Review

Blockchain Technology Application in Security:

A Systematic Review
Nazanin Moosavi 1 and Hamed Taherdoost 2,3, *

1 Research and Development Department, Hamta Business Corporation, Vancouver, BC V6E 1C9, Canada;
[email protected]
2 Department of Arts, Communications and Social Sciences, University Canada West,
Vancouver, BC V6B 1V9, Canada
3 Q Minded Quark Minded Technology Inc., Vancouver, BC V6E 1C9, Canada
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: Blockchain technology is a promising technology that attracts popularity among researchers.
However, it was first introduced with digital currencies, particularly Bitcoin, but nowadays, it is also
known as one of the most frequently used techniques for securing networks. This systematic review
research identifies studies that use blockchain for their security challenges. In addition, different fields
in blockchain usage, blockchain categorization type, consensus mechanism, smart contract usage,
and integration with other software-based algorithms are also investigated. Our results maintain that
the Internet of Things (IoT) is the main field in which blockchain provides security.

Keywords: blockchain technology; blockchain security solutions; Internet of Things (IoT); healthcare;
consensus mechanisms; smart contracts

1. Introduction
Blockchain technology is a novel idea that was first introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto
with the invention of the Bitcoin [1]. Bitcoin is a digital currency that has revolution-
ized financial trading. Blockchain is a distributed Hyperledger technology with many
Citation: Moosavi, N.; Taherdoost, H.
intrinsic features, including security, decentralization, transparency, immutability, and
Blockchain Technology Application provenance [2–4]. These features create unique blockchain applications beyond the finan-
in Security: A Systematic Review. cial market.
Blockchains 2023, 1, 58–72. https:// Blockchain is categorized into three types: public, private, and consortium. Public
doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020005 blockchains are permissionless blockchains where every user can enter the network, com-
pared to the private network, where only authorized users by one organization can access
Academic Editors: Keke Gai and
the network. A consortium blockchain is a combination of public and private where there
Liehuang Zhu
is more than one organization in the network. The best selection of blockchain categoriza-
Received: 23 August 2023 tion type according to various requirements and conditions of different use cases is very
Revised: 20 October 2023 important [5,6].
Accepted: 27 October 2023 Consensus mechanisms are a feature that provides a fair and decentralized network.
Published: 29 October 2023 The main goal of the consensus algorithm is to reach consensus without the need for a
central authority or third parties, which makes the blockchain decentralized [7]. There are
different techniques for reaching consensus, such as proof of work (PoW), which is the most
famous algorithm and is used in the Bitcoin network, Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
(PBFT), and proof of authority (PoA). Each algorithm has its own features, specific time,
This article is an open access article
and energy consumption. Consequently, choosing the right consensus algorithm depends
distributed under the terms and on the specific needs of the project’s applications.
conditions of the Creative Commons Nowadays, blockchain is widely used in a variety of areas such as the Internet of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Things (IoT), healthcare, energy market, and industrial projects to provide solutions for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their security attacks and challenges, and there is an increasing trend of using blockchain
4.0/). to provide security frameworks in different fields [8–12].

Blockchains 2023, 1, 58–72. https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020005 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/blockchains

Blockchains 2023, 1 59

This systematic review focuses on recent research that applied blockchain as their
security framework and concerns their categorization type, consensus algorithms, usage of
smart contracts, and integration with other technologies. We deeply investigate this area
and use our insight to propose future research for scholars and academics interested in
working in this field.

1.1. Related Articles

To the best of our knowledge of blockchain application in security, very few systematic
reviews deeply consider this topic from different aspects, as we have in our work.
Authors in [13] provide a systematic review of blockchain cybersecurity. They high-
light the potential application of blockchain as security in different fields, such as IoT,
networks, and data storage. This article covers subjects from cryptography to IoT tech-
nology security and data storage security, whereas issues, challenges, and future research
topics are also recognized. However, this study has no analysis for categorization types,
consensus algorithms, smart contract usage, or integration with other technologies.
Article [14] systematically reviewed security solutions in Industry 4.0. They investi-
gated security schemes for autonomous vehicles (AVs) and explored how blockchain can
overcome AV cyberattacks. They do not have an exploration of other fields or any analysis
of blockchain structure.
Some papers survey blockchain security, such as [15–17], which focus on blockchain
applications in IoT and provide an overview to enhance IoT security and improve privacy,
or [18], which provides tutorials for green IoT-based agriculture challenges and blockchain
solutions. However, they need a general overview of blockchain security applications in
various use cases.
All the mentioned works try to answer questions about the security application of
blockchain technology. However, they need to provide specific and deep analysis in the
blockchain security field to improve security solution performance. It is noticed that since
blockchain is still in its infancy and has a short history, it is necessary to investigate a new
review of recent works specifically in the scope of blockchain and security solutions to
orient research.

1.2. Research Goals and Motivation

The main motivation for this study is to analyze research works on blockchain appli-
cations in security for different use cases and to summarize recent efforts in these fields. To
be more focused, we have provided a list of the research questions to be answered in this
study as follows:
• What prominent domains employ blockchain security applications and their specific
use cases?
• What are the prevailing consensus mechanisms in use?
• What influences the selection of blockchain types?
• How do smart contracts bolster blockchain security?
• Which software-based technologies are integrated with blockchain to enhance security?

1.3. Contributions
We systematically review blockchain technology security applications from 2018 to
April 2022. Our study contributes to a detailed understanding of blockchain applications
in different fields and industries. Our key contributions are as follows:
• We selected 54 articles relating to blockchain applications in security solutions.
• We organized a complete data analysis within selected articles to propose their research
idea and considerations in blockchain security applications.
• We offered a meta-analysis concerning mechanisms in which blockchain technology is
used to overcome security challenges.
• We proposed future research and topics for further investigation around security
topics in blockchain applications.
Blockchains 2023, 1 60

1.4. Paper Outline

The remainder of this paper is written as follows: Section 2 discusses the systematic
review methodology, Section 3 outlines the key findings of the review, Section 4 presents
a discussion of the main results of our work and future research, and, finally, Section 5
concludes this survey by presenting a summary of the contributions.

2. Methodology
This section explains the procedure used to select the articles for a systematic review.
We plan to proceed with selecting papers and organizing and presenting parts of the review
iteratively to have a complete evaluation for the systematic review.

