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Department of BCA,VICT

LAB MANUAL

Programme (UG/PG) : UG

Year : ThirdYear

Semester :V

Course Code :BCA 505

Course Title : Database System
Laboratory

Prepared By
Mr. Aditya Paliwal
Assistant Professor
Department of BCA

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 ABORATORY MANUAL CONTENTS

This manual is intended for the Third year BCA students in

the subject of Database System. This manual typically
contains practical/Lab Sessions related Database System
covering various aspects related the subject to enhanced
understanding.

Students are advised to thoroughly go through this manual

rather than only topics mentioned in the syllabus as practical
aspects are the key to understanding and conceptual
visualization of theoretical aspects covered in the books.

Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions

Mr.Aditya Paliwal

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Course Code: BCA-505

Course Title: Database Management System Laboratory

S.No Name of the Experiment Page No

Implementation of DDL commands of SQL with suitable examples

1.  Createtable
 Altertable
 DropTable
Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples

2.  Insert
 Update
 Delete
Implementation of different types of function with suitable examples
 Numberfunction
3.  AggregateFunction
 CharacterFunction
 ConversionFunction
 DateFunction
Implementation of different types of operators in SQL
 ArithmeticOperators
4.  LogicalOperators
 ComparisonOperator
 SpecialOperator
 SetOperation
Implementation of different types of Joins

5.  InnerJoin
 OuterJoin
 Natural Join etc..
Study and Implementation of

6.  Group By & havingclause

 Order byclause
 Indexing

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 Study & Implementationof

7.  Sub queries
 Views

8 Study & Implementation of different types of constraints.

Study & Implementation of Database Backup & Recovery commands.

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Study & Implementation of Rollback, Commit, Savepoint.

 Creating Database /Table Space

10  Managing Users: Create User, Delete User

 Managing roles:-Grant, Revoke.

11 Study & Implementation of PL/SQL.

12 Study & Implementation of SQL Triggers.

DOs and DON’Ts in Laboratory:

1. Make entry in the Log Book as soon as you enter theLaboratory.

2. All the students should sit according to their roll numbers starting from their
left toright.
3. All the students are supposed to enter the terminal number in the logbook.
4. Do not change the terminal on which you areworking.
5. All the students are expected to get at least the algorithm of the
program/concept to beimplemented.
6. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/LabInstructor.
7. Do not disturb machine Hardware / SoftwareSetup.

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Instruction for Laboratory Teachers:
1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed
should be done during the next lab session along with signing the
index.
2. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of
marking and evaluation patterns that will benefit the sincerestudents.
3. Continuous assessment in the prescribed format must befollowed.

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Experiment No: 1

Title:Implementation of DDL commands of SQL with suitable examples

 Createtable
 Altertable
 DropTable

Objective:
To understand the different issues involved in the design and implementation of a
database system
To understand and use data definition language to write query for a database
Theory:
Oracle has many tools such as SQL * PLUS, Oracle Forms, Oracle Report Writer, Oracle
Graphics etc.

 SQL * PLUS: The SQL * PLUS tool is made up of two distinct parts. Theseare
 Interactive SQL: Interactive SQL is designed for create, access and
manipulate data structures like tables andindexes.
 PL/SQL: PL/SQL can be used to developed programs for different
applications.

 Oracle Forms: This tool allows you to create a data entry screen along with the
suitable menu objects. Thus it is the oracle forms tool that handles data gathering and
data validation in a commercialapplication.

 Report Writer: Report writer allows programmers to prepare innovative reports

using data from the oracle structures like tables, views etc. It is the report writer tool
that handles the reporting section of commercialapplication.

 Oracle Graphics: Some of the data can be better represented in the form of pictures.
The oracle graphics tool allows programmers to prepare graphs using data from oracle
structures like tables, viewsetc.

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SQL (Structured Query Language):
Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for
managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally based
upon Relational Algebra. Its scope includes data query and update, schema creation and
modification, and data accesscontrol.
SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codd's relational model and became the
most widely used language for relational databases.
 IBM developed SQL in mid of1970’s.
 Oracle incorporated in the year1979.
 SQL used by IBM/DB2 and DS DatabaseSystems.
 SQL adopted as standard language for RDBS by ASNI in1989.

DATA TYPES:

1. CHAR (Size): This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length.
The size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The
maximum number of character is 255characters.

2. VARCHAR (Size) / VARCHAR2 (Size): This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum character can hold is 2000 character.

3. NUMBER (P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or floating
point). Number of virtually any magnitude may be stored up to 38 digits of precision.

