Unit 1

Introduction to
i programs that control the
An operating system (OS) is a set of
execution of application programs and act as an intermediary
between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. OS
is software that manages the computer hardware as well as
providing an environment for application programs to run.
Examples of OS are: Windows, Windows/NT, OS/2 and MacOS.

Operating system Objectives

The objectives of OS are:
(1)To make the computer system convenient and easy to use for the user.
(2)To use the computer hardware in an efficient way.
(3)To execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.

Computer System
A computer system can be divided into four components: the
hardware, the operating system, the application programs and
the users. The abstract view of system components is shown in
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figure 1.
1. Hardware: such as CPU, memory and I/O devices.
2. Operating system: provides the means of proper use of the
hardware in theoperations of the computer system, it is similar to
government.
3. Application programs: solve the computing problems of the user,
such as :compilers, database systems and web browsers.
4. Users: peoples, machine, or other computer.

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Figure 1: computer system

Computer System
O i ti
1. Computer-System Operation
A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or more
CPUs and a number of device controllers connected through a common
bus that provides access to shared memory (Figure 1.2). Each device
controller is in charge of a specific type of device (for example, disk
drives, audio devices, and video displays). The CPU and the device
controllers can execute concurrently, competing for memory cycles. To
ensure orderly access to the shared memory, a memory controller is
synchronizing access to the memory.
For a computer to start running-for instance, when it is powered up or
rebooted- it needs to have an initial program to run. This initial program,
or bootstrap program, tends to be simple. Typically, it is stored in read-
only memory (ROM) or electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM),known by the general term firmware, within the
computer hardware. It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU
registers to device controllers to memory contents. The bootstrap
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program must know how to load the operating system

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and to start executing that system. To accomplish this goal, the

bootstrap program must locate and load into memory the operating
system kernel. The operating system then starts executing the first
process, such as "init," and waits for some event to occur.

Figure 2
2. Storage Structure
Computer programs must be in main memory (also called RAM) to be
executed.Main memory is the only large storage area that the processor
can access directly. It forms an array of memory words. Each word has
its own address. Interaction is achieved through a sequence of load or
store instructions to specific memory addresses. The load instruction
moves a word from main memory to an internal register within the CPU,
whereas the store instruction moves the content of a register to main
memory.
The instruction-execution cycle includes:
1) Fetches an instruction from memory and stores that instruction in
theinstruction register. And increment the PC register.
2) Decode the instruction and may cause operands to be fetched from
memoryand stored in some internal register.
3) Execute the instruction and store the result in memory.

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The programs and data are not resided in main memory permanently for
the following two reasons:
1) Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and.
Data permanently.
2) Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents
when poweris turned off or otherwise lost.
Thus, most computer systems provide secondary storage as an
extension of mainmemory to hold large quantities of data permanently.
The wide variety of storage systems in a computer system can be
organized in a hierarchy (figure 2). The main differences among the
various storage systemslie in speed, cost, size, and volatility. The higher
levels are expensive, but they are fast.

Figure 3: Storage device hierarchy

3. I/O Structure
3. I/O
A computer system consists of CPUs and multiple device controllers
that are connected through a common bus. The device controller is
responsible for moving the data between the peripheral devices that it

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controls and its local

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buffer storage. Typically, operating systems have a device driver for each
devicecontroller.
To start an I/O operation, the device driver loads the appropriate registers
within the device controller. The device controller examines the contents
of these registers to determine what action to take. The controller starts
the transfer of data from the device to its local buffer. Once the transfer
of data is complete, the device controller informs the device driver via an
interrupt that it has finished its operation. The device driver then returns
control to the operating system . For other operations, the device driver
returns status information.
For moving bulk data, direct memory access (DMA) is used. After setting
up buffers, pointers, and counters for the I/O device, the device controller
transfers an entire block of data directly to or from its own buffer storage
to memory, with no intervention by the CPU. Only one interrupt is
generated per block, to tell the device driver that the operation has
completed, rather than the one interrupt per byte generated for low-speed
devices.

Computer system structure

There are different categories for designing a computer system
according to the number processors used.
1. Single-processor system: there is one CPU for executing instructions.
2. Multiprocessor system: It contains two or more processors that share
bus, clock, physical memory and peripheral devices. The advantages
of multiprocessors are:
a) Increase throughput.
b) Economy scale (less cost).
c) Increase reliability.
3. Clustered system: it consists of multiple computer systems
connected by a local area network.