2.1. Primary Selection

Primary selection was conducted using the following keywords that are mostly related
to our research questions:
“Blockchain” AND (“Security” OR “Cybersecurity” OR “Information Security”)
The search engine was the IEEE Xplore and the Elsevier database was used. Only
peer-reviewed and journal papers from 2018 to April 2022 were selected. 6337 papers were
selected in this stage. Then, we applied another selection processes where the keywords
should only appear in the papers’ titles, abstracts, or keywords. In this step, 1842 papers
were selected. Next, we searched to have the keywords only in the title. The selection
process continued with a total of 170 papers. Then, inclusion/exclusion criteria were
applied to filter the results.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies considered in our systematic review should propose a security solution with
blockchain technology. Papers that worked on security aspects of blockchain or papers
that have solutions to blockchain security issues are separate from the topic of our study.
Table 1 provides the key inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Table 1. Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria.

Criteria for Inclusion Criteria for Exclusion

Review or survey articles that give a general specific idea about
Papers must propose a security solution with blockchain. blockchain as a security solution.
Papers must propose some information, including their used Papers with no information on research questions.
blockchain architecture. Papers analyzing security topics in blockchain technology.
Paper giving solutions for security concerns in the blockchain.

2.3. Selection Results

After applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria to the articles, 70 papers remained
for further reading. The 70 papers were fully read, with the inclusion/exclusion criteria
applied again. Finally, 54 papers are included in this systematic review (Figure 1).

2.4. Publication Year

Figure 2 shows the number of publications each year. It is obvious from the figure that
blockchain is an upward trend, and, each year, the number of papers is increasing. Also,
the number of papers published in the first month of 2022 is more than half of the total
papers published in 2021, which shows the interest in this topic in recent years.
 Blockchains
Blockchains 2023, 2023,
1 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 61

Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart for selecting included papers.

2.4. Publication Year

Figure 2 shows the number of publications each year. It is obvious from the
that blockchain is an upward trend, and, each year, the number of papers is incr
Also, the number of papers published in the first month of 2022 is more than hal
total papers published in 2021, which shows the interest in this topic in recent yea
Figure 1. Figure
PRISMA1. PRISMA
flowchart for flowchart for selecting
selecting included papers. included papers.

2018 2.4.2Publication Year

Figure 2 shows the number of publications each year. It is obvious f
2019 9
that blockchain is an upward trend, and, each year, the number of paper
2020 Also, the number of papers published in the first month of 2022 is more t
15
total papers published in 2021, which shows the interest in this topic in rec
2021 16

2022 12
2018 2
0 2019 5 10 9 15 20

2020 Number of papers 15

Figure 2. Publication year.
2021
Figure 2. Publication year. 16
3. Findings
All the2022 12 related data about the field of
selected papers have been fully read and the
3. Findings
the blockchain usage application, the category type, consensus algorithms, usage of smart
All the
contracts, andselected
the papers
0 integration have
with been
5 other fully10read
technologies are and
fully the related and
investigated
15 datagiven
about
20 the
in Table 2.
the blockchain usage application, the category type, consensus algorithms, usage o
Number
contracts, and the integration with other of papers are fully investigated and g
technologies
Table 2.
Figure 2. Publication year.

3. Findings
Blockchains 2023, 1 62

Table 2. The main findings of the study.

Application Category Consensus Smart Integration with

Ref Data
Field Type Algorithm Contract Other Tech
[19] Blockchain ensures data IoT (healthcare) Private Time- Yes SDN/Fog
privacy and confidentiality dependent computing
and manages resources against Consensus
untrusted users. Algorithm

[20] A lightweight blockchain is IoT Consortium PBFT Yes -

designed to enable the IoT (HLF)
domain to deploy its
blockchain network on its IoT
devices on the Hyperledger
Fabric blockchain platform.

[21] A security framework as a IoT Not specified Not specified No Edge/Cloud

distributed blockchain-based computing/SDN
Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)
model is implemented to
ensure data confidentiality,
detect a security attack, and
authorize its identification.

[22] Blockchains secure WSN IoT (Wireless Public PoW No AI

transmissions, IoT Sensor (HLF)
communications, and mobile Networks)
databases.

[23] Ethereum platform is used to IoT Private or Not specified Yes -

authenticate and authorize IoT (real-time Consortium
devices with smart contracts monitoring) (Ethereum)
deployed as business logic.

[24] In smart city use cases, a IoT Public Delegated PoS No Drone/UAV
secure, low-latency blockchain (smart city)
framework is used for drone UAV
authentication.

[25] Providing P2P communication IoT Public and Customized Yes SDN
ensures the security of access private Consensus
control for IoT devices and Algorithm
guarantees data privacy.

[26] A fuzzy logic with blockchain IoT (healthcare) Consortium PBFT Yes -
technology is designed to (HLF)
reach Authentication,
Authorization, and Audit Logs
(AAA) in IoT systems.

[27] Secure orchestration is 5G-IoT Private PBFT Yes Deep learn-

developed in 5G-IoT using ing/Fog/Edge
blockchain solutions. computing/SDN

[28] Blockchain is combined with a IoT (healthcare) Private or Proof of Yes -

re-encryption proxy to ensure Consortium authority (PoA)
security criteria, such as (Ethereum)
confidentiality, integrity,
privacy, and access control
using smart contracts
Ethereum to accelerate data
storage.
Blockchains 2023, 1 63

Table 2. Cont.

Application Category Consensus Smart Integration with

Ref Data
Field Type Algorithm Contract Other Tech
[29] Blockchain provides a security IoT (UAV) Public PoW No Machine learning
architecture for UAVs to help (Ethereum)
decrease security risks.

[30] Blockchain proposes a solution IoT Not specified Not specified Yes Fog computing
for robust authentication of (healthcare)
identity and privacy of
healthcare data.

[31] A new routing protocol on IoT Private PoW Yes AI/SDN

blockchain integrated with (cyber-physical and public
SDN is presented to mitigate systems)
security and energy
consumption.

[32] Blockchain technology IoT Private Not specified Yes -

solution with advanced scripts (wireless body
of Solidity and embedded area network)
programming is proposed.

[33] A storage mechanism based IoT Public PoW Yes -

on blockchain is proposed to
ensure security without
third-party authority.

