Unit 3 Lasers & Optical Fibers - 22PHY22C

UNIT 3 LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBER
QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Computer Science Stream- (CS, AI, CY, CD, IS, and BT)
Content
Lasers: Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter,
requisites of a Laser system. Construction and working of semiconductor
laser. Application of Laser: Bar code scanner, Laser printer, Laser cooling
numerical problems.
Optical Fibers: Propagation mechanism, Numerical aperture derivation,

Modes of propagation. Attenuation in fiber, Discussion of block diagram of
Point-to-Point communication, Optical fiber sensor. Numerical problems.
Introduction:
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation. Laser device produces a beam of coherent,
monochromatic, intense and directional light. Hence laser light is
highly organized when compared with the ordinary light. This is
because the waves of a laser beam move in phase with each other
travel in a narrow path in one direction. In the case of an ordinary
light it spreads out, travels in different directions and hence it is
incoherent. On account of the special properties, lasers are the most
versatile and exploited tools in different fields such as Engineering,
Medicine, Defence, Entertainment, Communication etc., Other
common applications of laser include reading the bar code, cutting and
welding metals, displays in light shows, playing music, printing
documents, guiding missile to its target and so on.
Characteristics of Laser beam

 Directionality: The design of the resonant cavity, especially the
orientation of the mirrors to the cavity axis ensures that laser
output is limited to only a specific direction. Since laser emits
photons in a particular direction, the divergence is less when
compared the other ordinary sources.
 Monochromacity: The laser beam is characterized by a high

degree of mono-chromaticity (single wavelength or frequency)
than any other conventional monochromatic sources of light.
Ordinary light spreads over a wide range of frequencies, whereas
R V College of Engineering 1
laser contains only one frequency. The spectral bandwidth is

comparatively very less when compared to ordinary light. Hence
the degree of mono chromaticity is very high in lasers.
 Coherence: The degree of coherence of a laser beam is very high

than the other sources. The light from laser source consists of
wave trains that are in identical in phase. Laser radiation has high
degree of special (with respect to Space) and temporal (with
respective to time) coherence.
 High Intensity: The laser beam is highly intense. Since wave

trains are added in phase and hence amplitudes are added. Laser
light emits as a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated in a
small region. Since all the energy is concentrated in the particular
focus point, it is highly intense and bright. When laser beam is
focused on a surface, the energy incident is of the order of
millions of joules.
 Focus ability: Since laser is highly monochromatic, it can be

focused very well by a lens. It is so sharp the diameter of the spot
will be close to the wavelength of the focused light. It can be
focused to a very small area 0.7m2. Since even laser is not
ideally monochromatic the spot diameter in actual cases will be
100 to 150 times larger than the wavelength.
Basic principles: Interaction of Radiation with Matter
Production of laser light is a consequence of interaction of

radiation with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction of
radiation with matter leads to transition of the quantum system such as
an atom or a molecule of the matter from one quantum energy state to
another quantum state.
A material medium is composed of identical atoms or

molecules each of which is characterized by a set of discrete allowed
energy levels. An atom can move from one energy state to another
when it receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy

difference between those two states, which is termed as a quantum
jump or transition.
Consider a two energy level system with energies E1 and E2 of

an atom. E1 is the energy of lower energy state and E2 is the energy of
excited state. The energy levels E1 and E2 are identical to all the atoms
in the medium. The radiation (either absorbed or emitted) may be
viewed as a stream of photons of energy (E2-E1)=hν, interacting with
the material. These interactions lead to any one of the following
 Induced Absorption of radiation

 Spontaneous emission of radiation
 Stimulated emission of radiation
Induced Absorption:
Excitation of atoms by the absorption of photons is called induced
absorption.
An atom in the lower energy state E1absorbs the incident photon of

energy (E1-E2) and goes to the excited state E2. This transition is
known as absorption. For each transition made by an atom one photon
disappears from the incident beam.
For an atom A, stimulated absorption transition can be expressed as

A + hν A* (excited state)
The number of absorption transitions per second per unit volume

occurring in the material at any instant of time will be proportional to
(i) The number of atoms in the ground state N1
(ii) Energy density of the incident radiation (Uν)

Rate of induced absorption = B12UνN1
Where B12 is proportionality constant which gives the probability of

absorptions and it is called Einstein co-efficient of absorption. Since
the number of atoms in the lower energy state is greater, the material
absorbs more number of the incident photons.
Spontaneous Emission:
An atom which is at higher energy state E2 is unstable,
spontaneously returns to the lower energy state E1 on its own during
which a single photon of energy (E2-E1) = hυ is emitted, the process is
known as spontaneous emission.
Spontaneous transition can be expressed as

A* A +hυ
The number of spontaneous transitions per second, per unit volume

depends on the number of atoms N2 in the excited state.
Therefore, the rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
Where A21 is proportionality constant which gives the

probability of spontaneous emission and it is called Einstein co-
efficient of spontaneous emission of radiation.
The process has no control from outside. The instant of

transition, directions of emission of photons, phases of the photons and
their polarization states are random quantities. There will not be any
correlation among the parameters of the innumerable photons emitted
spontaneously by the assembly of atoms in the medium. Therefore the

light generated by the source will be incoherent (ex: light emitted from
conventional sources).
Stimulated Emission:
Emission of photons by an atomic system with an external

influence is called stimulated emission. A mechanism of forced
emission was first predicted by Einstein in 1916 in which an atom in
the excited state need not wait for the spontaneous emission to take
place. A photon of energy hυ = (E2-E1), can induce the excited atom to
make downward transition and emit light. Thus, the interaction of a
photon with an excited atom triggers it to drop down to the ground
state (lower energy) by emitting a photon. The process is known as
induced or stimulated emission of radiation.
Stimulated emission transition can be expressed as

A* + hυ A + 2 hυ
The number of stimulated transitions per sec per unit volume in the
material is proportional to
(i) The number of atoms in the excited state N2
(ii) Energy density of the incident radiation (Uν)
Rate of stimulated emission= B21UνN2
Where B21 is proportionality constant which gives the

probability of stimulated emissions and it is called Einstein co-efficient
of induced (stimulated) emission.
The process of stimulated emission has the following properties.
I. The emitted photon is identical to the incident photon in all

respects. (It has the same frequency; it will be in phase and will
travel in the same direction and will be in the same state of
polarization).
II. The process can be controlled externally.
III. Stimulated emission is responsible for laser.
Some basic definitions