Number as large as 9.99 * 10 124. The precision (p) determines the number of places to
the right of the decimal. If scale is omitted then the default is zero. If precision is
omitted, values are stored with their original precision up to the maximum of 38digits.

4. DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. The standard format is DD-
MM-YY as in 17-SEP-2009. To enter dates other than the standard format, use the
appropriatefunctions.Datetimestoresdateinthe24-Hoursformat.Bydefaultthetime

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 in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified. The default date for a date
field is the first day the current month.

5. LONG: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG
values cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot
beapplied.

6. RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or
image. Data loaded into columns of these data types are stored without any further
conversion. RAW data type can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. LONG RAW data
type can contain up to2GB.

SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including:

 Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and

queries.

 Expressions, which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of

columnsandrows ofdata.

 Predicates which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL three-valuedlogic

(3VL) Boolean truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and

queries, or to change program flow.

 Queries which retrieve data based on specificcriteria.

 Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may

control transactions, program flow, connections, sessions, ordiagnostics.

 SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement terminator. Though not

required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQLgrammar.

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  Insignificant white spaceis generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it

easier to format SQL code forreadability.

There are five types of SQL statements. They are:

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE(DDL)

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE(DML)

3. DATA RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE(DRL)

4. TRANSATIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE(TCL)

5. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE(DCL)

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL):The Data Definition Language (DDL) is

used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be
used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project.
Let's take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDLcommands:
1. CREATE 2.ALTER 3. DROP 4. RENAME

1. CREATE:
(a)CREATE TABLE: This is used to create a new relation (table)

Syntax: CREATE TABLE <relation_name/table_name >

(field_1 data_type(size),field_2 data_type(size), .. . );

Example:
SQL> CREATE TABLE Student (sno NUMBER (3), sname CHAR (10), class CHAR (5));

2. ALTER:
(a) ALTER TABLE ...ADD...: This is used to add some extra fields into existing
relation.

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Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name ADD (new field_1 data_type(size), new field_2
data_type(size),..);
Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE std ADD (Address CHAR(10));

(b) ALTER TABLE...MODIFY...: This is used to change the width as well as data
type of fields of existingrelations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name MODIFY (field_1 newdata_type(Size), field_2

newdata_type(Size),. . .field_newdata_type(Size));

Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE student MODIFY(sname VARCHAR(10),class

VARCHAR(5));

c) ALTERTABLE..DROP......This is used to remove any field of existingrelations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name DROP COLUMN (field_name);

Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE student DROP column (sname);

d)ALTER TABLE..RENAME...: This is used to change thenameof fields in

existingrelations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name RENAME COLUMN (OLD field_name) to

(NEW field_name);

Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE student RENAME COLUMN sname to stu_name;

3. DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of a relation. It permanently deletes
the records in thetable.
Syntax: DROP TABLE relation_name;
Example: SQL>DROP TABLE std;

4. RENAME: It is used to modify the name of the existing database object.

Syntax: RENAME TABLE old_relation_name TO new_relation_name;
Example: SQL>RENAME TABLE std TOstd1;

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LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1. Create a table EMPLOYEE with followingschema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id , Salary)

2. Add a new column; HIREDATE to the existingrelation.
3. Change the datatype of JOB_ID from char tovarchar.
4. Change the name of column/field Emp_no toE_no.
5. Modify the column width of the job field of emptable

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 Experiment No:2

Title : Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples

 Inserttable
 Updatetable
 DeleteTable

Objective :
To understand the different issues involved in the design and implementation of a
database system
To understand and use data manipulation language to query, update, and manage a
database

Theory :

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML):The Data Manipulation Language

(DML) is used to retrieve, insert and modify database information. These commands will be
used by all database users during the routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief look
at the basic DML commands:
1. INSERT 2.UPDATE 3. DELETE
1. INSERTINTO: This is used to add records into a relation. These are three type of
INSERT INTO queries which areas
a) Inserting a single record
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/table name> (field_1,field_2……field_n)VALUES
(data_1,data_2,.......data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student(sno,sname,class,address)VALUES
(1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);
b) Inserting a singlerecord
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/tablename>VALUES(data_1,data_2,..........data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student VALUES (1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);

c) Inserting all records from anotherrelation

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Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_name_1 SELECT Field_1,field_2,field_n
FROM relation_name_2 WHERE field_x=data;
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO std SELECT sno,sname FROM student
WHERE name = ‘Ramu‘;

d) Inserting multiplerecords
Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_namefield_1,field_2,......field_n) VALUES
(&data_1,&data_2,........&data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student (sno, sname, class,address)
VALUES (&sno,’&sname’,’&class’,’&address’);
Enter value for sno: 101
Enter value for name: Ravi
Enter value for class: M.Tech
Enter value for name:Palakol