[34] A lightweight, scalable IoT Public Time-based No -

blockchain is proposed for IoT Consensus
requirements and security Algorithm
issues.

[35] An efficient, lightweight, IoT (smart Public Time- No -

integrated blockchain (ELIB) is home) dependent
designed to meet the security Consensus
needs of blockchain. Algorithm

[36] The blockchain solution is IoT Private Public PBFT Yes -

proposed to secure the storage Consortium
system for IoT device location
information to aid in sharing
services.

[37] Blockchain is used to decrease IoT Private Not specified Yes SDN/Fog/Edge
a single point of failure in the (Ethereum)
system.

[38] A secure sharing protocol with Healthcare Consortium PoA Yes -

blockchain technology for (Ethereum)
electronic health records is
implemented.

[39] Blockchain is used to enhance Healthcare Not specified PBFT No Reinforcement

the security of the learning/Edge
task-offloading system. computing/VR

[40] The proposed blockchain Healthcare Public PoW No -

provides a decentralized
solution to avoid failure and
provide tamper-proof
healthcare ledgers.
Blockchains 2023, 1 64

Table 2. Cont.

Application Category Consensus Smart Integration with

Ref Data
Field Type Algorithm Contract Other Tech
[41] A triple encryption Healthcare Private PoA No -
authentication architecture
using blockchain is developed
to secure the sharing of
personal data.

[42] Data storage and data IoT (healthcare) Not specified Not specified No Cloud computing
transmission are secured with
blockchain technology.

[43] Medical data processing is Healthcare Consortium PBFT No Cloud computing

secured with blockchain.

[44] The blockchain solution is Healthcare Public PoW Yes -

proposed for the secure (Ethereum)
management of medical big
data.

[45] Blockchain framework used to Healthcare Public PoW No -

secure patients’ medical data.

[46] A new verification scheme Healthcare Private PoW No Cloud computing

with blockchain is designed to
detect corruption in data in
cloud servers.

[47] A distributed network with IoT (industrial) Private PoW No Edge computing
blockchain is introduced to
reshape the traditional
industrial IoT architecture.

[48] Blockchain provides IoT (industrial) Private PoW Yes Edge computing
decentralized and secure (Ethereum)
control for cyber-physical
systems in the industry.

[49] Operational data records in Industry Private PoA Yes -

industrial systems are secured
with blockchain.

[50] Transactions in energy trading Energy Private PoW Yes -

systems are secure and private
with blockchain technology.

[51] Blockchain provides a Energy Consortium PBFT Yes SDN

charging framework for
electric taxis to handle
charging disconnections and
trust challenges among
charging stations.

[52] Fault identification and secure Energy Private PBFT Yes -

and reliable store
measurement data in smart
grids are developed with
blockchain.
Blockchains 2023, 1 65

Table 2. Cont.

Application Category Consensus Smart Integration with

Ref Data
Field Type Algorithm Contract Other Tech
[53] Blockchain is used to provide Energy Public Not specified No -
an electricity market
framework for energy
transactions.

[51] Blockchain is used to provide Energy Public Not specified No -

an energy trading framework
that is designed for secure and
optimal trading of AC
microgrids.

[54] Enhancing the security of Energy Private/Consortium

PoA No Deep learning
smart microgrids using
blockchain.

[55] The vehicle trust management Transportation Public PoW No -

system is designed with
blockchain to evaluate
message sources.

[56] A decentralized, secure model Energy Private PoA Yes -

and authentication
mechanisms for a lightning
network with smart contracts
are provided.

[57] The digital signature Transportation Consortium PoW Yes -

technique of blockchain
ensures reliability and
integrity.

[58] A secure and distributed Transportation Not specified PBFT Yes Edge computing
model for intelligent traffic
light systems is proposed.

[59] A trust management system Transportation Consortium PBFT No Fog/Edge

with blockchain is introduced (HLF) computing
for the internet of vehicle
systems.

[60] Blockchain guarantees IoT Private Not specified Yes -

agriculture information (agriculture)
preservation and accuracy.

[61] Smart home security is Smart home Consortium PoW No -

fulfilled using blockchain.

[62] Cloud relational database is Cloud Not specified PBFT No Cloud computing
secured with blockchain-based computing
systems. Database

[63] Blockchain is used to maintain Cloud server Private Not specified No Cloud computing
the privacy of sensitive data. (HLF)

[64] Blockchain warrants the Cloud Image Not specified Not specified Yes Cloud computing
security of image data. data sharing
Blockchains 2023, 1 66

Table 2. Cont.

Application Category Consensus Smart Integration with

Ref Data
Field Type Algorithm Contract Other Tech
[65] A fully decentralized Edge Consortium Not specified No Edge computing
approach by eliminating the computing
third party in the network is
designed using blockchain.

[66] Blockchain provides a secure Cloud Public Proof-of- No Cloud computing

architecture for secure cloud computing schedule
schedulers.

[67] Proposing a solution to IoT (UAV) Public Not specified Yes Cloud computing
improve security and privacy
in UAVs.

[68] Compromised UAVs are UAV Consortium Not specified No --

detected based on trust (HLF)
policies with blockchain.

[69] Data transmission security in Satellite Public Context-based No -

satellite networks is enhanced network Consensus
with blockchain. Algorithm

[70] Security issues due to 6G Not specified Not specified No Machine

heterogeneous standard learning/SDN
integration and access
delegations in 6G are
mitigated via blockchain.

[71] Blockchain provides a security IoT/SDN Consortium Not specified No SDN

mechanism that creates a
trust-based filtration to
decrease malicious traffic.

