Vocational Higher Secondary

Education (VHSE)
Second Year

POLYMER TECHNOLOGY
Reference Book

Government of Kerala
Department of Education

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT),

KERALA
2016
Reference Book

List of Contributors

Participants

1. Ratheesh V
Vocational teacher – RT, GVHSS Odakkali

2. Vijayakumar. A.R
Vocational teacher – RT, GVHSS – THS Pampady

3. Sijuraj MS
Vocational Instructor – RT, GVHSS Odakkali

4. Anju Mohan
Vocational Instructor – RT, GVHSS – THS Pampady

Experts

1. Mr. Sabu. KK
Lecturer in Polymer Technology, Govt. Polytechnic,
Nattakom, Kottayam

2. Jayavani. S
Faculty, CBPST, Kochi

Academic Co-ordinator
Smt. Bindu C
Research Officer, SCERT

Prepared by :
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in e-mail : [email protected]
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala

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FOREWORD
Dear Learners,
This book is intended to serve as a ready reference for learners of vocational
higher secondary schools. It offers suggested guidelines for the transaction of the
concepts highlighted in the course content. It is expected that the learners achieve
significant learning outcomes at the end of the course as envisaged in the curriculum
if it is followed properly.
In the context of the Right- based approach, quality education has to be ensured
for all learners. The learner community of Vocational Higher Secondary Education
in Kerala should be empowered by providing them with the best education that
strengthens their competences to become innovative entrepreneurs who contribute
to the knowledge society. The change of course names, modular approach adopted
for the organisation of course content, work-based pedagogy and the outcome
focused assessment approach paved the way for achieving the vision of Vocational
Higher Secondary Education in Kerala. The revised curriculum helps to equip the
learners with multiple skills matching technological advancements and to produce
skilled workforce for meeting the demands of the emerging industries and service
sectors with national and global orientation. The revised curriculum attempts to
enhance knowledge, skills and attitudes by giving higher priority and space for the
learners to make discussions in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on
experience.
The SCERT appreciates the hard work and sincere co-operation of the contributors
of this book that includes subject experts, industrialists and the teachers of Vocational
Higher Secondary Schools. The development of this reference book has been a
joint venture of the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
and the Directorate of Vocational Higher Secondary Education.
The SCERT welcomes constructive criticism and creative suggestions for the
improvement of the book.
With regards,
Dr P.A. Fathima
Director
SCERT, Kerala

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CONTENTS

About the course ........................................................ 05

Major skills with sub skills ......................................... 06

Syllabus .................................................................... 08

Module 3 : Plastic Processing ..................................... 12

Unit 1 - Introduction to plastic processing ................... 13

Unit2 - Injection moulding ........................................... 23

Unit 3 - Extrusion ....................................................... 35

Unit 4 - Blow moulding and Rotational moulding ........ 47

Unit 5 - Thermoforming and calendaring of plastics .... 57

Unit 6 - Testing of plastics .......................................... 65

Module 4 Fibre Reinforced Composites ...................... 73

Unit 1 - Introduction to composites .............................. 75

Unit 2 - Reinforcement fibres ...................................... 79

Unit 3 - Matrix materials and additives ........................ 90

Unit 4 - Manufacturing methods ................................ 103

Unit 5 - Quality and safety in FRP industry .............. 119

List of References .................................................... 129

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ABOUT THE COURSE

Vocational Higher Secondary Education in Kerala is a unique scheme of

education which combines both vocational and academic stream of education.
Learning vocational skills along with conventional academic education gives
the students double advantage of vertical mobility as well as employability. It
helps to develop vocational aptitude, work culture, values and attitudes of
the learner and enhances his productivity. The vision of Vocational Higher
Secondary Education in Kerala is to equip the youth with multiple skills
matching the technological advancements and to produce skilled work force
for meeting the demands of the emerging industries and service sectors with
national and global orientation.
As India is emerging as a manufacturing hub to the world the demand for
skilled manpower is on the rise. Kerala, traditionally known for its high quality
man power all over the world can embark on this opportunity and equip our
students with skills for the manufacturing sector and reduce the unemployability
problems of the state.
The polymer technology course in VHSE is one such course from the
manufacturing sector. Polymers have wide spread applications in our daily
life like simple household articles, automobiles, spacecrafts, medical products
etc and is rapidly replacing many conventional materials like metals in many
applications. Hence acquiring skills in the manufacturing of polymer products
will help the students to get early employment opportunities.
The course is designed for providing knowledge and skills to participants in
Rubber, Plastics, and Composite products manufacturing. This course is
offered in modular format consisting of four modules with focus on multi
skills development. One month On the Job Training and Production cum
training centres are also an integral part of the course which gives exposure
to real time work environment. Upon successful completion of this course
the candidate will be able to join rubber/plastic/composite industries as junior
level technicians and are also eligible for attending advanced courses on
Polymer Technology or any other course that can be pursued after plus two
science stream.

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Major skills (with sub skills)

Module - I
1) Polymer processing skills
a. Identify materials and processes in plastic and rubber processing
b. Identify and weigh different materials as per the formulations
c. Setting and operation of Hand/Semi automatic injection moulding machines.
d. Setting and operation of Compression moulding hand press
Module - II
1) Natural rubber crop processing
a. Processing of Latex into different marketable forms such as Centrifuged/
creamed latex, RSS, Crepe Rubber, and TSR.
2) Latex product manufacturing
a. Manufacture of latex dipped products such as gloves, balloons etc.
b. Manufacture of latex threads and latex forms
3) Dry rubber products manufacturing
a. Preparation of rubber compounds
b. Manufacture of rubber moulded goods
c. Manufacture of extruded and calendered rubber products
d. Manufacture of tyres and tubes
4) Testing and quality control in rubber industry
a. Testing of raw rubbers, latex, and rubber compounds
Module - III
1) Plastic processing
a. Setting and operation of Injection moulding machines
b. Setting and operation of blow moulding machines
c. Production of extruded plastic products
d. Production of rotational moulded plastic products

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e. Production of thermoformed and calendered plastic products

2) Plastic testing
a. Testing of plastic materials and products
Module - IV
1) FRP Processing
a. Identification of different materials used in the making of fibre reinforced
composites.
b. Manufacture of FRP products using different methods such as Hand
lay-up, filament winding, pultrusion, etc
2) Observing safety precautions and work instructions

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SYLLABUS
Module 3

PLASTIC PROCESSING

3.1 Introduction to Plastic Processing

(20 Periods)
Introduction to plastic processing, Different plastic processing techniques. Effect of
polymer properties on processing. Moisture absorption, Thermal stability. Important
properties, applications and processing parameters of common plastics such as
HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PMMA, PVC, ABS, SAN,Nylon6, 66, 12, PET, PBT,
PC, and POM.
3.2 Injection moulding
(90 Periods)
Injection moulding process - advantages, disadvantages. Injection moulding machine
- plunger type, screw type. Different parts of injection moulding machines and their
respective functions. Screw Design - feed, transition and metering zones, L/D ratio,
compression ratio. Clamping Systems - Manual clamping, Toggle clamping, Hydraulic
clamping, and Tie bar less clamping. Moulds - two plate moulds, three plate moulds.
Parts of moulds - Runner - cold runner, hot runner, gate, ejection systems, cooling
channels. Process parameters - Shot weight, Barrel residence time, Clamping force,
- melt and mould temperatures, screw speed, back pressure, injection pressure and
holding pressure, injection speed, holding time, cooling time, mould open time.
Moulding cycle. Processing defects, causes, and remedies.
3.3 Extrusion
(60 Periods)
Plastic extrusion fundamentals, classification of extruder, different parts and its function
of screw extruder - feed hopper, extruder barrel and screw, feed, compression and
metering zones, screw nomenclature, types of screws - polyolefin, PVC and Nylon
screws, dies, screen pack, breaker plate, heating and cooling elements and drive
system. Extrusion dies - solid cross section and hollow cross section dies. Sheet
extrusion, profile extrusion, pipe extrusion, blown film extrusion, extrusion of cable.
Extrudate swell, melt fracture.

