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A comprehensive study on sedimentation rate and sediment age of Satopanth

Tal Garhwal Himalaya, using 210Pb and 137Cs techniques

Article in Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry · June 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s10967-021-07740-w

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Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-07740-w

A comprehensive study on sedimentation rate and sediment age

of Satopanth Tal Garhwal Himalaya, using 210Pb and 137Cs techniques
Subhrajit Das1 · Sivaprakasam Vasudevan1

Received: 25 January 2021 / Accepted: 16 April 2021

© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2021

Abstract
Radionuclides dating have been applied in the chronological series of sediment core recovered from Satopanth Tal to esti-
mate the sedimentation rate and its age. Several models include CRS and slope method, and 137Cs peak methods have been
adopted. The depth concentration of 210Pbexc in the core determines the various parameters like sedimentation rate, geochro-
nology, inventory, and mass fluxes. The CRS model and slope method infer the sediments deposited at a rate of 0.79 ± 0.04
cm/year dated to 120 years. Distinct peaks on 1963 and 1986AD, the 137Cs record estimate the mean sedimentation rate is
0.745 ± 0.03 cm/year respectively and dated to 77 years.

Keywords Radionuclide · Caesium-137 (137Cs) · Lead-210 (210Pb) · Inventory · Mass flux · Constant rate of supply (CRS)

Introduction Subsequently, the investigation of sediment rate in the

Himalayan lakes is noteworthy. As the amount of space
Mountains provide homes for about 12% of the global available for sediments to accumulate increases, the sedi-
human population, extended over approximately one-quarter mentary record forms [7]. Hence, sedimentation is one of
land surface on the Earth. The lakes originated due to the the serious issues that diminish the profundity and size of
glaciers’ retreating and situated above 3500 m are designated these lakes [8–19]. The high sedimentation rate has reduced
as glacial lakes [1]. Several glacier-fed lakes or glacial lakes the adequacy of a few small lakes and numerous others are
are enriching in The Garhwal Himalaya above an altitude contracting at a startling rate. The information on the exact
of more than 3500 m above mean sea level (AMSL). The sedimentation rate and its causes are of the most extreme
mountain lakes show a higher sedimentation rate since they significance for appropriate management of lakes and future
are generally encircled by steep inclines and the dissolved planning [20].
materials straightforwardly transport to the lake because To estimate the sedimentation rate, the unsupported 210Pb
of water, occasional variations in the diverse plant canopy, is being estimated by subtracting the activity of 226Ra from
and later formative exercises [2, 3]. The higher sedimen- the total 210Pb activity as 226Ra and 210Pb (supported) are
tation rates have diminished the existence of many small in secular equilibrium [21, 22]. The anthropogenic 137Cs,
lakes of Himalaya and other Indian locales and a few lakes a half-life of 30.2 credited to the atmosphere by the rate of
have arrived at the skirt of eradication [4, 5]. Particularly, atomic weapons tests, occurred during the 1950s and 1960s
the lakes from the lower region locale of the Lesser Hima- and bringing about a most extreme fallout in 1963 [23–25].
layan, where the vast majority of the lithology is vulner- Hence, the highest peak of 137Cs activity in the sediment
able to disintegration and displays a higher sedimentation core profile signifies the particular discharge events. The
rate [6]. Nonetheless, the sedimentation rate changes from dispersion of 137Cs is also related to the Chernobyl mis-
lake to lake and it relies upon a few elements like encom- hap in 1986 and because of the new accident in April 2011,
passing lithology, common and anthropogenic exercises. at Fukushima Daiichi atomic catastrophe occurs in Japan.
Much of the time, due to their low concentration or fixa-
* Sivaprakasam Vasudevan tion, 137Cs are scarcely perceived in sediments. This may
[email protected] be due to diffusion processes which cause the disparity of
residence time in the water column, and the mobility within
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, sediments [26].
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu 608002, India

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 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