1. Atomic system:
It is a system of atoms or molecules having discrete energy levels.
2. Active medium
It is the medium in which light amplification takes place. The
medium may be solid, liquid or a gas. Out of the different atoms
in the medium a small fraction of atoms are responsible for
stimulated emission and consequent light amplification. They are
called active centres
3. Energy density
The energy density Uν refers to the total energy in the radiation
field per unit volume per unit frequency due to photons. It is given
by the Plank‟s distribution law
[ ]
4. Population
It is the number density (the number of atoms per unit volume) of
atoms in a given energy state.
5. Boltzmann factor
It is the ratio between the population of atoms in the higher energy
state to the lower energy state under thermal equilibrium. If N2 is
the number density of atoms in the energy state E2 and N1 is the

number density of atoms in the ground state then
According to Boltzmann condition N1> N2 and
6. Population inversion
It is the condition such that the number of atoms in the higher
energy (N2) state is greater than the number of atoms in the
ground state (N1). i.e, N2> N1
If N2> N1, it is non-equilibrium condition and it is called population

inversion.
Expression for energy density of incident radiation in terms of

Einstein coefficients:
Consider an atomic system interacting with radiation field of

energy density Uγ. Let E1 and E2, be the two energy states of atomic
system (E2> E1). Let us consider atoms are to be in thermal
equilibrium with radiation field, which means that the energy density
Uγ is constant in spite of the interaction that is taking place between
itself and the incident radiation. This is possible only if the number of
photons absorbed by the system per second is equal to the number of
photons it emits per second by both the stimulated and spontaneous
emission processes.
We know that
The rate of induced absorption = B12UνN1,
The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
The rate of stimulated emission = B21UνN2
N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the energy state E1 and E2

respectively, B12, A21 and B21 are the Einstein coefficients for induced
absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission
respectively.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of induced absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate
of stimulated emission
B12N1Uγ = A21N2 + B21N2Uγ
or
Uγ (B12N1 – B21N2) = A21N2
A21 N 2
U 
B12 N 1  B21 N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get
 
A21  1  --------- (1)
U   
B21  12 1
 1
B N
 B21 N 2 
In a state of thermal equilibrium, the populations of energy levels E2
and E1 are fixed by the Boltzmann factor. The population ratio is
given by,
E 2 E1
N2 ( )
 e kT
N1
 E E  h
 2 1 
N 2  N1e  kT 
 N1e  kT
Since  E2  E1  h 
h
N1
  e kT
N2
 Equation (1) becomes,
 
  ------ (2)
A21  1 
U  h
B21  B12 1 
 e kT 
 B21 
According to Planck's law of black body radiation, the equation for U 
is,
[ ]-------(3)
Now comparing the equation (2) and (3) term by term on the basis of
positional identity we have
A21 8h 3 B
 3 and 12  1 or B12  B21
B21 c B21
This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the

probability of stimulated emission. Due to this identity the subscripts
could be dropped, and A21 and B21 can be simply represented as A and
B and equation (3) can be rewritten.
 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

A 1
Uγ  hγ
B
[e kT  1]
(Think: Even though the probability of induced absorption is equal to

the probability of stimulated emission, the rate of induced absorption is
not equal to rate of stimulated emission. Why?)
Conditions for light amplification:-

Conditions for laser emission can be studied by taking the ratios of rate
of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission and rate of stimulated
emission to absorption.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of Stimulated Emission B21N2U B21U

 
Rate of Spontaneous Emission A21N2 A21
Since, B21/A21 = C3 /8πhν3 = constant,
This suggests that in order to enhance the number of stimulated

transitions the radiation density Uν should be made high.
Rate of Stimulated Emission B21N 2U B21N 2

 
Rate of Induced absorption B12 N1U B12 N1
(B21/B12 = 1)
The stimulated emission will be larger than the absorption only when
N2>N1. If N2>N1 the stimulated emission dominates the absorption
otherwise the medium will absorb the energy. This condition of
N2>N1 is known as inverted population state or population inversion.
Requisites of a laser system:

The essential components of a laser are
 An active medium to support population inversion.
 Pumping mechanism to excite the atoms to higher energy levels.
 Population inversion
 Metastable state
 An optical cavity or optical resonator.
Active medium:
It is the material medium composed of atoms or ions or
molecules in which the laser action is made to take place, which can be
a solid or liquid or even a gas. In this, only a few atoms of the medium
(of particular species) are responsible for stimulated emission. They
are called active centers and the remaining medium simply supports
the active centers.
Pumping Mechanism:
To achieve the population inversion in the active medium, the
atoms are to be raised to the excited state. It requires energy to be
supplied to the system. The process of supplying energy to the
medium with a view to transfer the atoms to higher energy state is
called pumping.
Important pumping mechanisms are
a) Optical pumping: It employs a suitable light source for excitation

of desired atoms. This method is adopted in solid state lasers (ex:
Ruby laser and Nd:YAG laser).
b) Electric discharge: In this process an electric field causes

ionization in the medium and raises it to the excited state. This
technique is used in gas lasers (ex: Ar+ laser).
c) Inelastic atom-atom collision :In this method a combination of

two types of gases are used, say A and B. During electric discharge A
atoms get excited and they now collide with B atoms so that B goes to
excited state. This technique is used in gas lasers (ex: He-Ne laser).
d) Direct conversion : In this process electrical energy is directly

converted into light energy. This technique is used in semiconductor
lasers (ex: GaAs laser).
Population Inversion and Meta stable state:
In order to increase stimulated emission it is essential that