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3. 4 Blow moulding and rotational moulding

(60 Periods)
Blow moulding - Different types of blow moulding - extrusion blow moulding, injection
blow moulding, stretch blow moulding. Problems and trouble shooting in blow
moulding. Rotational moulding - Advantages, disadvantages, Rotational moulding
vs. blow moulding, applications. Faults and remedies in rotational moulding.
3.5 Thermoforming and calendaring
(60 Periods)
Thermoforming, materials for thermoforming, Different forming processes - Vacuum
forming, pressure forming, matched mould forming, plug assisted forming, drape
forming. Calendaring of plastics. Different types of calenders, gauge control - roll
bending, roll crossing, and roll crowning.

3.6 Testing of plastics

(50 Periods)
Testing of plastics- Need for testing, Specifications and standards, specific gravity,
Mechanical - Tensile and flexural properties, Impact strength. Hardness. Thermal -
Melt flow Index, Vicat softening point, heat deflection temperature. Environmental
stress crack resistance

Module 4
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

4.1 Introduction to composites

(30 Periods)
Definition of composites, Basic features of composites, Constituents of composites
- Matrix, reinforcement and interphase, Advantages, disadvantages and applications
of composites. Classification of composites - based on matrix - Polymer matrix,
Metal Matrix, Ceramic matrix, based on reinforcement - Fibrous, Flake filled,
particulate filled, laminates, sandwiches, Oriented fibre - Uniaxial, Bi axial, Random
fibre, Textile, Knitted, Braided.
4.2 Reinforcement Fibres
(40 Periods)
Functions of reinforcement, requirements of reinforcement fibres, terminology used
in fibre science - filament, strand, roving, size, coupling agents, tex, tow, denier,

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tenacity, drape etc. Forms of reinforcement - Reinforcing mat - Chopped strand

mat (CSM), continuous filament mat, veil, woven roving/fabric.
Glass fibres - E-Glass, S-Glass, C-Glass, Carbon fibre, Aramid fibre, Boron fibre,
UHMWHDPE, Natural fibres - Flax, Hemp, Jute, and Sisal
4.3 Matrix Materials and additives
(60 Periods)
Functions of matrix, Thermosets and thermoplastics, Polyester resins, Epoxy resins,
Phenolic resins, Vinyl ester resins. Curing reactions, gelation and gel time, cure time,
reaction rates. Catalyst or initiators - MEKP, Benzoyl Peroxide, Accelerators -
cobalt naphthenate, Inhibitors- Tertiary Butyl Catechol, Curing agents - Amines,
anhydrides, Fillers - Calcium carbonate, Talc, Clay, Silica, mineral fillers, Pigments
and dies, Lubricants, UV stabilizers, Anti static agents, heat stabilizers, Colorants
Release agents and sealing compounds, Coupling agents. Core materials, Gel coats.
4.4 Manufacturing Methods
(140 Periods)
Introduction, Classification of FRP Manufacturing methods, Open mould processes
- Hand lay-up, Spray lay-up, Filament Winding. Closed mould processes -
Compression moulding - Dough moulding compound (DMC), Sheet moulding
Compound (SMC) and prepregs, Vacuum bag moulding, Pressure bag moulding,
autoclave moulding, Injection moulding, Resin transfer moulding, Vacuum assisted
resin infusion moulding. Continuous processes - Pultrusion, Braiding.
4.5 Quality and safety in FRP processing
(70 Periods)
Storage of raw materials, Workshop conditions - Reinforcement preparation area,
Compounding and mixing area, Mould preparation and moulding area, finishing area.
Process care - Curing reaction, gel time, hardening time, maturing time, hot cure,
cold cure, resin to glass ratio, degree of cure. Mould care. Preparation of moulds,
Repair of composites - repair of gel coat layer, filling dents and cracks.

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Module III
PLASTIC PROCESSING

Unit No. Name of Units Period

1 Introduction to plastic processing 20
2 Injection Moulding 90
3 Extrusion 60
4 Blow moulding and rotational moulding 60
5 Thermoforming and Calendaring 60
6 Testing of plastics 50
Total 340

Module IV
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

1 Introduction to composites 30
2 Reinforcement fibres 40
3 Matrix materials and additives 60
4 Manufacturing methods 140
5 Quality and safety in FRP processing 70
Total 340

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Module III
PLASTIC PROCESSING

Overview
Plastic material came in to existence by virtue of their superior performance and
cost effectiveness over other conventional materials. Over the years application of
plastics have been widened with the advent of new generation polymers, blends,
alloys and composites. Everyday newer application are being promoted in key sectors
of Indian economy like automobiles, agriculture, aerospace, building and construction,
infrastructure, telecommunication, IT, medical and biomedical engineering, packaging
etc. This in turn necessitates the need for different type of processing methods and
machinery to produce quality plastic product at affordable cost.
In simple terms plastic processing is "Get the shape and set the shape". Plastic
processing can be defined as the process of converting the plastic raw materials into
semi-finished or finished products. Examples buckets, mugs, soap boxes, crates,
tanks, pipes, shampoo bottles, carry bags, ropes, bumpers etc.
A sound judgment and experience is required for successful design and fabrication
of good plastic product. Design of quality plastic product requires knowledge of
advantages and limitation of plastics, familiarity with processing methods.
Worldwide extrusion consumes 36 wt: % of all plastic, injection moulding consuming
32 wt: %. Consumption by other process like blow moulding is 10% and calendaring
8%, compression moulding 3%, others 3%. Thermoforming which is the 4th major
process used consumes at least 30% of extruded sheet and films that goes in to
packaging.
After completing the module he/she will be able to identify various moulding machines
and their parts. He will be able to identify various processing techniques used in
plastic industry and he/she acquires hands on experience in semi automatic, automatic
plastic processing machineries. He/she will be able to work as plastic compounder,
operator, assistant technician of various plastic processing machineries, quality
controller in plastic industries.

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Unit I
INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC PROCESSING

It is very difficult to realise how important plastics have become to our everyday
lives. Plastics give us the possibility of manufacturing well-designed, beautiful products
from the very many different types of plastics materials that are commonly available
today. Thermoplastics are generally processed by injection moulding, blow moulding,
extrusion, rotational moulding, thermoforming etc. Thermosetting plastics are
processed by compression / transfer moulding and others. This unit aims to cover
the basic plastic processing techniques and processing related properties of plastics.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Explain the basic plastic processing techniques such as injection moulding, blow
moulding, extrusion processes
• Analyze the influence of polymer properties on the processing of polymers
• Describe the properties, applications and processing parameters of common
plastics such as HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PMMA, PVC, ABS, SAN,Nylon6,
66, 12, PET, PBT, PC, PC-ABS Blends and POM.
Introduction
Plastic processing includes the various processing methods used to convert the plastic
materials to useful end products. For producing good quality plastic products, first
the processor needs to understand the performance requirement for specific end
use and accordingly select material. The processing methods can be selected based
on the processability of selected material and complexity of the part geometry.
Knowledge of all processing methods, including their capabilities and limitations, is
useful to a processor in deciding whether a given part can be fabricated and by
which process. Certain processes require placing high operating pressure on plastic
such as those used in injection moulding, where pressure may be 2000 to 30000
psi. Lower pressure are used in extrusion and compression ranging from 2000 to
10000 psi; and some processes such as thermoforming and casting, operate at low
pressures. Higher pressures allow the development of tighter dimensional tolerance
with higher mechanical performance; but there is also a tendency to develop
undesirable stress if the process is not controlled.

