COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction:

The word “Computer” originates from the

word “compute” which means to calculate. Earlier computer
was considered as were a calculating device that can perform
arithmetic operation at enormous speed. But now a days
amazingly 85% of word is done in computer even of non-
numerical nature like music composing, weather forecasting,
nuclear research etc.

What is Computer :

A computer is an electronic device which is

used to perform calculations and various data processing. A
computer can perform Arithmetic and Logical operation at a
very high speed.

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 Characteristics of Computer

1. Speed:

Computer can work at very fast speed, it can be

operate continuously without any rest. Its speed of working
is measured in MIPS(Mega Instructions Per Second).

2. Accuracy:

In computer the accuracy of calculation is very

high. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design
of computer. A micro computer may give accurate result up
to 8 decimal places whereas Mini computer may give
accurate result up to 32 decimal places.

3. Diligence:

Computer, unlike human being, is free from

exhaustion or lack of concentration. It can work
continuously without being tired unlike human beings. It can
do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

4. Storage:

Like human brain, computer has its won memory,

which can retain very large amount of data until we desire to
delete it. We can also store date in secondary storage devices
such as floppies, CD, DVD, Pen drive which can be kept
outside your computer and can be carried to other computer.

5. Versatility:

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 It means the capacity to perform completely
different types of work. One moment you may use your
computer to prepare payrolls slip, next moment you may use
it for account statement or to prepare electric bills.

Classification of computer
Computers can be classified broadly on the basis of
technology and size & capacity.

According to Technology

1. Analog computer:

These computers process the information which

is in the form of physical nature like measuring humidity,
pressure, amount of current flowing etc.

2. Digital computer:

Digital computers operate essentially by

counting. It is useful for evaluation of arithmetic expression
and manipulation of data such as preparation of bills, ledgers,
solution of simultaneous equations etc.

3. Hybrid computer:

Hybrid is a combination of an analog and a digital

computer. Such a computer system utilizes the measuring
capabilities of an analog computer and the counting
capabilities of a digital computer.

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 According to size and capacity

1. Micro Computer:

The ordinary computer which we use in offices

are micro computers. We can accommodate these computers
on office table and only one person can work on it at time so
they are also called Personal Computer.

2. Mini Computer:

Mini computers are also small general

purpose system, but they typically serve multiple users.
Such systems are called multi-user system. They are usually
more powerful and more expensive than Personal Computer.
These computers are used in organisations like banks, data
processing canters etc.

3. Main-frame computer:

Computer with large storage capacity and

very high speed of processing as compared to micro or mini
computers are known as main-frame computers. They are
bigger in size and installed in large rooms. Main-frame
computer also multi-user system. These computers are used
in Railway reservation system, Air Ticketing etc.

4. Super computer:

These have extremely large storage

capacity and computing speed which is at least 10 times
faster than other computers. These computers are used in
defence operation, space control system etc.

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 Generation of computer

First Generation:

The first generation of computers were developed

in 1942-1958 and were built using vacuum tube. The speed
of this computer was measured in milli-seconds. The size of
the computers was very big, failure rate was very high and
reliability was very low. It produced lots of heat due to
vacuum tube. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrated
& Calculator) EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
automatic computer) etc were the computers of this
generation.

Second Generation:

The second generation of computer was

developed in 1959-1964 and was built using transistor. Its
speed was measured in micro seconds. These computers are
small in size than of first generation. It was more reliable,
generated less heat, faster than first generation and was able
to use in commercial area.

Third Generation:

The third generation of computer was developed

in 1965-1970 and was built using I.C. (Integrated Circuits).
Its speed was measured in nano-second. It was medium in
size, failure rate was low and reliability was high.

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Fourth Generation:

The fourth generation of computer was

developed in 1971 onwards and was built using VLSIC(Very
Large Scale Integrated Circuits). It was small
in size, failure rate was very low and reliability was very
high.