The joined estimation of radionuclide like 210Pb and 137Cs with a length of about 262 m and the maximum depth are
in sediment core samples has been widely adopted to dictate approximately 17.5 m having a mean depth of 3.02 m. geo-
the sedimentation rates on a timescale of 100 years [27–31]. logically; Satopanth Tal is moraines dammed glacial corrie
Generally, both 210Pb and 137Cs give two autonomous esti- lake. No vegetation is found aside from few spices during
mations of assessing similar internment measures occurring summers at and close to the Satopanth Tal.
inside the indicated sediment profile [32]. Typically, 210Pb
activities dole out an age and sedimentation rate to each
lamination of sediment starting from the surface, and the
Materials and methods
presence of 137Cs in the layers relegated to 1955–1966AD is
utilized as an autonomous check the 210Pb sequence as 137Cs
Core sampling
just gives the mean sedimentation rate of the sample. No
nitty–gritty examination has been completed in the moraine-
The location of the core sediment sample (E79.3565 and
dammed lake Satopanth Tal beforehand aside from Bhambri
N30.7433) was fixed with the bathymetry values of the lake,
[33] suggested the location type by utilizing the satellite
hence, recovered at the water depth of 3–4 m, on the 2nd of
imageries and Kumar [34] on water quality assessment.
October, 2015. A total length of 56 cm core was collected
Be that as it may, significant boundaries like the textural
from the southern region of the lake by gravity corer. The
examination and assessment of sedimentation rate and lake
cores were sectioned into 1 cm increment in the laboratory
life have not been concentrated so far, which cause the base
using a core extruder to make 56 sediment sampling points.
of our investigation and examination in Satopanth Tal. The
current investigation is primarily aimed at determining the
sedimentation rate, which can be useful for the management Laboratory procedures
and assurance of Himalayan lakes by determining current
conditions and predicting possible changes in the future. The The physical characteristics of the sediment samples com-
estimated sedimentation rates would pave the way for future prising bulk density, water content, and porosity were
palaeo-environmental, palaeoclimatic research on high alti- measured by taking an aliquot of the sliced core sections.
tude glacial lake, and its productivity as well as the life of Estimations were made of the bulk density before drying
the lake under normal environmental conditions. samples in an oven at a temperature marginally above 100 °C
for about 7–8 h preceding several investigational analyses.
The water content can be determined by the difference in
Study area weight between the wet sediment, and dry sediment sample,
expressed in percentage [35]. The porosity is nothing but the
Satopanth Tal is one of the significant and small triangular- quotient that the volume of water in the sediment pores to
shaped glacial lake of Satopanth Glacier is an ancillary of the total volume of the segmented core sample, expressed in
the Alkapuri glacial mass of the Garhwal Himalaya (Fig. 1). percentage [35] were also estimated. The moisture content
It is situated amidst snow-covered tops at 4600 m of the has been removed from sediments by drying them for 48 h in
altitude above mean sea level having latitude 30° 44′ 38.30″ a hot air oven at 60 °C before analysis. Dried samples were
N to 30° 44′ 38.59″ N and longitude 79° 21′ 27.03″ E to 79° powdered in an agate mortar with the goal that the grain size
21′ 21.74″ E. The religious belief of locals of India’s last vil- of the sediments was less than 200 µm and homogenous.
lage Mana towards the lake Satopanth leads them to plunge Some portion of sediment sub-samples were also retained
the ashes of their dead ones in it, which is approximately 25 without changing their natural characteristics for further
km west from Badrinath temple having loose boulders and analyses like grain size, organic matter, and carbon content.
moraine covered path on its way. Hence, careful trekking is The 210Pb and 137Cs radioactivity measurements were
the only option to reach there. Mt. Nilkantha, Kuber top, and conducted in the radioactive laboratory of Analytical Chem-
Mt. Swargarohini are the most prominent peaks perceptible istry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),
en route to the lake. Trombay, Mumbai, India to record the activities using
The snow blanket has spread all over the lake from the the α and γ spectrum analyzing system. To ensure a very
end of October to the end of May or even up to the end of low detection threshold for environmental radioactivity,
June. In summer temperature remains around 10–12° C and the counting instrument was mounted in a low-level back-
5 to − 5 °C during the day, and night respectively, but the ground laboratory, basically in the underground laboratory.
temperature may drop to—20 to − 25 °C in the day time as The experimental errors for these analyses were approxi-
well as—30 to − 35 °C during night hours in winter. The mately ± 10% for 137Cs and 210Pb, considering the multiple
emerald green Lake Satopanth Lake is situated at the foot sources of error attributable to both the sampling and ana-
of Mount Nilkantha covering an aerial stretch of 0.025 k­ m2 lytical procedures.

13
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Fig. 1  Study Area and Sample Location map for Satopanth Tal