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Plastic Processing Methods

There are a variety of methods used to process plastic. Each method has its
advantages and disadvantages and are better suited for specific applications. These
methods include: injection moulding, blow moulding, extrusion, rotational moulding,
thermoforming, Calendaring, transfer moulding, and compression moulding.
Injection Moulding
The main method used for processing plastic is injection moulding. With this process,
the plastic is placed into a hopper. The hopper then feeds the plastic into a heated
injection unit, where it is pushed through a long chamber with a reciprocating screw.
Here, it is softened to a fluid state. A nozzle is located at the end of the chamber. The
fluid plastic is forced through the nozzle into a cold, closed mould. The halves of the
mould are held shut with a system of clamps. When the plastic is cooled and solidified,
the halves open and the finished product is ejected from the press. Injection moulding
is mostly suited for thermoplastics. Thermosetting materials usually are not processed
with injection moulding because they will soften, they harden to an infusible state. If
they are processed with injection moulding, they need to be moved through the
heating chamber quickly so they do not set.
Blow Moulding
Blow moulding is used when the plastic item to be created needs to be hollow. A
molten tube called parison is extruded which is then blown using compressed air.
The parison expands and conform to the chilled mould. Variations of blow moulding
include injection, injection-stretch, and extrusion blow moulding.
Thermoforming
Thermoforming uses a plastic sheet, which is heated to its softening temperature and
then shaped by pressing against a male or female mould. The pressure is created by
applying vacuum or pressure or through mechanical assistance. The air pressure
used can be nearly zero psi, or several hundred psi.
Compression Moulding
Compression moulding is the most common process used with thermosetting
materials and is usually not used for thermoplastics. With this process, the material is
squeezed into its desired shape with the help of pressure and heat. Plastic moulding
powder and other materials are added to the mix in order to create special qualities
or to strengthen the final product. When the mould is closed and heated, the material
goes through a chemical change that causes it to harden into its desired shape.

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Transfer Moulding
Transfer moulding is generally used only for forming thermosetting plastics. It is
similar to compression moulding because the plastic is cured into an infusible state
through pressure and heat. Unlike compression moulding, however, transfer moulding
involves heating the plastic to a point of plasticity prior to being placed into the
mould. The plastic is placed in a transfer pot in the mould and a hydraulically operated
plunger is used to push and transfer the plastic into the cold cavity. Transfer moulding
is used for moulding intricate products, such as those with many metal inserts or with
small, deep holes.
Extrusion
The process of extrusion is usually used to make products such as film, continuous
sheeting, tubes, profile shapes, rods, coat wire, filaments, cords, and cables. As
with injection moulding, dry plastic material is placed into a hopper and fed into a
long heating chamber. At the end of the chamber, however, the material is forced out
of a small opening or a die in the shape of the desired finished product. As the plastic
exits the die, it is placed on a conveyor belt where it is allowed to cool. Blowers are
sometimes used to aid in this process, or the product may be immersed in water to
help it cool.
Sl.No Process Typical Products
Primary Processing
1 Injection Moulding Combs, Mugs, Automobiles parts, Soap boxes,
Gears, Crates, etc
2 Blow Moulding Water Bottles, Jerry Cans, Shampoo Containers,
Pharmaceutical Containers, etc
3 Extrusion Pipes, Sheets, Ropes, Monofilaments, Profiles
Blown films, Cast Films, Bopp, etc
4 Compression Moulding Cooker handles, Knobs, Washing Machine Parts,
Engine Casings , Plug & Sockets
Secondary Processing
5 Transfer Moulding House wares, Switches, Electrical Connectors,
Junction Boxes
6 Rotational Moulding Water Tanks, Dustbins, Double walled trays, Balls
7 Thermoforming Disposable Cups, Trays, Sign boards, Wall Covering
8 Casting Acrylic Sheet, Nylon Cast Products, Toys etc.
9 Coating Artificial Leather Cloth, Coated Playing Cards, etc.,

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Processability
Processability means generally the ease or difficulty with which a plastic can be
handled during its fabrication into films, moulded products, pipes etc. The main
characteristics or properties which determine a plastic's processability are molecular
weight, uniformity, additive type and content, and plastic feed rates.
The type of process to be used depend on a variety of factors including product
shape and size, plastic type, quantity to be produced, quality and accuracy, design
load performance, cost limitation and time schedule. Each of the processes provide
different methods to produce different products. As an example extrusion with its
many methods produce films, pipe, sheet, profile, wire coating, etc.
Some products are limited by economics of the process that must be used to make
them. For example, hollow parts particularly very large ones, may be produced
more economically by the rotational process than by blow moulding. Thermosets
cannot be blow moulded and they have limited extrusion possibilities. The need for
a low quantity may allow certain processes to be eliminated by going to casting.
Compression and transfer moulding processes by virtue of their high cycle time and
energy losses due to repeated heating and cooling of the mould are not preferred for
moulding of thermoplastic.
Extrusion produces relatively uniform profiles at unlimited length. Casting is not limited
by pressure requirements, so large sheets can be produced. Calendered sheets are
limited in their width of the roll but are unlimited in length. Vacuum forming is not
greatly limited by pressure, although even a small vacuum distributed over a large
area can build up an appreciable load. Blow moulding is limited by the equipment
that is feasible for the mould size. Rotational moulding can produce relatively large
parts with stress free moulding.
Injection moulding and extrusion tend to align long chain molecules in the direction
of flow. This produces markedly greater strength in the direction of flow than at right
angles to the flow. This can result in stress built up
Effect of polymer properties on processing
When processing thermoplastic melts the following factors should be taken in to
account in order to process efficiently and to obtain quality product.
Water absorption
Water/ Moisture is the greatest enemy for processing of plastic.

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• Hygroscopic material
• Absorption phenomena -: Nylon, POM, PC.
• Adsorption phenomena -: HIPS, PS,ABS
• All these material should be pre dried
• Non Hygroscopic material -: PVC, Polyolefin's etc.
• Need not be pre dried except when completely wet during monsoon. Action
necessary
1. Use granules as soon as the bag is opened
2. Pre drying ovens. Hopper drier, dehumidifying drier can be used
3. For PC dehumidifying drier preferable
Physical form of raw material
• Powder from, granular form, lumpy/slab from
• Slab form - calendaring, compression moulding,
• Granular form - Preferred - uniform pellet size ensure even faster and feeding
• Powder form - Difficulty in feeding - But savings in cost because of the ability
to avoid pelletizing stage - Special feeder attachment essential to ensure proper
feeding
Thermal stability of polymers
1. PVC thermally sensitive material - Little higher melt temperature may lead to
depredation - HCL is released - - This can leads to corrosion and harmful to
human being PID Temperature controller can be used.
2. PMMA, POM upon depredation liberates MMA & formaldehyde respec-
tively - MMA volatilize and cause bubbles - Formaldehyde gas causes eye
irritation
3. PVC & POM should never be processed one after the other, this may lead to
explosion
Adhesion of melt to metal
• Wetting of the polymer melt against the metal wall of processing equipment can
lead to strong adhesion of polymer to melt. EX: difficulty in removing PVC -
Mix from two roll mill.
• PC has strong adhesion to metal. It can take away the skin of barrel if it not
properly purged

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Common Plastic Materials

Important properties, applications and processing temperatures of common plastics
are given below.
LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene)
General Characteristics LDPE is a low cost semi crystalline polymer with
good moisture resistance and flexibility and is very
much suitable for general purpose applications
Applications General purpose goods, Packaging films, bags,
containers, electrical insulation, flexible bottles
Processing temperature range 170 - 2700C
Mould temperature range 20 - 400C

HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene)

