★ FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC - obsessive, rigid, orderly or

THEORY stringent
Phallic Stage
1.) Freud's Stages of Psychosexual (3-6 yrs old) preschoolers
Development Curiosity and Questioning
(genitals)
Oral Stage Electra and Oedipus Complex
Birth to 1 year old
Erogenous zone is Mouth Latency Stage
Too much or too little satisfaction (age 6-puberty) school age
lead to Oral Fixation or Oral Little or no sexual motivation
Personality present
Oral Receptive - strong tendency Libido is lessen or removed and
to smoke, drink alcohol or converted through interaction to
overeating others
Oral Aggressive - tendency to bite
his/her nails, use curse words or Genital Stage
even gossip. (puberty onwards) The fifth stage
of psychosexual development
Anal Stage begins at the start of puberty when
1 to 3 years old sexual urges are once again
Erogenous zone is Bowel and awakened.
Bladder Control
Major conflict is Bowel Training - 2.) Freud's Personality
the child learn to control their Components
bodily needs ID

Positive experiences during the Freud says that a child is born with
toilet training stage serves as the the id. The id plays a vital role in
basis for the people to become one's personality because as a
competent, productive and baby, it works so that the baby's
creative adults. essential needs are met.
Anal - expulsive personality Id: This component operates on the
- messy, wasteful and destructive pleasure principle, seeking immediate
personality gratification of needs and desires without
Anal - retentive personality considering consequences.

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 individual's ability to strike a balance
between these conflicting forces within the
EGO psyche.
It aims to satisfy the id's needs in a
4.) Topographical Model
realistic and socially acceptable
manner. Unconscious
Operates using the reality principle Freud said that most of what we go
Know as impulse or impulsive through in our lives, emotions,
decision can results to negative beliefs, feelings, and impulses
consequences deep within are not available to us
at a conscious level.
SUPER EGO He believed that most of what
It sets high standards and ideals, influences us is our unconscious.
often leading to feelings of guilt or The Oedipus and Electra complex
self-criticism when not met. mentioned earlier were both buried
Embodies a person's moral down into the unconscious, out of
aspects. our awareness due to the extreme

Exert influence on what one anxiety they caused.

considers right and wrong

Conscious
Being aware of Comprise a very
3.) The three components and
small part of who we are most of
Personal Adjustments.
who we are is hidden and out of
A well-adjusted person, according to
reach.
Freud, strikes a balance between these
three components. They can gratify their
Subconscious
desires to some extent without
Also known as: preconscious
disregarding societal norms or personal
ethics. Part of us that we can reach but
not an active conscious
In summary, Freud's theory highlights the Right below the surface but still
simple interplay between instinctual hidden
desires, societal expectations, and This conscious was the storage of
individual ethics in shaping a well-adjusted our
personality. The early experiences and - TELEPHONE NUMBER,
upbringing significantly influence an - CHILDHOOD MEMORIES

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 - CHILDHOOD FRIENDS NAME
PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
★ PIAGET'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage
- From birth to infancy
Jan Piaget - During this period, infants are busy
he is a swiss psychologist discovering relationships between

He discover the Understanding of their bodies and the environment.

Children's Cognitive Development OBJECT PERMANENCE

Theory He was born on 1896 - the understanding that whether an

A Biologists and phylosopher object can be sensed has no effect

on whether it continues to exist.
Theory of how Children's Cognitive
Process Development
STAGE 2: PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
- During this stage (2 to age 7),
Basic Cognitive Concepts
young children are able to think
1. Schema - A prior knowledge
about things symbolically. They
"Basic building blocks of intelligence
also develop memory and
behavior
imagination, which allows them to
2. Assimilation -Fitting New
understand the difference between
Experience/Information Assimilation -"add"
past and future, and engage in
"Taking new information into previous
make-believe.
existing schema"
3. Accomodation -changing other
SYMBOLIC FUNCTION
information
- The symbolic function substage
- The creation of new schemas of
occurs between 2 and 4 years of
the modification of old schemas
age and is characterized by gains
- Accommodation occurs when
in symbolic thinking, in which the
schemas are modified in any way
child is able to mentally represent
based on experience in the world
an object that is not present, and a
- Actively constructing their
dependence on perception in
understanding of the world
problem solving.
- Active rather than passive
- by the age of 6 or 7 the child can
4. Equilibration - Proper balance
pretend to play with the objects
Correcting the child
that exist only in his mind.
5. Disequilibration - Not balance Ignoring
Stage 3 : Concrete-Operational stage
or incorrect