13
 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Radiochemical separation of 210Po was performed on 2 where, the background value in cps was 0.006 (480 counts
g of dried powdered sediments samples digested using a in 80,000 s), efficiency- 31.94%, and gamma abundance is
closed microwave digestion system (Milestone Srl, Model 85.1.
Ethos, Italy) impaled with 209Po tracer, and HF: H ­ NO3 (1:1)
as well as hydrogen peroxide ­(H2O2) in Teflon beakers as Sedimentation rate and sediment age calculation
per the guidelines in the manual. The silver planchets were methods
plated by 210Po and 209Po chemically from 0.5 N HCl solu-
tions (ERL Manual) at 90 °C for 3 h subsequent to diminish- In contrast with different radioisotopes that naturally and arti-
ing the Fe from ­Fe3+ to ­Fe2+ adding ascorbic acid. The alpha ficially in the environment, 137Cs (Caesium-137) and 210Pb
energy of 5.30 meV using 209Po (4.88 meV alpha emission) (Lead-210) have been discovered extremely valuable for the
as an internal tracer has been utilized to measure 210Po activ- dating of the sediment deposits in the lakes and reservoirs.
ity by alpha spectrometry (ORTEC, OCTAT) exhibiting not Information regarding the sedimentation rates in lakes and
only 13% of efficiency, and 20 keV resolutions but also an reservoirs is fundamental to assess the rate at which they are
area of 300 m ­ m2 with an exhaustion profundity of 100 mm. being filled and to comprehend the cycling of nutrients and
210
Pb activities were determined from its granddaughter trace elements.
(210Po) with alpha spectrometry during the secular equilib-
210
rium stage [36–39]. Individual samples were counted for Pb method and models
time intervals ranging from 6 × ­104 to 8 × ­104 s and the back-
ground counting was calculated every 5 samples for 2 × ­104 Practicable, two models are applicable for computing 210Pb
to 3 × ­104 s. Then area (cps) was estimated by selecting the dates under discrete sediment accumulation rates indispensa-
region of interest (ROI), and the activities count has been bly; one is the constant initial concentration (CIC) model and
calculated by using the formula; the constant rate of supply (CRS) model [43–46]. The assump-
( ) tions for the application of the CIC model are not relevant to
Counts Bkg counts 100 1000 the criteria for this study.
− × ×
Time Time Efficiency Sample weight(g) The CRS model, proposed by Krishnaswamy et al. [47]
(1) assumes that the constant rate of supply of 210Pb to the sedi-
where Background counts (Bkg) for polonium standard ments irrespective of any varieties which may have happened
was calculated as 0.025cps (2000 counts in 80,000 s), effi- in the sediment accumulation rate might be because of the
ciency was 13%, and sample weight was 2 g. The 210Pbsupp consistent fallout of 210Pb from the atmosphere to the marine
activity was determined as the mean of assorted constant or lake water. Therefore, the model can be used to calculate
210
Pb determinations in deep sediment layers (below the interannual variations in sedimentation rates [48]. The cumu-
zone of 210Pb exponential decline) [40]. After that, the sam- lative residual excess 210Pb, ­Ad, beneath sediments of age t
ples were sealed and left for three weeks to allow for equi- varies according to the formula,
librium before gamma counts were performed.
(3)
lt
The concentration of 137Cs was determined by gamma Ad = A0 e−
spectrometry using a cylindrical NaI (Tl) detector. The size
where t = x/s.
of the NaI (Tl) crystal is 4″ × 4″ having a well of 1­ ‫ ״‬diam-
So [49]
eter × 2″ height. For gamma counting, again each sample was
counted for 6 × ­104 to 8 × ­104seconds, while the background S = x∕t (4)
(bkg) values were estimated with an interval of 10 samples
for the duration of 2 × ­104 to 3 × ­104 s. The concentration of Ad is the unsupported 210Pb in the core below depth “d”
137
Cs was dictated by estimating the gamma peak at 661.62 and ­A0 is the entire unsupported 210Pb below the mud/water
keV with an 85% branching ratio [41]. A mixture of 137Cs interface.
and 60Co Source helped the instrument in its energy cali- The sediments chronology of depth x is then given by:
bration, whereas the efficiency calibration was done with 1 A(0)
reference standard soil (IAEA-326, [42]). From the gamma t= ln (5)
A(d)
counting, 137Cs of each sample has been calculated by the
formula;
( )
Counts Bkg counts 100 100 1000 (2)
− × × ×
Time Time Gamma Abundance Efficiency Sample weight(g)