General Characteristics HDPE is a highly crystalline opaque polymer with
low moisture absorption. It has high tensile
strength, chemical resistance, and impact
resistance.
Applications General purpose goods, Packaging films, bags,
containers, tanks electrical insulation
Processing temperature range 200 - 2800C
Mould temperature range 40 - 900C

PP (Poly Propylene)

General Characteristics PP is a semi crystalline polymer with high impact

resistance and melt flow rates. PP acts as a living
hinge and hence used in hinged packaging
applications. PP is difficult to bond with adhesives
and has poor low temperature impact strength.
Applications Automotive, films, containers, General purpose
goods, furniture, living hinge applications and
industrial products
Processing temperature range 200 - 2650C
Mould temperature range 20 - 600C

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Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

General Characteristics PVC is an amorphous thermoplastic that is difficult

to process. PVC is often plasticized with different
levels of plasticizers. Rigid PVC has strong
chemical resistance and moderate temperature
resistance. PVC has poor UV resistance.
Applications Wire coating, tubing, pipes, conduits, automotive,
electronics, profiles, medical, door/ window
frames etc
Processing temperature range 165 - 2050C
Mould temperature range 20 - 500C

ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

General Characteristics ABS is an amorphous terpolymer of acrylonitrile,
butadiene and styrene. It has good flame retardant
properties, high impact resistance and good finish.
ABS has poor weathering resistance.
Applications General purpose, Automotive, electrical and
electronics
Processing temperature range 220 - 2600C
Mould temperature range 50 - 900C

Acetal or POM (Polyoxymethylene)

General Characteristics POM is a highly crystalline polymer with good

creep, fatigue, solvent, and wear resistance. POM
has high strength and stiffness and good electrical
properties
Applications Automotive and industrial bearings, gears etc
Processing temperature range 190 - 2150C
Mould temperature range 50 - 900C

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Poly Styrene (PS)

General Characteristics PS is an inexpensive amorphous polymer with
great optical clarity. Unfilled PS is rigid and brittle.
PS has poor thermal stability and solvent
resistance. It can be processed by most plastic
processing techniques
Applications Toys, packaging, sheets, thermal insulation, food
containers, disposable glasses etc
Processing temperature range 175 - 2750C
Mould temperature range 50 - 1500C

Poly Methyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

General Characteristics PMMA is a low cost transparent amorphous
thermoplastic. It has good optical clarity. It is also
more environmentally stable than PS and PE
Applications Automotive lights, TV screens, Furniture,
Windows, Medical
Processing temperature range 175 - 2600C
Mould temperature range 40 - 900C

NYLON - 6
General Characteristics Nylon 6 is a semi crystalline poly amide with great
toughness and elasticity which makes it suitable
for textile and industrial fabrics. It has high tensile
strength and chemical resistance.
Applications Textile fibres, gear, surgical sutures, zip fasteners
Processing temperature range 240 - 2700C
Mould temperature range 50 - 950C

NYLON - 66
General Characteristics Nylon 12 is a semi crystalline poly amide with
good toughness and abrasion resistance.
Applications Textiles, tyre cords, airbags, carpets.
Processing temperature range 260 - 3000C
Mould temperature range 40 - 950C

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NYLON - 12
General Characteristics Nylon 12 is a semi crystalline poly amide with
great dimensional stability, impact strength and
chemical resistance.
Applications Components of appliances, Automotive parts, Cell
phones, gears, medical and sporting goods etc
Processing temperature range 230 - 3000C
Mould temperature range 40 - 900C
SAN (Styrene Acrylonitrile)
General Characteristics SAN is an amorphous co polymer of styrene and
acrylonitrile. SAN has higher strength, rigidity, and
chemical resistance than poly styrene but lacks
optical clarity.
Applications Electrical appliances, cosmetics, medical,
containers, and automotive application
Processing temperature range 215 - 2600C
Mould temperature range 45 - 800C
PET (Polyethylene terepthalate)
General Characteristics PET is a semi crystalline thermoplastic commonly
used for polyester fibres and plastic bottles. It
has excellent chemical resistance and temperature
resistance of more than 1000C
Applications Bottles, fibres, films, and packaging
Processing temperature range 250 - 3050C
Mould temperature range 20 - 900C
PBT (Polybutylene terepthalate)
General Characteristics PBT is a semi crystalline polyester with good stiffness
and toughness. PBT has similar properties to some
nylons, but with much less water absorption. PBT
can withstand continuous use temperature of
1200C and is often used as an electrical insulator
Applications Automotive, Industrial, Electronics, housings,
Medical
Processing temperature range 230 - 2600C
Mould temperature range 40 - 950C

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PC (Poly Carbonate)
General Characteristics PC is an amorphous polymer with great impact
resistance and optical clarity along with good heat
resistance, toughness, and dimensional stability.
It has poor chemical and scratch resistance.
Applications Exterior automotive components, Engineering
components, lenses, structural parts, medical
components and bullet proof sheeting
Processing temperature range 260 - 3250C
Mould temperature range 70 - 1050C

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Identification of plastics
Identify the given plastic sample (PE, PVC, and Nylon) through physical and
chemical analysis

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Quiz, Oral Test
Group Discussion on processing related properties of plastics
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Define the term 'Plastic processing'
2) Classify different plastic processing methods
3) "Compression moulding of thermoplastics is not preferred industrially". Do you
agree with this? Give reasons
4) Arrange the following plastics in the ascending order of their melting point
Nylon 66, Poly carbonate, HDPE, PBT, PMMA, PVC
5) Identify a plastic suitable for producing a moulded hinged product.
a) LDPE, b) PP, c) PVC, d) Nylon
6) Identify the plastic used for producing Bullet proof materials
a) PBT, b) PET, c) PC, d) Nylon
7) 'Certain plastic materials like nylon are dried in an oven to remove moisture
before processing'. Explain the effect of moisture absorption on the processing
of plastics.
8) For the production of water tanks which of the following methods can be used?
a) Thermoforming, b) Blow moulding, c) rotational moulding, d) Extrusion

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Unit II
INJECTION MOULDING

Injection moulding is one of the most common methods of converting plastic raw
material to a product. This process is used for thermo plastic material and other
polymeric material which may successively be melted, reshaped and cooled. Injection
moulded plastic components find applications as components of almost every
functional manufactured article in the modern world, from automotive products to
food packaging to common house hold articles. This versatile process allows rapid
production of high quality, simple or complex components on a fully automated
basis. This unit covers the basic features of injection moulding, different types of
injection moulding machines, clamping units and moulds, operation cycle and
troubleshooting guide.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Describe the injection moulding process with its advantages and disadvan-
tages.
• Distinguish different types of injection moulding machines and describe the dif-
ferent parts of injection moulding machines and their respective functions
• Explain the screw design and screw nomenclature of injection moulding screws.
• Explain the different types of injection moulds, their parts and functions and
different clamping systems
• Describe the processing variables such as shot weight, barrel residence time,
clamping force etc.
• Demonstrate the setting of processing parameters in injection moulding
machine and operation of injection moulding machine
• Analyse the processing problems and solutions in injection moulding
Introduction
The injection moulding process is a semi continuous process where, thermoplastic
material is softened by heating, formed under pressure and hardened by cooling. In
this process, a definite quantity of molten thermoplastic material is injected under
pressure into a relatively cold mould where it solidifies in to the shape of the mould.