2. UPDATE-SET-WHERE: This is used to update the content of a record in arelation.

Syntax: SQL>UPDATE relation name SET Field_name1=data,field_name2=data,
WHERE field_name=data;
Example: SQL>UPDATE student SET sname = ‘kumar’ WHERE sno=1;

3. DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of a relation but it will retain the
structure of thatrelation.
a) DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records ofrelation.
Syntax: SQL>DELETE FROMrelation_name;
Example: SQL>DELETE FROMstd;
b) DELETE -FROM-WHERE: This is used to delete a selected record from arelation.
Syntax: SQL>DELETE FROM relation_name WHEREcondition;
Example: SQL>DELETE FROM student WHERE sno =2;

5. TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will not be
removed.

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Difference between Truncate & Delete:-
 By using truncate command data will be removed permanently & will not get back
where as by using delete command data will be removed temporally & get back by
using roll backcommand.
 By using delete command data will be removed based on the condition where as by
using truncate command there is nocondition.
 Truncate is a DDL command & delete is a DMLcommand.

Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <Tablename>

Example TRUNCATE TABLE student;

 To Retrieve data from one or moretables.

1. SELECT FROM: To display all fields for all records.

Syntax : SELECT * FROM relation_name;
Example : SQL> select * fromdept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- ----------- ----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEWYORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

2. SELECT FROM: To display a set of fields for all records of relation.

Syntax: SELECT a set of fields FROM relation_name;
Example: SQL> select deptno, dname fromdept;
DEPTNO DNAME
10 ACCOUNTING
20 RESEARCH
30 SALES
3. SELECT - FROM -WHERE: This query is used to display a selected set of fields for a
selected set of records of arelation.

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Syntax: SELECT a set of fields FROM relation_name WHEREcondition;
Example: SQL> select * FROM dept WHERE deptno<=20;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ----------- ------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEWYORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a table EMPLOYEE with following schema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id , Salary)

Write SQL queries for following question:

1. Insert aleast 5 rows in thetable.
2. Display all the information of EMPtable.
3. Display the record of each employee who works in departmentD10.
4. Update the city of Emp_no-12 with current city asNagpur.
5. Display the details of Employee who works in departmentMECH.
6. Delete the email_id of employeeJames.
7. Display the complete record of employees working in SALESDepartment.

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 Experiment No: 3

Title: Implementation of different types of functions with suitable examples.

 NumberFunction
 AggregateFunction
 CharacterFunction
 ConversionFunction
 DateFunction

Objective:
NUMBER FUNCTION:

Abs(n) :Select abs(-15) from dual;

Exp(n): Select exp(4) from dual;
Power(m,n): Select power(4,2) from dual;
Mod(m,n): Select mod(10,3) fromdual;
Round(m,n): Select round(100.256,2) from
dual; Trunc(m,n): ;Select trunc(100.256,2) from
dual; Sqrt(m,n);Select sqrt(16) from dual;

Develop aggregate plan strategies to assist with summarization of several data entries.

Aggregative operators: In addition to simply retrieving data, we often want to perform some
computation or summarization. SQL allows the use of arithmetic expressions. We now
consider a powerful class of constructs for computing aggregate values such as MIN and
SUM.

1. Count: COUNT following by a column name returns the count of tuple in that column. If
DISTINCT keyword is used then it will return only the count of unique tuple in the column.
Otherwise, it will return count of all the tuples (including duplicates) count (*) indicates all
the tuples of thecolumn.
Syntax: COUNT (Column name)
Example: SELECT COUNT (Sal) FROM emp;

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 2. SUM: SUM followed by a column name returns the sum of all the values in thatcolumn.
Syntax: SUM (Column name)
Example: SELECT SUM (Sal) From emp;

3. AVG: AVG followed by a column name returns the average value of that columnvalues.
Syntax: AVG (n1, n2...)
Example: Select AVG (10, 15, 30) FROM DUAL;

4. MAX: MAX followed by a column name returns the maximum value of thatcolumn.
Syntax: MAX (Column name)
Example: SELECT MAX (Sal) FROM emp;
SQL> select deptno, max(sal) from emp group bydeptno;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)

10 5000
20 3000
30 2850

SQL> select deptno, max (sal) from emp group by deptno havingmax(sal)<3000;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)

