Electrical Properties

IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 Remember back…
What is potential energy?

Stored Energy
 Voltage
Difference
Voltage is the Potential Energy ____________
between two locations Voltage = Potential Difference
p.d.

Symbol: V Unit: Volts [V]

 Current
The rate at which charges
move through a conductor

Flow of Electrons
Symbol: I Unit: Amperes [A]

- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -
 Current
Why do the electrons flow instead of protons
or neutrons?

Outside of the atom

so they are more
easily transferred
 Resistance
How difficult it is for electrons to flow
Symbol: R Unit: Ohms [Ω]

Which one has more resistance for water flow?

 Conductors and Insulators
low
Conductors have a ___________ resistance
high
Insulators have a ___________ resistance
 Electrical Properties
Property What is it? Symbol Unit

V
Volts
Voltage Potential Difference
[V]

I
The rate at which the charges Amps
Current move through wire [A]

Resistance
How hard it is for current to
flow through a conductor R Ohms
[Ω]
 How are they Related?
Voltage
Current
𝑉∝𝐼

Resistance
Current
𝑅 ∝ 1ൗ𝐼
How are they Related?
 Ohm’s Law
Mathematical relationship
between the electrical properties

V 𝑉 =𝐼×𝑅

𝑉
𝐼=
I × R
𝑅
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
IB Physics Data Booklet
 𝑉
Try this… 𝑅=
𝐼
What is the voltage of a battery that produces a
current of 1.5 amps through a 3 ohm resistor?
𝐼 = 1.5 A
𝑅 =3Ω 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 1.5 × 3 = 4.5 V
𝑉 = ??
What resistance would produce a current of
5 amps from a 120-volt power source?
𝐼 =5A
𝑉 120
𝑉 = 120 V 𝑅= = = 24 Ω
𝑅 = ?? 𝐼 5
 Remember Power?

Symbol: P Unit: Watts [W]

New Equations: 𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑉 2
𝑃=𝐼 𝑅 𝑃=
𝑅
IB Physics Data Booklet
 Calculating Power
A blender runs on 5 amps of
current on a 120 V. How much
power is it drawing?

𝐼 =5A
𝑉 = 120 V 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = (120)(5)
= 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐖
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝑅
Different Devices… Different Power
Common Appliances Estimated Watts What do
Blender
Microwave
300-1000
1000-2000
you notice?
Waffle Iron 800-1500
Toaster
Hair Dryer
800-1500
1000-1875
Heat
TV 32" LED/LCD 50
TV 42" Plasma 240
Blu-Ray or DVD Player 15
Video Game Console
40-140
(Xbox / PS4 / Wii)
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can describe the properties of Voltage, Current,
Resistance, and Power
❑ I can use Ohm’s Law to mathematically relate these
electrical properties and solve for an unknown
Circuits
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 Circuits
‒ +

Long side indicates the positive terminal

‒ +
Closed
Open

Electron
Flow

Conventional Current

*Ben Franklin defined current as

the flow of positive charges
Resistance in a Circuit
There are many different
components that act as resistors
when placed in a circuit
 Resistance and Electron Flow
Electrons will
follow the path of
least resistance
______________

short circuit
 Combining Components

Series Parallel
R1
R1 R2
R2

R1

R1 R2 R3 R2

R3
 Connecting in Series
• Components in one
single pathway
• Current flows the
same through
everything

R1 R2 R3
 Connecting in Parallel
• Separate branches
• Current splits up
between the different
pathways

R1

R2
 Connecting in Parallel

Which resistor has less resistance?

Water Flow Model
 Measuring Circuits
When we measure voltage or current in a circuit, we need
to connect our instrumentation in the right way

Voltmeter

Ammeter

A
 Ammeter
series with
Hooked up in ____________
the component being measured

A To measure the current,

the current must flow
through the ammeter
Measuring Current
Measuring Current
 Voltmeter
parallel with
Hooked up in ____________
the component being measured

To measure the potential

difference (voltage) a
voltmeter needs to
connect to two locations
V
Measuring Voltage
Measuring Voltage
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can describe the direction of conventional current
compared to the movement of charges through a circuit
❑ I can identify component combinations as parallel or
series
❑ I can describe how current flows through parallel and
series resistors
❑ I can describe the set up to measure current and voltage
in a circuit
Resistivity
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 Resistance
What factors affect the resistance of a wire?
• Cross-sectional Area
• Length
• Material
 Resistance
Imagine that you are testing the resistance of a straw while drinking a milkshake…

𝑅∝𝐿 1
𝑅∝
𝐴
 Calculating Resistance
𝐿 R → Resistance [Ω]
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴 L → Length [m]
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 A → Area [m2]
ρ → Resistivity [Ωm]
IB Physics Data Booklet

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
 Resistivity
Resistivity ρ changes
depending on the
material used.