3
 - 8-11 years old classified as “middle - Ability to think logically by applying
childhood” a general rule to a particular
- ability to think logically but only in instance or situation. In deductive
terms of concrete objects reasoning, you’ll often make an
Decentering argument for a certain idea.You
- to perceive the different features of make an inference, or come to a
objects and situations conclusion, by applying different
Reversibility Premises.
- child can now follow that certain For example;
operations can be done in reverse - All dogs have ears; golden retrievers are
Conservation dogs, therefore they have ears.
- ability to know that certain property - Christmas is always Dec. 25th; today is
of objects (mass, volume, area or Dec. 25th, therefore it’s Christmas.
number) do not change even if
there is a change in appearance. ★ Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory
Seriation of Development
- ability to order or arrange things in
a series based on one dimension Erikson was interested in the roles
such as weight volumed or size that relationships and social interaction
had in human development. The
Analogical Reasoning foundation of Erikson's theory was the
- The ability to perceive the so-called epigenetic principle. According
relationship in one instance and to this theory, people develop in a series
then use that relationship to narrow of steps that take place over time and
down possible answers in another within the framework of a greater
similar situation or problem. community.
Finding a shared relational
structure between two instances, Introduction to the 8 Stages
exemplars, or domains is the 1. Erikson's psychosocial term is derived
foundation of analogical thinking. from the two source words namely
When a system like this can be psychological (or the root, 'psycho' relating
identified, previous knowledge to the mind, brain, personality, etc) and
about one scenario can be used to social (external relationships and
draw new conclusions about environment), both at the heart of
another. Erikson's theory. Occasionally you'll see
the term extended to biopsychosocial, in
Deductive Reasoning which "bio" refers to life, as in biological.

4
 develops in people. As such Erikson's
2. Erikson's theory was largely influenced theory is useful for teaching, parenting,
by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended self-awareness, managing and coaching,
the theory and incorporated cultural and dealing with conflict, and generally for
social aspects into Freud's biological and understanding self and others.
sexually-oriented theory. 6. Various terms are used to describe
3. It's also interesting to see how his ideas Erikson's model, for example Erikson's
developed over time, perhaps aided by his biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social
own journey through the "psychosocial theory (bio refers to biological, which in
crisis" stages model that underpinned his this context means life); Erikson's human
work. development cycle or life cycle, and
1-3 : Erikson’s “psychosocial” term is variations of these. All refer to the same
derived from the two source words – eight stages psychosocial theory, it being
namely psychosocial ( or the Erikson's most distinct work and
root,‘psycho’ relating to the mind, remarkable model.
brain, personality etc.)and social
(external relationships and 4-6 : Like the other influential theories,
environment). Erikson's theory was Erikson's Model is simple and
greatly influenced by Sigmund Freud. well-designed. Erikson's eight stages
theory is a tremendously powerful
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson's model. It is very accessible and and
model is simple and well- designed. The obviously relevant to modern life, from
theory is a basis for broad or complex several different perspectives for
discussion and analysis of personality and understanding and explaining how
behaviour, and also for understanding and personality and behavior develops in
for facilitating personal development of people. Various terms are used to
self and others. It can help the teacher in describe Erikson's Model, for example
becoming more knowledgeable and at the Erikson's Biopsychosocial or
same time understanding of the various bio-psycho-social theory ( bio refers to
environmental factors that affect his own biological, which in this context means
and his students' personality and behavior. life).
5. Erikson's eight stages theory is a
tremendously powerful model. It is very 7. The epigenetic principle: As Boeree
accessible and obviously relevant to explains. "This principle sans that we
modern life, from several different develop through a predetermined
perspectives for understanding and unfolding of our personalities in eight
explaining how personality and behavior stages. Our progress through each stage

5
is is part determined by our success, or of the stages of our lives. Successfully
lack of success, in all the previous snages. passing through each crisis involves
A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, "achieving" a healthy ratio or balance
each petal opens up at a certain time, in a between the two opposing dispositions
certain ander which nahore, though as that represent each crisis
genetics has determined. If we interfere in
the natural order of development by 7-9 : Epigenetic is that it challenges
putting a pedal forward prematurely or out influenced by the environment it self, it
of order, we run the development of the works and collaborates with a person's
entire flower" Erikson's theory delved inte behavior to be able to work properly.
how personality was formed and believed Psychosocial crisis challenges in
that the earlier stages served as a different stages in life wherein it
foundation for the later stages. The theory influences your personal development.
highlighted the influence of one's Virtue after overcoming those
environment, particularly on how earlier challenges, you will be able to have a
experiences gradually build upon the next positive qualities of life after navigating
and result into one's personality those challenges.