30 2850

5. MIN: MIN followed by column name returns the minimum value of thatcolumn.
Syntax: MIN (Column name)
Example: SELECT MIN (Sal) FROM emp;

SQL>select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno having min(sal)>1000;

DEPTNO MIN (SAL)

10 1300

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CHARACTER FUNCTION:

initcap(char) : select initcap(“hello”) from dual;

lower (char): select lower (‘HELLO’) from dual;

upper (char) :select upper (‘hello’) from dual;

ltrim (char,[set]): select ltrim (‘cseit’, ‘cse’) from dual;

rtrim (char,[set]): select rtrim (‘cseit’, ‘it’) from dual;

replace (char,search ): select replace(‘jack and jue’,‘j’,‘bl’) from dual;

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS:
To_char: TO_CHAR (number) converts n to a value of VARCHAR2 data type, using the
optional number format fmt. The value n can be of type NUMBER, BINARY_FLOAT, or
BINARY_DOUBLE.

SQL>select to_char(65,'RN')from dual;

LXV

To_number : TO_NUMBER converts expr to a value of NUMBER data type.

SQL>Select to_number ('1234.64') from Dual;
1234.64

To_date:TO_DATE converts char of CHAR, VARCHAR2, NCHAR, or

NVARCHAR2 data type to a value of DATE data type.
SQL>SELECT TO_DATE('January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.')FROM DUAL;

TO_DATE

15-JAN-89

STRING FUNCTIONS:
Concat: CONCAT returns char1 concatenated with char2. Both char1 and char2 can be any
of the datatypes

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SQL>SELECT CONCAT(‘ORACLE’,’CORPORATION’)FROM DUAL;
ORACLECORPORATION

Lpad: LPAD returns expr1, left-padded to length n characters with the sequence of
characters in expr2.
SQL>SELECT LPAD(‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
*********ORACLE
Rpad: RPAD returns expr1, right-padded to length n characters with expr2, replicated as
many times as necessary.
SQL>SELECT RPAD (‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
ORACLE*********

Ltrim: Returns a character expression after removing leading blanks.

SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
MITHSS

Rtrim: Returns a character string after truncating all trailing blanks

SQL>SELECT RTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
SSMITH

Lower: Returns a character expression after converting uppercase character data to

lowercase.
SQL>SELECT LOWER(‘DBMS’)FROM DUAL;
dbms

Upper: Returns a character expression with lowercase character data converted to uppercase
SQL>SELECT UPPER(‘dbms’)FROM DUAL;
DBMS
Length: Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of bytes, of the given
string expression, excluding trailing blanks.
SQL>SELECT LENGTH(‘DATABASE’)FROM DUAL;
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Substr: Returns part of a character, binary, text, or image expression.
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFGHIJ’3,4)FROM DUAL;
CDEF

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Instr: The INSTR functions search string for substring. The function returns an integer
indicating the position of the character in string that is the first character of this occurrence.
SQL>SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR',3,2)FROM DUAL;
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DATE FUNCTIONS:
Sysdate:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE FROM
DUAL; 29-DEC-08
next_day:
SQL>SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’WED’)FROM DUAL;
05-JAN-09
add_months:
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2)FROM DUAL;
28-FEB-09
last_day:
SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)FROM DUAL;
31-DEC-08
months_between:
SQL>SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)FROM EMP;
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Least:
SQL>SELECT LEAST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Greatest:
SQL>SELECT GREATEST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Trunc:
SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08
Round:
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SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08
to_char:
SQL> select to_char(sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from dual;
24-mar-05.
to_date:
SQL> select to date (sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from dual;
24-mar-o5.

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a table EMPLOYEE with following schema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id, Designation , Salary)

Write SQL statements for the following query.

1. List the E_no, E_name, Salary of all employees working forMANAGER.

2. Display all the details of the employee whose salary is more than the Sal of any MANAGER.

3. List the employees in the ascending order of Designations.

4. List the employees along with their Experience and DailySalary.

5. List the employees who are either ‘CLERK’ or ‘ANALYST’ .

6. List the employees who are working for the Deptno 10or20.

7. List the Enames those are starting with ‘S’.

8. Dislay the name as well as the first five characters of name(s) starting with‘H’

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 Experiment No: 4

Title : Implementation of different types of operators in SQL.

 ArithmeticOperator
 LogicalOperator
 ComparisionOperator
 SpecialOperator
 SetOperator

Objective:
To learn different types of operator.

Theory:

ARIHMETIC OPERATORS:

(+) : Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator .

(-):Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand

operand . (*):Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the

operator . (/):Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand

operand . (^):Power- raise to power of .