Figure 3 shows the percentage of different fields of blockchain usage as a security

solution in various works. Of all the studies, 38% concern IoT security. ‘Health’ is the
second most common with 20%. Generally, healthcare has also gained much attention
from blockchain research and security. ‘Wireless Networks’, including wireless sensor
networks, satellite communications, UAVs, 5G, and 6G networks, are next, attracting 12%
of the research. ‘Energy’ with 11% and ‘Transportation’ with 6% follow. The next is the
‘Cloud’ with 8%, and the last is solutions for ‘Industry’ with a portion of 5%.
The next results focus on the most consensus algorithm used in the research (Figure 4).
Some information about their consensus algorithm was provided in 38 papers, and others
do not mention their consensus mechanism. Proof of work (PoW) is the consensus algorithm
widely used in Bitcoin and other blockchain networks. Our results show that it is also
widely used in blockchain security applications. However, it needs much computational
power, and its algorithm is more popular. The next one is the PBFT algorithm, mostly used
in private and consortium blockchains and needs less computational power than PoW.
Proof of authority appeared the third most and is an algorithm mostly used in permissioned
blockchains. It provides many advantages such as speeding up the consensus process, so it
does not need huge computing, and data storage is also accelerated. Some novel consensus
algorithms are based on time or capacity and are used based on the requirements in each
use case.
The next result concerns the blockchain categorization types used in studies (Figure 5).
The percentage of different blockchain types is 38% for private, 35% for public, and 27%
for the consortium, a combination of public and private. The results show that researchers
 [71] Blockchain provides a security IoT/SDN Consortium Not specified No SDN
mechanism that creates a trust-
based filtration to decrease ma-
licious traffic.

Blockchains 2023, 1 Figure 3 shows the percentage of different fields of blockchain usage as a security 67
solution in various works. Of all the studies, 38% concern IoT security. ‘Health’ is the sec-
ond most common with 20%. Generally, healthcare has also gained much attention from
blockchain research and security. ‘Wireless Networks’, including wireless sensor net-10
Blockchains 2023, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW
works, satellite communications, UAVs, 5G, and 6G networks, are next, attracting 12% of
are still working on the specification of each type, and there should
the research. ‘Energy’ with 11% and ‘Transportation’ with 6% follow. The next is the
be more work to fully
understand
‘Cloud’ with 8%, andeachthe type and its for
last is solutions usage in different
‘Industry’ use ofcases.
with a portion 5%.
The next results focus on the most consensus algorithm used in the research (Figure
4). Some information about their consensus algorithm was provided in 38 papers, and
Cloud
othersWireless
do not mention their consensus mechanism. Proof of work (PoW) is the consensus
Blockchains 2023, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 8%
algorithm widely
Networks used in Bitcoin and other blockchain networks. Our results show that 10 it
is also widely
12% used in blockchain security applications. However,
Internet of it needs much compu-
tational power, and its algorithm is more popular. The next one is the PBFT algorithm,
things(IoT)
mostlyTheused
nextinresults
private and on
focus consortium
the most blockchains 38% used
and needs
consensus algorithm lessincomputational power
the research (Figure
than PoW.information
4). Some Proof of authority appeared
about their the third
consensus most and
algorithm wasis an algorithm
provided mostly
in 38 used
papers, in
and
Transportatio
permissioned
others do blockchains. It provides many advantages such as speeding up the consen-
n not mention their consensus mechanism. Proof of work (PoW) is the consensus
sus process,
algorithm so it used
6% widely does innot need and
Bitcoin hugeother
computing, andnetworks.
blockchain data storageOur is also show
results accelerated.
that it
Some
is alsonovel
widelyconsensus algorithmssecurity
used in blockchain are based on time orHowever,
applications. capacity and are used
it needs muchbased on
compu-
the requirements
tational power, and
Energy in each use case. is more popular. The next one is the PBFT algorithm,
its algorithm
mostly used
11% in private and consortium blockchains and needs less computational power
than
16 PoW. Proof of authority appeared the third most and is an algorithm mostly used in
permissioned Industry Health
blockchains. It provides many advantages such as speeding up the consen-
14 20% and data storage is also accelerated.
sus process, so it5%does not need huge computing,
14
Some
12 novel consensus algorithms are based on time or capacity and are used based on
Figure
the 3. Blockchain
requirements in each useapplication
case. fields.
10 11
Figure 3. Blockchain application fields.
8
16
6 7
14
6
4 14
12
2
10 11
0
8
PoW PBFT PoA Others
6 7
Figure 6
4 4. Consensus Algorithms.
2 The next result concerns the blockchain categorization types used in studies (Figure
5).0The percentage of different blockchain types is 38% for private, 35% for public, and
27% for thePoW consortium, a PBFT
combination of PoA
public and private.
OthersThe results show that re-
searchers are still working on the specification of each type, and there should be more
Figure
work
Figureto 4. Consensus
4. fully understand
Consensus Algorithms.
each
Algorithms. type and its usage in different use cases.

The next result concerns the blockchain categorization types used in studies (Figure
5). The percentage of different blockchain types is 38% for private, 35% for public, and
27% for the consortium, a combination of public and private. The results show that re-
searchers are still working on the specification of each type, and there should be more
27%understand each type and
work to fully its usage in different use cases.
Public
35%
Private
Consortium
38%

27% Public
35%
Private
Figure
Figure 5. Blockchain
5. Blockchain categorization
categorization type.
type. Consortium

38%
In In
thisthis systematic
systematic review,
review, we focusedwe focused
on the usage ofon thecontracts
smart usagetoofanswer
smart thecontracts to answer the
question of how many papers used smart contracts in their blockchain security solutions
question of how many papers used smart contracts in their blockchain security solutions
(Figure 6). The results show that almost half of the papers used smart contracts in their
(Figure 6). The results show that almost half of the papers used smart contracts in their solu-
tions,
Figure and other
5. Blockchain blockchain
categorization type. security solutions focus on the other features of the blockchain
to provide security.
In this systematic review, we focused on the usage of smart contracts to answer the
Ultimately, we focus on integrating blockchain and other technologies, which results
question of how many papers used smart contracts in their blockchain security solutions
in better
(Figure security
6). The solutions
results show (Figure
that almost half of7).
the Around half
papers used ofcontracts
smart the papers used other technologies
in their
integrated with blockchain to provide solutions. Cloud, fog, and edge computing are the
most common technologies to be used with blockchain. Since blockchain is a software-
based technology, its integration with these cloud-based technologies and software-defined
networking (SDN) can provide applicable security solutions with better resource allocation,
low-delay services, and data storage. Although artificial intelligence and machine learning
techniques are technology trends these days, some of the papers proposed solutions with
the integration of blockchain and learning techniques.
 Blockchains 2023, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
With smart
contract
51% 49%
Without smart
Blockchains 2023, 1 solutions, and other blockchain security solutions focus on the other features of the block-
contract 68
chain to provide security.

Figure 6. Smart contract usage.