8. Each stage involves a psychosocial 10. On the other hand, if we don't do so

crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A well, we may develop maladaptations and
helpful term used by Erikson for these malignancies, as well as endanger all our
opposing forces is "contrary dispositions". future development. A malignancy is the
Each crisis stage relates to a worse of the two. It involves too little of the
corresponding life stage and its inherent positive and too much of the negative
challenges. Erikson used the words aspect of the task, such as a person who
"syntonic" for the first-listed "positive" can't trust others. A maladaptation is not
disposition in each crisis (eg. Trust) and quite as bad and involves too much of the
"dystonic" for the second-listed "negative" positive and too little of the negative, such
disposition (e.g Mistrast). To signify the as a person who trusts too much.
opposing or conflicting relationship
between each pair of forces or 11. The crisis stages are not sharply
dispositions, Erikson connected them with defined steps. Elements tend to overlap
the word "versus". and mingle from one stage to the next and
to the preceding stages. It's a broad
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry framework and concept, not a
away a certain virtue or psychosocial mathematical fornuala which replicates
strength which will help us through the rest precisely across all people and situations

6
 and a little negative aspect such as the
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the person who trust too much.
transition between stages is "overlapping".
Crisis stages connect with each other like The Eight Psychosocial Stages of
inter laced fingers, not like a series of Development
neatly stacked boxes. People don
suddenly wake up one morning and be in STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST
a new life stage. Chane don't happen in Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of
regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are development includes eight stages, each
graduated mixed-together and organic. characterized by a specific conflict or crisis
that individuals must resolve to progress
13. Erikson also emphasized the to the next stage. The first stage is known
significance of "mutuality" and as "Trust vs. Mistrust," and it typically
"generativity" in his theory. The terms are occurs during infancy, from birth to
linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of approximately 18 months.
generations on each other, especially During this stage, infants develop a sense
among families, and particularly between of trust in their caregivers and the world
parents and children and grandchildren. around them. The primary caregiver,
Everyone potentially affects everyone usually the mother, plays a crucial role in
else's experiences as they pass through meeting the child's basic needs such as
the different crisis stages. Generativity, feeding, changing diapers, and providing
actually a named disposition within one of comfort. If the caregiver is responsive and
the crisis stages (Generativity vs. consistent in meeting the infant's needs, a
Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the sense of trust develops.
significant relationship between adults and On the other hand, if the caregiver is
the best interests of children one's own neglectful or inconsistent, the infant may
children, and in a way everyone else's develop a sense of mistrust. This can lead
children the next generation, and all to feelings of insecurity and anxiety. The
following generations. resolution of this stage sets the foundation
for the individual's overall attitude towards
10-13 : Malignancy is a little positive the world. A successful resolution results
and too much negative aspects of the in the development of trust, which forms
task, such as the person who can’t the basis for healthy relationships and a
trust others. Sometimes we’re having a positive outlook on life.
trust issue with others because we're
afraid to use it for our past mistakes. Stage 2 : AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND
Maladaptation has too many positive DOUBT

7
Stage two focuses on early childhood, balancing act of learning to initiate
18 months to three years, when we are activities and play and trying out
gaining independence and an increased leadership
perception of control over our physical
skills (Erikson, 1958, 1963).Though early Ages 3-5
on in development, we begin to develop a Child expresses desire to take
heightened sense of personal control and initiative in activities; takes control
acquire feelings of independence. of their
During stage two, parents should expect environment
and encourage their child to explore limits,
Parents punish children for
gently stretching them, while avoiding
initiative: the child develops
criticism when they fail. The resulting
feelings of guilt that will affect
feeling of security and confidence are
self- directed activity throughout
crucial for our progress in subsequent
life.
stages and leads to the virtue of will.
This stage is a time for play, not for
formal education.
STAGE 3 : INITIATIVE VS GUILT
OEDIPAL CRISIS - the reluctance
Kids are becoming more independent and
a child feels in relinquishing his/her
fun between the ages of 3-5. Erik
closeness to
Erikson called this time in a person’s
the opposite sex parents.
life the “Play Age.”
RUTHLESSNESS - to be heartless

