Calculus I

Lecture Notes

Instructor: An-Shun Tai

Department of Statistics, National Cheng Kung University
Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Part 1. Introduction to Calculus and Precalculus Review

(This corresponds to Sections 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 of the textbook)

1.1 What is Calculus?

A. The Area Problem
Question 1: Find the area of a circle.

Let 𝐴! be the area of the inscribed regular polygon of 𝑛 sides. As 𝑛 increases, it appears that 𝐴! gets
closer and closer to the area of the circle. We say that the area 𝐴 of the circle is the limit of the areas
of the inscribed polygons, and we write
𝐴 = lim 𝐴! .
!→#

Question 2: Find the area of the region under a graph.

We approximate such an area by areas of rectangles as shown above. If we approximate the area 𝐴 of
the region under the graph of 𝑓 by using 𝑛 rectangles
𝐴! = 𝑅$ + 𝑅% + ⋯ + 𝑅! .
Image that we increase the number of rectangles (as the width of each one decrease) and calculate 𝐴
as the limit of these sums of areas of rectangles:
𝐴 = lim 𝐴! .
!→#

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

B. The Tangent Problem

Question 3: Find the slope (𝑚) of the tangent line 𝐿 to a curve with equation 𝑓(𝑥) at a given point 𝑃.

We first find an approximation to 𝑚 by taking a nearby point 𝑄 on the curve and computing the
slope 𝑚&' of the secant line 𝑃𝑄.
Now imagine that 𝑄 moves along the curve toward 𝑃 as the figure above. You can see that the secant
line 𝑃𝑄 rotates and approaches the tangent line las its limiting position. This means that the slope
𝑚&' of the secant line becomes closer and closer to the slope 𝑚 of the tangent line. We write
𝑚 = lim 𝑚&'
'→&
Or
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚 = lim = lim
(→) (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑎 (→) ℎ

1.2 Review of Basic Calculus in the Senior High School

A. Polynomial Function
Constant function: 𝑓$ (𝑥) = 𝑎
Linear function: 𝑓% (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Quadratic function: 𝑓* (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 % + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

B. Derivate and Differentiation

The derivative of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 + . The process of finding derivatives is called differentiation.
Differentiation Rule for polynomial functions
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 (,.$)

Example 1. Find the derivate.

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 %
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 %
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 *

C. Integral and Integration

The indefinite integral of a real-valued function 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to a real variable 𝑥 is written as
; 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
The process of finding integrals is called integration.

Power Rule for Integration (positive integer version)

Let 𝑘 be a positive integer. Then we have
1
; 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ,0$ + 𝐶
𝑘+1
where 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant.

Example 2. Find the integral.

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 %
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 %
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 *

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Question
1. Can we have the derivatives and integrals of any function?
No. You will learn many types of functions and their properties (Chapter 2. Continuity; Chapter 7.
Transcendental Functions).

2. Are limits important in calculus?

Yes. Without limits, calculus would not exist (Chapter 2. Limits).

3. Are there formal definitions of derivatives?

Yes. In Calculus I, you will learn the fundamental theorems of derivatives and the process of
differentiation (Chapter 3. Derivatives; Chapter 4. Applications of Differentiation).

4. Are there formal definitions of integrals?

Yes. In Calculus I, you will learn the fundamental theorems of integrals and the process of
integration (Chapter 5. Integrals; Chapter 4. Applications of Integration).

5. Is integration as straightforward as differentiation?

No. There are no rules that absolutely guarantee obtaining an integral of a function (Chapter 8.
Techniques of Integration).

1.3 Basic Mathematical Concepts for Calculus

A. Sets
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set are called the elements or members of the
set. For example, {1, 2, 3} is the set which has exactly three elements, namely 1, 2 and 3.

Notions and Notation (1)

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Notions and Notation (2)

• The set of all real numbers is denoted by ℝ.

• The set of all rational numbers is denoted by ℚ.
• The set of all integers is denoted by ℤ.
• The set of all positive integers is denoted by ℤ0 .
• The set of all natural numbers is denoted by ℕ.

Remark
Positive integers (natural numbers): 1, 2, 3, …
Integers: …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …
Rational numbers: 𝑝/𝑞, with 𝑝, 𝑞 integers, 𝑞 ≠ 0
Irrational numbers: real number that not rational.

B. Intervals
The real number line is a representation of all the real numbers on a horizontal line

The following nine types of subsets of ℝ are called intervals:

NOTE: The symbols ∞ and −∞, read “infinity” and “negative infinity (minus infinity)”, do not
represent real numbers.
- Any interval that contains no endpoints is called open: (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑎, ∞), (−∞, 𝑏), and (−∞, ∞) are
open.
- Any interval that contains each of its endpoints (there may be one or two) is called closed: [𝑎, 𝑏],
[𝑎, ∞), and (−∞, 𝑏]are closed.

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

C. Boundedness
A set 𝑆 of real numbers is said to be:
(i) Bounded above if there exists a real number 𝑀 such that
𝑥 ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆;
such a number 𝑀 is called an upper bound for 𝑆.
(ii) Bounded below if there exists a real number 𝑚 such that
𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆;
such a number 𝑚 is called a lower bound for 𝑆.
(iii) Bounded if it is bounded above and below.

Example 3. Determine whether it is (i) an open interval, (ii) a closed interval, (iii) a bounded
interval. In addition, find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and determine whether they are an interval.
a) 𝐴 = [2, 6] and 𝐵 = (3, 8]
b) 𝐴 = [−2, 1] and 𝐵 = (3, 8]
c) 𝐴 = [−2, 3] and 𝐵 = (3, ∞)

D. Inequalities
Consider an inequality in the form 𝐹(𝑥) > 0 (or 𝐹(𝑥) < 0).
(1) A real number 𝑥) satisfying 𝐹(𝑥) ) > 0 (or 𝐹(𝑥) ) < 0) is called a solution to the inequality.
(2) The set of all solutions to the inequality is called the solution set to the inequality.