Ultimately, we focus on integrating With smart and other technologies, which results
blockchain
contract half of the papers used other technologies
in better security solutions (Figure 7). Around
51% with blockchain 49%
integrated to provide Without
solutions. Cloud, fog, and edge computing are the
smart
most common technologies to be usedcontractwith blockchain. Since blockchain is a software-
based technology, its integration with these cloud-based technologies and software-de-
fined networking (SDN) can provide applicable security solutions with better resource
allocation, low-delay services, and data storage. Although artificial intelligence and ma-
chine learning techniques are technology trends these days, some of the papers proposed
6. Smart
Figure with
solutions contract
the integration of usage.
blockchain and learning techniques.
Figure 6. Smart contract usage.
12
10 blockchain and other technologies, which results
Ultimately, we focus on integrating
10 9 9
in better security solutions (Figure 7). Around half of the papers used other technologies
integrated
8 with blockchain to provide solutions. Cloud,
7 fog, and edge computing are the
most common technologies to be used with blockchain. Since blockchain is a software-
based6 technology, its integration
5 with these cloud-based technologies and software-de-
fined4 networking (SDN) can provide applicable security solutions with better resource
allocation, low-delay services, and data storage. Although artificial intelligence and ma-
chine2 learning techniques are technology trends these days, some of the papers proposed
solutions with the integration of blockchain and learning techniques.
0
Cloud Fog Edge Learning SDN
12 Computing computing Computing Techniques
10
10
Figure 9 Integration
7. Integration with otherwith
technologies. 9
Figure 7. other technologies.
8 Discussion
4. 7
4. Discussion
6 The main goal of this paper is to provide a systematic review of practical applications
5
The main
of blockchain usage asgoal of this
a security paper
solution withisanto provide
in-depth a systematic
analysis review of practical applications
of their blockchain
architectures.
4of blockchain Hence,usage
the selected
as papers are investigated
a security solution based on this
with angoal. One of the
in-depth analysis of their blockchain
important notes about blockchain solutions to be applied is the use of some well-estab-
architectures.
lished,
2 ready-to-use, and open-source platforms such as Ethereum and Hyperledger Fab- on this goal. One of the im-
Hence, the selected papers are investigated based
portant
ric notes about
(HLF). Ethereum blockchain
is a decentralized solutions
peer-to-peer to be
blockchain applied
platform is theap-
that executes use of some well-established,
0
plication codes called smart contracts securely. Paper [23] uses its decentralized authenti-
ready-to-use,
Cloud
cation technique
and open-source
Fogdevices inEdge
for IoT
platforms
the EthereumLearning such
platform withSDNas Ethereum and
a smart contract that is
Hyperledger Fabric (HLF).
Ethereum
Computingis computing
a decentralized
Computingpeer-to-peer
Techniques blockchain platform that executes application
codes called smart contracts securely. Paper [23] uses its decentralized authentication
Figure 7. Integration with other technologies.
technique for IoT devices in the Ethereum platform with a smart contract that is automati-
cally run in the Ethereum. Authors [38] provide a secure sharing protocol with blockchain
4. Discussion
The main goalfor
technology of this paper is tohealth
electronic providerecords
a systematic review into
written of practical
smart applications
contracts using solidity language
of blockchain usage as a security solution with an in-depth analysis of their blockchain
and run on the Ethereum blockchain. HLF platform supports
architectures. Hence, the selected papers are investigated based on this goal. One of the
multiple blockchain ledgers,
and only some verified users can store the data in the corresponding
important notes about blockchain solutions to be applied is the use of some well-estab- blockchain ledgers.
Paper
lished, [20] provides
ready-to-use, a lightweight
and open-source platformsblockchain withand
such as Ethereum HLF for IoTFab-
Hyperledger networks. Some of the most
ric (HLF). Ethereum is a decentralized peer-to-peer blockchain platform that executes ap-
practical and implement-ready blockchain solutions were those implemented on Ethereum
plication codes called smart contracts securely. Paper [23] uses its decentralized authenti-
or HLF
cation platforms.
technique for IoT devices in the Ethereum platform with a smart contract that is
Next, we are focusing on providing rigid solutions for each research question.
A. What prominent domains employ blockchain security applications and their specific
use cases?
• IoT: IoT networks are in the first stage of blockchain application usage in security.
The most use cases of blockchain security solutions for IoT networks are for
authentication and authorization of devices [24,26] and for providing a secure
network for data confidentiality [28,30].
• Healthcare: blockchain is mostly used to guarantee the privacy of personal
healthcare data storage and management [38,43].
• Wireless network: securing data transmission [69] and user authentication are
the most common blockchain usage in wireless networks [24].
• Energy: securing energy trading in energy markets [50,51] and enhancing the
security of smart grids [54] is accomplished with blockchain networks.
B. What are the prevailing consensus mechanisms in use?
From the results, it is obvious that PoW is still the favorite consensus algorithm among
researchers. Although PoW is the most powerful computing algorithm, since it is simpler
Blockchains 2023, 1 69

to deploy and more mature, it is widely used in different use cases. However, for some
use cases, such as IoT networks, the PoW mechanism is not a good idea since IoT devices
have limitations in computing power. Based on the above studies, only four IoT articles use
PoW, and others use PBFT [20,26,27] or some context-based consensus mechanisms [25,34].
The Proof of Authority (PoA) algorithm aims to set up an authorized node to build all the
other blocks to reduce the building block time [41]. It is faster and highly secure compared
to PoW; consequently, it is preferred to be used in some networks [28,38].
C. What influences the selection of blockchain types?
There is no popular type within considered articles in our systematic review. It can
be concluded that authors select blockchain types by considering their requirements and
users’ permission to access networks before researchers select their appropriate type. For
example, [18,19,25,26] latency is an important subject in [17,24]. Hence, the authors use
private and consortium blockchains instead of public, where the process in public is slower
than in others. Additionally, in [27], the power consumption problem is so important that
the authors decided to use two kinds of nodes, full and light, with different responsibilities
to decrease the power consumed in each node. Hence, the choice of private blockchain
is meaningful.
D. How do smart contracts bolster blockchain security?
Smart contracts are rules that run automatically when some conditions happen. Due
to its function, the authors decided to use it to ensure the automatic implementation of
some logic in their framework. For example, authors in [28] used smart contracts as a
rule for controlling access in the network, and authors in [56] use it for authentication or
authorization of devices.
E. Which software-based technologies are integrated with blockchain to enhance security?
Blockchain is a software-based technology. Hence, its integration with other software-
based technologies can provide remarkable solutions. Based on our systematic review,
many articles integrate blockchain with computing techniques. Edge computing is most
common, along with cloud and fog computing. Researchers in [62] integrated cloud
computing with blockchain to secure data storage and detect and prevent erroneous
cloud relational database manipulation. In [27], authors proposed a security blockchain
solution for edge nodes since edge computing in the edge nodes is very vulnerable to
attacks, and a blockchain solution can secure this communication. Learning techniques
and software-defined networking (SDN) are the next steps. In [25], researchers provide
integration of SDN and blockchain to balance security and minimize energy consumption
for IoT applications.