N2>N1 i.e., the number of atoms in the excited state must be greater
than the number of atoms in the ground state. Even if the population is
more in the excited state, there will be a competition between
stimulated and spontaneous emission. The possibility of spontaneous
emission can be reduced by using intermediate state where the life
time of atom will be little longer (10-6 to 10-3s ) compared to excited
state (10-9 s). This intermediate state is called metastable state and it
depends upon the nature of atomic species used in the active medium.
Principle of pumping scheme:
Consider three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a quantum system

of which the level E2 is metastable state. Let the atoms be excited from
E1 to E3 state by supply of appropriate energy. Then the atom from the
E3 state undergoes downward transition to either E1or E2 states rapidly.
Once the atoms undergo downward transitions to level E2 they tend to
stay, for a long interval of time, because of which the population of E2
increases rapidly. Transition from E2 to E1 being very slow, in a short
period of time the number of atoms in the level E2 is far greater than
the level E1. Thus Population inversion has been achieved betweenE1
and E2 . The transition from meta stable state to ground state is the
lasing transition. It occurs in between upper lasing E2 and lower lasing
level E1.
Optical resonator:
 An optical resonator generally consists of two plane mirrors, with

the active material placed in between them. One of the mirrors is
semi-transparent while the other one is 100% reflecting. The
mirrors are set normal to the axis of the active medium and parallel
to each other.
 The optical resonant cavity provides the selectivity of photon states

by confining the possible direction of photon propagation, as a
result lasing action occurs in this direction.
 The distance between the mirrors is an important parameter as it

chooses the wavelength of the photons. Suppose a photon is
travelling between two reflectors, it undergoes reflection at the
mirror kept at the other end .the reflected wave superposes on the
incident wave and forms stationary wave such that the length L of
the cavity is given by
Hence
Where, L is the distance between the mirrors, λ is the wavelength of
the photon, n is the integral multiple of half wavelength
The wavelengths satisfying the above condition are only amplified.

Hence the cavity is also called resonant cavity.
The main Role of the optical resonator is to

 Provide positive feedback of photons into the active medium to
sustain stimulated emission and hence laser acts as a generator of
light.
 Select the direction of stimulated photons which are travelling

parallel to the axis of optical resonator and normal to the plane of
mirrors are to be amplified. Hence laser light is highly directional.
 Builds up the photon density (Uν) to a very high value through

repeated reflections of photons by mirrors and confines them within
the active medium.
 Selects and amplifies only certain frequencies of stimulated photons

which are to be highly monochromatic and gives out the laser light
through the partial reflector after satisfying threshold condition.
Semiconductor diode Laser

A semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n
junction device that emits coherent light when it is forward biased. The
first semiconductor lasers were made by R.N. Hall and his co-workers
in 1962 using gallium arsenide (GaAs), which is a direct band gap
semiconductor. Diode lasers are portable and used in optical
communications, CD players, CD-ROM drives, optical reading, high
speed laser printing etc.
Principle: The semiconductor laser is based on the principle of the

emission of the recombination energy in the form of light. In normal
state of a semiconductor the conduction band is sparsely occupied by
electrons and valence band is occupied by large number of electrons
and small number of holes. The electron-hole recombination is the
basic mechanism involved in the emission of light in semiconductor
lasers. They are made using direct band gap semiconductors such as
GaAs, CdSe, GaAlAs etc .By heavily doping the p-n junction and by
applying a high current density, the stimulated emission of light is
produced and hence the laser operation is made possible in the
semiconductor laser.
Construction: A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as

shown in the diagram. The semiconductor laser consists of heavily
doped n - GaAs and p - GaAs. The diode chip is 500𝜇𝑚 long and
about 100 𝜇𝑚 wide and thick. The junction (active region) lies in a
horizontal plane through the centre. The top and bottom faces are
metallized and ohmic contacts are provided to pass the current through
the diode. The front and rear faces polished, parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane of the junction. The polished faces
constitute the Fabry- perot resonator. The other two sides of the diode
are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction. The diode is
forward biased, with a voltage nearly equal to the bad gap voltage of
the material.
Working:
 The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction is shown
in figure (a). Due to heavy doping on the n-side, the donor levels are
broadened and extend into the conduction band and the Fermi level
EF is pushed in to the conduction band. The electrons occupy the
portion of the conduction band below the Fermi level between EF
and EC.
 Similarly on the heavily doped p-side, Fermi level EF lies within the
valence band. The holes occupy the portion of the valence band above
EF and EV. At the condition of thermal equilibrium Fermi level is
uniform across the junction as shown in the figure (a).
Figure (a) and (b): Energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n
junction
 When the junction is forward biased, electrons from the n region and
holes from the p region are injected into the junction region. This is
how pumping action takes place in a p-n junction semiconductor
laser.
 For small values of forward bias current, the electron holes

recombine and the recombination brings about spontaneous, non-
coherent emission of photons in all directions. At this stage the
junction acts as a light emitting diode (LED).
 As the forward bias current is increased the intensity of light

increases but when the forward bias reaches the threshold values the
carrier concentration in the junction region rises to a very high value.
In the junction region attains a very high concentration of electrons
in the conduction band and at the same time a very high
concentration of holes in the valence band as shown in figure (b).
 As a result the upper energy level in the narrow junction region has a
high electron population whereas the lower energy levels in this
region are vacant, thereby giving rise to the condition of population
inversion. This narrow region in which population inversion takes
place is known as ‘Inversion region’ or „Active region’.
 Initially, when a recombination of electron-hole pair takes place

between the conduction and valence band leads to spontaneous
emission of photons. The spontaneous photons moving in the
junction plane stimulate the conduction electrons to jump to the
vacant states of the valence band and produces coherent radiation
giving rise to laser action. GaAs laser emits at a wavelength of
9000Ao in infrared region.
 Semiconductor lasers are very compact, efficient and can be easily

fabricated. But their spectral purity is low and emission pattern is
broad. Hence, monochromatic property, coherence and directional
characteristic properties are not good as that of the other types of

lasers.
Characteristics
TITLE Description
Type Solid State Semiconductor laser.
Active Medium The active medium of a semiconductor laser is a p-n junction.
Pumping Method Direct conversion method.
Power output The power output from this laser is 1mW.
Nature of output Continuous-wave or pulsed output.
Wavelength of output 8300 to 9000Å.
Advantages:
1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and
compact.
2. It exhibits high efficiency.
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction
current.
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment
6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and structure of laser.
2. The output is usually from 5 to 15o i.e., laser beam has large
divergence.
3. The purity and mono-chromaticity are poorer than other types of
laser
4. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).
5. It has poor coherence and poor stability.
Applications:
1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication.
2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation.
3. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.
Application of Lasers
Bar code scanner:
Bar scanner is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes
for identifying the product. A bar code consists of a series of strips of
dark and white bands. These white and dark bands are of different
widths separated from each other by specific distances that contain all
the information about the product. A laser is used to scan the bar code
with the help of rotating mirror. Typical scanning speeds are about 200
m/s. When the laser beam is incident on the barcode, the amount of
light scattered depends on whether the strip strip is black or white.
Since the bars are separated by variable distance, light intensity varies
with time and is recorded by photodetector. The signal is fed into an
amplifier and later to a decoder which displays the information on a
monitor and also sends it to product inventory system.
Laser Printing:
From last few years, there has been tremendous increase in the
use of computers as an aid to the management, processing and
dissemination of information. The peripheral device required by the
computer for all these applications is the printer. Today, use of
computers in large data processing installations places very high
demand on printers as regards its speed, character flexibility, and print