Example 4. Solve the inequality

a) |𝑥 + 2| < 3
b) 𝑥 % − 4𝑥 + 3 > 0
c) 𝑥 % − 2𝑥 + 5 ≤ 0

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Triangle inequality
For all real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, we have
|𝑎 + 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|.

Proof

1.4 Functions
A. Representation of Functions
Four Ways to Define a Function
(i) Verbally (by a description in words):
The area of a circle is 𝜋 times the radius squared.
(ii) Numerically (by a table of values)

(iii) Visually (by a graph)

(iv) Algebraically (by an explicit formula)

𝑓(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 %

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Domain and Range

Let’s suppose that 𝐷 is some set of real numbers and that 𝑓 is a function defined on 𝐷. Then 𝑓 assigns
a unique number 𝑓(𝑥) to each number 𝑥 in 𝐷. The number 𝑓(𝑥) is called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥, or the
image of 𝑥 under 𝑓.
The set 𝐷, the set on which the function is defined, is called the domain of 𝑓, and the set of values
taken on by 𝑓 is called the range of 𝑓.
In set notation
𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = 𝐷, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑓) = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷}.

Example 5. Find the domain and range of each function.

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/ (𝑥 % − 2𝑥)
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 %

B. Elementary Functions
Polynomials
A polynomial is a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎! 𝑥 ! + 𝑎!.$ 𝑥 !.$ + ⋯ + 𝑎$ 𝑥 + 𝑎)
where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and the 𝑎! , 𝑎!.$ , … , 𝑎$ , 𝑎) are real numbers, which are called the
coefficients of 𝑓.
- If the leading coefficient 𝑎! ≠ 0, then the degree of the polynomial is 𝑛.
- Special cases:
If 𝑛 = 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎) is also called as a constant function.
If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is also called as a linear function.
If 𝑛 = 2, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 % + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is also called as a quadratic function.

Power Functions
A power function is a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 1
where 𝑎 is a fixed real number.

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Rational Functions
A rational function is a function of the form
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑄(𝑥)
where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are polynomials.

Trigonometric Functions
Radian (denoted as 𝜃) is a unit of measure for angles.

Definition
One radian is the angle made at the center of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of
the circle.

Let define six trigonometric functions: Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant.
- The second coordinate of 𝑃 is called the sine of 𝜃 (we write 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) and the first coordinate of 𝑃 is
called the cosine of 𝜃 (we write 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃).
- The tangent function is defined as 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃/𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
- 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃/𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 1/𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 1/𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃.

Figure 1. Left: a unit circle. Right: The rotation 𝜃 takes 𝐴(1,0) to point 𝑃.

Table 1.

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 2
where the base 𝑏 is a positive constant.

Logarithmic Functions
A logarithmic function is a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 𝑥
where the base 𝑏 is a positive constant.
- Logarithmic functions are the inverse functions of exponential functions.
- More properties will be studied in Chapter 7 of the textbook.

C. More about Functions

Piecewise-defined Functions
A piecewise-defined function is a function defined not by a single equation, but by two or more.

Example 6. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

1 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = n
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −1
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| + 𝑥
% 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = n𝑥 + 2
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
1 0<𝑥≤1
e) 𝑓(𝑥) = p2 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2 (Step function)
3 2<𝑥≤3

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Even and Odd Functions; Symmetry

A function 𝑓 is said to be even if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓)
A function 𝑓 is said to be odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓)
- The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis, and the graph of an odd function is
symmetric about the origin.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function 𝑓 is called increasing on an interval 𝐼 if
𝑓(𝑥$ ) < 𝑓(𝑥% ) whenever 𝑥$ < 𝑥% in 𝐼
It is called decreasing on 𝐼 if
𝑓(𝑥$ ) > 𝑓(𝑥% ) whenever 𝑥$ < 𝑥% in 𝐼
- For an increasing function 𝑓, the inequality 𝑓(𝑥$ ) < 𝑓(𝑥% ) must be satisfied for every pair of
numbers 𝑥$ and 𝑥% in 𝐼 with 𝑥$ < 𝑥% .
- The squaring function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0] and increasing on the
interval [0, ∞).

Figure 2. A plot of the squaring function.

Compositions of Functions (Composite Function)

Given two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, the sum, difference, product, and quotient functions are defined by
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) r s (𝑥) =
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Example 7. Let
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥
a) Give the domain of 𝑓 and of 𝑔.
b) Determine the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 and specify (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥)
c) Determine the domain of 𝑓/𝑔 and specify (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥)

Definition
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions. For those 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 for which 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓, we
define the composition of 𝑓 with 𝑔, denoted 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, by setting
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).

NOTE: In general, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓

Figure 3. Illustration of compositions of functions.

Example 8. If 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥, find each function and its domain.
(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 (c) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 (c) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

Example 9. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥/(𝑥 + 1), 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 $) , and ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ.

Example 10. Given 𝐹 = cos % (𝑥 + 9), find functions 𝑓, 𝑔, and ℎ such that 𝐹 = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ.

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Calculus I, Part 1 Instructor: Tai

1.5 Selected Exercises

EXERCISES 1.2, # 41-47, 65-69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75
EXERCISES 1.3, # 48, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58
EXERCISES 1.5, # 19-30, 41-44, 49-54, 76
EXERCISES 1.6, # 53-58, 69-74, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89
EXERCISES 1.7, # 31-34, 35-38, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59
CHAPTER1 REVIEW EXERCISES, # 5-8, 57

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