CONSTITUENTHOOD

Syntax Lecture 2
Tests for determining syntactic constituenthood
Substitution
The most basic test for syntactic constituent-
hood is the substitution test. The reasoning
behind the test is simple. A constituent is any
syntactic unit, regardless of length or syntactic
category. A single word is the smallest possible
constituent belonging to a particular syntactic
category. So if a single word can substitute for a
string of several words, that's evidence that the
word and the string are constituents of the same
category.
Some pronouns can substitute for noun phrases.

a. The little boy fed the cat. → He fed her.

b. Black cats detest green peas. →They detest them

It's important to understand that a particular string of

words can be a noun phrase in one syntactic context, but
not in another.

a. The little boy from next door fed the cat without a tail.
*He from next door fed her without a tail.
b. These black cats detest those green peas.
*These they detest those them.
Rather, in these previous sentences, the noun
phrases are the longer underlined strings as in:
a. The little boy from next door fed the cat
without a tail.
a. He fed her.
b. These black cats detest those green peas.
B. They detest them.
Pronouns are not the only placeholder
elements, or pro-forms. For instance, adverbs
such as here or there can substitute for
constituents that refer to locations or directions.

a. Put it on the table. → Put it there.

b. Put it over on the table.→ Put it over there.
c. Put it over on the table.→ Put it there.
As in the case of noun phrases, whether a
particular string is a constituent depends on its
syntactic context.
a. Put it on the table that's by the door.
*Put it there that's by the door.
b. Put it over on the table that's by the door.
*Put it there that's by the door.
Rather, in these sentences, constituents that
refer to locations or directions ( prepositional
phrases) are the longer underlined strings as in:

a. Put it on the table that's by the door.

Put it there.
b. Put it over on the table that's by the door.
Put it there.
The word so can substitute for adjective phrases
As usual, the same string sometimes is a
constituent and sometimes isn't.
a. I am very happy, and Linda is so, too.
b. I am very fond of Lukas, and Linda is so, too.
c. I am very fond of my nephew, *and Linda is
so of her niece.

I am [very fond of my nephew], and Linda is so

too.
Finally, pronouns and sometimes the
word so can substitute for subordinate clauses
introduced by that, as in:

a. I know that they're invited.→ I know it.

b. I think that they're invited.→ I think so.
 MOVEMENT
Substitution by pro-forms is not the only
diagnostic for whether a string is a constituent.
If it is possible to move a particular string from
its ordinary position to another position -
typically, at least in English, the beginning of the
sentence - that, too, is evidence that the string is
a constituent.
a. I fed the cats.
The cats, I fed the cats.

(The dogs, I didn't.)

b. I fed the cats with long, fluffy tails.

The cats with long, fluffy tails, I fed the cats with long, fluffy tails.

(The other cats, I didn't.)

Movement of constituents other than noun
phrases is illustrated in the following:

a. Prepositional phrase:
The cat strolled across the porch with a
confident air.

With a confident air, the cat strolled across the porch with a confident air.
b. Adjective phrase:
Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than
before.

Wiser than before, Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than before.
c. Adverb phrase:
They arrived at the concert hall more quickly
than they had expected.

More quickly than they had expected, they arrived at

the concert hall more quickly than they had expected.
As shown in the previous examples, moving strings that aren't
constituents yields ungrammatical results.

a. I fed the cats with long, fluffy tails.

*The cats, I fed ____ with long, fluffy tails.

b. The cat strolled across the porch with a confident air.

• With a, the cat strolled across the porch ____ confident air.

c. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than before.

*Wiser than, Ali Baba returned from his travels ___ before.

d. They arrived at the concert hall more quickly than they had
expected.
*More quickly than they, they arrived at the concert hall ___ had
expected.
 Questions and short answers
Another diagnostic for constituenthood is
whether the string can function as a short
answer to a question. The question itself also
functions as a diagnostic test, since we can think
of it as being derived by substitution of a
question word for a string, with subsequent
movement of the question word.
a. Noun phrase:
What do you see?
The cats.
Cats with long, fluffy tails.
The cats with long, fluffy tails.

b. Prepositional phrase:
How did the cat stroll across the porch?
With a confident air.
Where did Ali Baba go?
On a long journey.
To New York.
d. Adjective phrase:
How did Ali Baba return?
Wiser than before.
e. Adverb phrase:
How did they do?
Not badly.
Surprisingly well.
Much better than they had expected.
Once again, attempting to question nonconstituents is
ungrammatical.
a.*What did you feed ___ long, fluffy tails?
*The cats with.
b. *How did the cat stroll across the porch ___ confident
air?
*With a.
c.*How did Ali Baba return from his travels ___ before?
*Wiser than.
d.*How did they arrive at the concert hall___had
expected?
*More quickly than they.
 It clefts
The final constituent test that we'll consider is
based on a special sentence type known
as it clefts. We begin by noting that ordinary
sentences can often be divided into two parts: a
part that contains background information that
is presupposed, the ground, and a part that is
intended to be particularly informative,
the focus.
The frame is in black, the ground is in blue, and
the focus is in red. Notice that a single sentence
can be partitioned into focus and ground in
more than one way, giving rise to more than
one it cleft.
a. Ordinary cats detest the smell of citrus fruits.
It is ordinary cats that detest the smell of citrus fruits.
b. Ordinary cats detest the smell of citrus fruits.
It is the smell of citrus fruits that ordinary cats detest.
If a string can appear as the focus of an it cleft,
then it is a constituent. Some examples for
various constituent types other than noun
phrase are given in the following:
a. Prepositional phrase:
The cat strolled across the porch with a
confident air.
It was with a confident air that the cat strolled
across the porch ___.
b. Adjective phrase:
Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than
before.
It was wiser than before that Ali Baba returned
from his travels ___.
c. Adverb phrase:
d. They arrived at the concert hall more quickly
than they had expected.
It was more quickly than they had expected that
they arrived at the concert hall ___.
Because of their discourse function, it clefts don't always
sound entirely natural out of the blue. Nevertheless, it
clefts where the focus is a constituent, contrast sharply
with the word salad that results from attempting to focus
a string that isn't a constituent, as in the following
examples.