When you show initiative, you do things or unfeeling or be "without mercy."

without being told; you find out what you INHIBITION - too much guilt.
need to know; you keep going when COURAGE - the capacity for
things get tough; and you spot and take action despite a clear
advantage of opportunities that others understanding of your limitations
pass by. A positive response to the world's and past failings
challenges, taking on responsibilities,
learning new skills, feeling purposeful. The STAGE 4 : INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
attempt to make that non-reality a reality. is the school-age when the child is
from about six to twelve. The task is to
Erikson's third stage deals with initiative develop a capacity for Industry while
vs. guilt, and the virtue is purpose. Stage avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority.
3 builds on the autonomy stage and is Children must "tame the imagination" and
strengthened by both independence and dedicate themselves to education and to
limit setting. Like most stages, this is a learning the social skills their society

8
requires of them. Children must learn that friends, the peer group now becomes an
there is pleasure not only in conceiving a essential source of general rules of
plan, but in carrying it out. behavior.
Wherein the task in this stage is to
MALADAPTATION achieve the ego identity and avoid role
Narrow Virtuosity - a maladaptive confusion. Ego identity is when you’re
tendency of too much industry that are knowledgeable about your strengths,
common to children who are 'not' children weaknesses, and goals in life, being
when parents push them in to one area of independent and knowing how to fit in the
competence. society. Role confusion is when you’re
MALIGNANCY confused about what you want in yourself,
Inertia - a malignancy of inferiority like you don’t know your strengths, your
complex weaknesses, or your philosophy in life.
Never trying again if failed at first. They are not unsure of who they are or

Never trying because we don't do where they fit, and they feel disappointed

well in that area. and confused about the life they want to

Never trying in social skills. live.

Fanaticism - When you only

VIRTUES believe in your beliefs

When a child successfully navigates this Repudiation - They reject the

stage, they develop competency. ideas of others or refuse to accept
Competency becomes a big part of something good, true, and
confidence as we develop in life and plays reasonable.
a strong role in the next stage of identity.
STAGE 6 : INTIMACY AND ISOLATION
STAGE 5 : IDENTITY VS. ROLE During this stage, the major conflict
CONFUSION centers on forming intimate, loving
Stage 5 is about Adolescence, relationships with other people. The
beginning with puberty and ending task of this stage is to achieve some
around 18 to 20 years old. Characterized degree of intimacy as opposed to
The question "Who am I and what can I do remaining in isolation. Or put an end to
when I become an adult?" confronts the isolating yourself from others. Isolation is
adolescent. His struggle is based not only struggled to form close relationships, due
on societal demands as an emerging adult to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear
but also on the pubescent age. Since an of rejection that could lead to feelings of
adolescent spends more time with his loneliness.

9
 In this stage of young adulthood, STAGE 7 : GENERATIVITY VS.
which lasts from about 18 to about STAGNATION
30 years old.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to The middle years of stage comprise the

others. productive years of adulthood. During

We begin to share ourselves more this stage, individuals focus more on

intimately with others. building our lives, primarily through our

careers, families, and contributions to
We explore relationships leading
society.
toward longer-term commitments
Generativity: If individuals feel they are
with someone
making valuable contributions to the world,
other than a family member.
for instance, through raising children or
They can form close bonds and
contributing to positive changes in society,
are comfortable with mutual
they will feel a sense of generativity.
dependency, involves the ability to
People who are invested in the
be open and share oneself with
generativity stage of life want to reach
others,
their full potential. They want to live with
clarity, purpose, and passion. They want
The “fear of commitment” some people
to see growth, change, and development
seem to exhibit is an example of
in who they are as people. They want to
immaturity in this stage.
leave this world better than they found it.
This fear isn’t always obvious. Many
Stagnation: People may experience
people today are always putting of the
stagnation if they believe they are not
progress of their relationships. I’ll get
having a positive influence or if they are
married (or have a family, or get involved
not engaged in creative or productive
in important social issues) as soon as I
activities.
finish school, as soon as I have a job, as
soon as I have a house, as soon as.... If
The stagnation stage can happen when
you’ve been engaged for the last ten
a person doesn’t participate in generative
years, what’s holding you back?
activities. If someone feels they lack
Neither should the young adult need to
purpose in their career or personal life or
prove himself or herself anymore.
are not making meaningful contributions to
Because they have a clear sense of who
society. In this case, they may experience
they are and no longer fear “losing”
a sense of unfulfillment and disconnection,
themselves, as many adolescents do.
which can hinder their personal growth.
This can lead to a loss of purpose and
lower odds of experiencing a fulfilling life.

