NOTES ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

by:
Hermogenes P. Malagamba

Document- is any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs, visible or partially visible &
convey meaning or message.
Disputed Document-is the term given when there is an argument or controversy on the
document.
Questioned Documents- is a document which is in questioned because of its origin, its contents,
or circumstances regarding its production arouse suspicion as to its genuiness or it may adversely
scrutinized simply because it displeases someone

Two kinds of standard:

1. Procured or collected- obtained from files
2. Requested- made upon the request of an investigator.

How to obtain Collected Standards:

1. Collect at least 15-20 standards;
2. Collected standards should bear similarity of subject matter;
3. The date of preparation must be five (5) years before & five (5) years after the incident
happened;
4. There should be similarity of the instrument used in writing;
5. The writing condition and the manner of execution must be similar to the execution of the
questioned writing.

How to obtain Requested Standards:

1. Dictate, never allow the suspect to see the document;

2. The text that is to be dictated must be carefully selected; do not dictate exactly the content to
prevent familiarity of the document;
3. Dictation must be conducted for three times;
4. Dictation must be interrupted & on an interval basis so that the subject will feel relax and
write in his own natural writing.
5. The normal writing condition of the subject must be arranged, so that the writer will feel to
write the dictation.

How to prepare & examine Typewriting Standards:

1. Examine the ribbon;

2. Use the same size of questioned materials, same word, typographical errors & same degree of
touch;
3. Prepare the standard while the typewriter is in stencil position;
4. State the make, model, serial number, date & initial of the officer;
5. Typewriter should be kept in current condition.

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Source of Standards:

Proof of Authenticity:
The Revised Rules on Evidence (Rules of Court) specifically Rule 132- Presentation of
Evidence letter “B” Authentication & Proof of Documents
Section 20 Proof of Private Documents- states that before any private document is
offered as authentic its due execution and authenticity must be proved:
a) By anyone who saw the document when it is executed or written.
b) By evidence of the genuineness of the signature or handwriting of the suspect.
Section 22. How Genuineness of Handwriting is Proved. The genuineness of the
document can be proved by any witness who believe it to be the handwriting of such person
because he saw the person executed it.
Alterations:
a) Erasures
1. Chemical- bleached with an eradicator. When it is an iron based ink & fumed with
sulfoxyanic acid, fume will turn red.
2. Abrasive- when something rough or sharp pointed instrument is used in erasing the
writings.
3. Associative evidence- a carbon copy, will reveal what had been erased.
4. Cutting
5. Interlineations, addition or subtraction.

Elements:

a) Lack of uniformity of ink;

b) Work of more than one pen or ink;
c) Crowding, uneven margin, & unusual spacing;
d) Removal & reinsertion;
e) Indication of more than one ribbon or typewriter, including the condition of the fabric
of the ribbon;
f) Sharp variation in handwriting.

Obliteration- blotting out or smearing over of the writing to make the original invisible.
Restoration- the process of the development of erased writing or bringing out again.
This is the photographic methods by the use of filter, except when covered with black.

METHODS OF RESTORING OBLITERATED WRITINGS

1. To penetrate the covering layer photographically, so that the original writing lying beneath is
thus revealed. Photographic methods can succeed only if a difference in color or chemical
composition exists between the original writing and the covering material. Separation of color
may be possible with the aid of photographic filter, but it is useless when the ink is a true black.
2. To remove the covering material chemically, or with the aid of ultra-violate radiation or
oblique lighting.

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3. In cases where a white-out is used, careful inspection of the writing will reveal the
obliteration. The original writing can be read also with the aid of a transmitted light with infrared
sensitive film and filters or with use of solvents to weaken the cover and reveal the writing
below.
Handwriting:

Natural
Disguised
Cursive
Hand lettering

Cortex of the brain- control vision, hearing, talking, and walking. It also guide the muscles of the
hands.

agrapia- a disease which causes the individual to lose his/her ability to write.

Two muscles of the hand capable of movement:

1. Extensor muscles- push the pen to form an upward stroke.

2. Flexor muscles- push the pen to form the downward strokes.
The combination of these two muscles of the hand allows the individual to perform the
lateral strokes (sideward
CARE IN HANDLING DOCUMENTS:
1. Do not fold the document along new lines.
2. Bring the document to the laboratory at the soonest time.
3. Do not expose the document to excessive heat or strong light.
4. Do not handle the document excessively, and do not place it in your pocket.
5. Do not work on it unnecessarily.
6. Do not mutilate or damage.
7. Do not use or allow chemical application to treat or dust for latent prints.

CHARATERISTICS OF TREMOR OF FRAUD

1. Inequality of movement in any place in any stroke or line with strokes too strong and vigorous
combined with weak hesitating strokes.
2. Frequent interruption of movement.
3. Unequal distribution of ink on upward and downward strokes.
4. Varying pen pressure, due to change in speed & interruptions in movement, this may occur in
the middle of direct curves or even on the straight lines.
5. Too many pen-stops and pen-lifts on wrong places.

CHARACTERISTIC TREMORS OF AGE OR OF EXTREME WEAKNESS

1. Show unusual and erratic departure of lines from its intended course.
2. Abrupt recovery, a general inclination of muscular weakness and of movement beyond the
control of the writer, particularly on downward strokes.
3. Show awkward digression or distortions which may be due to imperfect sight.
4. Characterized by abbreviations or even omissions of parts of letters or even the whole word.

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5. In the tremor of age often show very uneven alignment especially when the line intersect. In
signature, it shows apparent impatience and desire to complete disagreeable and painful act.
Concluding or terminal strokes are often made with nervous, haste and carelessness or may be
distorted or abbreviated.
6.
FOUR (4) CATEGORIES OF DOCUMENT

1. Public Document-an instrument authenticated by a notary public or competent official

with the formalities required by law; or an instrument executed in due form before a
notary public certified by him; or one that which is made by a notary public in the
presence of parties who execute it with the assistance of two (2) witnesses.
2. Commercial Document-under Article 172 of the Revised Penal Code, these are
instruments which are used by the merchants or businessmen to promote or facilitate
trade or credit transaction. The term also include letters, notes or papers issued in the
course of business transactions, quedans, bonds, books of accounts and in general any
negotiable instruments. It is any document defined and regulated by the code of
commerce or any other commercial law.
3. Official Document- a document which is issued by a public official in the exercise of the
functions of his office. An official document is also a public document.
4. Private Document- a deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or other persons legally authorized, by which document
some disposition or agreement is provided evidence as set forth.

IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNATURES

The identification or the so called verification of signatures is a specialized branch or

handwriting examination.

The identification principles and pointers in general handwriting set forth and
discussed earlier herein fundamentally remain the same in the identification of signatures,
however, certain characteristics and factors must be given careful consideration because of
the following reasons:
Known signatures may contain elements and features not common to the writer’s other
classes of writing;
a) Factors of identification given closest study in signature examination may not be given
the same special emphasis in general writing.

A simple signature may represent thousand or even millions of pesos, and such minute stroke of
a few letters of a genuine signature may thus represent tens or even hundreds of thousands of
pesos. It is, therefore, natural and necessary that every minute phase of this small production of
the human hand and the human brain should be analyzed and scrutinized every possible way.

A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and designs due to its frequent use, it
become almost automatic with many writers.

The identification of signature depends very largely on the manner it is written.

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While design or form of letters are the eye-catching features the forces or factors that contribute
to the manner of writing of identification

The individual writing movement and the skill employed in the execution of the signature itself.
A combination of the following factors provides a full description of the individual writing
movement in the execution of the signature.
1. A continuous writing movement-or the opposite, a writing movement interrupted at
intervals by either pen stops or actual pen lift.
2. Rhythmic, or the opposite, jerky pattern of writing.
3. Shading and pen emphasis on particular strokes.
4. Overall writing pressures.
5. Speed of execution.
6. Smooth or angular connecting strokes between letters.
7. Starting of the initial writing movement before or after the pen contracts the paper and
the corresponding condition at the termination of the word.
A person, in writing his signature, produces a particular pattern which contain personal concepts
of design which, when often repeated serves to distinguish his signature from all others.
Elements which constitute general forms of signature include the following:
a) Design of letters
b) Slant of letters
c) Relative size of capitals; single-space letters and those which follow the base line or
above, the height of a single space.
d) Ornamentation of form
e) Arrangement of different parts of the signature with respect to the balance of it.

The identification of signature is based on the combination of the two (2) personal attribute of:
a) form
b) Line quality
If a questioned signature agrees with the standards in all identifying elements, then it can be
concluded that it was written by the same person.

If on the other hand, significant differences exist between the standards and the questioned
signatures, they must be the work of two different writers, and the difference between them have
to be of fundamental nature and no mere variations which are normally found between two
signatures of any writer.

No two specimens of a person’s signatures are absolutely identical. The signatures normally vary
from each other in some details and the degree which they vary from each other depends upon
the individual writer and the conditions under which each signature was written. As pointed out
in “Standards of Comparison”, it is because of the normal variations in signature that several

signatures should be used to identify the one in question.

In the identification, the known or sample signature must necessarily establish accurately the
range of variation, and then it is necessary to determine whether the identifying qualities of
unknown signature fall within these limits. Natural variation between several signatures if the

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same person plays an important role in the process of identification. In most cases, the extent of
variation in writing even becomes a characteristic peculiar to the writer.

FORGERY OF SIGNATURES

A forged signature is the signature of another person or a fictitious person, written by a person
who has no authority to do so, with intent to defraud.

