CHAPTER 1- MEASUREMENT 1.1 SCOPE OF PHYSICS 1.1.1 Describe the importance of physics in science, technology and society.(COGNITIVE LEVEL:U) IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS IN SCIENCE: 1. Physics in relation to chemistry The study of structure of atoms, radioactivity, X-ray, diffraction, etc., in physics has enabled chemists to rearrange elements in the periodic table and to have a better understanding of chemical bonding and complex chemical structures 2. Physics in relation to Biological science The optical microscopes developed in physics are extensively used in the study of biological samples. Electron microscope X-rays and radio isotopes are used widely in medical sciences. 3. Physics in relation to astronomy The giant astronomical telescopes and radio telescopes have enabled the astronomers to observe planets and other heavenly objects, 4, Physics related to other sciences The other sciences like Biophysics, Geology, Meteorology and Oceanography and Seismology use some of the laws of physics. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS IN SOCIETY AND TECHNOLOGY The development of telephone, telegraph and telex enables us to transmit messages instantly. The development of radio and television satellites has revolutionized the means of communication. Advances in electronics (computers, calculators and lasers) have greatly enriched the society, Rapid means of transport are important for the society. Generation of power from nuclear reactors is based on the phenomenon of controlled nuclear chain reaction. Digital electronics is widely used in modern technological developments. 4.2 SL UNITS 1.2.1 Describe 8.1 base units, derived units and supplementary units for various measurements. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:U) BASE UNITS: There are seven base units for various physical quantities namely: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, luminous intensity and amount of a substance (with special reference to the number of particles). The names of base units for these physical quantities together with symbols are given below.‘Quantity Unit 1. enh meter 2 Mase Hoge "3 Time second | 4. eerie Curent ampere 5. Temperature Kein Cumnowitersty | anda 7, Amant of Substance | __mdle DERIVED UNITS FUNDAMENTAL UNITS i Zlel-|>+|-/z\5 The units that require two or more basic measurements of same units or different fundamental units for its definition are called derived units.SI units for measuring all other physical quantities are derived from the base and supplementary units. Some of the derived units are given below. Quantity 1 Area 2. Volume 3 Density 4. Velocity S. Angular Velocity 6. Acceleration [PUAngular Accieration 3. Frequency |S. Force 10. Work energy SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS: DERIVED UNITS Unit square meter ‘cubic meter rae cue meter meter/second radian] second T hertz newton joule The general conference on weights and measures has not yet classified certain units of the SI under either base units or derived units. These SI units are called supplementary units. For the time being this class contains only two units of purely geometrical quantities, which are plane angle and the solid angle Quantity unit Symbol Plane angle radian rad Solid angle steradian sr1.2.2 Show the derived units as products or quotients of the base units. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:U) Derived Quantities Equation Derived Units Area (A) A=U m Volume (V) V=E ™ Density (p) p=m/V kgm" Velocity (vy v=Lit ms” Acceleration (a) a=dvit ms /s=ms" Momentum (p) p=mxv kgim™)=kgms™ Derived Quantities ] Equation Derived Unit Derived Units Special Name | Symbol Force (F) F=Ap/t | Newton N [kgms")/s=kgms Pressure (p) p=FTA | Pascal Pa (kgm s*) m= kg nv S* Energy (E) E=Fxd | joule J (kgm s~)(m) = kg S™ Power (P) P=E/t | watt W (kgm s*) 7s =kgm"s Frequency (f) f=t/t | hertz Hz qis=s7 Charge (Q) Q=Ixt | coulomb c As Potential Difference (Vj) |V=E/Q | vol V (kgm@s*)/As= kgm s AT Resistance (R) R=V/1 [ohm a (kg ms" A)/A=kg ms A 132 ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTY 1.3.1 Differentiate between systematic and random errors. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:U) SYSTEMATIC ERROR: Systematic error (also called systematic bias) is consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experiment design. These errors are usually caused by measuring instruments that are incorrectly calibrated or are used incorrectly. However, they can creep into your experiment from many sources, including: 1. Aworn out instrument. For example, a plastic tape measure becomes slightly stretched over the years, resulting in measurements that are slightly too high2. An incorrectly calibrated or tared instrument, like a scale that doesn't read zero when nothing is onit 3. A person consistently takes an incorrect measurement. For example, they might think the 3/4” mark on a ruler is the 2/3" mark. Systematic Errors produce consistent errors, either a fixed amount (like 1 Ib) or a proportion (like 105% of the true value). If you repeat the experiment, youlll get the same error. RANDOM ERROR: Random error (also called unsystematic error, system noise or random variation) has no pattern. One minute your readings might be too small, The next they might be too large. You can't predict random error and these errors are usually unavoidable. Random errors are (like the name suggests) completely random. They are unpredictable and can't be replicated by repeating the experiment again. 1.3.2 Measure the uncertainty in the derived quantity. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:A) 1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION: When perferming additions and subtractions we simply need to add together the absolute uncertainties. Example: Add the values 1.2 +0.1, 12.01 + 0.01,7.21 40.01 1.2 + 12.01 + 7.21 = 20.42 0.1 +0.01 +0.01=0.12 20.42 + 0.12 ULTIPLICATION, DIVISION AND POWERS: When performing multiplications and divisions, or, dealing with powers, we simply add together the percentage uncertainties. Example: Multiply the values 1.2 + 0.1, 12.01 + 0.01 1.2% 12.01 = 14 0.1/1.2 x 100 = 8.33 % 0.01 / 12.01 X 100 = 0.083% 8.33 + 0.083 = 8.413 % 144 8.413% 3. OTHER FUNCTIONS: For other functions, such as trigonometric ones, we calculate the mean, highest and lowest value to determine the uncertainty range. To do this, we calculate a result using the given values as normal, with added error margin and subtracted error margin. We then check the difference between the best value and the ones with added and subtracted error margin and use the largest difference as the error margin in the result.Example: Calculate the area of a field if i's length is 12 £ 1 m and width is 7 0.2m. Best value for area: 12x7 = 84m? Highest value for areat 13x 7.2= 93.6 m? Lowest value for area: 11x 6.8 = 74.8 m? If we round the values we get an area of: 84210 m? 1.4 PRECISION AND ACCURACY 1.4.1 State differences between pre and accuracy. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:K) S.No ‘Kecurady Precision ‘Accuracy is a measure of rightness Precision is a measure of exactness 2 | Accurate means "capable of providing a correct reading or | Precise means ‘repeatable, measurement.” reliable, getting the same measurement each time.” 3 | Ameasurement is accurate fit correctly reflects the size _ | Precision refers to how closely of the thing being measured individual measurements agree with each other. 7 _| Iyour seale gives you values of 49.8, 505, 51.0, 49.6, it _| Ifyou take the measurements of is more accurate than the first balance, but not as precise. | the mass of a 50.0-gram standard sample and get values of 47.5, 47.6, 47.5, and 47.7 grams, your scale is precise, but not very accurate. 5 _| Ifdepends on the measurement not the device used for _| It depends on the measuring measurement. instrument. 41.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 1.5.1 Calculate answers with correct scientific notations, number of significant figures in all numerical. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:A) SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: “All the accurately known digits in a value and the first doubtful digit are known as significant figures.” In the measurement of any physical quantity the number of digits about which we are sure are called significant figures All physical measurements involve some degree of inaccuracy due to human error. instrumental error or due to both and therefore the knowledge of precision of ameasurement is very important. A significant figure is that which is known to be reasonably reliable. The last figure being reasonably correct guarantees the certainty of the preceding figures. RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: ()) In whole number values. all the digits except zeros at the right side m recognized as significant figures, (ii) In decimal number values the zeros at the right side of the number are counted as significant figures but the zeros at the left side are not taken as significant figures. (ii) Power or exponents to a certain base are not taken as significant figures. (iv) In addition and subtraction process, the result should be rounded off to contain as many as decimal places as contained in the value of least number of decimal place (v) In multiplication and division process. the result should be rounded off to contain as many as significant figures as contained in the factor of least significant figures. FOR EXAMPLE: S.NO| Value | No. of significant figures 1_| 0.00045 24.5) 2_ | 1.2000 5(1.2,0,0,0) 3 505 3(5,0,5) 4 [34000 23.4) 5_ | 667 x10" 3(6.6.7) Converting to Scientific Not The following rule can be used to convert numbers into scientific notation: The exponent in scientific notation is equal to the number of times the decimal point must be moved to produce a number between 1 and 10. In 1990 the population of Chicago was 6,070,000 . To convert this number to scientific notation we move the decimal point to the left six times. 6,070,000 = 6.070 x 10" To translate 10,300,000,000,000,000,000,000 carbon atoms into scientific notation, we move the decimal point to the left 22 times. 10,300,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 1.03 x 107? To convert numbers smaller than 1 into scientific notation, we have to move the decimal point to the right. The decimal point in 0.000985, for example, must be moved to the right four times.0.000985 = 9.85 x 10 Converting 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,020 grams per carbon atom into scientific notation involves moving the decimal point to the right 23 times. 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,020 = 2.0 x 10° The primary reason for converting numbers into scientific notation is to make calculations with unusually large or small numbers less cumbersome. Because zeros are no longer used to set the decimal point, all of the digits in a number in scientific notation are significant, as shown by the following examples 2.4x 10 2 significant figures 9.80 x 10 3 significant figures 4.055x 10° 4 significant figures 1.5.2 Show that the least count (L.C) of an instrument is the smallest increment measurable by it. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:U) Least Count tells you the minimum reading or value that can be measured with a measuring tool or device, Generally, simply multiplying Least Count with the number of divisions (lke in ruler) or fraction of divisions (like in Vernier Calipers), we get our answer in the units specified. For Example, 21 divisions in a Ruler would mean 2.1 cm or 21 mm. Least count of a ruler is 0.1 cm or 1 mm (we'll understand how to find it, later in this article). HOW TO FIND LEAST COUNT: I've seen many people confused about how to find Least Count. The method used by them might be slightly different, tough to remember, so even if they understand it once, the next time they try to do the same, they forget about it, which is not good The way | like to make it understandable is related to the definition of Least Count itself. Remember, Least Count gives you the minimum value that can be measured by by the instrument/deviceltool. So considering that, Least Count will be: ‘You can take any number of divisions for finding Least Count, but those have to be the smallest ones. Let us take "n" small divisions. Value measured in "n" divisions n So overall, Least Count is based on the concept of Unitary Method. FOR EXAMPLE: THE RULERSo for a ruler, that is, the scale, we use in daily life, we can find the Least Count, by the definition formula only, which we did. Let us take 20 divisions for it (the value of "n". We know that a ruler measures 20 mm or 2 cm, 20 divisions. Value measured in 20 divisions Le= 20 =2cm/20=0.1cm Therefore Least Count of a Ruler comes out to be 0.1 em or 1 mm. Remember, you could even take other values like { 1 om / 10}. Now what is the importance of this value (0.1 cm)? While calculating, we used 20 divisions. Now 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. are numbers that can be easily dealt with practically, rather than numbers like 13, 17, 27, etc. What if we want to calculate the value measured by 23 divisions of a ruler. Here Least Count becomes handy. You can simply multiply 23 with 0.1 cm (the Least Count) & get the answer 2.3 cm. Therefore, 2.3 cm is the value measured by 23 divisions of a Ruler. 41.6 DIMENSIONS 1.6.1 Measure the homogeneity of physical equations by using dimension and basic units. (COGNITIVE LEVEL: A) DIMENSION: Dimension is a philosophical word. In literature it means a line or direction. In mathematics it means an axis but in physics it is used to denote the nature of a physical quantity) which comes from the involvement of fundamental quantities in that particular quantity. So each of the fundamental quantities is called Dimension. Hence the dimensions of physics are mass (M), length (L) and time (1). These are the fundamental quantities on which physics is based upon EXAMPLES: SNo_| Physical Quantity Formula Dimension SI Unit 1 | Area Length x breadth jc lm 4 2 | Volume Length x breadth x height [L m 3 Density Mass / Volume ML Kgm10 11 12 13 14 15 Q. Prove that v,? — Ans. Speed or Velocity Acceleration Force Pressure Momentum Work Energy Power Gravitational Constant Torque or couple Angular Momentum Angle vy? —v,° = Zas, can be written as_vy Distance/ Time uw Velocity/Time iT Mass x acceleration MLT- ForcelArea ML T Mass/ Velocity MLT- Force x Displacement ML?T? Work MLT Work / Time ML T Force x Distance /Mass_ ML T Force x perpendicular ML T distance mass x velocity x radius. ML T* Arc length \ radius dimension less 2as is dimensionally correct. 2as + v2 kgm s* radianUT LT LAT VT*=2 UT? Since 2 has no dimension,therefore, Urs et? L.H.S=R.HS, hence proved. Q.Verify that modulus of elasticity and pressure have same dimesions. Ans. Alc definition of modulus of elesticity Modulus of elasticity =stress / strain . putting the dimensions = MIT (i) Alc definition of pressure Pressure =Force / Area, putting the dimensions uur = ML“'T (ii) eq{i) and eq{ii) verify that pressure and modulus of elasticity have same dimension Q. Find the dimensions of G. If F = G77 Ans. Rearranging the formula we get, G=F mm putting the dimensions = M~11AT~ , is the dimension of G. 1.6.2 Derive formula for physical quantities by using dimensions. (COGNITIVE LEVEL:U)There is one more benefit of learning to dimensional analysis techniques. They can often help us to quickly re-derive an important formula, Example: You we taking a test on circular motion, when we come upon a problem involving the “centripetal force” acting on a body. In order to find the formula for centripetal force let us solve by dimensional analysis. Mass has dimension [M], speed has dimension [LT], and radius has dimension [L]. All you have to do is to figure out a way to put the variables m, v, and r together in a way that makes their combined dimension come out to be that of force. The force is given by F=M'Lire MLT~? = m*v'r® Where, a, b, and c are unknown integers. They are found by requiring the dimensions of both sides of the equation to match: . =o fT we - If we match mass units [M] on each side, we see that the integer a must equal 1 - If we match time units [T] on each side, we see that the integer b must equal 2. if we match length units [L] on each side, we see that the sum b +c must equal 1. Since b = 2, c must equal -1. We have deduced that the only possible set of values for a, b, and c that will result in an expression with dimension of force are: (a, b, c) = (1,2, 1). So, we have: Fo=m'vrt or Thus, we have managed to reproduce the required formula from our incomplete memory, just by making sure that the variables combine together in a way to give units of force.