10
Virtue: Care “Right action tends to be defined in terms
Care is the virtue achieved when this of general individual rights and standards
stage is handled successfully. The feeling that have been critically examined and
of having accomplished something, agreed upon by the whole society”
making a positive impact on society, and - Lawrence Kohlberg
being helpful in life.

STAGE 8 : EGO INTEGRITY VS. Introduction

DESPAIR Individuals, when confronted by
situations where they need to make moral
Our final stage of psychosocial decisions, exercise their own ability to use
development takes us from 65 years of moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
age to death, known as maturity. This interested in studying the development of
stage is one of reflection. We slow down, moral reasoning. He based his theory on
are less productive, and spend time the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive
reviewing our accomplishments development. Our ability to choose right
throughout life. from wrong is tied with our ability to
Success is in the belief that we have understand and reason logically.
achieved our goals and found happiness,
leading to the feeling of integrity, “a sense Lawrence Kohlberg
of coherence and wholeness” (Erikson, Lawrence Kohlberg was such an
1982). We feel we have achieved much interesting, if not Intriguing person. He
and are ready to meet our end with a was born wealthy, but chose to be a sailor
sense of peace. Success leads to the and began to be interested in moral
virtue of wisdom, a sense of reasoning. He helped smuggle Jews
completeness. through a British blockade in Palestine
On the other hand, failure may be during World War II. Kohlberg is known for
experienced as despair and regret over his theory of moral development which
things not done, completed, or mistakes was influenced by Piaget and Dewey's
made. We are bitter about the past and theories. He believed that people
present, frightened about coming to the progressed in their ability to reason
end of our life without a sense of having morally through six stages, with three
lived well. levels largely by social interaction.

★ Kohlberg’s Stage of Moral Abstraction/Generalization

Development

11
 Lawrence Kohlberg built on others. He/she gives importance
Piaget's work, and set the groundwork for on what people will think or say.
the present debate within psychology on
moral development. Kohlberg followed the Stage 4: Law and Order. One is
development of moral judgment and motivated to act in order to uphold law and
extended the ages covered by Piaget, and order. The person will follow the law
found out that the process of attaining because it is law.
moral maturity took longer and occurred
slower than Piaget had thought. Post-Conventional. Moral reasoning is
based on enduring or consistent
The Kohlberg's Stages of Moral principles. It is not just recognizing the law,
Development but the principles behind the law.

Stage 5: Social Contract. Laws that are

Pre-conventional Level. Moral reasoning
wrong can be changed. One will act based
is based on the consequence/result of the
on social justice and the common good.
act, not on the whether the act itself is
good or bad. Stage 6: Universal Principles. This is
associated with the development of one's
Stage 1: Stage Punishment/Obedience. conscience. Having & set of standards
One is motivated by fear of punishment. that drives one to possess moral
He will in order to avoid punishment. responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself.
Stage 2: Mutual Benefit. One is Examples of persons are Mother Teresa,
motivated to act by the benefit that one Martin Luther King, Jr.
may obtain later. You scratch my back, I'll
scratch yours.
★ Vygotskey’s Socio-Culture
Theory
Conventional Level. Moral reasoning is
based on the conventions or “norms” of The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that
society. This may include approval of social interaction plays a very important
role in cognitive development.
others, law and order.
He believed that individual development
Stage 3: Social Approval. One is could not be understood without looking
into the social and cultural context within
motivated by what others expect in which development happens. Scaffolding
behavior – good boy, good girl. is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate
The person acts because he/she assistance given by the teacher to assist
the learner accomplish a ABSTRACTION/
values how he/she will appear to