quality. The conventional impact printers can no longer meet these
demands because of their limited speed and character flexibility. In the
new generation printers, printing method is based on the principle of
electrophotography.
A laser printer makes use of a beam of light for printing. The

light of the laser changes the electrical charge on the drum, wherever it
hits, as the paper passes through the printer. The laser beam strikes at
the surface of the drum and this is known as a photo receptor. By
changing the charge on the drum, the laser beam can print patterns
onto the photo receptor. Once the design created on the drum, it coated
with toner from a toner cartridge. In most of the cartridges, the toner is
black, but the laser printers are also coloured.
Laser printers work by laying down an array of tiny, evenly

spaced dots of “ink” on the paper. The dots are so small, and they
blend so seamlessly that text looks very nearly as clean as what you
get from a traditional typesetting machine. The quality you get from
your laser printer depends mostly on the resolution, the fineness of the
dots it uses to print the images. Resolution measured in dots per inch
(dpi), which is how many dots it can write a long with a line, either
vertically or horizontally. Most laser printers have had 300 dpi
resolutions, but 600 dpi is just now becoming the new standard.
Laser cooling:
It is the process of using the force exerted by laser to cool the
atoms to lower temperature essentially amounts to reducing their
speed. It is based on the fact that when an atom absorbs or emits
photon its momentum changes.
The phenomenon of laser cooling has been used in physics to
limit the motion of thermal motion of atoms. Atom emitted from an
oven will have spread of velocities around some average value. If this
atomic beam encounters an encounters a laser beam in the opposite
direction, the atoms gets slow down. Atoms have characteristic energy
levels that allow them to absorb and emit radiation of specific
frequencies. Atoms moving with respect to the laser beam will see the
laser frequency shifted because of the Doppler effect. For example,
atoms moving towards the laser beam will encounter a laser with high
frequency and atoms moving away from the laser beam will encounter
a laser beam with low frequency. Even atoms moving in the same
direction within the beam of atoms will see slightly different
frequencies depending on the velocities of the various atoms. Now if
the frequency of the laser beam is tuned to the precise frequency seen
by the faster atoms so that those atoms can be excited by absorbing the
radiation, those faster atoms will be slowed down by absorbing the
momentum of the laser radiation. Essentially the phenomenon can be
viewed as scattering of a photon by an atom. Every atom or an ion has
momentum given by the de Broglie relation p=h/λ. The atoms slow
down because photons strike them in opposite direction. As the atom
slow down, they see that the Doppler shifted frequencies of the laser
change, and the atoms no longer absorb the laser radiation. They
continue with lower velocity and velocity spread.
By using the six intersecting laser beams coming in different
angles atoms are essentially isolated and average velocity is zero. With
this technique atoms have been cooled to temperature below 0.2 μK.
OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical fibres are the light guides used in optical

communications as wave-guides. They are thin, cylindrical, transparent
flexible dielectric fibres. They are able to guide visible and infrared
light over long distances. The working structure of optical fibre
consists of three layers. Core- is the inner cylindrical layer which is
made of glass or plastic. Cladding- which envelops the inner core. It is
made of the same material of the core but of lesser refractive index
than core. The core and the cladding layers are enclosed in a
polyurethane jacket called sheath which safeguards the working
structure of fibre against chemical reactions, mechanical abrasion and
crushing etc.
Propagation mechanism in Optical fibre:

In optical fibres light waves can be guided through it, hence are
called light guides. The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower
refractive index (RI) than that of the core. The light signal which
enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and the cladding
at angles greater than critical angle of incidence because of the ray
geometry. The light signal undergoes multiple total internal reflections
within the fibre core. Since each reflection is a total internal reflection,
the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely
within the core during propagation. Thus, the optical fibre functions as
a wave guide.
Numerical Aperture and Ray Propagation in the Fibre:
Consider an optical fibre consists of core and cladding material

placed in air medium. Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of
surrounding air medium, core and cladding material respectively. The
RI of cladding is always lesser than that of core material (n2< n1) so
that the light rays propagate through the fibre. Let us consider the
special case of ray which suffers critical incident at the core cladding
interface. The ray travels along AO entering into the core at an angle
of 0 with respect to the fibre axis. Let it be refracted along OB at an
angle 1 in the core and further proceed to fall at critical angle of
incidence (= 90-1) at B on the interface of core and cladding. Since it
is critical angle of incidence, the refracted ray grazes along core and
cladding interface.
It is clear from the figure that a ray that enters at an angle of

incidence less than 0 at O, will have to be incident at an angle greater
than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface, and gets total
internal reflection in the core material. When OA is rotated around the
fibre axis keeping 0 same, it describes a conical surface, those rays
which are funneled into the fibre within this cone will only be totally
internally reflected and propagate through the fibre. The cone is called
acceptance cone.
The angle 0 is called the wave guide acceptance angle or the

acceptance cone half-angle which is the maximum angle from the axis
of optical fibre at which light ray may enter the fibre so that it will
propagate in core by total internal reflection.
Sin 0 is called the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the fibre. It

determines the light gathering ability of the fibre and purely depends
on the refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding medium.
Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding

medium, core and cladding respectively for the given optical fibre.
By applying the Snell‟s law at O,
------------(1)
At the point Bon the core and cladding interface, the angle of
incidence = 90-θ1
Applying Snell‟s law at B
( )
or
-------------------(2)
From equation (1)
(√ )
√
√ √
If the medium surrounding the fibre is air, then n0 = 1,
Therefore, √
sinθ0 = Numerical aperture: NA
Therefore, √
If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be

able to propagate,
If i<0
or if sin i< sin 0
or sin i< NA
Fraction Index Change ():