The Future Generation:

The computer technology is beyond our

imagination, possibly it is going to be biological computer,
which can understand, able to reason and make logical
decisions of its own – a computer with sense and feeling
these computers are aimed to communicate with human in
their language.
Organisation of computer
CPU (Central Processing Unit):

It is the brain or central nervous system of

computer. All type of calculations, manipulations and
comparisons operations are performed by the CPU. It also
controls the operation performed by all other units of the
computer system. The major parts of CPU are:

a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

b) Control Unit (CU)
c) Memory Unit (MU)

a) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU):

ALU is used to perform all calculations
(addition, subtraction, division, multiplication). It also takes
logical decision i-e comparisons (less than, equal to and
greater than etc.)

b) Control Unit (CU):

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 Control unit is the manager of CPU, it
control the operation of all the other units. It is like our
nervous system which keep control and coordinate of all
body movements. CU receives instructions and sends
signals to the specified device.
c) Memory Unit (MU):
When data and instructions are entered to
be stored in the computer for processing. It stores data and
instruction temporarily and permanently. These are two
types of memory:

1) Primary memory
2) Secondary memory

1) Primary memory:
This is the main memory of the computer.
It residents on the motherboard. It can be classified into two
types:

a) RAM (Random access memory)

b) ROM (Read only memory)

a) Random Access Memory (RAM):

Random Access Memory is a temporary

memory. Temporary because previous data is lost when new
data is entered. And power is switched off, it losses all the
data in it.

b) Read only Memory (ROM):

Read only memory is a permanent type primary

memory. It is a chip where information is written
permanently which cannot be erased. In ROM, when power
supply is switched off, the information does not get erased or
lost.
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 There are few evolutions in ROM like

a) PROM(Programmable read only memory)

Programmable read only memory allows the entering

of a frequently required micro program on to a ROM.

b) EPROM(Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory)

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is a

special type of ROM which can programmed by the user. Its
contents can also be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet
light.

c) EEPROM(Electrically Erasable Program Read Only

Memory)

It is another special type of ROM which can be erased

by applying a special voltage to one its input pins while
providing the appropriate timing signals.

2) Secondary Memory:

The secondary storage devices are used to store data

and instructions permanently on different types of secondary
storage media.
Various secondary storage devices are:

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a) Hard Disk:

Hard disk is a circular platter made up of very smooth

metal coated with magnetic ferric oxide on the both sides.
Just as a tape drive is required to rotate the disk with a
read/write head to retrieve or record the data.

b) Magnetic tape:

Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like main

frame computers where large volume of data is stored for a
longer time. Magnetic tape is like audio or video tape. It is
thin plastic ribbon coated with magnetic ferric oxide, usually
½ inch wide.

c) Floppy disk:

The floppy disks are one of the oldest type of portable

storage device. A floppy disk is made of flexible substance
called Mylar. They have a magnetic surface which allows
the recording of data. These are two types of floppy disks
5¼ inch and 3 ½ inch. 5 ¼ inch floppy disk has 1.2 MB
capacity floppies and 3 ½ inch floppy disk has 1.44 MB
capacity floppies.

d) Compact Disk:

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 Compact disk is formed from polycarbonate and coated
with highly reflective surface. The laser technology is used
to write data in this disk.

e) Digital Video disk (DVD):

DVD is an optical storage device that looks the same

as a compact disk but is able to hold about 15 times as much
information and transfer it to the computer about 20 times as
fast as CD-ROM. A DVD also called a Super Density Disk
can hold 4.7GB to 17 GB of data or four hours of movies on
a side.

f) Pen Drive:

Pen drive is small USB(Universal serial Bus) device,

in which we can transfer any type of data from computer and
take it with us for use on another computer. The price of the
pen drive is determined by the size of its memory. Current
Pen drive sizes can reach 1,2,4 or more gagabytes.

INPUT DEVICES
Data and Instructions are entered into the computer
through input devices. Following are the most commonly
used input devices:

1. Keyboard:

The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter

keyboard with few additional keys. Other than regular keys
there are function keys, arrow keys, numeric keys, window
keys, control key, alt. key etc. There are 101 keys in standard
keyboard but now a days keyboard with more than 101 keys
are also available.