12
GENERALIZATION through the individual's own processing of
When Vygotsky was a young boy he the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand
was educated under a teacher who used gave more weight on the social
the Socratic Method. This interactions that contributed to the
method was a systematic question and cognitive development of individuals. For
answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to him, the social environment or the
examine current thinking and practice community takes on a major
higher levels of understanding. This role in one's development.
experience, together with his interest in
literature and his work as a teacher, led Vygotsky emphasized that effective
him to recognize social interaction and learning happens through participation in
language as two central factors in social activities, making the social context
cognitive development. His theory became of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and
known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of other adults in the learners' environment
Development. all contribute to the process. They explain,
model, assist, give directions and provide
PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY feedback to the learner. Peers, on the
Vygotsky worked on his theory around other hand, cooperate and collaborate and
the same time as Piaget in between the enrich the learning experience.
1920's and 30's but they had clear
differences in their views about cognitive CULTURAL FACTORS
development. Since Piaget was taken up Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that
already in the preceding module, it would culture played on the cognitive
be easier now to see how his views development of children.
compare with Vygotsky's. Piaget believed that as the child develops
and matures, he goes through universal
PIAGET stages of cognitive development that
More individual in focus allows him to move from simple
Believed that there are universal explorations with senses and muscles to
stages of cognitive development complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the
other hand, looked into the wide range of
Did not give much emphasis on
experiences that a culture would give to a
language
child. For instance, one culture's view
about education, how children are trained
VYGOTSKY
early in life all can contribute to the
More social in focus Did not
cognitive development of the child.
propose stages but emphasized on
cultural factors in cognitive
LANGUAGE
development
opens the door for learners to
Stressed the role of language in acquire knowledge that others already
cognitive development have. Learners can use language to know
and understand the world and solve
SOCIAL INTERACTION problems. Language serves a social
Piaget's theory was more individual, function but it also has an important
while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget's individual function. It helps the learner
work on Piagetian's tasks regulate and reflect on his own
focused heavily on how an individual's thinking.
cognitive development became evident

13
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ​Through the child’s growing and
Piaget's theory was more individual, developing body and the interplay
while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget's
between his immediate
work on Piagetian's tasks focused
heavily on how an individual's cognitive family/community environment, and
development became evident through the the societal landscape fuels and
individual's own processing of the tasks. steers his development. Changes
Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more or conflict in any one layer will
weight to the social interactions that
ripple through out other layers. To
contributed to the cognitive development
of individuals. For him, the social study a child’s development then,
environment or the community takes on a we must look not only at the child
major role in one's development. and her immediate environment,
but also at the interaction of the
larger environment as well.
SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
Vygotsky always emphasized the role of
cultural factors in cognitive development. Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological
He also identified intellectual tools of Model: Structure of Environment
adaptation which enable individuals to ​The microsystem. The microsystem
acquire cognitive skills depending on what is the layer nearest the child. It
tools their culture has made available for
comprises structures which the
them. Read more about this and write a
reaction paper. child directly interacts with. It
includes structures such as one’s
★ Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological family, school, and neighborhood.
Theory As such, the microsystem covers
the most basic relationships and
Abstraction interactions that a child has in
​Bronfenbrenner’s model also know his/her immediate environment.
as the Bioecological System theory Does the child have strong and
presents child development within nurturing relationships with the
the context of relationship systems parents and family? Are his/her
that comprise the child’s needs met? In this layer,
environment. It describes multipart relationships effects happen in two
layers of environment that has an directions- both away from the child
effect on the development of the and towards the child. This means
child. Each layer is further made up that the child is affected by people
of different structures. The term with whom he interacts, and in turn
“bioecological” points out that a this people is affected by the child.
child's own biological make-up For example, a mother deep
impacts as a key factors in one’s affection for her child moves her to
development. answer to the baby’s need and
keep the baby safe. In turn, the