(%):Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder.

LOGICAL OPERATORS:

AND : The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

OR: The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE
clause.

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NOT: The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.

COMPARISION OPERATORS:

(=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.

(!=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal
thencondition becomestrue.

(<>):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomestrue.

(>):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true

(<):Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.

(>=):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.

(<=):Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.

SPECIAL OPERATOR:

BETWEEN: The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of
values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.

IS NULL: The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL attribute value.

ALL: The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set

ANY: The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.

LIKE: The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.It allows to use percent sign(%) and underscore ( _ ) to match a given string pattern.

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IN: The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.

EXIST: The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.

SET OPERATORS:

The Set operator combines the result of 2 queries into a single result. The following
are the operators:
 Union
 Unionall
 Intersect
 Minus

Union: Returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries

Union all: Returns all rows selected by either query including the duplicates.
Intersect: Returns rows selected that are common to both queries.
Minus: Returns all distinct rows selected by the first query and are not by the second

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1. Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emp tables avoidingduplicates.
2. Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emptables.
3. Write a query to list the department ID and name of all the departments where no
employee is working.

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 Experiment No: 5

Title : Implementation of different types of Joins

 InnerJoin
 OuterJoin
 Natural Join..etc

Objective :
To implement different types of joins

Theory :
The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common
to each.The join is actually performed by the ‘where’ clause which combines specified rows
oftables.
Syntax:
SELECT column 1, column 2, column 3...
FROM table_name1, table_name2
WHERE table_name1.column name =table_name2.columnname;

Types of Joins :
1. SimpleJoin
2. Self Join
3. OuterJoin

Simple Join:
It is the most common type of join. It retrieves the rows from 2 tables having a
common column and is further classified into
Equi-join :
A join, which is based on equalities, is called equi-join.
Example:
Select * from item, cust where item.id=cust.id;

In the above statement, item-id = cust-id performs the join statement. It retrieves rows
from both the tables provided they both have the same id as specified by the where clause.
Since the where clause uses the comparison operator (=) to perform a join, it is said to be

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equijoin. It combines the matched rows of tables. It can be used as follows:

 To insert records in the targettable.

 To create tables and insert records in thistable.
 To update records in the target table.
 To createviews.

Non Equi-join:
It specifies the relationship between columns belonging to different tables by
making use of relational operators other than’=’.

Example:
Select * from item, cust where item.id<cust.id;
Table Aliases
Table aliases are used to make multiple table queries shorted and more readable. We give
an alias name to the table in the ‘from’ clause and use it instead of the name throughout
thequery.

Selfjoin:
Joining of a table to itself is known as self-join. It joins one row in a table to another.
It can compare each row of the table to itself and also with other rows of the same table.

Example:
select * from emp x ,emp y where x.salary >= (select avg(salary) from x.emp
where x. deptno =y.deptno);

Outer Join:

It extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all the rows returned by simple
join as well as those rows from one table that do not match any row from the table. The
symbol(+) represents outer join.

– Left outerjoin

– Right outer join

– Full outerjoin

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LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:
Consider the following schema:
Sailors (sid, sname, rating, age)
Boats (bid, bname, color)
Reserves (sid, bid,day(date))

1. Find all information of sailors who have reserved boat number101.

2. Find the name of boat reserved byBob.
3. Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red boat, and list in the order ofage.
4. Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least oneboat.
5. Find the ids and names of sailors who have reserved two different boats on the same
day.
6. Find the ids of sailors who have reserved a red boat or a greenboat.
7. Find the name and the age of the youngest sailor.
8. Count the number of different sailornames.
9. Find the average age of sailors for each ratinglevel.
10. Find the average age of sailors for each rating level that has at least twosailors.

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 Experiment No: 6

Title : Study & Implementation of

 Group by & HavingClause
 Order byClause
 Indexing

Objective:
To learn the concept of group functions

Theory:

 GROUP BY:This query is used to group to all the records in a relation together for each
and every value of a specific key(s) and then display them for a selected set of fields the
relation.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields> FROM <relation_name>

GROUP BY<field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT EMPNO, SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP GROUP BY

EMPNO;

GROUP BY-HAVING : The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE
keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. The HAVING clause must follow the
GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the ORDER BY clause if used.