Lower Resistivity → Better Conductor

 Resistivity – Try This #1
Calculate the resistance
of a 1.8 m length of
iron wire of with a
diameter of 3 mm

−8
(1.8)
𝑅 = (12.0 × 10 )
𝐿 (7.07 × 10−6 )
𝑅=𝜌 L = 1.8 m
𝐴 𝜌 = 12.0 × 10-8 Ωm 𝑅 = 0.0306 Ω
A = π(0.003/2)2 = 7.07 × 10-6 m2
 Resistivity – Try This #2
A current of 4 A flowed through a 75 m length of metal alloy wire of
area 2.4 mm2 when a p.d. of 12 V was applied across its ends. What
was the resistivity of the alloy?
𝑉 12
𝑅𝐴 𝑅= =
𝐼 4
=3Ω
𝜌= (3)(2.4 × 10−6 )
𝐿 𝐿 = 75 m
𝜌=
(75)
2
2
1m
𝐴 = 2.4 mm ×
1000 mm = 𝟗. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦
𝐴 = 2.4 × 10−6 m2
 Graphing Ohm’s Law
Linear Relationship means
that our component is
Ohmic
________________
Current / A

Resistance
is constant

Potential Difference / V
 Graphing Ohm’s Law
Many/most electrical resistors don’t follow Ohm’s Law all
of the time… For example, incandescent light bulbs have
much more resistance as they heat up

Non-ohmic
Non-linear Relationship means that our component is ____________
 Graphing Ohm’s Law
Find V and R for the resistors X and Y when the current is 2A
𝑉
V 4V 𝑅=
𝐼

X I
R
2A
2Ω
𝑅=
4V
2A

V 10 V 𝑉

Y I
R
2A
5Ω
𝑅=
𝐼
𝑅=
10 V
2A
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can describe the different factors the affect resistance
❑ I can define resistivity as a property of a material
❑ I can compare ohmic and non-ohmic resistors
Equivalent Resistance
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
Series and Parallel

Series
R1 R2

Parallel
R1

R2
 Straw “Resistor”
A good physical model for current travelling
through resistors is blowing through a straw.

1 resistor

3 resistors
in series

3 resistors
in parallel
 Combining Resistors

Adding resistors in series

increases overall resistance

Adding resistors in parallel

decreases overall resistance
 Compare these Combos…
Which example has the lowest overall resistance?
Assume that every resistor is the same.
 Combining Resistors | Series
When combining resistors in series,
the resistances are simply added up 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯
as if they were one large resistor

R1 R2 R1 R2 R3

R1,2 R1,2,3
 Combining Resistors | Parallel
When combining resistors in parallel, 1 1 1
the overall resistance decreases to = + +⋯
produce a smaller equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2
−1 −1 −1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +⋯ 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 −1 = 𝑅1 −1 + 𝑅2 −1 + ⋯

R1
R1
R2
R2
R3

R1,2 R1,2,3
 Combining Resistors – Try This
4Ω
4Ω 6Ω 8Ω
6Ω

18 Ω 2.4 Ω

1
𝑅𝑇 = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 Ω 1 1 1 𝑅𝑇 =
= + 1 1
𝑅𝑇 4 6 4+6

𝑅𝑇 = 4−1 + 6−1 −1 = 2.4 Ω

IB Physics Data Booklet
 Equivalent Resistance

3Ω

1Ω 3Ω

6Ω

3−1 + 6−1 −1
=2Ω

1Ω 2Ω 3Ω

1+2+3=6Ω

6Ω
Try This | Equivalent Resistance
7+2=9Ω
7Ω 2Ω

10 Ω 8Ω
10 + 8 = 18 Ω

9?Ω

18? Ω

9−1 + 18−1 −1
=6Ω
6?Ω
 This could be bigger…

48 Ω
20 Ω

20 Ω 16 Ω

56 Ω
8Ω 24 Ω
64 Ω
32 Ω 28 Ω 12 Ω

20 Ω 48 Ω 24 Ω 28 Ω
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can calculate the equivalent resistance for combinations
of resistors in series and parallel
❑ I can systematically step through the calculation of the
equivalent resistance for a complex combination
Circuit Analysis
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 Review of Parallel Circuits
• Separate branches
• Current splits up
between the different
pathways