14
baby smiles and coos bring the may influence the child’s
mother feeling of warmth and an development by somehow affecting
affirmation that indeed that she is a some structure in the child’s
good mother. The child is affected microsystem. This includes the
by the behavior and beliefs of the circumstances of the parents’ work
parents, however, the child also like the location, schedules. We see
affect the behavior and beliefs of a change in the children ‘s routine
the parents. Bronfenbrenner call when for example the mother works
this bi-directional influences, and he in a call center. That was seen in a
shows how they occur among all burger chain commercial when the
levels of environment. This is quiet mom and the children meet up at
similar to what Erikson termed us the fast food for breakfast just
“mutuality” in his psychosocial before the children go to school and
theory. the mom going home from work in a
call center. The child may not
​Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks interact directly with what is in the
into the interaction of structures exosystem, but he is likely feel the
within a layer and interactions of positive or negative impact this
structures between layers. At the system creates as it interacts with
microsystem level, the child is most the child’s own system.
affected by these bi-directional
influences. However, interactions at ​The macrosystem. This layer is
outer layers still influence the found in the outermost part in the
structures of microsystem. child’s environment. The
​The mesosystem. This layer serves macrosystem includes the cultural
as the connection between the values, customs, and laws. The
structures of the child’s belief system contained in one’s
microsystem. Fore example, the macrosystems permeates all the
mesosystem will include the link or interactions in the other layers and
interactions between the parents reaches the individual. For
and teachers, or the parent and example, in western countries like
health services or the community the US, most of the young people
and the church. are expected to be more
independent by the time they end
​The exosystem. This layer refers their teen-age years, while in Asian
to the bigger social system in which counties like ours, parents are
the child does not function directly. expected to support or at least want
This include the city government, to support their children for a longer
the workplace, and the mass period of time. It is uncommon to
media. The structures in this layer see even married children still

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leaving with their parents. In China changes around them to affect
and also other parts of the world, them.
sons are more valuable than
daughters. This may post ​No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but
challenges for girls as they are Nurturing Nature!
growing up. Because of differences ​The long debate may be coming to
in beliefs and customs, children an end. For decades, if not for
from different part of the world centuries, there was a long drawn
experience different child-rearing debate on which had more impact
practices and therefore differences on child development, nature or
in development as well. nurture. Another way of putting it is,
is it heredity or environment that
​The chronosystem. The influences child development more.
chronosystem covers the element More and more research now point
of time as it relates to a child’s out that both a child’s biology and
environments. This involves his environment play a role in a
“patterns of stability and change” in child’s growth and development.
the child’s life. This involves Development theories now stress
whether the child’s day is on the role played by each and the
characterized by an orderly extent to which they interact in
predictable pattern, or whether the ongoing development.
child is subjected to sudden
changes in routine. We can also ​The ecological systems theory
look into the pace of the child’s focuses on the quality and context
everyday life. Is it a hurried or of the child’s environment.
relaxed pace? This system can Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as
affect or influence the child a child develops, the interplay
externally, like the timing of other within the layers of environment
siblings coming or the timing of systems become more complex.
parental separation or even death. This dynamic interaction of the
Effect can also be internal, like in system happens meantime, while
the bodily changes that occur within the child’s physical and cognitive
the developing child, like the timing structures also grow and mature.
of menstrual on-set for girls. As The bioecological theory helps us
children get older, they may react determine how the different
differently to environmental circumstances, conditions and
changes. The children may have relationships in the world affect the
also acquired the ability to cope and child as he or she goes through the
decide to what extent they will allow more orless predictable sequence
of natural growth and development.

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 in order to understand more about
The Role of School and Teachers the characteristics and need of
​Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head each child, each learner.The
Start, the publicly-funded early schools and the teacher can
childhood program in the US. He contribute stability and long term
concluded that “the instability and relationship, but only to support and
unpredictability of family is the most not replace the relationship in the
destructive force to a child’s home. Bronfenbrenner believes that
development.” Researches tell us "the primary relationship needs to
that absence or luck of children’s be with someone who can provide a
constant mutual interaction with sense of caring that is meant to last
important adults has negative a lifetime. This relationship must be
effects on their development. fostered by a person or people
According to the bioecological within the immediate sphere of the
theory, “if the relationships in the child’s influence.
immediate microsystem break
down, the child will have not the ​Schools and teachers’ crucial
tools to explore other parts of his role is not to replace the luck in the
environment. Children looking for home if such exist, but to work so
the affirmations that should be that the school becomes an
present in the child/parent (or environment that welcomes and
child/other important adult) nurture families. Bronfenbrenner
relationship lok for attention in also stressed that society should
inappropriate places. These value work done on behalf of
deficiencies show themselves children at all levels, and
especially in adolescence as consequently value parents,
anti-social behavior, lack of teachers, extended family, mentors,
self-discipline, and inability to work, supervisors, legislators.
provide direction.”

​Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds

the school and the teachers of their
very important role. If there is a lack
of support, care and affection from
the home, if there is a serious
breakdown of a basic relationship in
a child’s life, what can the school,
the teachers in particular do? This
theory helps teachers look into
every child’s environmental system

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