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Advantages of injection moulding

• Parts can be produced at high production rates
• Large volume production is possible
• Relatively low labor cost per unit is obtainable
• Parts require little or no finishing
• Many different surface, colour and finishes are available
• Good decoration is possible
• For many shapes this process is the most economical way to fabricate
• Permits the manufacture of very small parts in large quantities which are almost
impossible to fabricate by other methods
• Minimal scrap loss result as runner, gates and rejects can be reground and
reused
• Close dimensional tolerance can be maintained
• Parts can be moulded with metallic and non metallic inserts

Limitations of injection moulding

• Intense industry competition often results in low profit margins
• Mould cost are high
• Moulding machinery and auxiliary equipment costs are high
• Lack of knowledge about the fundamentals of the process causes problems
• Lack of knowledge about the long term properties of the material may results
in long term failures
Injection moulding machine
Injection moulding machines consist of two basic parts, an injection unit and a clamping
unit. Injection moulding machines differ in both injection unit and clamping unit. The
name of the injection moulding machine is generally based on the type of injection
unit used.
There are four principle type of injection moulding machine
1. Single stage plunger type
2. Two stage plunger type
3. Two stage screw plunger
4. Reciprocating screw

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Fig. 3.2.1 Injection moulding machine

Injection unit
The injection unit melts the polymer resin and injects the polymer melt into the mould.
The unit may be: ram fed or screw fed.
The ram fed injection moulding machine uses a hydraulically operated plunger to
push the plastic through a heated region. The high viscosity melt is then spread into
a thin layer by a "torpedo" to allow for better contact with the heated surfaces. The
melt converges at a nozzle and is injected into the mould.
Reciprocating screw is a combination of melting, softening, and injection unit in an
injection moulding machine. Reciprocating screws are capable of turning as they
move back and forth. The reciprocating screw is used to compress, melt, and convey
the material. The reciprocating screw consists of three zones (illustrated below):

Fig: 3.2.2. Screw Injection moulding machine

Zones of reciprocating screw type injection moulding machine
• Feed zone
• Compression zone/ transition zone
• Metering zone
While the outside diameter of the screw remains constant, the depth of the flights on

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the reciprocating screw gradually decreases in the transition zone. These flights
compress the material against the inside of the barrel, which creates frictional heat.
This heat is mainly responsible for melting the material. The heater bands outside the
barrel help maintain the material in the molten state. Typically, a moulding machine
can have three or more heater bands or zones with different temperature settings.
In reciprocating type injection moulding, a screw rotates within a cylinder, which is
driven by a hydraulic drive mechanism. Plastic material is moved through the heated
cylinder via the screw flights and the material becomes fluid. The injection nozzle is
blocked by the previous shot, and this action causes the screw to pump itself
backward through the cylinder. During this step, material is plasticized and
accumulated for the next shot. When the mould clamp has locked, the injection
phase takes place. At this time, the screw advances, acting as a ram. Simultaneously,
the non-return valve closes off the escape passages in the screw and the screw
serves as a solid plunger, moving the plastic ahead into the mould. When the injection
stroke and holding cycle is completed, the screw is energized to turn and the non-
return valve opens, allowing plastic to flow forward from the cylinder again, thus
repeating the cycle.
Feed hopper
The container holding a supply moulding material to be fed to the screw. The hopper
located over the barrel and the feed throat connects them.
Injection ram or screw
The ram or screw that applies pressure on the molten plastic material to force it into
the mould cavities. The reciprocating-screw machine is the most common. This
design uses the same barrel for melting and injection of plastic.
L/D Ratio
The L/D (length/diameter) ratio is an important concept for determining the sizing of
an injection unit. In the injection moulding process, screws with L/D ratios of 18: 1
and 20: 1 are typically used.
Compression Ratio
Compression ratio is a term used to give an idea of how much the screw compresses
and squeezes the melt-molten material mix in the screw. The depth of the screw
channel is used to calculate the compression ratio. The equation to determine the
compression ratio is
Channel depth in the feed section
Compression ratio = Channel depth in the metering section

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Typical compression ratio values range from 1.2 to 4.0 for most thermoplastics.
Barrel
Barrel is the cylindrical chamber in which the screw rotates. The resin from the feed
hopper is melted in the barrel as it passes between the barrel and the screw. A band
heater, which can control temperatures in five sections, is attached outside the barrel.
Melted resins are supplied to the mould passing through barrel head, shot-off nozzle,
and one-touch nozzle.
Injection cylinder
Injection cylinders supply the necessary power to inject the resin into the mould. It
is operated by a hydraulic motor located inside bearing box.
Clamping unit
The clamping unit holds the mould together, opens and closes it automatically, and
ejects the finished part. The mechanism may be of several designs, mechanical,
hydraulic or hydro mechanical.
Toggle clamps - consists of two bars joined together end to end with a pivot. The
end of one bar is attached to a stationery platen and the other end of the second bar
is attached to the movable platen. When the mould is open, the toggle is in the shape
of V, when the pressure is applied to the pivot, the two bars form a straight line.
Toggle clamps are actuated either by hydraulic cylinders or ball screws driven by
electric motors. Toggle-clamp units seem most suited to relatively low-tonnage
machines. The following figure shows (a) toggle clamp design (1) open and (2)
closed; and (b) hydraulic clamping (1) open and (2) closed.

Fig: 3.2.3 Clamping unit (a) Toggle clamps (b) hydraulic clamps

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Hydraulic clamps are used on higher-tonnage injection moulding machines, typically

in the range 1300 to 8900 kN (150 to 1000 tons). The clamping unit is actuated by
a hydraulic cylinder which is directly connected to the moving plate of the mould.
When the oil goes to the cylinder it pushes the ram forward and the mould is closed.
When the oil is taken back from the cylinder, the ram comes back and the mould is
opened.
Advantages of hydraulic clamping.
• Clamp speed can easily be controlled and be stopped at any point
• Direct read out of clamp force
• Easy adjustment of clamp force and mould set up
• Low maintenance as part is self lubricate
Hydromechanical clamps - clamping units are designed for large tonnages, usually
above 8900 kN (1000 tons); they operate by (1) using hydraulic cylinders to rapidly
move the mould toward closing position, (2) locking the position by mechanical
means, and (3) using high pressure hydraulic cylinders to finally close the mould and
build tonnage.
Tie- bar less clamping - The tie-bar less clamping system is basically a hydraulic
clamping system without any tie bar. The platen is moved on a rail system. The main
advantage of this system is that
there is no limitation on the mould
platen size. Also mounting the
mould is easy and is very useful
when the products eject from the
mould is manually.
Injection mould
Mould is a hollow form or cavity
into which molten plastic is forced
to give the shape of the required
component. Moulds separate into
at least two halves (called the core
and the cavity) to permit the part
to be extracted; in general the
shape of a part must be such that it
will not be locked into the mould. Fig: 3.2.4 Injection mould

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For example, sides of objects typically cannot be parallel with the direction of draw
(the direction in which the core and cavity separate from each other). They are
angled slightly; examination of most household objects made from plastic will show
this aspect of design, known as draft. Parts that are "bucket-like" tend to shrink
onto the core while cooling and, after the cavity is pulled away, are typically ejected
using pins. Parts can be easily welded together after moulding to allow for a hollow
part (like a water jug or doll's head) that couldn't physically be designed as one
mould.
More complex parts are formed using more complex moulds, which may require
moveable sections, called slides, which are inserted into the mould to form particular
features that cannot be formed using only a core and a cavity, but are then withdrawn
to allow the part to be released. Some moulds even allow previously moulded parts
to be re-inserted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the first part. Traditionally,
moulds have been very expensive to manufacture; therefore, they were usually only
used in mass production where thousands of parts are being produced.
There are two main types of injection moulds: cold runner (two plate and three plate
designs) and hot runner - the more common of the runner less moulds.