Future Research
One of the main drawbacks of using blockchain technology in different systems is
increasing latency and power consumption. This causes many problems, especially in
IoT networks, where the power computation of devices is so low. Some techniques to
overcome these problems include using consensus techniques designed to speed up the
process with less computing power, such as PoA [28,54,56]. In addition, some papers
use different techniques to overcome these issues. Authors in [19] provide blockchain
sharding techniques to reduce latency, and researchers in [26] try to increase the block
sizes to reduce latency. Hence, potential future research should focus on working on
new techniques to decrease latency and power consumption to make blockchain usage
applicable in different situations.
As noted in the first section, several studies use Ethereum and Hyperledger platforms
to propose security solutions for their problems [20,23,38]. Potential future research can
provide a review study on using these platforms for security solutions with their strengths
and weaknesses.
Blockchains 2023, 1 70

5. Conclusions
This systematic review has comprehensively reviewed available studies on blockchain
applications for security solutions. Research studies report that blockchain applications can
bring possible security solutions for different use cases such as IoT, healthcare, industry,
energy, etc. In addition, there is an analysis of blockchain categorization type (public,
private, consortium), various consensus algorithms (PoW, PBFT, PoA), usage of blockchain
open platforms such as Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric, and blockchain integration with
other software-based technologies. Moreover, future research potential is also given to
scholars searching for new fields.
This systematic review is proposed as a reference for researchers working on blockchain
security applications to better decide on adopting blockchain technology as a security solu-
tion. As a result, we encourage future research to address security subjects in this technology
and suggest that research scholars and business sectors work together to propose movable
security solutions in this field.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.M.; methodology, H.T.; validation, H.T.; formal analysis,
H.T. and N.M.; resources, N.M.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M. and H.T.; writing—review
and editing, N.M.; visualization, N.M.; supervision, H.T. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Nazanin Moosavi was employed by the company Hamta Business
Corporation. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References
1. Nakamoto, S. Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Decentralized Bus. Rev. 2008, 21260. [CrossRef]
2. Niranjanamurthy, M.; Nithya, B.; Jagannatha, S. Analysis of Blockchain technology: Pros, cons and SWOT. Clust. Comput. 2019,
22, 14743–14757. [CrossRef]
3. Amirifard, M.; Taherdoost, H. Employment of Blockchain Technology in the Field of Renewable Energy. In Proceedings of the In-
ternational Conference Interdisciplinarity in Engineering, Târgu Mures, , Romania, 6–7 October 2022; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg,
Germany, 2022.
4. Gai, K.; Guo, J.; Zhu, L.; Yu, S. Blockchain meets cloud computing: A survey. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 2020, 22, 2009–2030.
[CrossRef]
5. Yaga, D.; Mell, P.; Roby, N.; Scarfone, K. Blockchain technology overview. arXiv 2019, arXiv:1906.11078.
6. Taherdoost, H. Blockchain technology and artificial intelligence together: A critical review on applications. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,
12948. [CrossRef]
7. Xiao, Y.; Zhang, N.; Lou, W.; Hou, Y.T. A survey of distributed consensus protocols for blockchain networks. IEEE Commun. Surv.
Tutor. 2020, 22, 1432–1465. [CrossRef]
8. Gai, K.; Wu, Y.; Zhu, L.; Zhang, Z.; Qiu, M. Differential privacy-based blockchain for industrial internet-of-things. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Inform. 2019, 16, 4156–4165. [CrossRef]
9. Lin, J.; Yu, W.; Zhang, N.; Yang, X.; Zhang, H.; Zhao, W. A survey on internet of things: Architecture, enabling technologies,
security and privacy, and applications. IEEE Internet Things J. 2017, 4, 1125–1142. [CrossRef]
10. Taherdoost, H. A critical review of blockchain acceptance models—Blockchain technology adoption frameworks and applications.
Computers 2022, 11, 24. [CrossRef]
11. Gai, K.; She, Y.; Zhu, L.; Choo, K.-K.R.; Wan, Z. A blockchain-based access control scheme for zero trust cross-organizational data
sharing. ACM Trans. Internet Technol. 2023, 23, 1–25. [CrossRef]
12. Taherdoost, H. Smart Contracts in Blockchain Technology: A Critical Review. Information 2023, 14, 117. [CrossRef]
13. Taylor, P.J.; Dargahi, T.; Dehghantanha, A.; Parizi, R.M.; Choo, K.-K.R. A systematic literature review of blockchain cyber security.
Digit. Commun. Netw. 2020, 6, 147–156. [CrossRef]
14. Gupta, R.; Tanwar, S.; Kumar, N.; Tyagi, S. Blockchain-based security attack resilience schemes for autonomous vehicles in
industry 4.0: A systematic review. Comput. Electr. Eng. 2020, 86, 106717. [CrossRef]
15. Da Xu, L.; Lu, Y.; Li, L. Embedding blockchain technology into IoT for security: A survey. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021, 8,
10452–10473.
16. Ferrag, M.A.; Shu, L. The performance evaluation of blockchain-based security and privacy systems for the Internet of Things: A
tutorial. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021, 8, 17236–17260. [CrossRef]
Blockchains 2023, 1 71