Syntax: SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name

WHERE column_name operatorvalue
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;

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Example : SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID) GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT (Orders.OrderID) > 10;

JOIN using GROUP BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them and also group the corresponding records for each and
every value of a specified key(s) while displaying.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1,relation_2

WHERE relation_1.field_x=relation_2.field_y GROUP BY field_z;
Example:
SQL> SELECT empno,SUM(SALARY) FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno =20 GROUP BY empno;

 ORDER BY:This query is used to display a selected set of fields from a relation in an
ordered manner base on somefield.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields> FROM <relation_name>

ORDER BY<field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp ORDER BY job;

JOIN using ORDER BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them in an ordered manner based on somefields.
Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1, relation_2
WHERE relation_1.field_x = relation_2.field_y ORDER BYfield_z;
Example: SQL> SELECT empno,ename,job,dname FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno = 20 ORDER BY job;

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 INDEXING: An index is an ordered set of pointers to the data in a table. It is based on
thedatavaluesinoneormorecolumnsofthetable.SQLBasestoresindexesseparately
from tables.
An index provides two benefits:
 It improves performance because it makes data accessfaster.
 It ensures uniqueness. A table with a unique index cannot have two rows with
the same values in the column or columns that form the indexkey.

Syntax:
CREATE INDEX <index_name> on <table_name> (attrib1,attrib 2….attrib n);

Example:
CREATE INDEX id1 on emp(empno,dept_no);

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a relation and implement the following queries.

1. Display total salary spent for each jobcategory.

2. Display lowest paid employee details under eachmanager.
3. Display number of employees working in each department and their departmentname.
4. Display the details of employees sorting the salary in increasingorder.
5. Show the record of employee earning salary greater than 16000 in eachdepartment.
6. Write queries to implement and practice the aboveclause.

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 Experiment No: 7

Title : Study & Implementation of

 Sub queries
 Views

Objective:

– To perform nested Queries and joining Queries using DMLcommand

– To understand the implementation ofviews.

Theory:
SUBQUERIES: The query within another is known as a sub query. A statement
containing sub query is called parent statement. The rows returned by sub query are
used by the parent statement or in other words A subquery is a SELECT statement that is
embedded in a clause of another SELECT statement
You can place the subquery in a number of SQL clauses:
 WHEREclause
 HAVINGclause
 FROMclause
 OPERATORS( IN.ANY,ALL,<,>,>=,<=etc..)

Types
1. Sub queries that return severalvalues
Sub queries can also return more than one value. Such results should be made use
along with the operators in and any.
2. Multiplequeries
Here more than one sub query is used. These multiple sub queries are combined by
means of ‘and’ & ‘or’ keywords.
3. Correlated subquery
A sub query is evaluated once for the entire parent statement whereas a correlated
Sub query is evaluated once per row processed by the parent statement.

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VIEW: In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in thedatabase.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.
A view is a virtual table, which consists of a set of columns from one or more tables. It is
similar to a table but it does not store in the database. View is a query stored as an object.

Syntax: CREATE VIEW <view_name> AS SELECT <set of

fields>FROM relation_name WHERE(Condition)
Example:
SQL> CREATE VIEW employee AS SELECT empno,ename,job FROM EMP
WHERE job = ‘clerk’;
SQL> Viewcreated.

Example:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID, ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No;

UPDATING A VIEW : A view can updated by using the following syntax :

Syntax : CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

DROPPING A VIEW: A view can deleted with the DROP VIEW command.

Syntax: DROP VIEW <view_name> ;

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LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Consider the following schema:

Sailors (sid, sname, rating, age)
Boats (bid, bname, color)
Reserves (sid, bid,day(date))
Write subquery statement for the following queries.

1. Find all information of sailors who have reserved boat number101.

2. Find the name of boat reserved byBob.
3. Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red boat, and list in the order ofage.
4. Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least oneboat.
5. Find the ids and names of sailors who have reserved two different boats on the same
day.
6. Find the ids of sailors who have reserved a red boat or a greenboat.
7. Find the name and the age of the youngest sailor.
8. Count the number of different sailornames.
9. Find the average age of sailors for each ratinglevel.
10. Find the average age of sailors for each rating level that has at least twosailors.

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 Experiment No: 8

Title : • Study & Implementation of different types of constraints

Objective:
To practice and implement constraints

Theory:
CONSTRAINTS:
Constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. If there is any violation between
the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted by the constraint. It can be specified
when the table is created (using CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created
(using ALTER TABLE statement).