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Operating system History

Operating systems have been evolving through the years. Following table
showsthe history of OS.

Operating system
F ti
OS performs many functions such as:
1. Implementing user interface.

2. Sharing HW among users.

3. Allowing users to share data among themselves.

4. Preventing users from interfering with one another.

5. Scheduling resource among users.

6. Facilitating I/O operations.

7. Recovering from errors.

8. Accounting for resource storage.

9. Facilitating parallel operations.

10. Organizing data for secure and rapid

access.11.Handling network

communications.

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Operating system Categories

The main categories of modern OS may be classified into three groups
which are distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place
between the computer and the user:
1. Batch system

In this type of OS, users submit jobs on regular schedule (e.g. daily,
weekly, monthly) to a central place where the user of such system did
not interact directly with computer system. To speed up the processing,
jobs with similar needs were batched together and were run through the
computer as a group. Thus, the programmer would leave the programs
with the operator. The output from each job would send to the
appropriate programmer. The major task of this type was to transfer
control automatically from one job to the next.
Disadvantages of Batch System
1. Turnaround time can be large from user standpoint.
2. Difficult to debug program.

2. Time-Sharing System

This type of OS provides on-line communication between the user and

the system, the user gives his instructions directly and receives
intermediate response, and therefore it called interactive system.

The time sharing system allows many user simultaneously share the
computer system. The CPU is multiplexed rapidly among several
programs, which are kept in memory and on disk. A program swapped
in and out of memory to the disk.

Time sharing system reduces the CPU ideal time. The disadvantage is
more complex.

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3. Real time operating system

Real Time System is characterized by supplying immediate response.

It guarantees that critical tasks complete on time. This type must have
a pre- known maximum time limit for each of the functions to be
performed on the computer. Real-time systems are used when there
are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow
of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application.

The airline reservation system is an example of this type.

Performance development of OS
1. On-line and off-line operation

A special subroutine was written for each I/O device called a device
controller. Some I/O devices has been equipped for either on-line
operation (they are connected to the processor), or off-line
operations(they are run by control unit).

2. Buffering

A buffer is an area of primary storage for holding data during I/O

transfer. On input, the data are placed in the buffer by an I/O
channel, when the transfer is complete the data may be accessed
the processor. The buffing may be single or double.

3. Spooling (Simultaneously Peripheral Operation On-Line)

Spooling uses the disk as a very large buffer. Spooling is useful

because device access data that different rates. The buffer
provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower
device catches up.

Spooling allows overlapping between the computation of one job

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and I/O of another job.

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4. Multiprogramming

In multiprogramming several programs are kept in main memory at

the same time, and the CPU is switching between them , thus the
CPU alwayshas a program to be execute. The OS begins to execute
one program from memory, if this program need wait such as an
I/O operation, the OS switches to another program.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization. Multiprogramming
system provide an environment in which the various system
resources are utilized effectively, but they do not provide for user
interaction with the computer system.

Advantages

a) High CPU utilization.

b) It appears that many programs are allotted CPU

almostsimultaneously.

Disadvantages

a) CPU scheduling is requires.

b) To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management

isrequired.

5. Parallel system

There are more than on processor in the system. These

processors sharethe computer bus, clock, memory and I/O devices.

The advantage is to increase throughput (the number of programs

completed in time unit).

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6. Distributed system

Distribute the computation among several physical processors. It

involves connecting 2 or more independent computer systems via
communication link. So, each processor has its own O.S. and local
memory; processors communicate with one another through
various communications lines, such as high-speed buses or
telephone lines.

Advantages of distributed systems:

a) Resources Sharing – You can share files and printers.

b) Computation speed up – A job can be partitioned so that each

processor can do a portion concurrently (load sharing).

c) Reliability – If one processor failed the rest still can function

with noproblem.

d) Communications – Such as electronic mail, ftp

7. Personal computer

Personal computers – computer system dedicated to a single user.

PC operating systems were neither multi-user nor multi-tasking.
The goal of PC operating systems were to maximize user
convenience and responsiveness instead of maximizing CPU and
I/O utilization.