Junctions
R1

R2
 Kirchhoff’s First Law
The total current coming into a junction must equal the
total current leaving the same junction

3A 9A

5A 5A

2A 4A
 Kirchhoff’s First Law
Entering Junction →● Positive
Σ𝐼 = 0 (𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) Exiting Junction ●→ Negative

(+5) + ( -3 ) + ( -2 ) = 0 (+5) + ( -9 ) + (+4) = 0

3A 9A

5A 5A

2A 4A
IB Physics Data Booklet
 Find the Missing Currents

I1 = 0.1 A
0.2 A
0.3 A
I2 = 1.1 A I3 = 2.0 A

0.6 A

2.0 A
 Follow the Current…

1A 2A
6A
1A
7A 3A

5A 4A

9A
Review of the Water Flow Model
“potential difference”
Each resistor has
p.d. a “voltage drop”
p.d.

p.d.

The voltage used by the

resistors equals the voltage
supplied by the battery
 Kirchhoff’s Second Law
The sum of the voltages (potential differences) provided
must equal the voltages dissipated across components Σ𝑉 = 0 (𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝)
Across Batteries
Negative to Positive → Positive Over Resistors:
Positive to Negative → Negative Always Negative

12 V
(+12 ) + ( -4 ) + ( -8 ) = 0
Resistor

8V 4V
 Kirchhoff’s Second Law
Across Batteries
Negative to Positive → Positive
Σ𝑉 = 0 (𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝) Over Resistors:
Positive to Negative → Negative Always Negative

( +12 ) + ( -2 ) + ( -9 ) + (-1 ) = 0
Resistor
12 V

1V 2V

9V
IB Physics Data Booklet
 The Tools for your Toolbox ☺

Ohm’s Law: If you know two of the 𝑉

three electrical properties: V, I, or R 𝑅=
𝐼
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Σ𝑉 = 0 (𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝) Σ𝐼 = 0 (𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Series Combination Parallel Combination

1 1 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ = + +⋯
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Calculating Circuits - Series
No Junction: Current is the same throughout

R1 R2 R3 V I R
1Ω 3Ω 2Ω
R1 2V 2A 1Ω
R2 6V 2A 3Ω
2A
12 V R3 4V 2A 2Ω
Loop: Voltage supplied equals Total 12 V 2A 6Ω
voltage dissipated
𝑉 12
𝑅𝑇 = 1 + 3 + 2 = 6 Ω 𝐼𝑇 = = = 2A
𝑅 6
 Calculating Circuits - Parallel
R1
6Ω V I R
R2 R1 12 V 2A 6Ω
2A

4A
12 V 3Ω
3Ω
R2 4A
6A

Total 12 V 6A 2Ω
12 V 𝑅𝑇 = 6−1 + 3−1 −1 =2Ω
Loop: Voltage supplied
equals voltage dissipated 𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = = = 6A 𝐼= =
Junction: Current in = Current out 𝑅 2 𝑅
Patterns
Series Circuit
• Voltage is divided between components
• Current is the same for all components

Parallel Circuit
• Voltage is the same for each branch
• Current splits at each junction
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can use Kirchhoff’s First Law to determine an unknown
current at a junction
❑ I can use Kirchhoff’s Second Law to determine an
unknown voltage drop in a loop
❑ I can calculate voltage, current, and resistance for every
component in a simple series or parallel circuit
❑ I can compare and contrast the properties for simple
series and parallel circuits
Potential Dividers
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
Types of Resistors
 Resistor

Increasing
Resistance

More length
Less Area 𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Types of Resistors

Light
Resistance
Inverse Relationship
Types of Resistors

Heat
Resistance
Inverse Relationship
Types of Resistors
 Potential Divider
“potential difference”
Each resistor has
p.d. a “voltage drop”
p.d.

p.d.