1. NOT NULL:When a column is defined as NOTNULL, then that column becomes a

mandatory column. It implies that a value must be entered into the column if the record is to
be accepted for storage in thetable.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name (column_name data_type (size) NOT NULL, );
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3)NOT NULL, name CHAR(10));

2. UNIQUE:The purpose of a unique key is to ensure that information in the column(s) is

unique i.e. a value entered in column(s) defined in the unique constraint must not be repeated
across the column(s). A table may have many uniquekeys.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) UNIQUE, ….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10));

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3. CHECK:Specifies a condition that each row in the table must satisfy. To satisfy the
constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or unknown (due to a
null).
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) CHECK(logical
expression), ….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER (3), name CHAR(10),class
CHAR(5),CHECK(classIN(‘CSE’,’CAD’,’VLSI’));

4. PRIMARY KEY:A field which is used to identify a record uniquely. A column or

combination of columns can be created as primary key, which can be used as a reference
from other tables. A table contains primary key is known as MasterTable.
 It must uniquely identify each record in atable.
 It must contain uniquevalues.
 It cannot be a nullfield.
 It cannot be multi portfield.
 It should contain a minimum no. of fields necessary to be calledunique.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) PRIMARY KEY,
….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE faculty (fcode NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY, fname
CHAR(10));

5. FOREIGN KEY:It is a table level constraint. We cannot add this at column level. To
reference any primary key column from other table this constraint can be used. The table in
which the foreign key is defined is called a detail table. The table that defines the primary
key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the mastertable.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size)
FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES table_name);

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Example:
CREATE TABLE subject (scode NUMBER (3) PRIMARY KEY, subname
CHAR(10),fcode NUMBER(3), FOREIGN KEY(fcode) REFERENCE faculty );

Defining integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name ADD PRIMARY KEY(column_name);

Example: ALTER TABLE student ADD PRIMARY KEY (sno);
(Or)

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINTconstraint_name

PRIMARY KEY(colname)
Example: ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT SN PRIMARYKEY(SNO)

Dropping integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name DROPconstraint_name;
Example: ALTER TABLE student DROP PRIMARYKEY;

(or)

Syntax: ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINTconstraint_name;

Example: ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINTSN;

6. DEFAULT: The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column. The
default value will be added to all new records, if no other value isspecified.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(col_name1,col_name2,col_name3
DEFAULT ‘<value>’);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10),address
VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT ‘Aurangabad’);

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LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1. Create a table called EMP with the following structure.

NameType

EMPNO NUMBER (6)

ENAME VARCHAR2 (20)
JOB VARCHAR2 (10)
DEPTNO NUMBER (3)
SAL NUMBER (7,2)
Allow NULL for all columns except ename and job.
2. Add constraints to check, while entering the empno value (i.e) empno >100.
3. Define the field DEPTNO asunique.
4. Create a primary key constraint for thetable(EMPNO).
5. Write queries to implement and practiceconstraints.

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 Experiment No: 9

Title :
 Study and Implementation of Database Backup & RecoveryCommands.
 Study and Implementation of Rollback, Commit, Savepoint.

Objective:
To understand the concept of administrative commands

Theory:
A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the database can be
referred to as a transaction. Transaction changes can be made permanent to the database only
if they are committed a transaction begins with an executable SQL statement & ends
explicitly with either rollback or commitstatement.

1. COMMIT: This command is used to end a transaction only with the help of the commit
command transaction changes can be made permanent to the database.

Syntax: SQL> COMMIT;

Example: SQL> COMMIT;

2. SAVE POINT: Save points are like marks to divide a very lengthy transaction to smaller
once. They are used to identify a point in a transaction to which we can latter role back. Thus,
save point is used in conjunction with rollback.

Syntax: SQL> SAVE POINTID;

Example: SQL> SAVE POINTxyz;

3. ROLLBACK: A role back command is used to undo the current transactions. We can roll
backtheentiretransactionsothatallchangesmadebySQLstatementsareundo(or)role

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back a transaction to a save point so that the SQL statements after the save point are role
back.

Syntax: ROLLBACK (current transaction can be role back)

ROLLBACK to save pointID;

Example: SQL>ROLLBACK;

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SAVE POINT xyz;

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1. Write a query to implement the savepoint.

2. Write a query to implement therollback.
3. Write a query to implement thecommit.

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 Experiment No: 10

Title: Creating Database/ Table Space

 Managing Users: - Create User, DeleteUser
 ManagingPasswords
 Managing roles: - Grant ,Revoke

Objective:
To understand the concept of administrative commands

Theory:
DATABASE is collection of coherent data.
To create database we have :
Syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database_name>
Example : CREATE DATABASEmy_db;

TABLESPACE:
The oracle database consists of one or more logical storage units called tablespaces. Each
tablespace in an Oracle database consists of one or more files called datafiles, which are
physical structures that confirm to the operating system in which Oracle is running.
Syntax:
CREATE<tablespace name> DATAFILE'C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\10.2.0\
server \<file name.dbf ’SIZE 50M;
Example:
Create tablespace te_cs DATAFILE 'C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\10.2.0\ server\
usr.dbf ’SIZE 50M;
CREATE USER:
The DBA creates user by executing CREATE USER statement.
The user is someone who connects to the database if enough privilege is granted.