Classes of Disputed Signatures:

1. Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a copy or facsimile of
the genuine signature.
2. Forged signatures of fictitious persons.
3. Forged signature which resemble the genuine signature since they have been
produced by a tracing process ( Traced forgery).
4. Forged signature which resemble the genuine signature written free-hand.
5. Genuine signature obtained by trickery.
6. Genuine signatures deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner, to
afford signatories some plausible grounds for disclaiming them should only
deemed it expedient.
The forger produces fraudulent signatories, from the elementary process of merely writing the
name(without attempt of making a close resemblance of the genuine signature) to the more
complicated process of a simulation or tracing in an effort to produce facsimile of the genuine
signature.

KINDS OF FORGERY
1. Simple Forgery
2. Simulated Forgery
3. Traced Forgery

SIMPLE FORGERY

This kind of forgery is best termed as “SPUROUS SIGNATURE”. In committing fraud, the
forger who is confronted with the absence of a genuine signature (or a model) will not endeavor
anymore to produce a facsimile of the genuine but merely signs the name in his own, or in a
modified (disguised) handwriting and then contrive some means of passing the documents to his
own gain before the obvious fraud is discovered. This is commonly employed in the case of
fictitious persons, this system employed by the check thief who steals, endorses, and passes
government, corporation or other checks, or who procures printed check forms, completes and
endorses then with fictitious signatures in order to make them pass on as genuine.

The determination of the fraudulent nature of this kind of forged signatures becomes very
elementary once standards of the genuine signatures are obtained.

With sufficient standards the identity of the forger, thru his handwriting may be possibly
determined.

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SIMULATED FORGERY
This is a simulation, copying or animation of a genuine signature or writing as to assemble the
model.
Before separate discussions of simulated forgery and traced forgery are herein made, the
following background points are given in relation to these two kinds of forgery which are strictly
the strange process of writing in place of the well founded, usual writing movement employed in
genuine writing.

The forger labors under a stranded mental and muscular condition that makes it difficult, is not
altogether impossible to do his work in a skillful manner brought about by:
1. The realization that forgery is a criminal act;
2. Fear of discovery which certainly result to punishment;
3. Painful anxiety to do the work well.

To be able to forge successfully, one must:

1. Be able to see significant characteristics of the writing of another;

2. Have the muscular skill necessary to reproduce the writing imitated;
3. Be able to eliminate, at the same time all the characteristics of his writing.

Forgery is apt to show failure in these phases of performance.

The necessity of adjustment of impulses disturbed when muscles become tense as a result of
extra effort to produce a good forgery, and the best results can be achieved only when muscles
are somewhat relaxed so that all work is in harmony.

Simulation and also tracing, gives attention to conspicuous features of form only, not to the
many other details and elements entering into the process.

Developed natural writing which is an almost automatic act that follows the fixed grooves of
habit becomes necessarily stained when attention is given to it.

In SIMULATED FORGERY, the forger has a model (genuine signature) before him which he is
going to copy. Often he undertakes some practice before he proceed to his work of simulation or
imitation.

In rarer instances where the forger cannot avail of a genuine signature for a model, he may rely
on a mental pattern of the signature which he may have owing to long acquaintances of
association with said signature.

TYPICAL DOCUMENT PROBLEMS:

a) The identity of the writer of the document.

b) The determination, removal or decipherment of erasures, interlineations,
deletions, additions, and other alterations.
c) The age of the document.

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 d) The source of the paper.
e) The source and age of typewriting.
f) Comparisons of handwriting and typewriting.

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

a) Examination by the Investigator:

The investigator may perform limited examination of the evidence document in cases,
such as involving anonymous letters, where the authorship is questioned. He should study the
document and compare it with any available standards. His attention should be directed to the
contents of the letter, similarities in writing, typing, spelling, locutions, punctuations, and the
type of paper. Immediate precautionary action or investigative leads may be indicated as a result
of this study. Conclusion regarding the document should remain within the province of the
expert.
c) Laboratory Examination:
The expert employs scientific techniques & appropriate instruments in the laboratory.
Examinations may involve microscopy, chemical analysis, micrometry, colorimetry,

photomicrography, ultraviolet, and infrared photography.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
The questioned document cases usually concerned with proving of authorship. The
following determinations may be involved in comparisons of handwriting:
1. Whether the document was written by the suspect.
2. Whether the document was written by the person whose signature it bears.
3. Whether the writing contains addition or deletions.
4. Whether a document such as bill, receipt, suicide note, or check is a forgery.

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING HANDWRITING COMPARISON

“ NO TWO PRODUCTS OF MAN OR NATURE ARE IDENTICAL, AND

DIFFERENCES ARE PERCEPTIBLE IF A SUFFICIENTLY CLOSE STUDY IS MADE.”
Through years of practice each individual acquires permanent habits of handwriting. The group
of characteristics which form his script constitutes and identifiable picture. In comparing the
questioned and standard specimen, characteristics of sufficient kind and number which are
common to both must be established and there must be no unexplainable differences.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS WHICH SERVES AS THE BASIS IN

EXAMINATION

1. Quality of Line. The lines which form the letter will vary in appearance with pen
position, pressure, shading, rhythm, tremor, continuity, skill and speed.
2. Form. The formation of letters is highly characteristic. Slant, proportions, beginning and
ending strokes, retracing, and separation of parts will vary with different persons.
Ornamentation and flourishes at the beginning and end of the words and sentences are
peculiarly individual.

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3. Spacing. Letters words and lines are separated in a consistent fashion.
4. Spelling and Punctuation. The degree and kind of education will determine these
elements.

Another book enumerated these characteristics as:

a) Slant- which refers to the slope of the handwriting in relation to the baseline. It is fairly a
stable characteristics and the average slant varies very slightly in writings which are done
naturally.
b) Alignment- is the relation of successive characters or elements of the words, signature or
line to an actual imaginary baseline.
c) Proportion- of the letter may refer to the proportion or apart to the other part of the letter
or the relative height of one letter to the other. This is one of the hidden features of
writing as it is unknown writing of another being simulated.

Proportion and Ratio

1. Normal- ½ size of the capital letter is the size of small letter.
2. High Proportion- more than ½ the size of capital letter.
3. Low Proportion- less than ½ of the size of capital letter is the size of small
letter.
d) Stroke or Structure- refers to letter to letter comparison.

TWELVE (12) METHODS/POINTS OF COMPARISON

Point 1- Uniformity
Point 2- Irregularities
 Are the strokes patched or retouched?
 Are there small marks near the strokes?
 Are the strokes wavering?
 Are the connecting strokes broken?
 Are the circle formations made up of separate strokes?
 Are there pen lifts?
 Are there vertical strokes mixed with a forward slant?
 Look for individualized strokes (not a sign of forgery) for identification.
Point 3- Size and Proportion
 What is the height of the overall writing?
 What is the height of the short letters in relation to the tall ones?
 Do the strokes diminish in size?
 Do they increase in size
 Are they narrow in proportion as they are tall?
 Does the sentence formation create a convex and concave baseline?
 Does the sentence formation consistently run uphill?
 Consistency runs downhill?
 Form converging “railroad track”?
Point 4- Alignment
 Do the strokes follow straight along the baseline?

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  Do the letter strokes leave the baseline?
 Do the word strokes leave the baseline?
 Is the left margin essentially even?
 Is it jagged?
 Do the strokes hit the margin at an oblique angle
 How much space is there between capitals and small letters?
 Between separate capitals?
 Between word formations?
 In connecting strokes?
 Proportion of space breaks between letters?
Point 5- Spacing
 Are the strokes above and below the line balanced?
 How tall are the d and t stems in proportion to the rest of the writing?
 Are the strokes ill-formed?
Point 6- Degree of Slant
Point 7- Weight of Strokes
Point 8- T-Bars and I-Dots
Point 9- The Needle, the Wedge, the Round, the Flat
Point 10- Loops
Point 11- Circle Formations
Point 12- Initial and Final Strokes

THREE (3) BASIC MOVEMENTS/MOTIONS IN HANDWRITING

1. Clockwise motion
2. Counterclockwise motion
3. Straight line motion

WRITING INSTRUMENTS

a) Pens
b) Ballpoint pens
c) Pencils
d) Crayons, Chalk and Brushed

THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN OBTAINING HANDWRITING OR HAND

PRINTING SAMPLES FROM THE SUSPECT:

Obtain standards from dictation until it is believed normal writing has been produced. ( The
number of samples needed cannot be determined in advance)
1. Do not allow the suspect to see either the original document in question or a photograph
of it.
2. Remove each sample from the sight of the writer as soon as it is completed.
3. Do not give instruction on spelling, punctuation, arrangement, etc.
4. Use the same writing media such as type and size of the paper, writing instruments,
printed forms (such as checks, notes etc.)

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 5. Obtain the full text of the questioned writing in word for word order at least once, if
possible. Signatures and less extensive writing should be prepared several times, each
time on different piece of paper. Obscene passages, proper nouns, etc. may be omitted
from the dictation.
6. In forgery cases the laboratory should also be furnished with genuine signatures of the
person whose name is forged.
7. Obtain samples with both the right and the left hands.
8. Obtain samples which are written rapidly, slowly, and at varied slants.
9. Obtain samples of supplementary writing such as sketches, drawings, manner of
addressing an envelope, etc.
10. Include a statement that the samples are being given voluntarily. Writer should initial
each page.
11. Witness each sample on the back, never on the front.
12. If readily available, samples of un-dictated writing should be obtained,, such as
applications for employment, social or business correspondence, school papers, etc.
13. The investigator should advise the document examiner concerning the suspects manner of
writing, i. e., whether he was relaxed, whether he was writing slowly or rapidly, or
apparently attempting to disguise all or a portion of the handwriting.

The availability of adequate handwriting samples will allow more suitable examination
which will result into a greater number of definite conclusion and will therefore, also assist
the expert witness a better presentation of such conclusion in court.