13
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

The CRS model presumes a constant 210Pb flux yet permits above the respective time marker (1963 or 1986) depth can
the sediment supply to differ. Therefore, this model is applied be expressed as, [56]
to most sedimentary basins where the sediment gracefully may
fluctuate in reprisal to climatic or anthropogenic changes. The
Tn = Y + ((H − hn )|r) (8)
sediment cores from Satopanth Tal were used to converse in where ­Tn and ­hn are the age (year) and depth (cm) for this
detail the applicability of this model. layer, respectively.
Cheng et al. [56] had proposed a formula for the lay-
210
Pb concentration slope method ers accumulated below the time marker depth. The age was
calculated by,
The supply of 210Pb is relatively ceaseless, and decays at a ( )
T0 = Y − ( h0 − H)|r (9)
known rate with time possessing its half-life of 22.26 year
is capitulating a 1st-order decay constant of 0.03114/year, where ­T0 and ­h0 are the age (yr) and depth (cm) for this
infers the unsupported 210Pb activity profile below a surface layer, respectively.
blending strata ought to hypothetically decline with depth,
presuming a constant rate of sediment supply, and accu-
mulation. A regression line was computed for the log of
Result and discussion
unsupported 210Pb activity for the determination of the sedi-
mentation rate as a component of depth [50]. The sedimenta-
Porosity and bulk density
tion rate (cm/year) can be estimated by the division of the
product of the radioactive decay constant with a conversion
The bulk density and porosity of core samples were in the
factor (0.4343) by the regression slope [50]. The estimation
range of 0.7–1.8 g/cm3 (mean 1.3 g/cm3). The notable fluctu-
of sedimentation rate by adopting the 210Pb concentration
ation in bulk density, as well as porosity throughout the core
slope method is as follow,
depth fractions, was examined within the statistical varia-
(−0.03114 × 0.4343) −0.01352 tions. In general from Satopanth Tal core, with increasing
Sedimentation rate = = . depth the sediment bulk density increases, whereas porosity
Slope Slope
(6) decreases (Fig. 2a, b). The noticed augmentation in bulk
density may be because of sediment consolidation or com-
paction of lower sediment strata by the overburden pressure
137
Cs peak method of upper sediment strata [57].

The period of maximum atmospheric deposition of 137Cs Sediment texture

occurred in 1963 [50–53], and decreased sharply thereafter.
This happened due to the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; hence, The sediment particles were classified into three types
by the latter 1970s, the 137Cs atmospheric deposition rates such as sand (> 63 µm), silt (> 2 to > 63 µm), and clay
were scarcely quantifiable. For the 137Cs examination, the (< 2 µm) in the present study. The overall % of sand,
sedimentation pace of 137Cs was resolved subject to the 137Cs silt, and clay in the Satopanth Tal core of the studied
greatest layer, which relates to the key time marker of 1963. area were in the range of 21.04–96.97% (mean 47.37%),
The recent peak is due to the Chernobyl accident which pro- 3.03–73.89% (mean 48.72%), and 0.00–6.93% (mean
duced a discharge in 1986, which can also be considered as 3.91%), respectively. The Satopanth Tal core is mainly
a marker year. Based on the sedimentation rate of the known composed of sand and silt, whereas clay is the least abun-
marker year the age of other layers was acquired. Despite dant in all sections being within a range from 1.86 to
the upward or downward dispersion of the 137Cs peaks, the 6.30%. Very less occurrence below 1% at the depth 2, 4,
position of the 137Cs peaks in the sedimentary profiles would and 36 cm and even absence of clay at the depth of 8 cm
neither change, nor influence the utilization of the 137Cs peak infers these sections of core prevails by more sand than
time markers [54, 55]. The derived sedimentation rate from silt, hence the texture possessing sand type. Sand and silt
137
Cs was estimated using the following equation; are more abundant in almost all sections of the core and
in general found to decrease and increase in proportion
r = H∕(n − Y) (7)
as core depth increases (Table 1 and Fig. 3). The frequent
where r is the sedimentation rate (cm/year) for this sample, fluctuation of sand contents in the profile observed with
H the depth (cm) of the 137Cs the peak for the respective enrichment of low sand quantity a low value of 29.12%
time marker Y (1963 or 1986), and n denotes the year of at the top (1 cm) and fluctuated firmly at a depth of until
sampling. Thus, the age for the sediment strata deposited 8 cm reaching the maximum value of 96.97%, while the

13
 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Fig. 2  Relationship plot (a) and regression plot (b) between porosity and bulk density of the core

Table 1  Correlation coefficient Depth (cm) Sand% Silt% Clay% 210

Pbexc 137
Cs
of sediments in Satopanth Tal
Depth (cm) 1
Sand% − 0.60 1
Silt% 0.58 − 1.00 1
Clay% 0.75 − 0.89 0.87 1
210
Pbexc − 0.43 0.09 − 0.07 0.29 1
137
Cs − 0.09 − 0.01 0.03 − 0.10 0.45 1

sand proportion is least recording the minimum propor- 54.66% respectively in comparison to the sand content at
tion of 21.04% at 47 cm, displaying “high-low–high-low” the respective depth range i.e., 45.80 and 40.80%, dis-
pattern in the vertical profile, with an average of 47.37% playing “low–high-low–high” sediment pattern (Fig. 3).
up to the depth of 56 cm. However, there was significant The above result infers the sand and silt were relatively
variation in the abundances of silt with the least bounties inversely proportional to each other and hence again
being recorded as 8.20, 7.19, and the least of 3.03% in the proved by the strong negative correlation of—1.00, as
depth of 4, 36, and 8 cm respectively. The content of silt sand has more abundant at top core fractions than bottom
is next to sand with a mean proportion of 30.96%. From and silt has less abundant in top comparing to sand and
the depth ranging among 1–8 cm, sand contents were high in the bottom. In general, the distribution pattern of
higher (66.37%), the silt contents were even higher in the sand displayed a diminishing trend with increasing depth
depth of 9–36 and 37–56 cm with an average of 50.35 and of the cores than silt vice versa (Fig. 3). These are a sign