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Syntax:
SQL> CREATE USER<username> -- (name of user to be created)
IDENTIFIED BY<password>-- (specifies that the usermust
login with this password)
SQL> user created
Eg: create user James identified bybob;
(The user does not have privilege at this time, it has to be granted.These privileges determine
what user can do at database level.)
PRIVILEGES:
A privilege is a right to execute an SQL statement or to access another user's object.
In Oracle, there are two types of privileges
 System Privileges
 ObjectPrivileges
 System Privileges : are those through which the user can manage the performance of
database actions. It is normally granted by DBA tousers.
Eg: Create Session,Create Table,Create user etc..
 Object Privileges : allow access to objects or privileges on object, i.e. tables, table
columns. tables,views etc..It includes alter,delete,insert,select updateetc.
(After creating the user, DBA grant specific system privileges to user)

GRANT:
The DBA uses the GRANT statement to allocate system privileges to other user.
Syntax:
SQL> GRANT privilege [privilege…. … ]
TO USER;
SQL> Grant succeeded
Eg: Grant create session, create table, create view to James;
Object privileges vary from object to object.An owner has all privilege or specific privileges
on object.
SQL> GRANT object_priv [(column)]
ON object

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 TO user;
SQL>GRANT select, insert ON emp TO James;
SQL>GRANT select ,update (e_name,e_address)
ON emp TO James;
CHANGE PASSWORD:
The DBA creates an account and initializes a password for every user.You can change
password by using ALTER USER statement.
Syntax:
Alter USER <some user name>
IDENTIFIED BY<New password>
Eg: ALTER USER James
IDENTIFIED BY sam
REVOKE:
REVOKE statement is used to remove privileges granted to other users.The privileges you
specify are revoked from the users.
Syntax:
REVOKE [privilege.. …]
ONobject
FROMuser
Eg:
 REVOKE create session,create table fromJames;
 REVOKE select ,insert
ONemp
FROM James
ROLE:
A role is a named group of related privileges that can be granted to user.In other words, role
is a predefined collection of previleges that are grouped together,thus privileges are easier to
assign user.
SQL> Create role custom;
SQL> Grant create table, create view TO custom;
SQL> Grant select, insert ON emp TOcustom;

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Eg: Grant custom to James, Steve;

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1. Create user and implement the following commands on relation (Emp andDept).
2. Develop a query to grant all privileges of employees table into departmentstable.
3. Develop a query to grant some privileges of employees table into departmentstable.
4. Develop a query to revoke all privileges of employees table from departmentstable.
5. Develop a query to revoke some privileges of employees table from departmentstable.

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VIVA-VOCE

1. DefineDCL?

The DCL language is used for controlling the access to the table and hence securing
the database. DCL is used to provide certain privileges to a particular user. Privileges are
rights to be allocated.
2. List the DCL commands used in databases

The privilege commands are namely, Grant andRevoke

3. Write the syntax for grantcommand

Grant < database_priv [database_priv…..] > to <user_name> identified by <password>

[,<pass word…..];
Grant <object_priv> | All on <object> to <user | public> [ With Grant Option ];
4. What are TCLcommands?

*Commit *Rollback *save point

5. What are single rowfunctions?

A single row function or scalar function returns only one value for every row
queries in table. Single row function can appear in a select command and can also be
included in a where clause. The single row function can be broadly classified as,
* DateFunction * Conversion Function
* Numeric Function * MiscellaneousFunction
*Character Function
6. List some characterfunctions

initcap(char);
lower (char);
upper (char);
ltrim (char,[set]); rtrim (char,[set]);
7. What is aview?

A view is a logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no data of
its own but is like a window through which data from tables can be viewed or changed.
8. List any two advantages ofview?

1. Hides data complexity.

2. Simplifies the usage by combining multiple tables into a singletable
9. List the set operations ofSQL?

1) Union 2) Intersect operation 3) The except operation (minus)

10. What is the use of subQueries?

A sub Queries is a select-from-where expression that is nested with in another

Queries. A common use of sub Queries is to perform tests for set membership, make set
comparisons and determine set cardinality

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