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2) Mouse:

The mouse is an input device and is used to position the

pointer on the screen. It is a small palm size box. A pointer
moves on the screen when the mouse is rolled on the plane
surface. A mouse has two or three buttons for
selection/rejection. The cursor moves very fast with mouse
giving you more freedom to work in any direction.

4)Joysticks:

A joystick is a pointer device. It is basically a

lever that moves in all directions and controls the movement
of a pointer. Joysticks are used mostly for computer games.
The joystick is attached to the computer through a cable
connected to the games port. Joysticks are not used for
business applications such as word processing, data analysis
(using spreadsheet) etc.

5)Light pen:

A light pen is also a pointing device. A light pen

is used to choose objects or commands on the screen either
by pressing it against the surface of the screen or by pressing
a small switch to its side.

6)Digital Camera:

A digital camera can store many more pictures

than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a digital
camera are stored inside its memory and can transferred to
a computer by connecting the camera to it.

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7)Web Camera:

It is a fast becoming an integral part of the

computer specially for those who use internet quite often.
With this you can take an instant picture of the object to
whom you focus it is very useful specially for those who
have to show their designs, products etc on the computer to
the clients.

8) Scanner:

A Scanner is a device similar to a photocopier. Scanner

is an optical input device which is used for inputting various
forms of data into the computer. The main advantages of
scanner is that we don’t have to type the information. A
scanner creates an electronic form of the printed image,
which can later be manipulated, changed and modified
according to the requirement. There are some specific
scanners built for special purpose like OCR, MICR, OMR,
BCR,etc.

i) Optical Character Reader(OCR)

Optical Character Reader is an input device used to

read any printed text. These text may be either type written
or hand written.

ii) Image Scanner:

An image scanner employs laser technology to scan an

image. The image to be scan can be photographs, drawings,
application form etc.

iii) Optical Mark Reader:

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 These scanners are capable of recognizing a pre-
specified type of mark made by pencil or pen. The best
example of the use use of OMR is the evaluation of
computerised answer sheets used in objective test in any
examination.

iv) Magnetic Ink Character Reader(MICR)

MICR can recognise only certain character styles. It is

used mainly in the banking industry to read cheques.

Output Devices
The output unit is responsible for producing the output
in uses readable form. The commonly used output devices
are:
1. Visual Display Unit (VDU)
2. Printer
3. Plotters
4. Speakers

1. Visual Display Unit:

Popularly known as “Monitor” is like a T.V. screen. It
displays the soft copy of output in the form of text and
graphic image. Monitor can be either coloured or black and
white.

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 2. Printer:
Printer is the most popular output device. They
provide information in a permanent readable form. The
output comes from the printer is known as hard copy of the
output. There are two types of printers are
a) Impact Printers
b) Non-impact Printers

a) Impact Printers: In these printers, there is mechanical

contact between print head and paper. The impact printers
come in lot of varieties such as Line printer, Drum printer,
daisy wheel printer and Dot Matrix printer. Most common
printer in use today is Dot Matrix Printer.

b) Non-impact Printers: In these printers, there is no

mechanical contact between print head and paper. Example
of non-impact printers are Inkjet printer and Laser printer.

i) Dot matrix Printer

ii) Inkjet Printer
iii) Laser Printer

i) Dot matrix Printer:

These printers are low cost printers. They prints
character by character. In these printers a character is printed
by selecting a matrix of dots. So they are called dot matrix
printers.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

These printers use small compact device, which
control the flow of base ink through microscopic nozzle,
known as cartridge. With the help of this cartridge ink is
sprayed through its nozzle on the paper. The cost of cartridge
is very high.

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iii) Laser Printer:
These printers print in the same way as photocopiers
do. The powder ink (tonner) is transferred to paper to form
a text/image pattern. The laser printers are quiet and are
capable of producing high quality printing. They print one
page at a time.

