetic heading of 178°M

QUESTION 13.

During a compass swing the values of the coefficients of deviation were calculated as follows:

Coeff A = -3 Coeff B = +1 Coeff C = -4

The compass was then corrected for these values. If the deviation on west before compensation was
-3°, determine the compass heading after compensation on a magnetic heading of 270°M.
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.

Deviation is caused by:

1. Misalignment of the lubber (DRC) or the magnetic detector unit (RRC).

2. The effect of aircraft magnetism on the magnetic assembly (DRC) or magnetic detector unit
(RRC).
3. As a result, deviation is not constant and can vary with change of heading or change of magnetic
latitude.

See 061-25-paragraph 2
ANSWER 2.

Horizontal Hard Iron Magnetism and Vertical Soft Iron Magnetism are the 2 major deviating
influences on a compass.

See 061-25-paragraph 4 to paragraph 9

ANSWER 3.

a. Coefficient A is constant and affects all headings; therefore, it is maximum on ALL headings.

See 061-25-paragraph 4 to paragraph 9

b. Coefficient B is a measure of the deviating influence of aircraft magnetism in the longitudinal or

fore and aft axis; the maximum effect will be on East/West headings.

See 061-25-paragraph 10 to paragraph 16

c. Coefficient C is a measure of the deviating influence of aircraft magnetism in the lateral or
athwartships axis; the maximum effect will be on North/South headings.
See 061-25-paragraph 17 to paragraph 23

ANSWER 4.

Total Deviation on any heading

= Coeff A + (Coeff B x sin heading) + (Coeff C x cos heading).

See 061-25-paragraph 24

ANSWER 5.

Deviation on 120 = -2 + (+1 x sin 120) + (-2 x cos 120)

= -2 + 0.866 + 1
= -0.134°
ANSWER 6.

See 061-25-paragraph 34

ANSWER 7.

See 061-25-paragraph 58

ANSWER 8.
See 061-25-paragraph 58

ANSWER 9.

See 061-6-15 to 17
ANSWER 10.
ANSWER 11.

Deviation on any Hdg = A +(B x sin Hdg) + (C x cos Hdg)

a. On a heading of West sin 270 = -1

cos 270 = 0

Therefore, Dev'n on West (266°M) = A - B

= +2 - (-2)

= +4°

b. On a heading of South sin 180 = 0

cos 180 = -1

Therefore, Dev'n on South (183°M) = A - C

= +2 - (+3)

= -1

c. Deviation on West = A - B = +4°

i.e. 4°E

On a datum heading of 272°M

deviation 4°E (Deviation East, Compass East)

Therefore, compass hdg = 272° -4°

 = 268°C

d. Deviation on South = A - C = -1°

i.e. 1°W

Aircraft heading = 178°

deviation = 1°W (Deviation West, Compass Best)

Therefore, correct magnetic heading = 178° -1°
= 177°(M)
ANSWER 12.
QUESTION 13.

Residual Deviation = Initial Deviation - Correction

Initial Deviation is given as -3°

Total correction (Deviation on West) = (Coeff A + (Coeff B x sin hdg) + (Coeff C x cos hdg))

= -3 + (+1 x sin 270) + (-4 x cos 270)

But, sin 270 = -1 (hence, changing the sign of Coeff B)

cos 270 = 0
Therefore, correction = -3 + (+1 x -1) + (0)

= -3 + (-1)

= -4

Therefore, Residual Deviation = -3 - (-4)

= -3 +4

= +1° (1E)

Deviation East, Compass Least

Therefore, compass heading = 270°(M) -1°E

= 269°(C)
FIGURE 17
Plotting Chart
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