TYPES OF INK

There are varieties of ink today in the market but a modern ink are usually of six (6)
types:
a) Gallotannate Ink
b) Logwood ink
c) Nigrosine ink
d) Aniline ink
e) Carbon ink or colored writing ink
f) Ball point pen ink

AN INVESTIGATIVE PERSPECTIVE ON THE COLLECTION, PACKAGING AND PRESERVATION OF

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EVIDENCE

With the increased emphasis on criminal cases in the fraud and white collar crime areas
questioned document evidence is occupying a prominent role in successful investigation and
prosecution efforts. Because of this emphasis it is of paramount importance to insure that the
greatest possible evidentiary potential of documents is obtained in each particular case. In
order that the evidence offered by documents be fully realized constant attention must be
awarded to the proper techniques of collecting and preserving this material. The investigator
who handles documentary evidence should consider the fact that improper methods of dealing
with paper can limit or destroy the items which offer information relevant to a case.

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 One of the major situations which creates difficulty in the handling of questioned
document is that the contemporary world operates through the use of paper. Paperwork is a
routine commodity in every sector or modern society. Because people have day-to-day
familiarity with documents there is a tendency to regard paper material somewhat differently
there is a tendency to physical evidence. Paper does not have the exotic features of other
varieties of physical evidence, such as blood or firearms. As a general rule, the more people
deal with a particular type of material the more they tend to overlook the detail which exists.
This Statement could not be more relevant than in relation to documentary evidence. The
inherent detail in questioned documents which is not readily perceived by the layman offers a
tremendous amount of data which can assist in an investigation. Being the person who collets
documentary evidence and, therefore begins the investigative chain of events, the investigator
must acquire the necessary frame of mind. This frame of mind involve s a development of the
attitude that questioned document evidence is complex and is to be dealt with in the same
comprehensive manner as any other form of evidence which is susceptible to damage and
deterioration.
It is obvious that in most cases documentary evidence is provided to the investigator by
some person who realizes this material is involved in a criminal matter. Usually the document
has been handled without any type of protective covering by numerous individuals prior to its
acquisition by the investigator. Because of this situation there can be a tendency to assume the
majority of evidence potential has been eliminated due to excessive handling. On the contrary,
the investigator should the paper is reeking with evidential information, some of which cannot
be observed by the naked eye. Therefore, the questioned document should immediately be
preserved in its original form at time of receipt by the investigator.
Every attempt must be made by the investigator not to touch or handle the
documentary evidence at the time of recovery when it is in unprotected form. Cotton gloves
can be used to pick up a paper item. In this way the chance of the investigator depositing latent
fingerprints on the evidence is eliminated. The wearing of plastic surgical-type gloves while
touching a questioned document is not recommended. There have been instances in which
latent fingerprints have been placed on evidence even though the person who left the prints
wore such gloves.
The routine use of tweezers or similar pressure devices to collects a document is subject
to question. Depending on the type of document evidence which is involved, the usage of
tweezers may add unwanted markings which can create forensic problems. For example, light
indentions on a photocopy (e.g., Xerox copy) are in many instances placed on a document
during the operation of the photocopy machine. The markings can provide data regarding the
make and model of machine used to produce the copy. Even under ideal circumstances these
markings are difficult for a forensic document examiner to locate and interpret. Tweezers can
leave slight impressions which would offer confusing features in a laboratory examination of a
photocopy.
Attention must be given to the type of container or packaging to be used. The use of certain
types of containers to enclose a questioned document can considerably disturb various forms
of evidence. The utilization of transparent plastic envelopes has become routine for the
packaging of questioned documents. However, the chemical components of such envelopes
may react with various features of a document. For example, the toner which produces the

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image on many photocopies will react chemically with the plastic envelope. As a result the
toner actually adheres to the plastic and thereby is removed from the photocopy. Much
valuable information is lost inasmuch as the original condition of the evidence is destroyed.
With the expanding research in the forensic area of ink identification it has become
apparent that a great amount of evidentiary potential can be gleaned through chemical
examination of inks. The possibility exists that chemical features of a plastic envelope may
contaminate an ink existing on a questioned document, thereby influencing the reliability of
chemical ink examination by introducing extraneous materials. Certain inks used for printing
documents will sometimes deteriorate after being contained over a period of time in a plastic
envelope.
In order to take reasonable precautions to protect and preserve paper evidence the following
procedures are recommended:
A series of manila envelopes of different sizes should obtain. The envelope sizes are to
range from check-size format to larger form (e.g., 10” x 15”). These envelopes are suitable for
the size variations of documents normally encountered.
A preprinted format to accommodate chain of custody data and descriptive information
concerning the document is placed on the envelope. Also a bold statement such as “CAUTION:
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EVIDENCE – AVOID EXCESSIVE HANDLING OR MARKING” can be
preprinted on the envelopes as extra protection.
When a questioned document is discovered it should be marked for chain of custody and
placed in the appropriated size envelopes. The document should be put in the envelope after
the investigator has inserted chain of custody notations on the outside of the envelope. This
action prevents the placement of impressions on the document as a result of the writing
prepared by the investigator on the envelope.
Depending on the condition of the document, thin sheets of cardboard or card stock can
be situated inside the envelope to act as reinforcement to prevent accidental bending or
folding.
The envelope is then sealed with the idea it will only be handled or opened when absolutely
necessary, and then with proper handling as a prime concern.
The envelope containing the document can be placed inside a plastic envelope of proper size as
an additional precaution.
The finished container is subsequently stored in a secure area, and, thereafter, constantly
protected from unnecessary handling.
Considering the nature of the legal System, no matter how precise are the detail and
attention awarded to collection and preservation of documentary evidence, all efforts are futile
if effective chain of custody is not maintained. The preparation of information concerning chain
of custody on packaging material has been discussed. What about the questioned document
itself which must stand the test of courtroom admissibility? Questioned documents should be
marked directly on the evidence whenever feasible so that the investigator will encounter no
difficulty in identifying the evidence I the courtroom. The emphasis, of course, should be on
placing the least amount of writings on the documents – the initials of the investigator and date
of recovery are adequate data for testimony purposes. As a practical consideration, a pencil
should be used to record this information. The use of ink writing instruments (e.g., ball point of
felt tip) is somewhat questionable because chemical treatment of a document for latent

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fingerprints can dissolve certain inks, thereby destroying chain custody data. Additionally, the
markings should be prepared away from any handwriting, typewriting, printing, etc. on the
paper and must be written as small as legibility will permit.
There is sometimes a dispute as to whether a questioned on a photocopy machine. The
original document used to make the copy has been destroyed. Of the four copies, one becomes
an important item of evidence in a case. For all practical purposes, the pertinent copy has the
same general appearance as the other three. In this case the investigator has not marked the
evidence copy at the time of recovery. During a subsequent trial, the defense attorney
produces the remaining three copies which the investigator has never before seen. All four
photocopies are presented to the investigator during testimony with the request: “Please
identify the document which you collected in connection with your investigation.” The dilemma
facing the investigator is obvious and could have been successfully overcome had the evidence
document been appropriately marked for identification purposes.
The collection and packaging of documentary evidence is the initial problem which must
be resolved when a questioned document is received as evidence. However, there are other
problems to be effectively dealt with if the evidence is to be preserved after it is properly
recovered and packaged. The following things can detrimentally affect the evidence potential of
a questioned document:
1) exposure to adverse environmental conditions
2) contamination as a direct result of extraneous markings or impressions
3) excessive and unnecessary physical handling
4) addition of unrelated physical materials

Environmental conditions can play havoc with the evidence potential on a sheet of
paper. The major problems in this realm are created by exposing a questioned document to
excessive humidity, excessive heat and prolonged direct sunlight. These factors can cause some
type of changed in the conditions of a document. For example, humidity can sell the fibers
composing paper to the point that indented writing is rendered indecipherable. At worst,
humidity over a long period of time can cause a document to totally disintegrate. Direct
sunlight may cause color changes, fading and chemical deterioration to a document and the
evidence of importance appearing thereon.
The continuous and unnecessary handling of paper evidence can result in undue folding,
tearing and general deterioration. The destruction of some subtle features of importance may
result. The presence of folds or creases may be of value to associate, for example, two pieces of
paper which were once contained together in a wallet or desk drawer. Continuous handling
may negate the characteristics needed for a forensic laboratory to provide such an association.
A major category of document contamination has to do with the introduction of
extraneous markings. These markings are caused by such things as indented writing
inadvertently placed on a document by a careless person or an impression produced then a
staple gun is unthinkingly placed on top of a questioned document. Unnecessary handwritten
information which is beyond the normal requirements of identification for chain of custody,
such as complete cause titles or names of victim and suspect, should never be placed on a
document.