3.) Plotter
A plotter is a large printer that generated high quality
document by moving ink pens over the surface of a page.
Plotters are particularly useful to engineers and architects, as
they produce high quality maps, floor plans etc. Plotters are
slower than printers, drawing each like separately.

4.) Speaker:
Speakers receive the sound in the form of electric
current from the sound card and then convert it to sound
format. The speakers that are attached to the computer are
similar to the ones that are connected to a stereo.

Data, Processing and Information

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What is data:

Data is a collection of facts and figures which can be

processed to produce information.

What is processing:

Processing is the activities performed to make data

meaningful.

What is information:
Information is data, which is summarised in the way you
want it, so that it is useful to you in your work. In other
words it is nothing but processed data.

Unit of Memory

8 bits = 1 Byte
1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte(KB)
1024 KB = 1Megabyte(MB)
1024MB = 1Gigabyte(GB)
1024GB = 1Terabyte(TB)

Computer Software
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 A computer system consists of hardware and software
for its proper functioning.

Hardware:
All the physical components of a computer are
called hardware. Computer is an assembly of various kinds
of components such as CPU, Keyboard, VDU etc. They are
all computer hardware.

Software:
Computer hardware in itself cannot perform any
useful task. They need some set of instruction. These
instructions are provided by computer software. This is
something that cannot be touched or seen but are essential
for working. Without software a computer is like car without
petrol or pen without riffle.

Software can be classified into two types:

1. System Software
2. Application Software

1. System Software:
System software is used to control, manage and
work with the hardware of the computer.

It is classified as following:

a) Operating System
b) Programming Language
c) Translator
a) Operating System:

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 These programmes are used to govern the control
of the computer hardware components such as memory
device and Input/Output devices.

b) Programming Languages:

The language used in the communication of

computer instructions is known as the programming
language.

Three levels of programming languages are

available. They are:

1. Machine Language:

Instructions in binary form(0,1), which a

computer can process directly is called machine language.

2. Assembly Language:

It was very difficult to remember the machine

codes. This led to the extensive use of MNEMONICS
CODE which could be easily understood by the human
beings for example, division or subtraction can be written as
div or sub respectively rather than binary digits.

3. High Level Language:

Although assembly language is a considerable

improvement over machine languages, they have two
disadvantages. Assembly language programs are quite long
and it is difficult to locate and correct errors.

To overcome these disadvantages, high level

languages have been developed. High level languages use
English words and are based on ten numbers. Most popular

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high level languages are Fortran, Cobol, Algol-60, Basic, C,
C++, Java.

c) Translator:

Translators are used to translate any program into

machine languages. It can be of three types:

(i) Assembler
(ii) Interpreter
(iii) Compiler

(i) Assembler:

Assembler translator is used to translate assembly

language into machine language.

(ii) Interpreter:

Interpreter is used to translate High level

language into machine language. It translate the program
step by step.

(iii) Compiler:

Compiler is a set of programs of conversion of

high level languages to machine language. It translate the
whole program at a time into machine language.

2. Application Software:
Software that are developed to perform specific
functions for a specific group of users are called Application
Software. For example Tally is developed for accountants,
coral draw is developed for graphic designer.

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 OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system is a system software which

communicate with the hardware of computer. It accepts
command in simple English language and converts it to
signals or machine language which computer hardware can
understand.

Functions of operating system

1. Provide a communication interface between the

computer and user
2. Control over the hardware resources.
3. It manages file transfer among various storage devices.
4. It establishes data security thus provide security
management.
5. It handles errors when they occur.

Types of Operating System

Operating system can be classified into two major parts.

1. User Based
2. Interface Based

1. User Based

Operating system can be classified into two parts:

a) Single User System

b) Multi User System

a) Single User System:

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 Single User Operating System is designed for
computer tends to serve single person at a time. This
operating system is widely used with personal computer
installed in home, office etc.

b) Multi User System:

This system which can be used by more than one

person at any time can be referred to as a multi user system.
It is generally required when a number of programmes have
to be run simultaneously or when common resources eg
disk/printer as to be shared by a number of user. Unix is a
most popular operating system on Multi User System.