17. Shammar, E.A.; Zahary, A.T.; Al-Shargabi, A.A. A Survey of IoT and Blockchain Integration: Security Perspective. IEEE Access
2021, 9, 156114–156150. [CrossRef]
18. Ferrag, M.A.; Shu, L.; Yang, X.; Derhab, A.; Maglaras, L. Security and privacy for green IoT-based agriculture: Review, blockchain
solutions, and challenges. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 32031–32053. [CrossRef]
19. Ren, J.; Li, J.; Liu, H.; Qin, T. Task offloading strategy with emergency handling and blockchain security in SDN-empowered and
fog-assisted healthcare IoT. Tsinghua Sci. Technol. 2021, 27, 760–776. [CrossRef]
20. Sun, S.; Du, R.; Chen, S.; Li, W. Blockchain-based IoT access control system: Towards security, lightweight, and cross-domain.
IEEE Access 2021, 9, 36868–36878. [CrossRef]
21. Medhane, D.V.; Sangaiah, A.K.; Hossain, M.S.; Muhammad, G.; Wang, J. Blockchain-enabled distributed security framework for
next-generation IoT: An edge cloud and software-defined network-integrated approach. IEEE Internet Things J. 2020, 7, 6143–6149.
[CrossRef]
22. Hsiao, S.-J.; Sung, W.-T. Employing blockchain technology to strengthen security of wireless sensor networks. IEEE Access 2021, 9,
72326–72341. [CrossRef]
23. Mohanta, B.K.; Jena, D.; Ramasubbareddy, S.; Daneshmand, M.; Gandomi, A.H. Addressing security and privacy issues of IoT
using blockchain technology. IEEE Internet Things J. 2020, 8, 881–888. [CrossRef]
24. Yazdinejad, A.; Parizi, R.M.; Dehghantanha, A.; Karimipour, H.; Srivastava, G.; Aledhari, M. Enabling drones in the internet of
things with decentralized blockchain-based security. IEEE Internet Things J. 2020, 8, 6406–6415. [CrossRef]
25. Yazdinejad, A.; Parizi, R.M.; Dehghantanha, A.; Zhang, Q.; Choo, K.-K.R. An energy-efficient SDN controller architecture for IoT
networks with blockchain-based security. IEEE Trans. Serv. Comput. 2020, 13, 625–638. [CrossRef]
26. Zulkifl, Z.; Khan, F.; Tahir, S.; Afzal, M.; Iqbal, W.; Rehman, A.; Saeed, S.; Almuhaideb, A.M. FBASHI: Fuzzy and Blockchain-Based
Adaptive Security for Healthcare IoTs. IEEE Access 2022, 10, 15644–15656. [CrossRef]
27. Rathore, S.; Park, J.H.; Chang, H. Deep learning and blockchain-empowered security framework for intelligent 5G-enabled IoT.
IEEE Access 2021, 9, 90075–90083. [CrossRef]
28. Azbeg, K.; Ouchetto, O.; Andaloussi, S.J. BlockMedCare: A healthcare system based on IoT, Blockchain and IPFS for data
management security. Egypt. Inform. J. 2022, 23, 329–343. [CrossRef]
29. Abualsauod, E.H. A hybrid blockchain method in internet of things for privacy and security in unmanned aerial vehicles network.
Comput. Electr. Eng. 2022, 99, 107847. [CrossRef]
30. Annane, B.; Alti, A.; Lakehal, A. Blockchain based context-aware CP-ABE schema for Internet of Medical Things security. Array
2022, 14, 100150. [CrossRef]
31. Latif, S.A.; Wen, F.B.X.; Iwendi, C.; Li-li, F.W.; Mohsin, S.M.; Han, Z.; Band, S.S. AI-empowered, blockchain and SDN integrated
security architecture for IoT network of cyber physical systems. Comput. Commun. 2022, 181, 274–283. [CrossRef]
32. Krishna, B.; Rajkumar, P.; Velde, V. Integration of blockchain technology for security and privacy in internet of things. Mater.
Today Proc. 2021. [CrossRef]
33. Ge, C.; Liu, Z.; Fang, L. A blockchain based decentralized data security mechanism for the Internet of Things. J. Parallel Distrib.
Comput. 2020, 141, 1–9. [CrossRef]
34. Dorri, A.; Kanhere, S.S.; Jurdak, R.; Gauravaram, P. LSB: A Lightweight Scalable Blockchain for IoT security and anonymity. J.
Parallel Distrib. Comput. 2019, 134, 180–197. [CrossRef]
35. Mohanty, S.N.; Ramya, K.; Rani, S.S.; Gupta, D.; Shankar, K.; Lakshmanaprabu, S.; Khanna, A. An efficient Lightweight integrated
Blockchain (ELIB) model for IoT security and privacy. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2020, 102, 1027–1037. [CrossRef]
36. Si, H.; Sun, C.; Li, Y.; Qiao, H.; Shi, L. IoT information sharing security mechanism based on blockchain technology. Future Gener.
Comput. Syst. 2019, 101, 1028–1040. [CrossRef]
37. Rathore, S.; Kwon, B.W.; Park, J.H. BlockSecIoTNet: Blockchain-based decentralized security architecture for IoT network. J. Netw.
Comput. Appl. 2019, 143, 167–177. [CrossRef]
38. Wang, Y.; Zhang, A.; Zhang, P.; Wang, H. Cloud-assisted EHR sharing with security and privacy preservation via consortium
blockchain. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 136704–136719. [CrossRef]
39. Lin, P.; Song, Q.; Yu, F.R.; Wang, D.; Guo, L. Task offloading for wireless VR-enabled medical treatment with blockchain security
using collective reinforcement learning. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021, 8, 15749–15761. [CrossRef]
40. Jayabalan, J.; Jeyanthi, N. Scalable blockchain model using off-chain IPFS storage for healthcare data security and privacy. J.
Parallel Distrib. Comput. 2022, 164, 152–167. [CrossRef]
41. Lee, Y.-L.; Lee, H.-A.; Hsu, C.-Y.; Kung, H.-H.; Chiu, H.-W. SEMRES-A triple security protected blockchain based medical record
exchange structure. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 2022, 215, 106595. [CrossRef]
42. Parthiban, R.; Kumar, K.S. Effective resource scheduling using hybrid gradient descent cuckoo search algorithm and security
enhancement in cloud via blockchain for healthcare 4.0. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 56, 1802–1808. [CrossRef]
43. Azzaoui, A.E.; Sharma, P.K.; Park, J.H. Blockchain-based delegated Quantum Cloud architecture for medical big data security. J.
Netw. Comput. Appl. 2022, 198, 103304. [CrossRef]
44. Sharma, P.; Borah, M.D.; Namasudra, S. Improving security of medical big data by using Blockchain technology. Comput. Electr.
Eng. 2021, 96, 107529. [CrossRef]
45. Johari, R.; Kumar, V.; Gupta, K.; Vidyarthi, D.P. BLOSOM: BLOckchain technology for Security of Medical records. ICT Express
2022, 8, 56–60. [CrossRef]
Blockchains 2023, 1 72