14
 Probably one of the more difficult enemies of documentary evidence with which to deal
effectively is the addition of unrelated physical materials. This topic of discussion is different
from the topic regarding extraneous markings because it encompasses the inadvertent addition
to a document of materials considered also as types of physical evidence. Foreign hairs, fibers,
stains, staples, latent fingerprints, etc., should not be allowed to contaminate a questioned
document. This contamination will confuse the true meaning of the physical evidence,
inasmuch as the added material is not representative of the original condition of the document
at the time of recovery. In the collection, packaging and preservation of questioned documents
diligent efforts must be made to prevent contamination of this type.
There are unique problems which occur for the investigator when dealing with
collection and preservation of certain forms of paper evidence. Three areas of major
significance which are beyond the scope of normal collection and preservation methods are
charred paper, shredded paper and paper saturated with water.
In many cases charred paper becomes extremely valuable a physical evidence. Often
time’s attempts are made to burn incriminating papers. Of the paper is completely reduced to
fine ash nothing of value can be done in a forensic laboratory to construct the evidence or
decipher the text of information which originally appeared. There are many instances in which
relevant documents can be reconstructed and deciphered to provide the needed evidence
when layers of paper are placed together and set afire there is a tendency for the inner layers
to take considerable time to be consumed, depending on the intensity of the heat source, the
amount of oxygen available and the amount of the physical movement. Even in instances of
house burnings it is common to find paper evidence that was not totally consumed in the blaze.
When the investigator is confronted with the collection and preservation of charred
paper, there are several items to be considered prior to taking physical action. The evidence
should not be mixed or otherwise disturbed. Physical disturbance may cause the layered
structure to deteriorate or individual documents to fall apart. The collection of the evidence in
an “as is” condition for submission to a forensic laboratory is imperative. Depending on the
amount of evidence involved, there is nor more difficult evidence collection task which can face
an investigator in the realm of questioned documents than the collection of shared paper. To
deal with the problem, a relatively thin, but strong, section of cardboard can be gently inserted
under the charred debris. Thick, firm cotton batting is then placed on a flat surface with the
charred paper being deposited on this batting.
Extreme caution should be importance when transferring the charred remains t the
batting due to the fragile nature of the charred material. At this point, the cotton batting can be
wrapped gently, but securely, to completely enhance the charred paper, in order to insure
against movement and disturbance. A cardboard or wood box, somewhat larger than the
packaged charred paper, is padded on the interior with several layers of crumpled newspaper
or similar material. The packaged charred paper will then be situated in the box to be
completely surrounded and protect from movement by the batting. As is evident when
handling charred paper, the methods would normally utilize to collect document evidence are
not directly applicable – a systematic approach is a necessity.
Sometimes the investigator is faced with recovering paper evidence which has been but
into numerous sections by a shredding machine. The person who uses such as device assumes
that the shredding process will prevent any incriminating documents from the shredding

15
process will prevent any incriminating documents from being reconstructed. This assumption is
not always correct, various shredders reduce the paper to fine bits of debris, with
reconstruction being virtually impossible – it is like assembling sawdust to recreate a log. Other
machines cut the paper into individual strips, thereby permitting the strips to be constructed in
readable form. When it is necessary to collect shredded paper the investigator should not
disturb or intermingle the paper debris. Utmost effort should be given to recovering this paper
in its original form as found in the shredding machine. A “pile” of shredded paper can normally
be easily removed from the machine incomplete form if the investigator handles it with care
and not in haste. The recovered paper should carefully be placed in a sturdy bag of appropriate
size to contain all of the evidence. The opening of the bag can be sealed, with the entire bag
being reinforced with lengths of tape. The tape should be placed tightly on the retain the
original form of the evidence by preventing movement or mixing of the paper and to reduce the
possibility of tearing. The secure package of shredded paper should thereafter be placed inside
a sturdy cardboard or wood box surrounded by a padding of newspaper, wrapping paper or
similar material.
The task of assembling the shredded paper is formidable. This fact is especially true
when a large amount of such evidence is involved. In addition to correct packaging, there are
things which can be done by the investigator which will assist in the reconstruction of the
documents. If possible, the laboratory is to be advised of any descriptive information
concerning the pertinent document or documents (e.g., number of pages, color of paper,
handwritten, typewritten, etc.). Also, whenever practicable the investigator should state
whether there are several copies of the same document or documents in the debris. Of great
significance is the fact the investigator must label the package containing the shredded is found
in the shredding device. When a shredded is found to have a self-container should be removed
(if this can reasonably be accomplished), packaged and submitted to the laboratory.
Frequently documentary evidence of importance in an investigation is recovered in a
damp or water-soaked condition. Because paper can be severely damaged by water saturation,
collection and preservation involves specialized methods. The investigator should not attempt
to separate the documents because paper is easily torn when wet. The paper is to be air-dried
away from direct sunlight in a secure area. The use of fans to enhance drying of the paper is not
recommended, inasmuch as fragile sections of paper may be torn away by the air flow as
progressive drying occurs. Usage of heat lamps or other heat sources is not advisable. Heat may
be destructive to the documents. Upon the completion of drying, the paper evidence is to be
packaged in the manner prescribed for the handling of charred paper. Considering the fragile
nature of some types of paper which have been soaked with water, the effort expended in this
method of packaging is justified by the protection which is obtained.
The handling of documents which have been torn is a common occurrence for the
investigator. Whether the paper has been manually torn into a few or numerous pieces, no
attempt should be made by the person collecting the material to use folding, staples, adhesive
or tape to place the paper together. The evidence is to be recovered in a careful manner so that
any fragile irregular torn edges of the paper are not disturbed. There will be occasions when the
paper has been torn into so few pieces that the investigator can readily make a preliminary
match of the sections. When the text of a message is of immediate significance in a case, pieces
of paper can be arranged on a flat surface so that the message is obtained. However, in order

16
that torn paper be best preserved it should be submitted to a crime laboratory for
comprehensive examination and reconstruction.
Photography can be used to great advantage by the investigator who frequently deals
with questioned document evidence. Especially in reference to the problems which can be
involved when handling the unusual forms of paper evidence discussed previously, photographs
can be utilized to vividly depict the original form of the evidence. Questioned document
evidence in the form of charred paper, shredded paper, water-saturated paper and other easily
altered forms of paper which offer special problems, should be photographed in place before
collection takes place. This is practical consideration because many time the paper will be so
deteriorated that even the most well-executed collection procedures will be unsuccessful in
terms of keeping the evidence in complete form.
As illustrated by the areas of discussion explored thus far, the task of effectively
collecting, packaging and preserving questioned documents is much more complex than one
might initially think. The investigator must develop a comprehensive approach, encompassing
not only personal responsibilities but also involving persons who provide documentary
evidence to law enforcement. Specifically, this statement is in reference to employees of
institutions and businesses which routinely deal with documents. The role of cooperation and
education between the investigator and such employees is not extreme importance. Here the
resource-fullness of the individual investigator is the key to success.
Programs can be established to instruct personnel regarding the importance of
documents as physical evidence and of the necessity to prevent destructive handling of such
material. Instructional demonstrations can be given to employees by the investigator to show
how a document should be collected, packaged and preserved as soon as its association with
criminal activity becomes evident. Along with this instruction the investigator can provide the
necessary packaging material, or recommended that it be acquired by the business involved, so
that it will be readily available when needed in actual cases. The objective of this effort is to
enable personnel to preserve the evidence before it is provided to a law enforcement official.
Consequently, contamination will be minimized and pertinent evidence features which could be
easily disturbed will be retained in original condition on the documents. The human nature
factor should not be overlooked when considering the value of such training ventures. Once
persons realize the importance of their participation in the preservation of evidence, they will
feel more personally involved and tend to take their responsibility seriously.
The investigator must be flexible to make the demands of individual cases in which
documentary evidence is significant. There are inevitably some instances in which general rules
regarding collection, packaging and preservation of the evidence do not seem to furnish
adequate or practical answers. There remains one overriding notion to serve as guidance – the
primary duty of the investigator is to maintain the original condition and form of document
evidence to the greatest extent possible. Only then can the fullest potential of the evidence be
developed.

PHILIPPINE BANKNOTES

The main engraved components of each value of the notes may be enumerated as follows:
1. A portrait or portraits on the front with finely engraved backgrounds.

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 2. A border and value panel, constructed of security white line geometric patterns.
3. Lettering, shading and ornamentation of varied depth and fineness of line.
4. Security “black line” geometric patterns, also known as “guilloche” work.
5. Finely engraved vignettes on the back.
6. Subsidiary printings.

HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT CENTRAL BANK NOTES

Study the workmanship of each denomination of known genuine Central Bank Notes. Take
note and familiarize yourself with the various characteristics of the following features:
1. Distinctive feel
2. Portrait
3. Watermark in Filipino notes
4. Red and blue fibers widely distributed on the paper
5. Broken thread vertically arranged on the left side of the Filipino notes
6. Lacework design
7. Color of each denomination
8. Color, style and size of serial number
9. Vignette; and
10. Cleanness of print
DOMINANT COLOR FOR EACH DENOMINATION

100 peso-Mauve
50 peso- Red
20-peso-Orange
10-peso- Brown
5 peso- Green
1 peso- Blue

INSTRUMENTS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

ESDA (electrostatic detection

aparatus) machine.

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Webster defines Braille as a) "system of printing and writing for the blind, in which
letters, numerals and punctuation are made with raised dots distinguishable by the
fingers" or b) " the characters used in this system". To the document examiner however,
Braille refers to the indentation left in a writing surface as the result of a pen or
pencil traveling over it. And while not technically an alteration, it is a problem dealing
with something not visible to the naked eye. Braille can be succesfully detected and
photographed using simple oblique (side) lighting.

Braille image photographed with oblique lighting.

The ESDA image of the same letter.

An anonymous letter as it appeared to the naked eye.

The photograph above is the ESDA image. Look carefully at the ESDA image... the white
writing is the visible ink text. The black writing is the once-invisible Braille image.

Questioned Document
Analysis Plates

Questioned Document Analysis Plates are manufactured by Sirchie Finger Print

Laboratories using an advanced photographic technique. Their fine line and accurate detail allow

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a more comprehensive analysis of questioned documents. Viewing is simplified and shadows are
eliminated as the printed images are on the bottom of each glass plates. They are ideal for direct
photography.