•Examples: Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh

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Operating system Service

An operating system provides services to programs and to the
users of those programs. The common services provided by the
operating system are:
1. Program execution: Operating system loads a program into
memory and executes the program. The program must be
able to end its execution, either normally or abnormally.
2. I/O Operation: I/O means any file or any specific I/O device.
Program may require any I/O device while running. So
operating system must provide the required I/O.
3. File system manipulation: Program needs to read a file or
write a file. The operating system gives the permission to the
program for operation on file.
4. Communication: Data transfer between two processes is
required for some time. The both processes are on the one
computer or on different computer but connected through
computer network. Communication may be implemented by
two methods:
a. Shared memory
b. Message passing.
5. Error detection: error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in
the memory hardware. The operating system constantly
needs to be aware of possible errors. It should take the
appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent
computing.
Operating system with multiple users provides efficient

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system operations:
1. Resource allocation: For simultaneously executing job.

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2. Accounting: For account billing and usage statistics.

3. Protection: Ensure access to system resource is controlled.

Operating system operations

Modern operating systems are interrupt driven. If there are no
processes to execute, no I/O devices to service, and no users to whom to
respond, an operating system will sit quietly, waiting for something to
happen. Events are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an
interrupt or a trap. A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either
by an error (for example, division by zero or invalid memory access) or
by a specific request from a user program that an operating-system
service be performed. For each type of interrupt, separate segments of
code in the operating system determine what action should be taken. An
interrupt service routine is provided that is responsible for dealing with
the interrupt.
Since the operating system and the users share the hardware and
software resources of the computer system, we need to make sure that
an error in a user program could cause problems only for the one
program that was running. With sharing, many processes could be
adversely affected by a bug in one program. A properly designed
operating system must ensure that an incorrect (or malicious) program
cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.
A) Dual-Mode Operation
We must be able to distinguish between the execution of operating-
system code and user defined code. The approach is to separate the two
modes of operation: user mode and kernel mode (also called supervisor
mode, system mode, or privileged mode). A bit, called the mode bit is
added to the hardware of the computer to indicate the current mode:
kernel (0) or user (1). The dual mode of operation provides us with the
means for protecting the operating system from errant users-and errant
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users from one another.

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System calls provide the means for a user program to ask the operating
system to perform tasks reserved for the operating system on the user
program's behalf.
B) Protection CPU
To ensure that the operating system maintains must control over the
CPU. We must prevent a user program from getting stuck in an infinite
loop or not calling system services and never returning control to the
operating system. To accomplish this goal, we can use a timer. A timer
can be set to interrupt the computer after a specified fixed or variable
period.

Operating System Components

The operating system components are :

1.Process Management

In multiprogramming environment, OS decides which process gets the

processorwhen and how much time. The operating system is responsible
for the following activities in regard to process management:
1) Creating and deleting both user and system processes
2) Suspending and resuming processes
3) Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
4) Providing mechanisms for process communication
5) Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Memory Management
Management
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte
has its own address. The operating system is responsible for the
following activities in regard to memory management:
1) Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and bywhom

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2) Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out ofmemory

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3) Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.

File system Management

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in regard to
filemanagement:
1) Creating and deleting files
2) Creating and deleting directories to organize files
3) Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories
4) Mapping files onto secondary storage
5) Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Secondary storage Management

OS provides the following activities in connection with disk management:

1. Free-space management.

2. Storage allocation

3. Disk scheduling.

System Call and System

System calls provide an interface between the running program and the
operating system. User cannot execute privileged instructions; the user
must ask OS to execute them- system calls. System calls are
implemented using traps.

OS gains control through trap, switches to kernel mode, performs

service,switches back to user mode, and gives control back to user.

Example about how system calls are used from the OS to read data from
one files and copy them to another file, shown in figure . the programmer

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never seethis level of details

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Acquire input
filename Write
prompt to screen
Accept input
Acquire output
filenameWrite prompt
Example
to screensystem
Accept call
input
Open the input file
If file does not exist,
abortCreate output file
If file exist,
abortLoop
Read from input
fileWrite to output
file
Until read fail
Close output
System program provide basic function to users, so that they don’t need
to write their own environment for program development (editors,
compilers) and program execution (shells).

Protection and security

Protection refers to mechanism that control the access of programs or
users to theboth system and resources. The protection mechanism must:
1. Distinguish between unauthorized and authorized user.
2. Specify the control to be imposed.
3. Provide a means of enforcement.
Security measures are responsible for defending a computer system from
external

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