46. Benil, T.; Jasper, J. Cloud based security on outsourcing using blockchain in E-health systems. Comput. Netw. 2020, 178, 107344.
[CrossRef]
47. Wan, J.; Li, J.; Imran, M.; Li, D. A blockchain-based solution for enhancing security and privacy in smart factory. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Inform. 2019, 15, 3652–3660. [CrossRef]
48. Rathore, S.; Park, J.H. A blockchain-based deep learning approach for cyber security in next generation industrial cyber-physical
systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2020, 17, 5522–5532. [CrossRef]
49. Maw, A.; Adepu, S.; Mathur, A. ICS-BlockOpS: Blockchain for operational data security in industrial control system. Pervasive
Mob. Comput. 2019, 59, 101048. [CrossRef]
50. Aitzhan, N.Z.; Svetinovic, D. Security and privacy in decentralized energy trading through multi-signatures, blockchain and
anonymous messaging streams. IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput. 2016, 15, 840–852. [CrossRef]
51. Kaur, K.; Kaddoum, G.; Zeadally, S. Blockchain-based cyber-physical security for electrical vehicle aided smart grid ecosystem.
IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 2021, 22, 5178–5189. [CrossRef]
52. Bhattacharya, P.; Ghafouri, M.; Soeanu, A.; Kassouf, M.; Debbabi, M. Security enhancement of time synchronization and fault
identification in WAMS using a two-layer blockchain framework. Appl. Energy 2022, 315, 118955. [CrossRef]
53. Esfahani, M.M. A hierarchical blockchain-based electricity market framework for energy transactions in a security-constrained
cluster of microgrids. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2022, 139, 108011. [CrossRef]
54. Ghiasi, M.; Dehghani, M.; Niknam, T.; Kavousi-Fard, A.; Siano, P.; Alhelou, H.H. Cyber-attack detection and cyber-security en-
hancement in smart dc-microgrid based on blockchain technology and hilbert huang transform. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 29429–29440.
[CrossRef]
55. Xiao, H.; Zhang, W.; Li, W.; Chronopoulos, A.T.; Zhang, Z. Joint Clustering and Blockchain for Real-Time Information Security
Transmission at the Crossroads in C-V2X Networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021, 8, 13926–13938. [CrossRef]
56. Huang, X.; Xu, C.; Wang, P.; Liu, H. LNSC: A security model for electric vehicle and charging pile management based on
blockchain ecosystem. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 13565–13574. [CrossRef]
57. Zhang, X.; Chen, X. Data security sharing and storage based on a consortium blockchain in a vehicular ad-hoc network. IEEE
Access 2019, 7, 58241–58254. [CrossRef]
58. Zeng, P.; Wang, X.; Li, H.; Jiang, F.; Doss, R. A scheme of intelligent traffic light system based on distributed security architecture
of blockchain technology. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 33644–33657. [CrossRef]
59. Cinque, M.; Esposito, C.; Russo, S.; Tamburis, O. Blockchain-empowered decentralised trust management for the Internet of
Vehicles security. Comput. Electr. Eng. 2020, 86, 106722. [CrossRef]
60. Wu, H.-T.; Tsai, C.-W. An intelligent agriculture network security system based on private blockchains. J. Commun. Netw. 2019, 21,
503–508. [CrossRef]
61. Arif, S.; Khan, M.A.; Rehman, S.U.; Kabir, M.A.; Imran, M. Investigating smart home security: Is blockchain the answer? IEEE
Access 2020, 8, 117802–117816. [CrossRef]
62. Awadallah, R.; Samsudin, A. Using Blockchain in Cloud Computing to Enhance Relational Database Security. IEEE Access 2021, 9,
137353–137366. [CrossRef]
63. Sowmiya, B.; Poovammal, E.; Ramana, K.; Singh, S.; Yoon, B. Linear Elliptical Curve Digital Signature (LECDS) With Blockchain
Approach for Enhanced Security on Cloud Server. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 138245–138253. [CrossRef]
64. Singh, C.E.J.; Sunitha, C.A. Chaotic and Paillier Secure Image Data Sharing Based On Blockchain and Cloud Security. Expert Syst.
Appl. 2022, 198, 116874. [CrossRef]
65. Bonnah, E.; Shiguang, J. DecChain: A decentralized security approach in Edge Computing based on Blockchain. Future Gener.
Comput. Syst. 2020, 113, 363–379. [CrossRef]
66. Wilczyński, A.; Kołodziej, J. Modelling and simulation of security-aware task scheduling in cloud computing based on Blockchain
technology. Simul. Model. Pract. Theory 2020, 99, 102038. [CrossRef]
67. Ch, R.; Srivastava, G.; Gadekallu, T.R.; Maddikunta, P.K.R.; Bhattacharya, S. Security and privacy of UAV data using blockchain
technology. J. Inf. Secur. Appl. 2020, 55, 102670. [CrossRef]
68. García-Magariño, I.; Lacuesta, R.; Rajarajan, M.; Lloret, J. Security in networks of unmanned aerial vehicles for surveillance with
an agent-based approach inspired by the principles of blockchain. Ad Hoc Netw. 2019, 86, 72–82. [CrossRef]
69. Li, C.; Sun, X.; Zhang, Z. Effective Methods and Performance Analysis of a Satellite Network Security Mechanism Based on
Blockchain Technology. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 113558–113565. [CrossRef]
70. Manogaran, G.; Rawal, B.S.; Saravanan, V.; Kumar, P.M.; Martínez, O.S.; Crespo, R.G.; Montenegro-Marin, C.E.; Krishnamoorthy,
S. Blockchain based integrated security measure for reliable service delegation in 6G communication environment. Comput.
Commun. 2020, 161, 248–256. [CrossRef]
71. Meng, W.; Li, W.; Zhou, J. Enhancing the security of blockchain-based software defined networking through trust-based traffic
fusion and filtration. Inf. Fusion 2021, 70, 60–71. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.