Type Angle Instrument Catalog No. 370H

It is known fact that every typewriter gains its own individual characteristics due to wear
and use. One characteristic that often proves important in the examination of a questioned
typewritten document is known as “type slant”. The normal slant of all type is 90 degrees (at
right angle) to the base line of the typewritten sentence. The type face or block will remain in
this aligned position until the type bar on which it is mounted is bent or forced out of shape.
When this occurs, the letter will appear titled. Often this till is slight, so extreme care should be
exercised in the examination and in the use of the Type Analysis Instrument. The examiner will
find photographic enlargements a great help in determining the exact angle and degree of
variation.

If a document contains a letter suspected of being titled or at an angle other than 90

degrees, then the Type Angle Instrument should be used as follows.

The plate contains two pairs of horizontal lines. The upper pair are for use with elite type,
the lower pair are for pica type. Both of these pairs of lines will be found near the middle of the
instrument. To find the degree of variation from the normal, place the glass plate over the letter
or word so that the horizontal lines are parallel to the base line of the sentence. When the plate is
properly positioned the letter in question should be enclosed in a square formed by the angle
lines and the horizontal lines. To be considered a specific angle, the angle line on the instrument
should pass through or run parallel to the axis of the letter in question. A photograph taken with
the plate in position on the document and then enlarged it will be a great help to the examiner. A
conclusion can then be made regarding the slant characteristics of the document in question.

Typewriter Measuring Instrument Catalog No. 371H

One of the individual characteristics a typewriter gains as it grows older is its letter
alignment. The letters, when typed onto a sheet of paper, are seldom in perfect alignment with
the base line. When this condition is due to the type bars out of line, it will be observed that the
same discrepancy will occur in both the upper and lower case letters. Faults in alignment cannot
be observed without the use of an instrument.

The top block and line scale are for use on “pica” type only. The lower block and line
scale are for use on elite type.

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 BLOCK SCALE

To determine which letters are out of alignment, place the block scale over the line of
typewritten words. Adjust the scale until every letter is an individual block. Any letters which are
higher or lower than the base line will be visible. Photographs and enlargements will prove of
great value in cases where misalignment is slight.

On both block scales are four rows of blocks. The first and third are for the lower case
letters, while the second and fourth are for the upper case letters.

LINE SCALE

Under each block scale can be found a horizontal line scale. This scale will determine if
any line or words have been added to an original document. On ordinary typewriters the spacing
is automatic. This makes it next to impossible to insert a word or a series without leaving a trace.
This also holds true in the case of added material. It is very difficult to replace a sheet of paper in
a typewriter in the position it was originally in.

Place the correct type scale for the words in question over the document. Adjust the
instrument so that the top line of the scale is directly over a base line of the typewritten words, on
a line above or below the words suspected of having been added. If the scale does not fall on the
base line of the suspected words, the document has been tampered with.

8” RULE SCALE

Often in the examination of a document a question arises as to the size and distance
between the signature and the body of the letter or proportions. This can be determined with the
rule located at the lower edge of the plate.

The scale may be superimposed over the questioned part of the document and
photographs taken. This would not be possible with an opaque steel rule.

Slope Protractor and Frequency Instrument Catalog No. 372H

Handwriting Slope Instrument

As the examiner of questioned documents knows, one of the first thoughts of the
inexperienced forger is to change the slope of his writing in an effort to disguise it. Therefore,
this factor is one of the first steps in the examination of a document.

The handwriting slope instrument is used to determine the exact slope of individual
letters, words or whole paragraphs or sentences.

21
 Ordinarily, undisguised writing generally slopes from 30 to 50 degrees to the right of the
vertical, while backhand writing slopes not more than 30 degrees to the left of the vertical.

TO USE THIS INSTRUMENT, place the glass over the writing so the horizontal line of
the instrument marked 90 degrees is in perfect alignment with the base line of writing, then note
which angle line passes through the axis of the letter. All readings are made from the right or the
left of the vertical on the line marked “0” degrees.

Photographic enlargements made with the instrument in place on the writing will be great
help in drawing a conclusion in this phase of the examination.

FREQUENCY MEASURING INSTRUMENT

This instrument is used in the examination of questioned document writing for the
analysis of space factor.

The spacing of writing is greatly influenced by what is known as “movement”. There are
three types of movement–namely the finger, the hand and forearm or muscular movement. This
spacing factor is often overlooked by the inexperienced forger.

TO USE THIS INSTRUMENT, place the glass plates over the writing so the base line is
perpendicular to the line on the instrument scale. Observe the results and then place it on the
standard or example. Any variation that may be present between the two can be photographed.

Another important use of this instrument is that of measuring the width-breadth of

individual letters. The instrument is placed on the writing as before. In this case, photographic
enlargements can be of great help.

In making up an analysis chart on a questioned document, the examiner must state the
frequency of deviations from the normal of a certain letter. With the instrument placed on a
whole line of writing, the number of times the deviation occurs in that sentence can be counted.

Handwriting Letter Slant and Comparison Instrument Catalog No. 373

LETTER SLANT PLATE

The letter slant plate is used to determine the slope of individual letters groups of letters,
words or sentences. This plate has been designed especially for better visibility and to permit
more accuracy than would be possible with the ordinary protractor.

The examiner will find three number scales on the upper part of the plate. The first two
scales, no. 1 and 2, are for letters or writing which slant to the right of vertical or the degree line
marked “0” degrees. The third scale, no. 3, is for letters or writing which slants to the left of
vertical or the degree line marked “0”. Scale no. 1 is graduated from 0 degree to 35 degrees to
the right vertical. Scale no. 2 is graduated from 35 to 64 degrees to the right of vertical.

22
Handwriting which slants more than 65 degrees is comparatively rare. Scale no. 3 is graduated
from 0 degrees to 35 degrees to the left of vertical and is used for so called “backhand” writing.

To use the “Letter Slant Plate”, place the glass plate over the document until the scale is
in place on top of the line or letter to be examined. The lower of the horizontal lines which
enclose the scale is superimposed on the baser line of the word or sentence in question. The scale
is then manipulated until a degree line is found that runs parallel or through the axis of the letter
in question, this is the angle of the letter.

This was has been designed so that photographs can be taken without the angular lines
too close to the letter being examined as found in a protractor type of slant plate.

Visibility is one of the foremost advantages of his instrument over the standard
protractor, commonly used in the past for determining slant. The instrument permits the
examiner to study the letter in question under each individual degree line without interference of
the other degree lines which originate at a common apex.

HANDWRITING COMPARISON TEST PLATE

This plate is found directly beneath the letter slant plate and helps determine the slope or
slant of a paragraph or group of words or sentences. Conclusions drawn from the “Slant Test”
are formed on an average basis.

The forger often makes a radical change in his forged writing, in an effort to conceal his
identity. If the examiner finds that his example or submitted writing and the questioned writing
do not vary more than 10 to 15 degrees and this variation remains constant then it is highly
probable that the papers were written by different writers. A forger would not alter the angle of
slant a mere 10 degrees, but would try to make the alteration as radical as possible.

This plate would be used to make general comparisons only and may be used in two
ways. Place the plate over the questioned writing and photograph it. Then place the plate over the
standard or example and photograph it again. Enlargement of both, placed side by side, will
show the average deviation of slant of the writing. The second way is to place the plate over the
actual writings, placed side by side, and make the comparisons directly. Sometimes direct
comparison is prohibited by wide margins, serrations and torn samples.

There are two sections of the Handwriting Comparisons Test Plate. The one on the
examiner’s right is for use on the writing which slants to the right of the vertical. The section on
the left is for use on writing which slants to the left of the vertical or “backhand” writing.

GLOSSARY:

Abnormal Writing Condition- is a writing executed not in a normal condition, such as standing,
walking, lying position.

23
Alignment Defects- Includes characters which write improperly the following respects: twisted
letter, horizontal or vertical mal-alignment, and a character off-its-feet.

Altered Documents- it is one that contains some changes, either as an addition or deletion.

Angular Style of Writing- a writing wherein most part specifically the upper and lower strokes
forms an angle or wedge.

Arc- is the bend, crook or curve on inner side of a loop of letters such as “b”, “c”, “n”, and “p”.
It also refers to any arcaded form in the body of letters “c”, “a”, “s” and “o”.

Ascender- is the top portion of the letter or upper loop of letters such as; b, d, l, f, I, and k.

Ballpoint pen- a pen with a tiny rotating ball that pick-up supply of ink by contact on the
reservoir and then transmit it to the paper.

Baseline-is the ruled or imaginary line in which the letter rests.

Benzene method- a chemical method of ink examination.

Block Style of Writing- is characterized by writing in which all the letters are in capital or
printed.

Blunt- is the beginning and ending stroke of both small and capital letters, wherein the pen
touched the paper without hesitation, beard , hitch or knob.

Body – is that part of the letter which ordinarily forms a small circle, usually lies on the line of
writing such as bodies of a, o, d, g, p, and q.

Bowl-is the fully rounded oval or circular formation in a letter which is complete in “o” and
modified in b, d, p, and r.

Buckle knot- is the horizontal loop that are used to complete such letters as a, b, h, and k.

Cacography- is characterized as bad writing.

Calligraphy-is the art of beautiful writing.

Carbon Impressions- any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action of the typeface
striking through carbon paper.

Carbon Inks- consists of a finely ground carbon particles suspended in water.

Copy Book Form- it is the basic form and design of letters which is fundamental to our writing
system.

24
Decipherment- is the process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced. It refers
to the process of searching or making out the material which is illegible without actually
developing or restoring the original writing on the document itself.

Defects- are any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter which is reflected in its work and
which led to its individualization and identification.

Descender- is the lower portion of the letter or lower loop of g, j, q, y, and p.

Diacritic- is an element added to complete a certain letter such as “dot” on small “i”, j, bar on “t”
and accent mark on foreign language.

Disguised writing- when the writer tried to deliberately alter his usual writing habit in the hope
of hiding his identity. The result irregardless of its effectiveness is termed as disguised writing.