Fig: 3.2.5 Types of mould used in injection moulding

Cold runner
After moulding the cold runner delivery system is trimmed off and recycled. Therefore
the delivery system is normally designed to consume minimum material, while
maintaining the function of delivering molten plastic to the cavity in a desirable platen

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Hot runners
The hot runners (runner less) moulding process
keeps the runners hot in order to maintain the
plastic in a molten state all times.
Gates
- is an opening found at the entrance of the
cavity (end of the runner) which allows the
material to enter the cavity. The various types
of gates are shown in the following figure
Injection platens
are steel plates on a moulding machine to which
the mould is attached. Generally, two platens
are used; one being stationary and the other
moveable, actuated hydraulically to open and
close the mould. It actually provides place to
mount the mould. It contains threaded holes Fig: 3.2.6 Types of gates
on which mould can be mounted using clamps.
Clamping cylinder
A device that actuates the chuck through the aid of pneumatic or hydraulic energy.
Tie Bar
Tie bars support clamping power, and 4 tie bars are located between the fixing
platen and the support platen.
Ejection system
The ejection system will push the part out of the mould when it is stopped
• Knockout pins
• Blades
• Stripper
• Air
• Hard stripping
Process Parameters
Back pressure
Back pressure is the amount of pressure exerted on the material volume ahead of
the screw, as the screw is pushed back in preparation for the next shot.

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Injection speed
The injection speed or (ram speed) is the forward speed of the screw during its
injection operation.
Shot weight
This is the maximum weight of plastic that can be injected by a single injection
stroke, when the nozzle is free standing. Generally expressed as ounces of polystyrene
with a specific gravity of 1.05. For other resins the shot weight is calculated as
Shot weight in terms of resin = M * b/1.05
Where b=specifc gravity of resin, M = shot weight in terms of PS, SG=1.05
Shot weight should not be equal to the combined weight of the article (or article for
multi cavity mould) plus runners that could be injection moulded.
The latter is set as the 80% of the shot weight for article with low requirement, 75%
of shot weight for the article with high requirement.
Barrel residence time
Barrel residence time is the time for which the plastic material stays inside the barrel
before getting injected. It is calculated as
Barrel residence time = (weight the melt in barrel *cycle time)/ actual shot weight
If a big machine is used to make small articles, the melt in the barrel could degrade
due long residence time.
Clamping force
It is the maximum force that the machine is capable of to keep the mould closed
against the cavity pressure during injection.
Injection pressure
The pressure on the face of the injection screw or ram when injecting material into
the mould, usually expressed in psi.
Moulding cycle
`The basic injection cycle is as follows
Mould close - injection carriage forward - inject plastic - metering - carriage retract
- mould open - eject part(s) Some machines are run by electric motors instead of
hydraulics or a combination of both. The water-cooling channels that assist in cooling
the mould and the heated plastic solidifies into the part. Improper cooling can result
in distorted moulding. The cycle is completed when the mould opens and the part is
ejected with the assistance of ejector pins within the mould.

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The resin, or raw material for injection moulding, is most commonly supplied in
pellet or granule form. Resin pellets are poured into the feed hopper, a large open
bottomed container, which is attached to the back end of a cylindrical, horizontal
barrel. A screw within this barrel is rotated by a motor, feeding pellets up the screw's
grooves. The depth of the screw flights decreases toward the end of the screw
nearest the mould, compressing the heated plastic. As the screw rotates, the pellets
are moved forward in the screw and they undergo extreme pressure and friction
which generates most of the heat needed to melt the pellets. Electric heater bands
attached to the outside of the barrel assist in the heating and temperature control
during the melting process.

Fig: 3.2.7 Typical moulding cycle

The channels through which the plastic flows toward the chamber will also solidify,
forming an attached frame. This frame is composed of the sprue, which is the main
channel from the reservoir of molten resin, parallel with the direction of draw, and
runners, which are perpendicular to the direction of draw, and are used to convey
molten resin to the gate(s), or point(s) of injection. The sprue and runner system can
be cut or twisted off and recycled, sometimes being granulated next to the mould
machine. Some moulds are designed so that the part is automatically stripped through
action of the mould.

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Processing defects, causes and remedies

Injection moulding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They
can either be caused by defects in the moulds or more often by part processing
(moulding)
Table: 3.2.2 Common defects in injection moulding
Moulding Description Causes
Defects
Blister Raised or layered zone on Tool or material is too hot,
surface of the part lack of cooling around the tool or a faulty
heater
Burn marks Black or brown burnt areas Tool lacks venting, injection speed is too
Air Burn/ on the part located at High
Gas Burn furthest points gate
Color streaks Localized change of Colour Master batch isn't mixing properly,
or the material has run out
Delamination Thin mica like layers formed Contamination of the material e.g. PP mixed
in part wall with ABS
Flash Excess material exceeding Tool damage, too much injection speed/
Burrs normal part geometry material injected, clamping force too low.
Embedded Foreign particle (burnt Contaminated material or foreign debris in
Contaminates material or other) embedded the barrel, or too much shear heat burning
in the part the material prior to injection
Flow marks Directionally "off tone" Injection speeds too slow, the plastic has
wavy lines or patterns cooled down too much during injection,
Jetting Deformed part by turbulent Poor tool design, gate position or runner.
flow of material Injection speed set too high.
Polymer polymer breakdown from Excess water in the granules,
Degradation hydrolysis, oxidation etc Excessive temperatures in barrel
Sink marks Localized depression (In Holding time/pressure too low, cooling time
thicker zones) too low, with sprueless hot runners this can
also be caused by the gate temperature being
set too high
Short shot Partial part Lack of material, injection speed or
pressure too low
Splay marks Circular pattern around Moisture in the material, usually when
Splash mark/ gate caused by hot gas hygroscopic resins are dried improperly
Silver streaks
Stringiness String remain from previous Nozzle temperature too high.
shot transfer in new shot Gate hasn't frozen off
Voids Empty space within part Lack of holding pressure
(Air pocket) Mould may be out of registration
Weld line Discolored line where two Mould/material temperatures too low, the
Knit line flow fronts meet material is cold when they meet, so they don't
bond
Twisting Distorted part Cooling is too short, material is too hot, the
parts bow inwards towards the hot side of
the tool.

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DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Work practice on hand injection moulding machine
Procedure
Switch on the heater and wait for the required melt temperature to reach. Set the
mould in the correct position. When the temperature is reached feed the plastic
material into the feed hopper. Repeated plunging is done until we get a new material.
Inject the melt into the mould. The pressure is maintained on the plunger for the
period during which the material in the mould cools and contracts. After solidification
of the melt in the mould the plunger is retracted. The mould is released, opened and
the part is taken out. Again the mould is clamped for another cycle.
2) Work practice on semi automatic injection moulding machine
Procedure
Set the mould and align with mould with the injection nozzle and clamp. Set the
barrel temperature and switch on the heaters. Set the injection pressure. When the
temperature is reached add the plastic granules into the feed hopper. When granules
are melted, the plunger is operated for injection into the mould. The pressure is
maintained during solidification. After solidification the plunger retracts and the mould
is removed and opened.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Assignment - diagram of injection moulding machine
Assignment - Screw design and screw types
Chart - Processing defects causes and remedies
Class test
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of a screw injection machine and
plunger machine?
2) Compare between toggle clamping and hydraulic clamping
3) Suggest a moulding cycle in a fully automatic injection moulding machine
4) Name three important parameter that should be inspected by the operator
5) With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of injection moulding machine
6) Prepare a neat sketch of an injection mould and label the following parts
Cavity, Runner, gate, ejector pins,
7) Write four faults and suggest their remedies in injection moulding

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Unit III
EXTRUSION

Introduction
The extruder is one of the most important machinery in the polymer processing
industry. To extrude means to push or to force out. Material is extruded when it is
pushed through an opening. When toothpaste is squeezed out of a tube, it is extruded.
The part of the machine containing the opening through which the material is forced
is referred to as the extruder die. As material passes through the die, the material
acquires the shape of the die opening. The extruded product is referred to as the
extrudate. Extrusion is used for producing continuous profiles and pipes. This unit
deals with different types of extruders, their parts, functions and operation of extruders,
manufacture of pipes, cables, packing films etc
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Describes the plastic extrusion process
• Distinguishes the different types of Extruders and describe the different parts of
extruders and their respective functions.
• Explains the screw design and different types of screws in extrusion
• Describes the production of pipes, profiles, cables, and blown films.
• Demonstrates the extrusion operation
• Analyses the problems and solutions arising in extrusion process
Extrusion
Extrusion is the process by which long continuous plastic products such as pipes,
hoses, profiles etc are manufactured. The extrusion process involves forcing the
molten plastic materials through a die of specified cross section under controlled
conditions. An extruder consists of a barrel and a screw rotating inside the barrel.
The plastic granules are fed to the extruder through a feed hopper at the rear end of
the extruder. As the screw rotates the material is heated, melted, compacted and
forced through a die of desired cross section. The extrudate emerging from the die
is cooled and cut into desired lengths. Fig. 3.3.1 shows a schematic representation
of the extruder.