13
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Effect of grain‑size on 210Pbexc activity

Higher 210Pbexc scavenging is expected in that sediment or

its relative layer when an increased flux of sediment with
more clay content is supplied from the river or meltwater,
leading to relatively high 210Pbexc adsorption by clay miner-
als and setting down with the sediment. Several researches
suggest that clay was the primary controlling factor in the
transport and deposition of 210Pbexc, which is consistent
with the pattern that smaller particles with larger specific
surface areas have higher 210Pbexc concentrations [24], and
210
Pb activity of clay is 3.2 times that of silt and 24.7 times
that of sand [58]. Hence, to investigate a possible effect of
grain size on the 210Pbexc activity, a correlation analysis was
carried out on the collected data as shown in Table 1. The
weak negative and positive correlation among 210Pbexc and
grain size fractions indicate the abundance of 210Pbexc in the
sediments increases as the finer particles increase, which
has been denoted by the weak negative correlation between
210
Pbexc and Clay% (0.29). The low 210Pbexc probably cor-
responded to previous glacial flood events in the Himalayas,
based on the correlation results between 210Pbexc activities
and the fine-grain (sand) scale. Summarizing, the lacking of
clay particles in the Satopanth Tal core sediment, which acts
to hold the 210Pbexc, and may be due to some glacial flood
events the measured 210Pbexc activities in the Satopanth Tal
core sediments were low compared to other clay-rich sedi-
ments investigated earlier.

Distribution of 137Cs and 210Pbexc in sediment

The general phenomenon of 137Cs and 210Pbexc fall out infers

the descended radionuclide absorbed rapidly by clay min-
Fig. 3  The distribution profile of sand, silt, and clay as a function of erals and organic matter in soils or water bodies as they
depth in the study area
plummet on the water surface or the ground alongside pre-
cipitation. The fallout that plunged on the water surface
of a more prominent contribution of disintegrated materi- steadily settles to the bottom of the lake with the suspended
als from the encompassing area. particles with time whereas those plunged to the ground is
The finest particle nothing but clay is the simplest to be unequivocally absorbed by the surface soil, without being
moved in the lake and the least affected by the variation in eluviated and acclimatized by plants, and is shipped chiefly
the lake water energy during the sediment dissemination with the soil and sediment particles [49, 59, 60]. 137Cs and
process. This infers clay contents generally remained stable 210
Pbexc are the tracings isotopes broadly utilized in sediment
or slightly increased according to depth in all of the sedi- dating of lakes. The former isotope is generally utilized by
ment profiles as exhibiting a strong correlation with depth the accumulation peak in 1963, while the latter is utilized
(r = 0.75) (Table 1). The strong positive correlation of Clay to ascertain the age of sediments at various profundities
with silt (r = 0.87) and a strong negative correlation with dependent on regression rates of 210Pbexc alongside profun-
sand (r = −0.89) suggests with the increase of silt and sand dity (Fig. 4a) [51]. Differentiation of these two isotope con-
content the proportion of clay decreases. Therefore, the dis- tents between source soils and sediments because 137Cs and
tribution of clay content varied consistently as seen in Fig. 3 210
Pbexc contents commonly change with various sources of
throughout the core depth fractions. The concentration of soil, and can also be utilized to evaluate the overall amount
210
Pb activity is decreasing as the depth increases. of sediment submits from various sources in a basin [61].
The depth changes of 137Cs and 210Pbexc contents in sediment

13
 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

(C)
(A) ^ůŽƉĞсͲ0.017
z сͲϬ͘Ϭϭϳdžнϭ͘Ϯϭϯ
ZϮ сϬ͘ϲϰ͕ƉфϬ͘Ϭϭ

ͲϬ͘ϬϭϯϱϮͬͲϬ͘ϬϭϳсϬ͘ϳϵĐŵͬLJƌ

(B)