The total voltage supplied by

the battery is “divided” across
the different resistors
 Potential Divider

Vin

R1 R2

Allows circuit designers to tune

Vout the voltage that is being delivered
to the desired components
Relationship between R1 and Vout

R1
Vout

R1
Vout
Relationship between R2 and Vout

R2
Vout

R2
Vout
 Potential Divider
Vin Relationship between R1 and V?
R1 R1
Vout Vout
R1 R2
Relationship between R2 and V?
R2 R2
Vout
Vout Vout
 Potential Divider
𝑉 10
𝐼𝑇 = = = 0.04 A
𝑅 250 Find the Output Voltage:
𝑉 =𝐼×𝑅
Vout V I R
= 0.04 × 30

R1 1.2 V 0.04 A 30 Ω
30 Ω 220 Ω
R1 R2
R2 0.04 A 220 Ω

Total 10 V 0.04 A 250 Ω

1. Calculate total resistance and current

10.0 V 2. Current is the same for each resistor
3. Calculate voltage across R1
 Applications of LDRs
Designed to perform
function when the
amount of light changes
 Potential Divider | Night Light
7.0 V
Electronic A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has R = 8 Ω in bright light
Switch and R = 140 Ω in low light. An electronic switch will turn
on a light when its p.d. is above 7.0 V. What should the
value of R2 be? *Night light should turn on in low light

140 Ω V I R
R1 R2
R1 7.0 V 0.05 A 140 Ω
9.0 V 2.0 V 0.05 A 40 Ω
R2
1. Calculate current through R1
2. Current is the same throughout circuit
(no current through switch) Total 9.0 V 0.05 A
3. Use voltage loop to find voltage across R2
4. Calculate resistance of R2
 Potential Divider | Sprinkler System
6.0 V A thermistor has a resistance of 2.5 Ω when it is in the heat of
Electronic a fire and a resistance of 650 Ω in when at room temperature.
Switch
An electronic switch will turn on a sprinkler system when its
p.d. is above 6.0 V. What should the value of R1 be?
*Sprinkler should activate when hot

2.5 Ω
R1 R2
V I R
R1 6.0 V 1.2 A 5Ω
9.0 V
1. Use voltage loop to find voltage across R2 R2 3.0 V 1.2 A 2.5 Ω
2. Calculate current through R2
3. Current is the same throughout circuit
(no current through switch) Total 9.0 V 1.2 A
4. Calculate resistance of R1
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can identify the different circuit diagram symbols for
different types of resistors
❑ I can describe how environmental changes can affect the
resistance of LDRs and Thermistors
❑ I can describe how changing resistor values can affect
the voltage drop in a potential divider circuit
❑ I can design a potential divider circuit to perform a
certain task
Non-Ideal Meters
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 The Observer Effect
When taking any scientific measurement, there is always
the possibility that the act of taking the measurement will
change what is being measured
 The Observer Effect
When we measure voltage or current in a circuit, we want
to make sure to minimize an effect that our tool has on
the circuit so that we get the most accurate results

Voltmeter

Ammeter

A
Ammeter

Hooked up in series with the

component being measured

Ideal Ammeter:
A

[R = 0 Ω ]
 Measuring the Current
What is the reading for the current flowing through this ideal ammeter?

6Ω 2Ω A
R1 R2
0Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 8 Ω
𝑉 12
𝐼= = = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐀
𝑅 8
12 V
The ammeter has no effect on the
current that it’s measuring
 What if Ammeter isn’t ideal?
2Ω
What is the reading for the current flowing through this ideal ammeter?

6Ω 2Ω A 10 Ω
R1 R2
0Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 8 Ω
2Ω
𝑉 12 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐀
𝐼= = = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐀
𝑅 8
12 V 10

The non-ideal ammeter’s resistance slows

down the current that it’s measuring
 Voltmeter

Hooked up in parallel with the

V component being measured

Ideal Voltmeter:

[R = ∞ Ω ]
 Measuring the Voltage
∞Ω
What is the reading for the ideal voltmeter
V across the resistor R1?
R1 R2 1
6Ω 2Ω 𝑅𝑇 = +2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 1 1
12 − 3 +
6 ∞
0
𝑉 = 1.5 (2)
𝑉1 = 9 V
𝑉2 = 3 V
𝑅𝑇 = 6 +2 = 𝟖𝛀
𝑉 12
𝐼= =
𝑅 8