Display exhibit- describes a greatly enlarged photographic court exhibit which is made to such
size that it must be placed upon an easel before the jury box.. These are also called bromide
enlargements.

Disputed document- means that there is argument or controversy over the document.

Document- is any material having marks, signs, symbols, which are either partially visible or
invisible which may ultimately convey meaning to someone or a printed or written paper
containing a record, statement or an instrument containing inscription.

Document Examiner- one who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in
order to identify their source or to discuss other fact concerning the same.

Ductus Broken or Junction Broken- refers to the disconnected or non-continuous strokes between
two letters.

Ductus Link or Junction connection- a continuous line that connects or joins two letters.

Efface – to rub out, to strike or scratch out or to erase.

Erasure- the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from the document.

Examination- is the art of making a close and critical study of any material and with questioned
document as the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are
undertaken including microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical, ultra-violet and infra-red
examinations.

Exemplar- is a standard of writing of known authorship which can be used by the expert in
comparison.

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Expert Evidence- is the testimony of a person who is skilled or possessing knowledge of a
particular department of human activity.

Expert Witness- a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special, technical
training and experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding an issue or a certain aspect
of issue that is involved in a law suit.

Eye loop or Eyelet- is a small loop formed by strokes that extends in divergent direction as in b,
c, f, k, p, r, s, w and z.

Flexibility of penpoint- the quality of the nib pen that varies with the different pens and can be
measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or a given degree
of shading.

Flying start and flying finishes – when the motion of the pen proceeds the beginning of the
stroke and continue beyond the end to a vanishing point is found in free natural writing and as a
rule is an important indication of genuineness.

Foot – is the base or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.

Forgery – a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but also on intent on the
part of the marker defraud. Outside of the courtroom, however, it is used synonymously with
fraudulent signature or spurious document.

Form of blindness – there are people who lacks the ability to differentiate forms, size, letter
configuration, design and angle.

Fountain pen – is the modern nib pen which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially designed
sack or chamber.

Freehand imitation or simulated forgery – a fraudulent signature which was executed by

simulation rather that by tracing the line of a genuine signature can be referred to as executed in
free hand imitation.

Gooping of ballpoint pen writing – is the excess of globules of ink oftentimes deposited after a
sharply curve stroke or the point of an abrupt change of writing direction.

Graphology – is the art of determining character, disposition and aptitude of the individual from
the study of handwriting.

Guided hand signature – signature actually produced by the cooperation of two hands and two
minds. A seriously ill-testator sometime ask someone for assistance in affixing his signature,
generally then, abnormally, clumps disconnection, uneven alignment and illegibility are
indication of genuineness and the opposite condition are evidence of lack of genuineness.

26
Habit lettering – a disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately is a
form of hand lettering or hand printing.

Habit – a writing habit in any expected elements of defect which may serve as identifying
characteristics in individualize writing.

Hand exhibit – described a photographic court which is designed to be held and examined by the
individual juror or pair of judges.

Handwriting – is the result of very complicated series of act, being as a whole, a combination of
certain forms of visible mental and muscular habit acquired by long continued painstaking effort.

Handwriting – is the result of a bodily movement, which is almost unconscious, of fixed

muscular habit reacting from fixed mental impression of certain idea, associated with script
form.

Handwriting – extended writing

Handwriting – Block-style.

Hesitation – is the term applied to the irregular thickening which is formed when the writing
slows down or stops while a penman takes stocks of the position.

Hiatus – may be regarded as a special form of pen lift distinguishable in that a perceptible gap,
appeared in writing, though sometimes hiatus are caused by failure of ink to register on a paper
due to speed of writing movement.

Hitch – is the introductory background stroke added to the beginning of any capital letter. It is
also seen occasionally in introductory strokes of some small letters.

Holographic document – any document completely prepared, written and signed by the person
without the assistant of a lawyer.

Hook – a minute and involuntary talon-like formation often found at the commencement of an
initial upstroke or at the end of terminal stroke.

Individual Characteristics – characteristics highly individualize or peculiar to an individual

writer or characteristics which are highly personalize and unlikely to occur in other instances.

Infrared Examination – infrared examinations of document employ invisible radiation beyond

the red portion of the visible spectrum(rainbow) which is usually recorded on specially
sensitized photographic emulsion

Infrared Photography – the principle in infra-red photography as a means of preparing

photographic evidence is based upon the fundamental facts that different substances which looks
alike to the naked eye but are of different chemical component may have a varying ability,

27
reflect or transmit infra-red rays and hence, will not appear alike when photographed by infra-red
rays.

Initial Emphasis – is the greater pressure on stroke or the initial stroke.

Ink – is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.

Ink Analysis – the application of chemicals on ink to determine its component whether or not it
came from the same source.

Ink Eradication – consist of the chemical solutions which are capable of bleaching ink.

Ink Flow back – ink sometimes will flow back on stroke from a shaded to an unshaded portion
giving the appearance of two ink film. Logwood ink sometimes shows these characteristics. Such
flow back of an ink should not be mistaken from a retouching or patching. The condition is
readily distinguishable from an actual patching by this accurate fitting together of the lines.

Insertion or Interlineations – include the addition of writing and other material between lines or
paragraphs, to the addition of whole pages to a document.

Inside or Middle Letter – letter between the initial and terminal stroke.

Intersection – is the meeting of two lines which intersect.

Iodine Fumes – a kind of chemical examination of ink erasure.

Junction – is the meeting of two lines which do not cross.

Knob – is the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the withdrawal of the
pen from the paper.

Lead or Graphite – is the substance in the pencil commonly made up of tetanium chloride, sulfite
and ion that produce.

Legal Tender Philippine Currency-Notes and coins issued and circulating in accordance with
R.A. 266 as amended by R.A. 7653, which when offered for the payment of private or public
debt must be accepted.

Lens – consist of one or more optically ground glasses which focus light rays similar to the pupil
of the eyes and to focus an image of the object being photographed or the film surface.

Ligature – a stroke connecting two letters.

Line quality – it is the condition of the pen line itself. Good line quality is characterized by
smoothness of writing, regularity of curves and shades. It results from the writer’s being largely
unconscious of the actual act of writing and concentrating instead of what is being written. Poor

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line quality, on the other hand, is the result of the writer’s given too much attention to the actual
process of writing.

Majuscule – a capital letter.

Misalignments – synonymous with the term “alignment defect”.

Microscopic Examination – any study or examination which is made with the microscope in
order to discover the minute physical details.

Miniscule – a small letter.

Model signature – a genuine signature which has been used in imitation or traced forgery.

Movement – it is the most important elements of handwriting. It embodies the factor related to
the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm and emphasis. The
manner in which the writing instrument is moved, that is, finger movement, hand movement, arm
movement and whole arm movement.

Movement impulse – this refers to the uniformity and continuity of strokes. Forged writing is
usually produced by a broke movement to or maybe more interrupted motion or movement
impulse than genuine writing.

Natural variation – this are normal and natural deviation found between repeated specimens of an
individual handwriting.

Natural writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to deviate
from his norm, control or alter its identifying habits in its usual quality of execution.

Non-acqeous ink – an ink which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle other than water.
Inks of this class are found in ballpoint pens, typewriter ribbons and stamp pads and all widely
used in the printing industry.

Oblique or side lighting examination – an examination with the illumination so controlled that it
gazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle.

Obliteration – the blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the original invisible or
undecipherable.

Off its feet – a condition of typeface writing heavier either one side or corner than over the
remainder of its outline.

Opinion – the document examiner’s conclusion. In court, he does not only expresses an opinion
but demonstrates his reason for arriving at his conclusion.

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Paper analysis – the application of chemicals on the paper to determine its component whether or
not it came from the same source.

Patching – going back over a defective writing stroke or an attempt to improve an imitation.

Pen – a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper.

Pencil grade – is the quantitative description of the hardness or softness of a pencil that is how a
dark stroke is capable of making.

Pen lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument (pen) from the
paper.

Pen nibs – the two divisions or points which from the writing portion of the pen.

Permanent defects – an identifying characteristic of a typewriter which cannot be corrected by

simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon.

Photomacrographs – a similarity enlarged photograph prepared from a camera with the use of
macro lens.

Photomacrography– this is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small object

without the use of microscope but, by using a short lens and a long below extension.

Photomacrograph – is a photograph with a magnification of, from two to fifty times the original
size.

Photomicrograph – is a photograph made through a compound microscope or stereoscope and

may be a greatly enlarged image of minute details or of a small area.

Photomicrography – this is the science of obtaining photographic magnification of a minute

object by using camera attached to a compound microscope. The camera lens is removed
because the microscope lens forms the image.

Platen – the cylinder which serves as the backing for the paper and which absorbs the blow of the
typeface.

Proportional spacing typewriting – a modern form of typewriting which resembles printing in

that all the letters, numerals, an symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as they do with
the convectional typewriter.

Qualifications – the professional experience, education and ability of document examiner

combine to make up his qualifications.

Quality – is a distinct or peculiar character. It is used in describing handwriting to refer to any

identifying factor which is related to the writing movement itself.

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Rebound – is a defect in which the character prints a double impression with the lighter one
slightly offset to the right or left.

Rebutting evidence – is that evidence that counter act, to repeal or destroy evidence, or disproved
the evidence by either side.

Restoration – describes any process in which erased writing is developed or brought out again on
the document itself.

Retracing – any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.

Safety paper – this term is applied to paper which has been treated in such a way as to minimize
the chances of successful forgery by erasure whether mechanical or chemical being carried out in
any document which forms the basis.

Script writings – are characterized by writing which are not point together or disconnected.