Fig. 4  210Pb activity profiles in the selected core of the study lake a regression plot, b exponential plot, and c vertical depth-wise plot exhibiting
the down core variation

cores are associated with atmospheric settlement as well as bioturbation, the adsorption on oxides of heavy metals as
the number of sediments deposited into the lake [62, 63]. well as hydroxides from the glacial water, remineralization
under exceptionally highly reducing conditions.
Sedimentation rate and dating by 210 Pb
Constant rate of supply (CRS) model
Sedimentation rates were calculated by using two common
and most accepted methods to estimate the sedimentation As Fig. 4b, c indicate the 210Pbexc doesn’t significantly
rate, viz., Concentration slope method [Eq. (6)] and Constant change with depth and not decreasing exponentially, the
rate of supply model (CRS) Eqs. (3, 4 and 5). sedimentation rates are not constant with time. Because of
this circumstance, although the 210Pbexc dating result was
Concentration slope method not ideal, the most broadly utilized CRS model has been
adopted to govern the sediment age and accumulation rates
For a consistent sedimentation rate, a logarithmic plot has [44, 45]. The CIC model couldn’t be applied in light of the
been plotted by taking 210Pbexc activities against sample non-exponential form and the conduct of the 210Pb profile at
depth generated a straight line. Thus, the sedimentation rate both estimation focuses is non-tedious decreasing.
can be resolved from the slope of lines acquired from the The calculations of the CRS model for core are detailed
depth profile of the radionuclide (Fig. 4a and Eq. 6). The in Table 2. The oldest layer of core (56 cm) has been dated
sedimentation rate of 210Pb was determined to be 0.79 ± 0.04 to 1895AD. Accumulation rate (kg/m2/year1) and sedimenta-
cm/year by the slope of lines obtained for the Satopanth Tal tion rate (cm/year) regression profile of the core of Satopanth
core. The discrepancy in unsupported 210Pb in the core may Tal which has been calculated using the CRS method from
be because of sediment composition, pre and post-deposi- 1895 to 2015AD and to discuss the increase or decrease of
tional processes like physical mixing, redox changes, and sediment deposition within the lake supervened by different

13
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Table 2  Analysis data using CRS model to calculate the age dating and sedimentation rates in each layer of the core
210
Depth (cm) Pbexc (Bq/kg) Mass flux Inventory Cumulative Estimated Date (AD) Accumulation Sedimentation
(kg/m2) 210
Pbexc (Bq/ 210
Pbexc (Bq / year (year) rate (kg/m2/year) rate (cm/year)
m2) m2)

1 13.04 ± 1.7 3.86 50.29 407.84 4.23 2015 0.91 ± 0.16 0.47 ± 0.06
5 3.6 ± 0.8 3.46 12.46 357.55 5.37 2011 0.64 ± 0.11 0.93 ± 0.09
8 2.4 ± 0.6 4.03 9.67 345.09 6.28 2010 0.64 ± 0.11 1.27 ± 0.19
12 11.4 ± 1.1 3.77 43.01 335.42 10.69 2009 0.35 ± 0.07 1.12 ± 0.15
16 8 ± 1.0 4.42 35.32 292.41 14.83 2004 0.30 ± 0.05 1.08 ± 0.11
21 9 ± 1.3 3.29 29.61 257.08 18.77 2000 0.18 ± 0.03 1.12 ± 0.15
25 10.9 ± 1.0 4.26 46.43 227.47 26.11 1996 0.16 ± 0.02 0.96 ± 0.09
29 2.3 ± 0.6 6.97 16.03 181.04 29.09 1989 0.24 ± 0.03 1.00 ± 0.11
32 9.46 ± 0.8 4.38 41.48 165.01 38.4 1986 0.11 ± 0.01 0.83 ± 0.08
37 13.12 ± 1.6 6.16 80.81 123.53 72.54 1977 0.08 ± 0.01 0.51 ± 0.07
42 5.1 ± 1.1 3.32 16.95 42.72 88.79 1942 0.04 ± 0.01 0.46 ± 0.06
47 2.13 ± 0.7 5.34 11.36 25.77 107.49 1926 0.05 ± 0.01 0.44 ± 0.06
51 1.05 ± 0.2 4.50 4.73 14.41 120.28 1908 0.04 ± 0.01 0.42 ± 0.06
56 1.03 ± 0.2 9.40 9.68 9.68 – 1895 – 0.40 ± 0.06
Max 0.91 ± 0.16 1.27 ± 0.19
Min 0.04 ± 0.01 0.40 ± 0.06
Mean 0.31 ± 0.05 0.79 ± 0.04