The fractional index change  is the ratio of the difference in the
refractive indices between the core and the cladding to the refractive
index of core of an optical fibre. It is also known as relative core clad
index difference, denoted by .
If n1 and n2are the refractive indices of core and cladding, then,
(n  n )
= 1 2
n1
Relation between NA and 

We have RI change
Or ( )-----------(1)
We know that,
N . A.  n12  n22
(n1  n2 )(n1  n2 )
(n1  n2 )n1
Since n1~ n2 , (n1+ n2) = 2n1
N . A.  2n12
Therefore,
N . A.  n1 2
We can see that, the value of NA can be increased by increasing the

value of ∆, so as to receive maximum light into the fibre. However,
fibres with large ∆ will not be useful for optical communication due to
the occurrence of a phenomenon inside the fibre called multipath
dispersion or intermodal dispersion. This phenomenon introduces a
time delay factor, in the travel length and may cause distortion of the
transmitted optical signal. This leads to pulse broadening, which in

turn limits the communication distance.
Modes of Propagation:
The possible number of paths of light in an optical fibre determines the
number of modes available in it. It also determines the number of
independent paths for light that a fibre can support for its propagation
without interference and mixing.
We may have a single mode fibre supporting only one signal at

a time or multimode fibre supporting many rays at a time.
Such number of modes supported for propagation in the fibre is

determined by a parameter called V-number. If the surrounding
medium is air then the V- number is given by
√( )
d
or V ( NA)

where d is the core diameter, n1 is the refractive index of core, n2 is

the refractive index of the cladding and λ is the wavelength of the light
propagating through the fibre.
( )
√ √ √ .
Where k is the propagation constant (k= 2π/λ)

If fibre is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then
d n12  n22 )
V
 n0
V2
For step index fibre, the number of modes ≈
2
For graded index fibre, the number of modes ≈ V2/4
Types of Optical fibres:
The optical fibres are classified under 3 categories. They are
a) Step index Single mode fibre (SMF)

b) Step index multi modefibre (MMF)
c) Graded index Multi Mode Fibre (GRIN)
This classification is done depending on the refractive index profile

and the number of modes that the fibre can guide.
Refractive Index Profile (RI):

Generally in any types of optical fibre, the refractive index of cladding
material is always constant and it has uniform value throughout the
fibre. But in case of core material, the refractive index may either
remain constant or subjected to variation in a particular way.
This variation of RI of core and cladding materials with respect

to the radial distance from the axis of the fibre is called refractive
index profile. This can be represented as follows,
Step index Single mode fibre (SMF):
A single mode fibre has a core material of uniform refractive index

(RI) value. Similarly cladding also has a material of uniform RI but of
lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of RI from
cladding to core. Thus its RI profile takes the shape of a step. The
diameter value of the core is about 8 to 10 m and external diameter of
cladding is 60 to 70 m. Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a
single mode as shown in Figure. Hence it is called single mode fibre.
Single mode fibres are most extensively used ones and they constitute
80% of all the fibres that are manufactured in the world today. They
need lasers as the source of light. Though less expensive, it is very
difficult to splice them (joining of optical fibres). Since single mode is
propagating through the fibre, intermodal dispersion is zero in this
fibre. They find particular application in submarine cable system.
Step index multimode fibre (MMF):
The geometry of a step-index multimode fibre is as shown in below

figure. It‟s construction is similar to that of a single mode fibre but for
the difference that, its core has a much larger diameter by the virtue of
which it will be able to support propagation of large number of modes
as shown in the figure. Its refractive index profile is also similar to that
of a single mode fibre but with larger plane regions for the core.
The step-index multimode fibre can accept either diode laser or

LED (light emitting diode) as source of light. It is the least expensive
of all. Since multi modes are propagating through this fibre with
different paths, intermodal dispersion is maximum in this fibre. Its
typical application is in data links which has lower bandwidth
requirements.
Graded index multimode fibre (GRIN)
The construction of Graded index fibre is similar to that of multimode

step-index fibre, except for the refractive index of the core. The
refractive index of the core varies across the core diameter (radially
graded) as shown in figure, while the refractive index of the cladding
is fixed. In this fibre, a number of modes can be transmitted. The rays
move in a sinusoidal path through the core. Light travels at lower
speed in the high-index region. Since the fastest components of the ray
take the longer path and the slower components take the shorter path in
the core, the travel time of the different modes will be almost same.
This reduces the effect of intermodal dispersion and hence losses are
minimum with little pulse broadening. These fibres are most suitable
for large bandwidth, medium distance and medium bit rate
communication systems. For such cables, either a laser or LED source
can be used to couple the signal into the core.
Differences between single and multimode fibres:

Single mode fibre Multi modefibre
 Only one mode can be  Allows large number of modes
propagated for light to pass through it
 Smaller core diameter  Larger core diameter
 Low dispersion of signal  More dispersion of signal
 Can carry information to longer  Information can be carried to
distances shorter distances only
 Launching of light and  Launching of light and
connecting two fibres are connecting of fibres is easy
difficult
Differences between step and graded index fibres:

Step index fibre Graded index fibre
 Refractive index of core is  Refractive index of core is not
uniform uniform
 Propagation of light is in the  Propagation of light is in the form
form of meridional rays of skew rays
 Step index fibres has lower  Graded index fibres has higher
bandwidth bandwidth
 Distortion is more (in  Distortion is less
multimode)  No. of modes for propagation
 No. of modes for propagation Ngrad = V2/4
Nstep = V2/2
Attenuation in optical fibres:

The total energy loss suffered by the signal due to the transmission of
light in the fibre is called attenuation.
The important factors contributing to the attenuation in optical fibre

are i) Absorption loss ii) Scattering loss iii) Bending loss
iv) Intermodal dispersion loss and v) coupling loss.
Attenuation is measured in terms of attenuation co-efficient and it is

the loss per unit length. It is denoted by symbol . Mathematically
attenuation of the fibre is given by,
P 
10  log10  out 
P
α  In  dB/km
L
Where Pout and Pin are the power output and power input respectively,
and L is the length of the fibre in km.
Therefore, Loss in the optical fibre = α x L
1. Absorption loss:
There are two types of absorption;