Secret inks – a material used for writing which is not visible until treated by some developing
processes or substance can serve as a secret or sympathetic ink.

Sequence of stroke –the order in which the writing stroke are placed on the paper.

Shading – is the widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the
used of a stub.

Significant writing habit – this term is applied to any characteristics of writing which is
sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as fundamental point of identification.

Slant – is an angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.

Speed of writing- the motion of a writing instrument characterized by slow, moderate or rapid.
Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from finished handwriting but can be interpreted in
broad terms of slow, moderate or rapid.

Spurious signature – describes as fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt of
simulation or imitation.

Standard – are those things whose origin are known, can be proven and which can be legally use
for comparison with other things in question.

Surface texture or paper – the surface of any sheet of paper when viewed under magnification is
not absolutely smooth and flat, but is irregular and rough.

Synthetic dye inks or aniline inks – any ink which consists simply of a dye dissolved in water
together with the necessary preservatives.

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System of writing – the combination of basic design of letters and the writing movement as
taught in school make up the person’s writing skill.

Testimonial evidence – is the oral testimony of a man or an expert in court or written affidavit by
an ordinary witness.

Traced forgery – any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the outline
of a genuine signature in a writing instrument.

Transitory defects – an identifying characteristics which can be eliminated by cleaning the

machine or replacing the ribbon such as clogged typefaces.
Transmitted light examination – the document is viewed with the source of illumination behind it
and the light passing through the paper.

Tremors – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular,, shaky strokes.

(page 16)
Twisted letter – each letter and character designed to point at a certain fixed angle to the
baseline, due to wear and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters become
twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.

Typeface – the printing surface of the type block.

Typeface defects – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damaged to the typeface
metal.

Ultra-violet examination – ultra-violet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave length just
below the visible blue (light) violet ends at the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays react on
some substances see that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as fluorescence. Thus,
ultra-violet examination may be made visually or photographically by recording either the
reflected ultraviolet or invisible radiation.

Ultra-violet photography – the utilization of ultra-violet rays in document photography to restore

or uncover writings, writings which have been erased chemically or mechanically or in the
detection of substitution, over writing, superimposition, and secret writing.

Vertical Misalignment – a character printing above or below is proper position.

Watermarks – a certain paper are marked with a translucent design a watermark, impressed in
them during the course of their manufacture.

Writing Conditions – include both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and
the factors which influence the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution.

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Written impressions – the small writing indentations completely devoid of nay pigment. They
may be found a sheet of a table paper which was immediately below the one on which writing
was done, or they may be remain after pencil or typewriting has been erased.

Wrong-handed writing – any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used.
Thus, the writing of a right handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts
for the common terminology for this class of disguise in “left handed writing”.

Counterfeit Note-An imitation of a legal and genuine note intended to deceive or to be taken for
that which original, legal & genuine.

Counterfeit Coin- an imitation or forged design of a genuine and legal coin regardless of its
intrinsic value or metallic composition, intended to deceive or pass for the genuine coin.

Section 9, R.A.7653- reproduction of facsimile- size less than 3/5 or more than 11/2 times in size
of the currency note being illustrated.

Types of US Dollars:

Federal reserve Note – those with green treasury seal and serial number.
Dollars with number and letter representing the Federal Reserve District in which that bank is
located:

1- Boston Massachussetts – A 7- Chicago Illinois –-- G

2- New York, New York - B 8- St Louis Missouri---H
3- Philadephia, Penn. - C 9- Minneapolis, Minn.-I
4-Cleveland, Ohio -D 10- Kansas City , Miss.-J
5- Richmond Virginia -E 11- Dallas, Texas--------K
6- Atlanta, Georgia -F 12- San Francisco, Calif- L
(Page 17)
US Note – with red Treasury seal & Serial Number
Silver Certificates- with Blue Treasury seal & Serial Number

Portrait
$ 1- George Washington $ 50- Ulysses Grant $ 10,000- Salmon Chase $
2- Thomas Jefferson $ 100- Benjamin Franklin
$ 5- Abraham Lincoln $ 500- William McKinley
$ 10- Alexander Hamilton $ 1000- Grover Cleveland
$ 20- Andrew Jackson $ 5000- James Madison

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

"The handwriting on the wall may be a forgery" (Ralph Hodgson)

A "questioned" document is any signature, handwriting, typewriting, or other mark

whose source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful. Letters, checks, driver licenses,
contracts, wills, voter registrations, passports, petitions, threatening letters, suicide notes,

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and lottery tickets are the most common questioned documents, although marks on doors,
walls, windows, or boards would also be included by definition.

QDE, or Questioned Document SOME FAMOUS FORGERS &

Examination, has been a profession at least FORGERIES
since 1870, and frequently is found in cases Major George Byron (Lord Byron forgeries)
of forgery, counterfeiting, mail fraud, Thomas Chatterton (Literary forgeries)
kidnapping, con games, embezzlement, John Payne Collier (Printed forgeries)
gambling, organized crime, white collar Dorman David (Texas Dec. of
crime, art crime, theft, robbery, arson, Independence)
burglary, homicide, serial murder, Mark Hofmann (Mormon, Freemason
psychological profiling, and deviant sex forgeries)
crime. A number of famous cases over the William Henry Ireland (Shakespeare
years, some involving wrongful conviction -- forgeries)
the Dreyfus affair; Bruno Hauptmann and Clifford Irving (Howard Hughes forgery)
the Lindbergh Kidnapping; the Hitler Konrad Kujau (Hitler Diaries)
Diary profiling controversy; and Clifford James Macpherson (Ossian manuscript)
Irving's forgery of Howard Hughes George Psalmanasar (Literary forgery)
signature and Mormon documents -- were Alexander Howland Smith (historical
showcases for the talents of various experts documents)
at QDE. It's strength, drawn from civil law, Thomas James Wise (Printed forgeries)
is that expert opinion can overturn (alleged) Unknown (Documentary Photos Billy-the-
eyewitness opinion. Kid)
Numerous (Biblical forgeries)

Historically, QDE has been somewhat of an inclusive profession, even to the point where
so-called pseudo-experts (in palmistry and fortune-telling) were sometimes welcome, and
even today, it suffers from a bit of identity crisis in that at least eight (8) different, or
related, areas can be identified:

 Questioned Document Examiners -- A document examiner analyzes any questioned

document and is capable of more than just questions of authorship limited only by
their access to laboratory equipment
 Historical Dating -- These is work involving the verification of age and worth of a
document or object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and can get as
complicated as Carbon-14 dating

 Fraud Investigators -- This is work that often overlaps with that of the document
examiner and focuses on the money trail and criminal intent

 Paper & Ink Specialists -- These are public or private experts who date, type,
source, and/or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax
machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical methods

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  Forgery Specialists -- These are public or private experts who analyze altered,
obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting,
expensive spectrograph equipment, or digital enhancement techniques

 Handwriting Analysts -- These are usually psychology experts who assess

personality traits from handwriting samples, also called graphologists or grapho-
analysts; Forensic stylistics refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics,
spelling, word choice, syntax, and phraseology.

 Typewriting Analysts -- These are experts on the origin, make, and model used in
typewritten material

 Computer Crime Investigators -- This is an emerging group that relates to QDE

through some common investigative and testimonial procedures

It's probably a futile effort to rigidly demarcate and delimit the various areas of QDE as
there will always be overlap, evolution, and, perhaps, controversy.

INVESTIGATIVE FOUNDATIONS

One of the things important to understand is what the QDE expert is looking for. This
deals with the issue of class characteristics versus individual characteristics.

In a nutshell, CLASS characteristics, which are commonly found at crime scenes,

describe evidence which can only be associated with a group (like those with certain
personality traits) and not a single source. Such evidence can only be used for
corroboration or circumstantial purposes, and the evidentiary problem lies in the fact that
little or no mathematical models exist to assess probability values with the comparison of
class evidence. The expert must say things like "relatively certain" instead of things like
"95% of the time" or "an odds-ratio of 300:1". INDIVIDUAL characteristics describe
evidence that is associated with a common source and an extremely high level of
probability. It's not so much that the evidence points directly at anything or anyone; it's
that it draws an inevitable conclusion based on mathematical calculations or probabilities
so high as to defy human comprehension while at the same time substantiated by the
opinion of a scientific expert.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS

Among QDE experts, the use is made of many different scientific principles from a
variety of disciplines, and one of the first attempts at basic principles appeared in Albert
Osborn's Questioned Documents in 1910, grounded in handwriting comparison as evidence
of individual characteristics (paraphrased below):

1. The most identifying characteristics are those which are most divergent from the
regular system or national average.
2. Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be sought first and given the

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most weight.
3. Regular or national system similarities are not alone sufficient to base judgments.
4. It is the combination of particulars, common and uncommon, that identifies.
5. It is impossible to discover how all strange and peculiar characteristics came to be
developed.
6. People do wholly unaccountable things in their speech, gestures, and writing.
7. An individual characteristic may be the survival of an error overlooked by a teacher.
8. Many characteristics are outgrowths or copies of an at one time admired design.