actions (Fig. 5a, b). The straight line and curved line sur- of 1945 during World War II [64] and by the nuclear tests
rounding it describe the roughly the estimated increase in in the 1970s which can be used as an auxiliary time marker
sedimentation rate. The accumulation rate of the top layers for 137Cs, but can put an important impact on sedimenta-
corresponding to the bottom sediments showed increased tion rate estimation by 210Pb. And the industrial revolution
values. But the Excess 210Pb activity profile for sedimenta- near the 1960s and the Chernobyl accident in 1986AD can
tion rate as shown in Fig. 5b, c infers that the core has a also trigger the sedimentation rate. Because during all these
maximum value in a few-layer beneath the surface sediment, incidents heat radiation might be ejected to the atmosphere
demonstrate that the top layer might be because of unsettling which acts as a modem to transfer heat and increase the
influence from waves or glacial current [46]. temperature around the globe by some fraction of centigrade
The Sedimentation rate nearly constant for the initial 47 which acts as an agent to retreat the glaciers to increase the
year which nearly dated as 4 decades of sediment deposit sedimentation deposit. As we know more the glacier melting
with an average of 0.43 ± 0.06 cm/year ranging from the more will be the erosion and deposition of sediments in the
bottom-most layer representing the year from 1895 to high altitude regions.
1942AD, where the sediment layer got deposited at 42 cm of Other possibilities rather than the one discussed above
depth. From 1942AD onwards sedimentation rate started to may be due to anthropogenic activities. In ancient times
increase at a steady rate with an average of 0.78 ± 0.08 cm/ there were no strict rules and regulations were adopted
year until 1989AD representing 29 cm of depth. Suddenly to secure and save the most pristine lakes in India. As
a sharp decline of sedimentation rate from 1 to 0.96 ± 0.09 we know most of the high altitude lakes in India are used
cm/year infers slow rate of sediment supply and deposition for tourist purposes. Hence, there might be a chance of
happened from 1989 to 1996AD may be due to unfavora- more people traveling to the lake site from the nearby
ble climatic conditions in the study lake, which makes the area in the past which influences the anthropogenic activ-
sedimentation process slow so that it took nearly 7 year to ity and exceed the sedimentation rate. By examining
deposit only 4 cm of sediments. After 1996AD the sedi- recently distributed articles [65–67], the sedimentation
mentation rate accelerated and reaching the maximum rate pace of different lakes of the Himalayan locale, for exam-
of 1.27 ± 0.19 cm/year with a piling depth of 8 cm dated ple, Bhimtal (0.43–1.50 ± 0.05 cm/year), Nainital Lake
to be 2010AD year covering 67 years with an average rate (0.60–1.35 ± 0.02 cm/year), Sattal (0.66–0.81 ± 0.05 cm/
of 4.59 ± 0.85 cm/year (Fig. 5c). This may infer as the gla- year), Dal (0.40–1.60 ± 0.03 cm/year) and Mansar Lake
cier retreating rate was higher beyond 1942AD in the study (0.14–0.37 ± 0.03 cm/year) demonstrated an immense vari-
area. This argument is caused after the nuclear explosions ety notwithstanding situating in a similar climatic zone

13
 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Fig. 5  Sedimentation rate profile of selected core, a accumulation rate versus date, b sedimentation rate versus date, c bar graph representation
of sedimentation rate of each calculated year

[67]. The reduction in sedimentation rate of Mansar Lake by the 1963 key time marker by adopting the peak method
[65], and Rewalsar Lake [67] appears that before restric- as 90% of the radionuclide discharge happened somewhere
tion the sedimentation rate was much higher and rapid. between1963 and 1964AD [71, 72]. The depths of detect-
The reduction in the sedimentation rate was possibly due able 137Cs activity were noticed at 56 cm for the core from
to the taking necessary action to save the lake [68]. From Satopanth Tal.
2010AD again the sedimentation rate begun to decrease till In the study area, the largest 137Cs peaks in the vertical
the day of sampling and the accumulation rate increases profiles were identified as the subsidiary peak in 1971 and
resulting in the mean sedimentation rate and accumulation 1996 and two major peaks in 1963–1964, and 1986. Hence,
rate of the study area is of 0.79 ± 0.04 cm/year (Eq. 4) and the major peak at the depth of 38 cm infers the nuclear test
0.31 ± 0.05 kg/m2/year respectively and dated to be 120 yrs year 1963AD of activity of 8.87 Bq/kg, and another peak at
of age estimated from Eq. 5. the depth of 22 cm representing the Chernobyl accident of
the year 1986AD of activity 8.55 Bq/kg (Fig. 6a, b). Both the
Sedimentation rate and dating by 137Cs 137
Cs peaks due to nuclear tests and the Chernobyl accident
can be used to estimate the sedimentation rate in Satopanth
The use of 137Cs as a touchstone of sedimentation processes Tal, by considering the respective years as the marker time
is consistent, with the fact that it straps almost irrevocable (Table 3). There may be minor uncertainty noticed between
to clay and silt particles (Table 1) and has a long half-life the results as per the respective marker year, this may be due
(30.2 years) [69]. Though 137Cs is known to bind the clay to either the year gap between two marker times or due to
lattice strongly, it likewise is sorbed exchangeable to the instrumentation error. The 137Cs-based sedimentation rate
sediment [70]. There are two radio-dating 137Cs methods; employing the 1963 and 1986 key time marker (Eq. 7) was
one is the horizon method, and another, the peak method. 0.74 and 0.75 ± 0.03 cm/year (Table 3), agreed well with the
Both are event marker-based methods within the 137Cs pro- 210
Pb based sedimentation rate of 0.79 ± 0.04 cm/year as the
file. The 137Cs—based sedimentation rates were estimated concentration of 137Cs and 210Pb possess a higher peak at the