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Fig: 3.3.1 Schematic representation of an extruder

Classification of Extruders
Extruders can be classified as
Batch Type
• Ram Extruders
• Reciprocating screw Extruders
Continuous type
• Single screw extruder
• Twin Screw extruder
• Multi Screw Extruder
In the industry, screw extruders dominate, in particular single screw extruders are
the work horse of the extrusion industry. Although the twins screw extruders are
progressively gaining popularity.
Single-Screw Extruders
Single crew extruders consists of a single screw rotating inside the barrel. Single-
screw extruders usually convert granular resin feeds into sheets, films, pellets, and
shapes such as pipe. These extruders are described by their screw diameters (in
inches or millimeters) and by their L/D ratio, L being the screw length and D the
screw diameter. Single-screw extruders are available in almost any size imaginable.
Common sizes are 5/8, 3/4, 1, 11/2, 21/2, 31/2, 41/2, 51/2, 6, 8, 12, 15, and 20 in.
L/D ratios range from 5:1 to 48:1, with 20:1 to 30:1 being some of the common
choices.
Twin-Screw Extruders
Machines using twin screws are generally large-volume production units used for
resin pelletizing in petrochemical plants. They are equipped with various combinations

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of intermeshing and nonmeshing screws that can be either the co-rotating or the
counter-rotating variety. The following types of processing can be performed in a
single machine: 1) melting, 2) mixing and blending, 3) homogenizing, gelling, and
dispersing, 4) reacting, 5) pumping, 6) compounding and formulation, 7) devolatilizing
and degassing, and 8) drying.
The twin-screw extruder is normally selected as the solution to many compounding
and reactive extrusion tasks. Twin-screw extruders can be either intermeshing or
nonintermeshing. Nonintermeshing extruders behave like two single screw extruders
with only minor interactions between the two screws. A further subdivision of twin-
screw types is the direction of rotation. Co-rotating extruders have both screws
rotating in the same direction, and therefore the material is exchanged between the
screws, while counter-rotating screws transport the process material through the
extruder in a figure eight channel.
Compounding requires that the resin be melted and homogenized while incorporating
additives or fillers at a given shear level. The key is the isolation of the high, medium,
and low shear sections along the screw length, as well as the feeding of additives at
the appropriate points. The advantages of twin screws include the capability for
mixing, dispersion, and heat control in addition to efficient conveying.
Components of an extruder:
The principal components of an extruder are as listed below
1. Feed Hopper
2. Extruder Screw and barrel
3. Die
4. Heating and cooling elements
5. Screen pack and breaker plate
6. Drive system
Feed Hopper
The purpose of the feed hopper is to transfer the polymer into the extruder barrel.
The hopper is designed to have a steady flow of polymer into the extruder. Flow in
hoppers depends on their type - gravitational or forced, bulk density of the material,
the shape and location of the feed inlet.
Extruder screw and Barrel
The screw and barrel are the heart of the extruder. It takes the feed polymer from
the hopper, which is then heated, plasticized and extruded through the die. The

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extruder screw is divided in to three zones - feed zone, compression zone, and
metering zone.

Fig: 3.3.2 Extruder screw

Feed zone: Feed zone comprises of the first 3-10 turns of the screw flight, located
directly under the feed throat. Its functions are to collect the granules from the feed
hopper, compact the granules and heat them up and convey the material to the next
zone
In the feed zone, the screw has a small, constant root diameter. This enables larger
intake of the plastic resin enhancing the extruder output. To prevent premature melting
of the granules in the feeder throat, the temperature of this zone is kept lower than
the others. Usually hopper cooling is also used
Compression or Transition zone: In the metering zone, the channel depth of the
screw progressively decreases, thus compressing the plastic resin and forcing the
gases and volatiles from the melt to flow back to the feed hopper. Due to the
progressive compression of the polymer in this zone, the material starts to soften
and melts under the action of heat and shear. The length of this zone depends on the
type of material to be processed.
Metering zone: Metering zone is characterized by a constant root diameter and a
narrow channel depth. In the metering zone the mix is brought to the correct
consistency and uniform temperature and builds up pressure so that the resin can be
pushed out through the die. This zone extends to the outlet of the extruder and thus
it consists of the screen pack, the breaker plate and the die
Screw
Different types of screws are developed for extrusion of various plastic materials.
The important features of the screws are
Screw pitch (P) - is the distance between
the centre of two adjacent flights
Channel width (W) - is the gap between two
adjacent flights
Fig: 3.3.3 Screw Nomenclature

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Land width (L) - is the width of the flight

Helix angle - defines the slope of the flight of the screw. It is the angle of the flight
to the transverse plane of the screw axis
Screw diameter (D) - is the diameter of the screw including the flight
Flight - is the helical thread on the screw
Root Diameter - is the diameter of the screw excluding the flight.
Channel Depth - is the distance from the bore of the barrel to the root of the screw.
Extruder size - Nominal diameter of the screw is used to specify and extruder
L/D ratio - Ratio of the length of the flighted portions of the screw to the nominal
diameter of the screw. Normal L/D ratios are 22 -24 : 1
Higher L/D ratio - gives longer residence time, greater output, uniform output and
greater mixing, greater mixing at less shear and more heating from the barrel
Short L/D ratio - results in short residence time that facilitates the processing of heat
sensitive materials, less space, lower torque (high strength to screw and less horse
power), lower cost
Compression ratio
Compression ratio is the ratio between the channel depth in the flight of the feed
zone to the channel depth in the last flight of the metering zone. Depending on the
type of the polymer a screw with a compression ratio varying from 1.5 to 4 should
be selected.
Screw types
1) Polyolefin screw
In the polyolefin screw the change from the feed to the metering zone is gradual and
it is accomplished by increasing the root diameter in the transition zone. Here the
root diameter is constant in both feed and metering zones and channel depth is more
in feed zone. The feed zone represents 50% of the overall length, transition zone
25% and metering zone 25%
2) PVC screw
PVC is difficult to work with since it is easily degraded by overheating. The material
also has a high melt viscosity at its melting temperature and so that the heat necessary
for degradation can be easily generated by hearing of the stiff material. So the
compression zone of the screw is made long and compression occurs gradually so