The psychological theory of handwriting comparison is developmental. Children learn to

write by copying whatever style of writing is fashionable at the time and taught to them by
teachers from textbooks. This style is known as the regular or national system, and for
most of the twentieth century, it was either the Palmer system or the Zaner-Blosser system
for cursive. Today, there are many systems, or no system. As the child grows, the act of
writing becomes a subconscious effort and begins to pick up habitual shapes and patterns
that distinguish it from all others. This is most evident with capital letters and numerals.
Handwriting has individual characteristics due to it being largely unconscious behavior.
The unconscious handwriting of two different individuals is never identical. Mechanical and
physical factors, as well as the mental ones, make it highly unlikely that the exact same
handwriting occurs in two different people. It's therefore important that samples,
exemplars, or specimens (all synonymous terms for documents of known origin) be obtained
under conditions as similar as possible to the conditions present at the time the disputed,
doubtful, or original (all synonymous terms for questioned documents) was created. These
conditions are an essential part of what are called standards of comparison:

 Care must be taken to avoid samples which are deliberately written in a crude,
unnatural way, or so well thought out as to disguise the writer's natural style
 A sufficient number of samples must be taken, several pages if necessary, over and
over again, to establish multiple (more than one) comparisons of single
characteristics or combinations of common and uncommon characteristics

 Samples should be taken within two or three years of the disputed writing in order
to rule out changes in style that may have occurred over time or with age

 The sample should include some dictated text, words, or phrases contained in the
original document (but under no circumstances should the writer be shown the
questioned document)

 Pen and paper, as well as writing position, should consist of the same conditions that
existed at the time the questioned document was written (if these facts are known)

TECHNICO-LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

Legally, the conditions in place that produced the specimen serve to authenticate it as a
standard. Authentication, or positively establishing the origin of known documents, is
required for any piece of documentary evidence. This can be accomplished by the

36
testimony of witnesses who saw the original writing produced, by the testimony of persons
familiar with the writing, or (in some states) by a post litem motam courtroom
demonstration where the writer gives a sample which is checked within an hour to a day or
more by a QDE expert. Technically, even the police could extract authenticated samples
since neither Fourth nor Fifth Amendment rights apply to handwriting samples. In
addition, some samples are self-authenticating -- as in any writing on legal forms, business
correspondence, responses to communication from others, and some "ancient" documents
(over 30 years old). Irregularities in the authentication (or discovery) process of a
handwriting case are NOT grounds for reversible error. The accused may get a new trial,
but they are not exculpated or found innocent by most courtroom errors. Refusal by the
accused to give a handwriting sample is presumptive evidence of guilt. There's no right to
remain silent when it comes to handwriting.

A potential problem exists with signatures. People usually have three (3) different
signatures: (1) a formal one, used on important documents; (2) a routine one, used on
regular correspondence; and (3) an informal one, used for jotting quick notes. Also, other
circumstances affect writing such as age, arthritis, emotional distress, medication,
intoxication, and corrective vision. It's difficult to tell handedness, gender, and age from
unknown samples. QDE experts must consider all these things, and make an informed
judgement (usually in consultation with an investigator or attorney) based on their
familiarity with handwriting dynamics (e.g., appearance, laborious movements, rhythm).
With an impairment like arthritis, for example, the writing function may become more of a
conscious than subconscious effort, making for a more complex case. However, a
paraphrasing of Larry Miller's (1987) indicia drawn from a review of the forgery literature
might provide useful guidelines when dealing with impaired or deliberately deceptive
writing:

Line Quality Irregular, laborious, shaky, lack of rhythm

Size/Proportion Larger, wider, higher, inconsistent, different spacing after caps
Pen lifts Frequent lifts off paper
Angle/Slant Greater than 5 degree change, other-hand slanting
Pen Pressure Heavier than usual
Circle formation More teardrop or egg-shaped, frequent counterclockwise
formations
Retouching formal signature used, often retracing strokes, foreign marks
present
Loop formation Wider spacing between, more squared, shorter, or broken loops
Stroke Wider M's and W's, more squared or wedge-shaped stokes
formation
Alignment Change in baseline habits, more downward slants from baseline
Diacritics Heavier t-crossings and i-dots, position placement changes

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 Begin/end Heavier pressure, blobbed, vertical position change or slanting
strokes

Problems get stickier when trying to draw personality inferences from handwriting
samples. Remember this is the realm of graphology, but it might be interesting to look at a
few traits of interest to criminal justice and criminology. With that in mind, here's a small,
academic fair use sample of the Trait Dictionary from Bart Bagget's MyHandwriting.com.
Be advised that these are not definitive interpretations by any means because there are
over 30 different "systems" of graphology in existence.

Graphology systems tend to be one of three (3) types: (1) those based on individual letter
formations; (2) those based on stroke analysis; and (3) those based on an holistic/gestalt
method. Over 3000 private business companies use it routinely (to screen employees), and it
enjoys a growing sense of scientific respectability. The courts appear to be waiting to see
college psychology courses on it. It probably has the most validity with the following
domains: (1) intelligence; (2) attitude toward work; and (3) interpersonal skills. Recent
developments have focused on "profiling" of uncaptured criminals and sex offenders
(where handwriting analysts say they can spot a "perversion", not exactly the best word
for it).

There's some precedent in art therapy and projective psychological testing for
graphology. Many convictions of child sex offenders have occurred because of what the
child victim portrayed in a drawing, and with psychological testing, there's the famous
"Draw a Pig" assignment, which apparently contains everything you need to make a
subjective personality assessment from: where placed on paper; the size of the pig; the
pressure applied; the direction the pig is facing; attention to details; line quality; angular
or curved strokes; and emphasis on head of pig.

TESTIFYING IN COURT

There's quite a bit of divergent terminology found in court

testimony. The most common "conclusions" are really qualified
opinions. Although the science of QDE has its origins in Bertillon's
points of comparison method, there's no set standard, such as 11 or
12 "matches" as with fingerprinting. Instead, it's up to each expert
to say what constitutes a sufficient number. The most commonly
used phrases are "significant similarities", "most probably", or
"very probably". An expert opinion need not be based on absolute

38
certainty. A QDE expert can expect to be on the stand a long time,
as direct, cross, redirect, and recross trial procedures play out. The
background and integrity of the expert as well as the quality of the
evidence determines both admissibility and impact.

Court-recognized expertise as a QDE expert is not something that can be achieved

through self-study alone. An old common law rule that isn't recognized much anymore says
that one can become an expert by study without practice or by practice without study.
With QDE, the courts (State v. Evans 1991) have decided that a person needs both: study
and practice -- that is, a period of training (internship or apprenticeship is better than a
self-study course) and a period of experience (twenty some previous cases worked on is a
good average). In addition, there's a rather large literature base to become familiar with,
and a good number of journals, periodicals and newsletters.

COMPUTER CRIME DEVELOPMENTS

Computer forensics is used in many areas. In civil law for discrimination and
harassment cases, by insurance companies for workman's compensation cases, by
corporations for trade secret misappropriations, and in criminal law mostly for drug and
embezzlement record-keeping and child pornography. As mentioned previously, this is a
loosely related, developing specialty area. It is most closely related to typewriting
comparison. The FBI has, for many years, maintained typewriter databases, ink databases,
copy toner databases, paper databases, and watermarks (which sometimes change every
year). Private examiners do not have the advantage of large databases available to
government examiners. Computers and computer printouts also leave a trail that can be
followed, whether it's from something simple like how full or dry a printer ink cartridge is,
to the various alignments and misalignments of dot matrix and laser printers, to fiber
analysis of the paper used, computer crime specialists utilize some of the same age-old
techniques that typewriting analysts used as well as other investigative methods.

A computer forensics expert will have experience on a wide variety of hardware and
software. Unlike paper evidence, computer evidence exists in many forms, with earlier,
alternate, and backup versions of each and every file somewhere on the hard drive and
frequently unknown to the user. The process of examining a suspect computer system is as
follows:

 Secure/protect the system from further use, damage, or corruption

 Discover all files, including hidden and encrypted ones

 Recover all (or as many as possible) deleted files

 Reveal all hidden, temporary, and swap files

 Access all protected or encrypted files

 Analyze all unallocated or "slack" spaces on a disk

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  Print out an overall analysis of the system, listing all files

 Formulate an opinion of the system layout, file structure, and any attempts to hide,
delete, protect, or encrypt information

INTERNET RESOURCES
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners
Bart Bagget's MyHandwriting.com
Free Handwriting Analysis Software
Graphology, Graphoanalysis, and Handwriting Analysis
Handwriting Analysts Group
Judd Robbins Computer Forensics Website
Norwitch Document Laboratory Home Page
Preparing for a Daubert Hearing (with Handwriting Evidence)
Questioned Document Examination Page of Emily J. Will
Speckin Forensic Laboratories

PRINTED RESOURCES
Brunelle, R. (1982). "Questioned Document Examination" in R. Saferstein (ed.) Forensic
Science Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Dines, J. (1998). Document Examiner Handbook. NY: Pantex.
Ellen, D. (2005). Scientific Examination of Documents, 3e. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Huber, R. & A. Headrick. (1999). Handwriting Identification. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Kelly, J. & Lindblom, B. (Eds.) (2006). Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, 2e.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Koppenhaver, K. (1991). The Business of Document Examination. MO: Forensic Publishers
of Joppa.
Miller, L. (1984). "Bias Among Forensic Document Examiners: A Need for Procedural
Change" Journal of Police Science & Administration 12:407-11.
Miller, L. (1987). "Forensic Examination of Arthritic Impaired Writings" Ibid 15:51-55.
Moenssens, A., J. Starrs, C. Henderson & F. Inbau. (1995). Scientific Evidence in Civil and
Criminal Cases. Westbury, NY: Foundation Press.
Osborn, S. & A. (1991). Questioned Document Problems: The Discovery & Proof of the
Facts. NJ: Patterson Smith
Saudek, R. (1978). Psychology of Handwriting. NY: Books for Professionals.

Last updated: Sept. 30, 2006

Not an official webpage of APSU, copyright restrictions apply, see Megalinks in Criminal
Justice
O'Connor, T. (Date of Last Update at bottom of page). In Part of web cited (Windows name for file at top of
browser), MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/rest of URL accessed
on today's date.

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