13
Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Fig. 6  Distribution of 137Cs in the studied core a vertical depth profile and b bar graph of activity vs year of 137Cs in the sediment of Satopanth
Tal

nearly equal depth of 38 and 37 cm respectively (Figs. 5c, The deposition ages of the 137Cs maximum layer in the core
6a). The overall mean rate of sedimentation and the age of were confirmed by the 210Pb dating technique: dissimilari-
the core by using Eqs. (7, 8, 9) of 137Cs have been estimated ties in the sedimentation rates between the two techniques
as 0.745 ± 0.03 cm/year and 77 years respectively. were little. The age variation detected for the core may be
due to rich or scarcity in the activities of the radionuclides in
the sediments. As the naturally occurring 210Pb is promptly
Conclusion appended to airborne particulates and eliminated from the
atmosphere by both wet and dry deposition and the fallout
The sedimentologic and radionuclide analyses revealed is moved through the water section and fused in the bottom
that most of the material entering the lake is reworked the sediments. So, both the atmospherically derived 210Pb and
foot of the Satopanth Glacier which is having a moderate the supported 210Pb derived from the in situ rot of 226Ra
to steep slope causing easy sediment deposition when the result in the total activities in the sediments together. There-
meltwater inflow to feed the lake. The finer materials were fore, the natural 210Pb has its availability for long-duration
predominantly derived from the uplands and mass failure resulting in prominent recorded activities. Whereas, in the
of the Satopanth Glacier. It is not surprising that most of case of 137Cs, the variation in its activities could only be
the finer sediment deposits are located in the lake, as these due to varying sedimentation rates whereas other factors
are the areas with the highest composition of fine material. like physicochemical variation of sediment composition or
This study suggests a chronological structure for sedimen- organic matter content have a negligible impact as 137Cs is
tary records in the Satopanth Tal adopting 210Pb dating an anthropogenic radionuclide that comes to the atmosphere
results as well as by the independent 137Cs time markers. then into sediments by the nuclear explosion. Hence, the

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 Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry

Table 3  Analysis 137Cs data Depth (cm) 137

Cs (Bq/kg) Marker year Date (AD) Estimated Mean sedimentation rate
to calculate the age dating and year (year) (cm/year)
mean sedimentation rates
From 1963 From 1986

2 7.24 ± 0.1 1963 and 1986 2012 3 0.74 ± 0.03 0.75 ± 0.03
5 4.03 ± 0.2 2008 7
8 6.16 ± 1.1 2004 11
12 7.38 ± 1.1 1999 16
14 7.74 ± 1.2 1996 19
16 2.52 ± 0.9 1993 22
19 5.27 ± 0.1 1989 26
22 8.55 ± 0.4 1985 30
25 4.85 ± 0.1 1981 34
27 7.19 ± 0.2 1978 37
29 6.97 ± 0.2 1975 40
32 7.52 ± 0.4 1971 44
35 6.57 ± 0.7 1967 48
38 8.87 ± 0.4 1963 52
41 7.47 ± 1.1 1959 56
44 7.18 ± 1.2 1955 60
48 4.78 ± 0.8 1949 66
51 4.27 ± 0.1 1945 70
54 3.31 ± 0.1 1941 74
56 2.48 ± 0.1 1938 77
Mean sedimenration rate 0.745 ± 0.03

utilization of 137Cs as an indicator of sedimentation pro- also like to thank the Himalayan Trekker Company for their support
cesses is consistent and binds irreversibly to clay and silt and help during the 7 days of the trekking period and fieldwork. Finally,
the authors would like to thank the Department of Science and Tech-
particles exhibiting a long half-life (30.2 years). As in the nology (DST) for the financial support for the research. The authors
Satopanth Tal sediment, the finer (clay and silt) particles are gratefully acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology
present in moderate amounts, might bind the required 137Cs (DST) and the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) for
activities which have been utilized to date the core age to 77 their financial support in a form of a research grant.
years (1938 to 2015AD). In 210Pb, both the slope regression
Funding The funding was provided by Science and Engineering
method and the CRS method confirm the sedimentation rate Research Board (Grand No. SB/DGH-63/2013 Dated 08.12.2014).
to 0.79 ± 0.04 cm/year and by the 137Cs peak method for
1983 and 1986AD, the mean sedimentation rate is estimated
nearly the same as 0.745 ± 0.03 cm/year, infers both 137Cs
peak methods verified each other. As all the models adopted References
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