a. Ordinary cats detest the smell of citrus fruits.

*It is the smell of that ordinary cats detest ___ citrus
fruits.

b. The cat strolled across the porch with a confident air.

*It was with a confident that the cat strolled across

the porch ___ air.
c. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than
before.
* It was wiser than that Ali Baba returned from
his travels ___ before.
d. They arrived at the concert hall more quickly
than they had expected.
*It was quickly than they had expected that they
arrived at the concert hall more ___
PHRASAL VERSUS LEXICAL CONSTITUENTS

Since single words are indivisible units, they are

constituents by definition. Nevertheless, they
don't necessarily behave on a par with
multiword constituents. For instance, cats
passes the constituenthood tests reviewed
earlier in (1), but not in (2).
1:
Cats are not social animals.
They are not social animals.
Cats are not social animals.
They are not social animals.
cats is a bare (= unmodified plural) noun. As
such, it functions as a noun and as a noun
phrase at the same time.
2:
a. The cats are hungry.
*The they are hungry.
b. Tabby cats are quite common.
*Tabby they are quite common.
c. Cats without tails are relatively rare.
*They without tails are relatively rare.
d. Those cats that have no tails are Manx cats.
*Those they that have no tails are Manx cats.
In (2), cats is accompanied by a determiner or a
modifier of some sort, indicated by italics. In such
contexts, cats combines with these other words to
form a noun phrase, but it isn't a noun phrase in its
own right.
a. The cats are hungry.
*The they are hungry.
b. Tabby cats are quite common.
*Tabby they are quite common.
c. Cats without tails are relatively rare.
*They without tails are relatively rare.
d. Those cats that have no tails are Manx cats.
*Those they that have no tails are Manx cats.
The constituenthood tests reviewed earlier turn out to be diagnostic only for
phrasal constituents. The ungrammatical results of attempting to move,
question, and focus lexical constituents, rather than phrasal ones, are
illustrated in (3)-(5). The relevant lexical constituent is underlined, and any
words belonging with it to the same phrasal constituent are in italics.

(3) a. Attempt to move:

I fed the cats. → * Cats, I fed the ___.

b. The cat strolled across the porch with a confident air. →

*With, the cat strolled across the porch ___ a confident air.

c. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than before. →

*Wiser, Ali Baba returned from his travels ___ than before.

d. They arrived at the concert hall more quickly than they had expected.→
*Quickly, they arrived at the concert hall more ___ than they had
expected.
(4) a. Attempt to question:
*What did you see the ___? → *Cats.
b.*How did the cat stroll across the porch ___ a
confident air? → *With.
c. *How did Ali Baba return from his travels ___
than before? → *Wiser.
d. *How did they arrive at the concert hall more
___ than they had expected? → *Quickly
(5)Attempt to focus:
a. Ordinary cats detest the smell of citrus fruits. →
*It is smell that ordinary cats detest the ___ of citrus
fruits.
b. The cat strolled across the porch with a confident air.→
*It was with that the cat strolled across the porch ___ a
confident air.
c. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser than before.
*It was wiser that Ali Baba returned from his travels ___
than before.
d. They arrived at the concert hall more quickly than they
had expected.
*It was quickly that they arrived at the concert hall more
___ than they had expected.
The examples in (6-8), on the other hand, illustrate
the grammatical results of moving, questioning, and
focusing phrasal constituents that happen to consist
of a single word.
(6)
a. Movement:
I like cats. → ✓ Cats, I like ___.

b. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser.

✓Wiser, Ali Baba returned from his travels ___.

c. They arrived at the concert hall quickly.

✓ Quickly, they arrived at the concert hall ___.
(7)
a. Question/short answer:
b. ✓ What do you like ___? → ✓Cats.

b.✓How did Ali Baba return from his travels ___?

✓ Wiser.
c. ✓ How did they arrive at the concert hall ___?
✓ Quickly.
(8) a. It cleft:
Ordinary cats detest citrus.
✓It is citrus that ordinary cats detest.
b. Ali Baba returned from his travels wiser.
✓ It was wiser that Ali Baba returned from his travels ___.

c. They arrived at the concert hall quickly.

✓ It was quickly that they arrived at the concert hall ___.