12 V 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐀
 Measuring the Voltage
12 Ω
∞Ω 12 Ω
What is the reading for the ideal voltmeter
V across the resistor R1?
R1 R2 1
6Ω 2Ω 𝑅𝑇 = +2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 1 1
12 − 34 +
𝑉 = 1.5 (2)
2
6 ∞
𝑉1 = 9 V 12
8V 𝑉2 = 3 V
4V
𝑅𝑇 = 6 +2 = 𝟖𝛀
4 𝟔𝛀
𝑉 12
𝐼= =
𝑅 86

12 V 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐀
𝟐𝐀
 Try This
Calculate the resistance of this non-ideal meter:
Ammeter • Current is the same for all components
Reading 1.2 A • Calculate total resistance from voltage and current
• Calculate ammeter resistance

𝑉 12
3Ω 6.5 Ω 𝑅= = = 10 Ω
R1 R2 𝐼 1.2
A
𝑅𝑇 = 10 Ω = 3 + 6.5 + 𝐴
1.2 A

𝐴 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝜴
12 V
 Try This
Calculate the resistance of this non-ideal meter:
• Use voltage loops to calculate voltage for R1 and R2
Voltmeter • Calculate current for R1 and R2
Reading 7V • Use current junction to find current through meter
• Calculate resistance of voltmeter
V 0.25 A
𝑉 𝑉 7
𝐼= 𝑅= =
7V 5V 𝑅 𝐼 0.25
R R
4Ω 1 2.5 Ω 2
1.75 A 2A 𝑅 = 𝟐𝟖 𝛀
0.25 A

1.75 A 2A
12 V
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can connect a meter to measure current or voltage
❑ I can describe the conditions required for an ideal
ammeter or voltmeter
❑ I can calculate for a situation when the meter isn’t ideal
Batteries
IB PHYSICS | ELECTRICITY
 Batteries
Primary Cells
One time use
Secondary Cells
Rechargeable

Battery Shape Chemistry Nominal Voltage Rechargable?

AA, AAA, C, and D Alkaline or Zinc-carbon 1.5V No
9V Alkaline or Zinc-carbon 9V No
Coin cell Lithium 3V No
Silver Flat Pack Lithium Polymer (LiPo) 3.7V Yes
AA, AAA, C, D
NiMH or NiCd 1.2V Yes
(Rechargeable)
Car battery Six-cell lead-acid 12.6V Yes
 Recharging?
Some batteries can reverse the chemical reaction that produces the potential difference by
passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction as it would normally travel

Recharging Circuit

+V
 Batteries | emf
We’ve been describing batteries so far as the voltage that they provide to the circuit,
but that’s not the whole story…

Electromotive Force (emf) Symbol

The total energy transferred
in the source per unit charge
passing through it ε
ε r Unit

Volts [V]
 Batteries | Internal Resistance
All batteries have some amount of internal resistance

Symbol

r
ε r Unit

Ohms [Ω]
 Batteries | emf
What is the emf for a battery shown below?

𝑅𝑇 = 7 + 3 + 0.5 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝛀
ε = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = (1.2)(10.5)
ε
ε = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 𝐕 0.5 Ω

1.2 A
7Ω 3Ω
 IB Physics Data Booklet

Essentially the same as V = IR

 Batteries | emf
What is the emf for a battery shown below?
R r
𝑅𝑇 = 7 + 3 + 0.5 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝛀
ε = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = (1.2)(10.5)
ε
ε = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 𝐕 0.5 Ω

1.2 A
7Ω 3Ω
 Batteries | Terminal Voltage
What is the terminal voltage for a battery shown below?

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅 = (1.2)(7) = 8.4 V
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅 = (1.2)(3) = 3.6 V
12.6 V
0.5 Ω
𝑉𝑇 = 8.4 V + 3.6 V

𝑉𝑇 = 12 V 1.2 A
7Ω 3Ω
 Batteries | Internal Resistance
What is the internal resistance of this battery as shown below?

ε = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
9 = 3(2.5 + 𝑟)
emf = 9 V
𝑟 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝛀 r

3A
2.5 Ω
 Graphing Internal Resistance

ε = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
ε = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 V 𝑉 = (−𝑟)𝐼 + ε
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

ε = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟
𝑉 = ε − 𝐼𝑟
I
 Lesson Takeaways
❑ I can describe the difference between primary and
secondary cells
❑ I can define the electromotive force and describe how is
it is different than the battery’s terminal voltage
❑ I can solve for a circuit that includes a battery with
internal resistance
❑ I can describe how