(a) Absorption by impurities.
(b) Intrinsic absorption.
In the case absorption by impurities, the type of impurities is

generally transition metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and
copper. During signal propagation when photons interact with these
impurities, the electron absorbs the photons and get excited to higher
energy level. Later these electrons give up their absorbed energy
either as heat energy or light energy. The re-emission of light energy
is of no use since it will usually be in a different wavelength or at
least in different phase with respect to the signal. The other impurity
which would cause significant absorption loss is the OH- (Hydroxyl)
ion, which enters into the fibre constitution at the time of fibre
fabrication. In Intrinsic absorption it is the absorption by the fibre
itself, or it is the absorption that takes place in the material assuming
that there are no impurities and the material is free of all in
homogeneities and this sets the lowest limit on absorption for a given
material.
2. Scattering loss:
The signal power loss occurs due to the scattering of light
energy due to the obstructions caused by imperfections and defects,
which are of molecular size, present in the body of the fibre itself. The
scattering of light by the obstructions is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the wavelength of the light transmitted through the
fibre. Such a scattering is called Rayleigh scattering. The loss due to

the scattering can be minimized by using the optical source of large
wavelength.
3. Bending losses (radiation losses):

There are two types of bending losses in optical fibre a) macroscopic
and b) microscopic bending loss.
a) Macroscopic bends:
Macroscopic bends occurs due the wrapping of fibre on a spool or
turning it around a corner. The loss will be negligible for small bends
but increases rapidly until the bending reaches a certain critical radius
of curvature. If the fibre is too bent, then there is possibility of
escaping the light ray through cladding material without undergoing
any total internal reflection at core-cladding interface.
b) Microscopic bends:
This type of bends occurs due to repetitive small-scale fluctuations in
the linearity of the fibre axis. Due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing of the fibre or by non-uniform lateral pressures created
during the cabling of the fibre. The microscopic bends cause irregular
reflections at core-cladding interface and some of them reflects back or
leak through the fibre. This loss could be minimized by extruding a
compressible sheath over the fibre which can withstand the stresses
while keeping the fibre relatively straight.
2 Coupling losses:
Coupling losses occur when the ends of the fibres are connected. At
the junction of coupling, air film may exist or joint may be inclined or
may be mismatched and they can be minimized by following the
technique called splicing.
Applications of Optical Fibres:

Point-to-point Communication
The use of optical fibres in the field of communication has
revolutionized the modern world. An optical fibre acts as the channel
of communication (like electrical wires), but transmits the information
in the form of optical waves. A simple p to p communication system
using optical fibres is illustrated in the figure.
The main components of p to p communication is

1) An optical transmitter, i.e., the light source to transmit the
signals/pulses
2) The communication medium (channel) i.e., optical fibre
3) An optical receiver, usually a photo cell or a light detector, to
convert light pulses back into electrical signal.
The information in the form of voice or video to be transmitted

will be in an analog electric signal format. This analog signal at first
converted into digital electric (binary) signals in the form of electrical
pulses using a Coder or converter and fed into the optical transmitter
which converts digital electric signals into optic signals. An optical

fibre can receive and transmit signals only in the form of optical
pulses. The function of the light source is to work as an efficient
transducer to convert the input electrical signals into suitable light
pulses. An LED or laser is used as the light source for this purpose.
Laser is more efficient because of its monochromatic and coherent
nature. Hence semiconductor lasers are used for their compact size and
higher efficiency.
The electrical signal is fed to the semiconductor laser system,

and gets modulated to generate an equivalent digital sequence of
pulses, which turn the laser on and off. This forms a series of optical
pulses representing the input information, which is coupled into the
optical fibre cable at an incidence angle less than that of acceptance
cone half angle of the fibre.
Next the light pulses inside the fibre undergo total internal
reflection and reach the other end of the cable. Good quality optical
fibres with less attenuation to be chosen to receive good signals at the
receiver end.
The final step in the communication system is to receive the

optical signals at the end of the optical fibre and convert them into
equivalent electrical signals. Semiconductor photodiodes are used as
optical receivers. A typical optical receiver is made of a reverse biased
junction, in which the received light pulses create electron-hole charge
carriers. These carriers, in turn, create an electric field and induce a
photocurrent in the external circuit in the form of electrical digital
pulses. These digital pulses are amplified and re-gain their original
form using suitable amplifier and shaper. The electrical digital pulses
are further decoded into an analogues electrical signal and converted
into the usable form like audio or video etc.,
As the signal propagates through the fibre it is subjected to two

types of degradation. Namely attenuation and delay distortion.
Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of the signal because power
loss due to absorption and scattering of photons. Delay distortion is

the reduction in the quality of the signal because of the spreading of
pulses with time. These effects cause continuous degradation of the
signal as the light propagates and may reach a limiting stage beyond
which it may not be retrieve information from the light signal. At this
stage repeater is needed in the transmission path.
Reciever Amplifier Transmitter
An optical repeater consists of a receiver and a transmitter arranged

adjacently. The receiver section converts the optical signal into
corresponding electrical signal. Further the electrical signal is
amplified and recast in the original form and it is sent into an optical
transmitter section where the electrical signal is again converted back
to optical signal and then fed into an optical fibre.
Finally at the receiving end the optical signal from the fibre is
fed into a photo detector where the signal is converted to pulses of
electric current which is then fed to decoder which converts the
sequence of binary data stream into an analog signal which will be the
same information which was there at the transmitting end.
Optical fiber sensors and phase modulators:
Optical fibers can be used as sensors. They are transducers,

which generally consists of a light source coupled with an optical
fibre and a light detector held at the receiver end. Optical fibre may be
single mode or multimode. Fibre optic sensor can be used to measure
physical parameters like pressure, temperature, strain, the acoustic
field, magnetic field etc., by knowing variation in the intensity or
phase modulation of an optic wave propagating through the fibre. The
advantages of these sensors are that they are lighter, occupy lesser
volume and are cheaper.
1. Temperature Sensors
There are two techniques to measure temperature using optic fibre.
One is intensity modulated and the other one is the phase modulated
sensor.
a) Intensity modulated sensor.

