Research Methods,

Design, And Analysis:

Research
Approaches and
Data Collection
Methods

Reham
 Ways of Categorizing Research
Approaches:

Experimental Research Descriptive Research

attempts to identify cause and focuses on describing
effect relationships through phenomena, events, or
experiments situations

Reham
Reham
Variables in Quantitative Research:

Variable Constant

something that takes something that

on different values or cannot vary, a single
categories value or category
e.g., gender e.g., male and female

Reham
Variables in Quantitative Research:

Categorical Variables
varies by type or kind
e.g., gender, religion, college major, method of therapy

Quantitative Variables
varies by degree or amount
e.g., reaction time, height, age, anxiety level

Reham
A Classification of Research Designs:
Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Research
Design Design

Descriptive Causal Research

Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Safa
Differences Between Exploratory and Conclusive
Research:
Exploratory Conclusive
-To test specific
-To provide insights
Objective hypotheses and
and understanding.
examine relationships.

-Information needed
-Information needed
is defined only loosely.
is clearly defined.
-Research process
-Research process
is flexible and
is formal and structured.
Characteristics unstructured.
-Sample is large and
-Sample is small and
representative.
nonrepresentative.
-Data analysis is
-Data analysis is
quantitative.
qualitative.
Safa
Differences Between Exploratory and Conclusive
Research:
Exploratory Conclusive
Findings -Tentative. -Conclusive.

-Generally followed by
-Findings used as input
Outcome further exploratory or
into decision making.
conclusive research.

Safa
 Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal
Designs:
Cross- Sample
Sectional Surveyed
Design at T1

Same
Longitudinal Sample Sample
Design Surveyed also
at T1 Surveyed
at T2

Time T1 T2
Safa
 Variables in Quantitative Research:
01 02
Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)
presumed to cause changes the presumed effect or
in another variable outcome of the study

variable manipulated by the variable that is measured by

researcher the researcher

e.g., therapy vs. no therapy variable that influenced by

the IV

Juman
Juman
 Variables in Quantitative Research:
04 05
Mediating Variable Moderating Variable
occurs between two other qualify a causal relationship
variables in a causal chain as dependent on another
variable
also called intervening
variable e.g., the impact of anxiety
on memory depends on
e.g., anxiety causes level of fatigue (moderating
distraction (mediating variable)
variable) which affects
memory Juman
Causation
a condition in which one event (the cause)
generates another event (the effect)

Cause and Effect

definition is different from common use
refers to a probabilistic relationship between an IV
and a DV
attempts to identify what would have happened if IV
not administered

Reham
Criteria for identifying a causal relation:
cause (IV) must be related to the effect
(DV) (relationship condition)

changes in IV must precede changes in DV

(temporal order condition)

no other plausible explanation must exist

for the effect

Reham
 Conditions for Causality:
Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X, and an
effect, Y, occur together or vary together in the way predicted by the
hypothesis under consideration.

The time order of occurrence condition states that the causing event
must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it cannot
occur afterwards.

The absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor
or variable being investigated should be the only possible causal
explanation.

Reham
 What is an
Experiment?
Measure
Manipulate Test Units

Independent
Variables
Dependent
Variables
Extraneous
Variables
Control

Safa
 Advantages of the Experimental Approach

Causal inference – Ability to Control

experimental approach is manipulate
best method for inferring variables
causation
causal description refers to only scientific extraneous variables are
identifying the consequences of methodology in which controlled by:
manipulating an IV variables are manipulated holding them constant
using random assignment
causal explanation refers to matching
explaining the mechanisms through
which the relationship exists

Safa
 Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

Does not test the effects of Artificiality Inadequate

nonmanipulated variables method of
scientific inquiry
many potential independent variables refers to potential
cannot be directly manipulated problems in generalizing
e.g., people’s ages, gender, the findings from laboratory
weather settings to the “real
world”

Safa
 Experimental Research Settings:
Laboratory
Field experiments experiments
an experimental research
study that is conducted in a an experimental research
real-life setting study that is conducted in a
controlled laboratory setting
advantage – may be easier
to generalize findings advantage – more control
over extraneous variables
disadvantage – less control
of extraneous variables disadvantage – less
generalization related to
artificiality

Safa
Correlational
Study:
Measures the degree of relationship between two
variables

Primary limitation – inability to determine causality

Third variable problem

relationship between two variables is due to a
separate, unmeasured, variable

Juman
Correlational Study:

Juman
 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies:
Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies
assess groups of participants at one assess the same participants over a
point in time period of time

e.g., comparing IQ scores of several different age e.g., measuring changes in IQ for the same
groups participants over several years

potential problem – age-cohort effects disadvantages – attrition and cost

Juman
 Major Methods of Data Collection:

Interviews Observation

1 2 3 4

Questionnaires Focus groups

Juman
Major Methods of Data Collection:

Questionnaires Interviews

a self-report data a situation where the

collection instrument interviewer asks the
that is filled out by interviewee a series
research participants of questions

Juman
 Major Methods of Data Collection:

Focus groups Observation

a situation where a focus group naturalistic observation

moderator keeps a small and done in real-world settings
homogeneous group focused on
the discussion of a research topic laboratory observation
or issue conducted in a lab or other
controlled environment

Juman