2 Interface Based

There are two types of Interface :

a) Character User Interface (CUI)
b) Graphical User Interface (GUI)

a) Character User Interface (CUI):

Character User Interface system interacts with the

users only through the commands typed from the keyboard.
It does not support any other input device to communicate
with it. The user is required to remember the exact
commands to get its task executed by the system. The most
popular example of CUI is Dos.

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b) Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Graphical User Interface is a picture based way of

interacting with your computer. Instead of typing commands,
we select commands from menus and pictures to tell the
computer what we want to do. The most popular example of
GUI is windows. In GUI the user does not have to remember
each and every command, as they easily available in hand.

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 DISK OPERATING SYSTEM
Ms-Dos operating system was primarily developed
from IBM PCs in 1980. It is a disk operating system which
contains the disk oriented command. It is the basic program
for running the hard disk. It is a single user single tasking
operating system that can support any one user and one task
at a time.

DOS Commands:

Dos commands can be broadly classified into two categories:

i) Internal Commands:

Internal Commands are such programes in Dos which

get loaded in the memory of a PC automatically at the time
of booting or starting of computer like dir, del, copy etc.

ii) These commands are those which are not included in

the command processor. Those commands always need a
particular executable file to run. Some External commands
are chkdsk, deltree, tree, format etc.

Booting

Computer starts up is called booting. It checks for

proper functioning of all peripherals devices attached with
the system. It also checks for the primary memory of system.
There are two types of booting.

1. Cold Booting.
2. Warm Booting.

1. Cold Booting

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 Cold Booting is done by turning on the computer. In
case of cold booting, the memory and peripherals are
checked before loading the operating system.

2. Warm Booting

Warm Booting is performed by pressing Ctl+Alt+Del

keys. Simultaneously memory and peripheral devices are
not checked in the area of warm booting and operating
system is directly loaded.

Basic Dos Commands

Start
Run
Command

Directory

1. C:\>Dir Display the list of directories and sub

directories.

2. C:\> Dir/p It shows all the files and directories page

wise.

3. C:\>Dir/w It shows all the files and directories width

wise.

4. C:\>Dir/d It shows only directories.

5. Making Directory

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 Class(Main dir)

Boys(sub dir) Girls(files)

C:\>MD Class 
(For creating New Directory)

C:\> CD Class

(This command change the current directory with

specified directory)

C:\>CLASS>MD Boys 

(For creating sub directory)

6. Copy con

(This command is used for creating a new file in

the current working directory)

C:\>CLASS>copy con Girls

(After entering this command a file is created on

the root directory. We can type any information in this file.
For saving the typed contents press F6 or Ctl+z from the
keyboard.)

cd.. to come back

C:\> type class\Girls

This command displays the contents of specified file)

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7. Copy
This command copy a file to another file.

C:\>CLASS>copy girls abc

C:\>CLASS>type abc

(This command display the content of duplicate file.)

Copy a file to another drive:

C:\>CLASS>copy girls d:\xyz

(now the file girls will get copy on d: prompt as xyz
file)

For change the drive:

C:\>d
D:\>type xyz

(This command display the contents of copied file in d:

prompt)

8 Ren:

This command change the name of file specifies

C:\>CLASS>Ren Girls DEO

C:\>CLASS>type DEO

(This command display the contents of rename file)

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9. Remove Directory:

C:\RD (Directory Name) 

If directory is not empty.

C:\RD (Directory Name)\(sub-directory) 

Then

C:\Del (Directory name)\(file name) 

then
C:\RD (Directory name) 

10. Date

C:\> Date

(This command displays the system date. We can

also reset the system date from here.)

11. Time

C:\> Time

(This command displays the system time. We

can also reset the system time from here.)

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