Principle: In this technique, temperature is measured by the
modulation of intensity of the reflected light from a target. Silicon
layer is used as target in this technique. The operation of the
temperature sensor is based on the 1 micrometer wavelength light-
absorption characteristics of silicon as a function of temperature. The
amount of light absorbed by the silicon layer (target) varies
depending on the temperature. The change in the intensity of the
reflected light (from target) is proportional to the change in
temperature detected by photo detector.
Construction: Schematic diagram of intensity modulated fibre optic

temperature sensor is shown. The fibre is coated at one end with a
thin silicon layer. The silicon layer is in turn coated with a reflective
coating at the back. The silicon layer acts as the sensing element.
Working: The light from a laser source is launched into the fibre
from one of the ends of one of its branches. It passes first through the
fibre and then through the silicon layer. The mirror coating at the
other end of the silicon layer reflects the light back which again
travels through the silicon layer. The reflected light emerges out
through another branch of multimode fibre and is collected by a
photo detector. The amount of light by the silicon layer varies with
temperature and the variation modulates the intensity of the light
received at the detector. Temperature measurements can be made
with a sensitivity of 0.0010 C.
b) Phase modulated temperature sensor.

Principle: This sensor is based on phase variation resulting due to
the variation of refractive index of the optical fibre under the
influence of temperature.
Construction: The construction of phase modulated temperature

sensor is pictorially shown below. It can be used as pressure sensors
also.
Reference Fibre
The above diagram represents a single mode fibre sensor and the
arrangement is known as the Mach-Zehnder arrangement. Laser light
from a laser source is made to fall on a beam splitter which divides
the light into two parts and sends light through the sensing fibre and
the reference fibre. Light passing out of the two fibre elements is fed
to a detector, which measures the difference in phase of the two light
waves. Accurate measurements of the temperature may be obtained
from these patterns.
Working: Light from the source is divided into two parts by the
beam splitter. One part is allowed through sensors fibre, and the other
part is passed through the reference fibre. Light rays entering the
fibres are coherent and have the same phase. Prior to heating or
applying pressure, the optical path length of the two fibre elements is
same and hence both the outputs will be in phase. When the sensor
fibre is subjected to heating or under pressure, the temperature or
pressure causes a change in the refractive index of the optical fibre.
Therefore, the light coming out of the two fibres at the other end will
have phase difference due to difference in optical path difference

caused by the heating or applying pressure. When the rays are
superposed, they interfere and interference pattern will be observed.
As temperature or pressure increases, the phase difference between
the two outputs increases and is observed as a displacement of the
fringe pattern. By determining the fringe displacement, we can
determine the magnitude of temperature or pressure.
Further reading: Displacement sensor, Force sensors and Liquid

Level Detector.
Advantages over conventional communication:

1) Large Bandwidth: Optical fibres have a wider bandwidth (when
compared to conventional copper cables). This helps in
transmitting voice, video and data on a single line and at very fast
rates (1014 bps as compared to about 104 bps in ordinary
communication line)
2) Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): EMI and disturbance in the
transmission is a very common phenomenon in ordinary copper
cables. However, the optical fibre cables are free from EMI, since
Electromagnetic radiation has no effect on the optical wave.
Hence, there is no need to provide specially shielded conditions
for the optical fibre.
3) Low attenuation: Compared to metallic cables, optical fibres have
a low attenuation level (as they are relatively independent of
frequency). The loss in optical fibres is very low, of the order of
0.1 to 0.5 dB/km of transmission.
4) Electrical Hazards: Since, optical fibres carry only the light
signals, there are no problems of short-circuiting and shock
hazards.
5) Security: Unlike electrical transmission lines, there is no signal
radiation around the optical fibre, hence the transmission is secure.
The tapping of the light waves, if done, leads to a loss of signal
and can be easily detected.
6) Optical fibre cables are small in size, light weight and have a long
life.
Disadvantages:
 Fibre loss is more at the joints if the joints do not match (the
joining of the two ends of the separate fibres are called splicing)
 Attenuation loss is large as the length of the fibre increases.
 Repeaters are required at regular interval of lengths to amplify the
weak signal in long distance communication.
 Sever bends will increase the loss of the fibre. Hence, the fibre
should be laid straight as far as possible and avoid severe bends.
Note:
 Point to Point haul communication system is employed in
telephone trunk lines. This system of communication covers the
distances 10 km and more. Long-haul communication has been
employed in telephone connection in the large cities of New York
and Los Angeles. The use of single mode optical fibres has reduced
the cost of installation of telephone lines and maintenance, and
increased the data rate.
 Local Area Network (LAN) Communication system uses optical
fibres to link the computer-oriented communication within a range
of 1 or 2 km.
 Community Antenna Television (CATV) makes use of optical
fibres for distribution of signal to the local users by receiving a
multichannel signal from a common antenna.
Sl.No Laser : short answer questions CO‟s

1. Define the terms: 1
a. Spontaneous emission.
b. Stimulated Emission.
c. Active medium.
d. Population inversion.
2. Explain use of laser range finder in defence. 2
3. Give any two differences between the laser light and 2
ordinary light.
Sl.No Laser : Long answer questions

4. Explain the requisites of a laser system. 2
5. With energy level diagram of semiconductor diode 3
laser, explain the working of diode laser.
6. Discuss the conditions required for laser action. 2
7. Write a note on measurement of pollutants in 2
atmosphere using laser.
8. Explain the three processes which take place when 2
radiation interacts with matter.
9. Explain the terms stimulated emission and population 2&3
inversion. Obtain an expression for energy density
of photons in terms of Einstein‟s co-efficient.
10. Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.
11. Explain the working principle of a semiconductor laser
using band diagram and discuss its advantages.
SI. Optical Fiber – short answer questions CO

No
1 Give reason 1
 Optical fibres are immune to electromagnetic
interference.
 Intermodal dispersion is minimum in GRIN
compared to MMSI fibre.
 Repeaters are used in the path of optical fibres in
point to point communication system.
2 Explain the terms 1

a. Acceptance angle
b. Cone of acceptance
c. Numerical aperture
d. Modes of propagation
e. Attenuation.
3 Explain attenuation losses in optical fibres. 2
4 Write any two advantages of optical fibre 2
communication over normal communication.
5 Explain propagation mechanism in optical fibres. 2
6 Distinguish between step and graded index fibres. 2
S. No Optical Fiber : Long answer questions CO’s
1 With the help of ray diagram, explain the working 1&2
principle of optical fibres.
2 Derive an expression for acceptance angle of an optical 1&2
fibre in terms of refractive indices.
3 What is numerical aperture? Obtain an expression for
numerical aperture in terms of refractive indices of core
and cladding and arrive at the condition for
propagation.
4 Explain the terms 1) modes of propagation and 2) types 1
of optical fibres
5 What is attenuation? Explain the different losses in 2
optical fibres.
6 With the help of a block diagram explain point to point 2
communication.
7 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an optical 1
communication system.
Sample Problems:
1. Calculate the ratio of
i) Einstein Coefficients, ii) Stimulated to spontaneous emissions,
for a system at 300K in which radiations of wavelength 1.39µm
are emitted.
A21 8h 3 8h
  3  6.2 x1015
B21 c 3

A 15
Since B12 = B21 we can write 21  6.2 x10
B21
We have
Rate of stimulated emission/Rate of spontaneous emission
B NU B
= 12 2   21 U
A21 N 2 A21
   
8 h 3  1  A21  1 
U     B  h 
But c3  h  21  
 e 1
kT  e 1
kT
Therefore rate of stimulated emission/rate of spontaneous emission

B21 A21  1   1 
= x =   =10-15
A21 B21  hkT  h
 kT 
 e 1  e 1
2. Calculate on the basis of Einstein‟s theory, the number of photons

emitted per second by a He-Ne laser source emitting light of
wavelength 6328Ao with an optical power of 10mW.
E nE nhc
P  
t t  t
n P
Hence 
t hc
= 3.182x1016
3. Calculate the numerical aperture, relative RI difference, V- number

and number of modes in an optical fibre of core diameter 50µm.
Core and cladding Refractive indices 1.41 and 1.40 at λ= 820nm.
n1  n2
(NA)2 = (n12- n22)  NA = 0.1676 
n1
 0.007
d ( n1  n2 )
2 2
V

=32
Hence no of modes= V2/2 = 512.
4. An optical fibre has clad of RI 1.50 and NA 0.39. Find the RI of

core and the acceptance angle.
(NA)2 = n12- n22 θo= sin-1 0.39
2 2 2
(0.39) = n1 - (1.50) = 22.96o
n1 = 1.54
5. The NA of an OF is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine the RI

of its core. Given The RI of cladding as 1.59. Also find the
acceptance angle when it is in a medium of RI 1.33.
(NA)2 = (n12 – n22) θo = 8.64o
n1= 1.60
6. A glass clad fibre is made with core glass of RI 1.5 and cladding is
doped to give a fractional index difference of 0.0005. Determine
a) The cladding index.
b) The critical internal reflection angle.
c) The external critical acceptance angle
d) The numerical aperture
7. The attenuation of light in an optical fibre is estimated at

2.2dB/km. What fractional initial intensity remains after 2km &
6km?L = 2 : Pout/Pin = 36.3% | L=6 : Pout/Pin = 4.79%
8. Find the attenuation in an optical fibre of length 500m, when a

light signal of power 100mW emerges out of the fibre with a
power 90mW.
pout
 10 log10 ( )
α= Pin = 0.915dB/km
L
9. A semiconductor laser emits green light of 551 nm. Find out the
value of its band gap. Eg = hc/ = 2.25 eV
10. The probability of spontaneous transition is given as 0.08 in a

laser action which results with the radiation of 632.8 nm
wavelength. Calculate the probability of stimulated emission.
(Ans. 1.22x1013)
11. Calculate the critical angle if the refractive indices of optical
fibre are 1.5 & 1.48. (Ans. θc = 80.63o)
12. The optical fibre power after propagating through a fibre of 1.5
km length is reduced to 25% of its original value. Compute the
fibre loss in dB/km. (Ans. 4 dB/km)
13. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of which one
corresponds to metastable state is 1.059x10-30. Find the
wavelength of light emitted at 330K.
N2
 1.059x1030 , T=330K, λ=?
N1
Constants h=6.63x10-34Js, K= 1.38x10-23J/K,
8
C= 3x10 m/s
Using the relation for Boltzmann‟s factor
N2  h  hc
e e
N1 kT kT
λ = 632.8nm.

Unit 3 Lasers & Optical Fibers - 22PHY22C

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Unit 3 Lasers & Optical Fibers - 22PHY22C

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UNIT 3 LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBER

QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Optical Fibers: Propagation mechanism, Numerical aperture derivation,

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Characteristics of Laser beam

 Monochromacity: The laser beam is characterized by a high

laser contains only one frequency. The spectral bandwidth is

 Coherence: The degree of coherence of a laser beam is very high

 High Intensity: The laser beam is highly intense. Since wave

 Focus ability: Since laser is highly monochromatic, it can be

Basic principles: Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Production of laser light is a consequence of interaction of

A material medium is composed of identical atoms or

when it receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy

Consider a two energy level system with energies E1 and E2 of

 Induced Absorption of radiation

An atom in the lower energy state E1absorbs the incident photon of

For an atom A, stimulated absorption transition can be expressed as

The number of absorption transitions per second per unit volume

(ii) Energy density of the incident radiation (Uν)

Where B12 is proportionality constant which gives the probability of

Spontaneous transition can be expressed as

The number of spontaneous transitions per second, per unit volume

Therefore, the rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2

Where A21 is proportionality constant which gives the

The process has no control from outside. The instant of

spontaneously by the assembly of atoms in the medium. Therefore the

Emission of photons by an atomic system with an external

Stimulated emission transition can be expressed as

Rate of stimulated emission= B21UνN2

Where B21 is proportionality constant which gives the

The process of stimulated emission has the following properties.

I. The emitted photon is identical to the incident photon in all

Some basic definitions

the number density of atoms in the energy state E2 and N1 is the

If N2> N1, it is non-equilibrium condition and it is called population

Expression for energy density of incident radiation in terms of

Consider an atomic system interacting with radiation field of

N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the energy state E1 and E2

This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the

 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

(Think: Even though the probability of induced absorption is equal to

Conditions for light amplification:-

Rate of Stimulated Emission B21N2U B21U

Since, B21/A21 = C3 /8πhν3 = constant,

This suggests that in order to enhance the number of stimulated

Rate of Stimulated Emission B21N 2U B21N 2

Requisites of a laser system:

Important pumping mechanisms are

a) Optical pumping: It employs a suitable light source for excitation

b) Electric discharge: In this process an electric field causes

c) Inelastic atom-atom collision :In this method a combination of

d) Direct conversion : In this process electrical energy is directly

Population Inversion and Meta stable state:

In order to increase stimulated emission it is essential that

Principle of pumping scheme:

Consider three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a quantum system

 An optical resonator generally consists of two plane mirrors, with

 The optical resonant cavity provides the selectivity of photon states