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as to lessen the shear gradation. For the same reason the metering zone is kept short
or eliminated fully. The screw should be acid resistant to avoid corrosion by HCl gas
liberated on heating.
3) Nylon screw
Nylon 66 has a sharp melting point at 2650C. At this temperature the solid material
suddenly melts to a low viscosity melt. The feed zone of the screw is therefore made
very long so that the high amount of heat to melt the crystalline material can be
reached. Because of the sharp melting point the compression zone is short. To ensure
that the screw can pump such low viscosity melt efficiently, the metering zone is of
reasonable length. (4D long)
Barrel
Barrel is the cylindrical chamber in which the screw rotates. Hopper is fixed to the
top of the barrel at the rear end. The barrel may have one or several vents and feed
ports. The barrel is made with hardened steel, lines with wear resistant, corrosion
resistant material. Barrel is provided with band heaters for heating.
Drive system
The drive system consists of the drive motor, reduction gears, transmission mechanism,
thrust bearing etc.
Heating and cooling elements
The barrel is heated using band heaters. Steam or fluid heating are also in use. Barrel
cooling is needed to prevent overheating that may cause degradation. Water cooling
is used to cool the hopper throat to prevent bridging of the plastic materials at the
throat. Larger screws are bored through for the passage of heat transfer medium,
but care must be taken to prevent overcooling which may freeze a layer on the
screw root.
Breaker plate and screen pack
Breaker plate is a perforated metal disc with a no. of small diameter holes. The
breaker plate is placed in between the screw and the die assembly. Its principal
function is to support the screen pack. The breaker plate also helps to convert the
spiral flow of the polymer melt leaving the screw into a linear axial flow.
Screen Pack is usually multilayered, sandwich of metallic wire screen. It is placed
between the screw and the breaker plate using the latter for physical support. The
main function of screen pack is to strain out particulate contaminants from the plastic.
The screen pack should be cleaned or changed periodically.

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Extrusion Dies
The role of the die is to form the melt into linear products like fibres, films, sheets,
profiles, rods, pipes etc. The die is a channel whose profile changes from that of the
extruder bore to an orifice which produces the required form.
The dies can be classified depending on the cross section of the extrudate as
• Solid cross sections - The dies for sold cross sections are simple straight through
dies with the desired cross sections
• Hollow cross sections - The dies for hollow sections consists of a cylindrical
die with a mandrel at the centre. The outer diameter of the tube is determined
by the diameter of the outer die ring orifice. The inner diameter is determined
by the mandrel diameter. The mandrel is held in position by a spider. Centering
screws are used to make the mandrel and outer die ring concentric.
Another classification scheme is based on the die attachment to the extruder
barrel
• Straight through dies - die is arranged in line with the direction of the barrel.
Used for the extrusion of pipe, rod, profiles, and sheet
• Cross head dies - Die is arranged at an angle 900, 450, or 300 to the barrel.
Used for the production of insulated wires, cables etc
• Offset dies - Combination of straight through and offset dies. Used for the
production of pipes
Sheet extrusion
Sheet extrusion is a technique for making flat plastic sheets from a variety of resins.

Fig: 3.3.4 Sheet Extrusion

Solid sheet extrusion units consist of at least one extruder and one sheet extrusion
die. They are followed by the polishing stack, in general comprising 3 calenders,
calibrating and cooling the sheet with their surfaces or calender nips. Behind this the
roller conveyor and the draw-off rolls for air cooling are located. The sheet is finally
cut and stored.

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Plastic sheets with width in excess of 2 meters and thicknesses ranging from approx.
0.5 to 15 mm in continuous lengths are manufactured by this process. Advanced
machines can extrude multilayer sheets with functional surfaces, grain/structured
surfaces etc.
Polystyrene is the most common polymer used in sheet extrusion. It is the dominant
material for thermoformed packaging and competes with ABS and PP in technical
markets. End use applications include tubs and pots for yogurt, margarine, and
desserts. Thermoformed packaging is also used in many other applications in the
food industry.
There are three primary techniques used to manufacture thermoplastic sheet. These
are:
1. Extrusion through a flat die onto casting rolls.
2. Extrusion through an annular die onto a sizing mandrel. The pipe-like cross
section that is extruded will be slit in one or more places and then flattened and
handled as sheet.
3. Resins and additives will be plasticized between large rolls and then sized through
a series of additional rolls into a flat sheet. This process is known as Calendaring.
Applications
Extruded PS sheet are used for thermal insulation materials for walls, roofs, and
under floors. In automobiles, sheets are used to produce interior trim, panels, and
dashboards. Foamed polyolefin sheet, both cross-linked and non-cross-linked, is
also used in automotive applications. Other applications include luggage, refrigerator
liners, and shower units etc.
Profile extrusion
This process is used to manufacture plastic products with a continuous cross-section
such as; drinking straws, decorative moulding, window trimming and a wide variety
of other products. The plastic is fed in pellet form into the extruder hopper. The
material is softened by both friction & heat and conveyed continuously forward by
a rotating screw inside a heated barrel. The softened plastic is then forced out through
a die and directs into cool water where the product solidifies. Subsequently it is
conveyed into the take-off rollers which pulls of the softened plastic from the die.
Applications
Window profiles, sealing sections, Modular drawer profiles, Decorative trim Etc.

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Pipe extrusion
Pipe extrusion is defined as a process of forcing the polymer melt through a shaping
die. The extrudates from the die is sized, cooled and the formed pipe is pulled to the
winder or a cut off device with the aid of haul off device. Prior to this, the plastic
material in the form of plymer granules is fed into the hopper, conveyed by a rotating
screw through a long cylindrical barrel. This is subjected simultaneously to high
temperature and pressure, forcing the melt through the die at a predetermined rate.
To get hollow cross sections a spider die is used in which a central core is fixed
concentric in the interior of the die and is fixed in position through spider arrangements.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and Polyethylene's (PE) are the most widely used
thermoplastic piping material.

Fig: 3.3.5 Pipe Extrusion

Pullers-Cutters - Cutter-pullers are used in the production of pipes and thin-wall
tubes. As their name implies, they pull the extrudate through a vacuum sizer/cooler
and cut the tube or pipe to the desired length. The speed of the puller is set by a
controller to correspond to the speed of the extruder. Reciprocal movement of the
cutting head is synchronized with the linear speed of the sleeve or pipe, and at a
preset length, a blade cuts the sleeve and retracts. Then the cutting head moves
back by the distance equal to the required tube or pipe length.
Blown film extrusion (film blowing)
The plastic melt is extruded through an angular slit die placed vertically to form a thin
walled tube. Air is introduced via a hole in the centre of the die to blow up the tube
like a balloon. A high-speed air ring blows onto the hot film to cool it. The tube of
film then continues upwards, continually cooling, until it passes through nip rolls
where the tube is flattened to create what is known as a 'lay-flat' tube of film. This
lay-flat or collapsed tube is then taken back down the extrusion 'tower' via more
rollers. On higher output lines, the air inside the bubble is also exchanged. This is

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known as IBS (Internal Bubble

Cooling). The lay-flat film is then
either kept as such or the edges of
the lay-flat are slit off to produce
two flat film sheets and wound up
onto reels. If kept as lay-flat, the
tube of film is made into bags by
sealing across the width of film and
cutting or perforating to make each
bag. This is done either in line with
the blown film process or at a later
Fig: 3.3.6 Blown film extrusion
stage.
The expansion ratio between die and blown tube of film would be 1.5 to 4 times the
die diameter.
Bubble diameter
Blow ratio =
Die diameter
The drawdown between the melt wall thickness and the cooled film thickness occurs
in both radial and longitudinal directions and is easily controlled by changing the
volume of air inside the bubble and by altering the haul off speed. This gives blown
film a better balance of properties than traditional cast or extruded film which is
drawn down along the extrusion direction only. The film width and thickness can be
regulated by control of the volume of air in the bubble, the output of the extruder and
the speed of the haul-off. The extruded films can also be biaxially oriented. Common
materials for blown film extrusion are Polyethylenes (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE)
are the most common resins in use, but a wide variety of other materials can be used
as blends with these resins or as single layers in a multi-layer film structure including
PP, PA, EVOH.
Applications:
• Blown film can be used either in tube form (e.g. for plastic bags and sacks) or
the tube can be slit to form a sheet.
• Industry packaging (e.g. shrink film, stretch film, bag film or container liners),
• Consumer packaging (e.g. packaging film for frozen products, shrink film for
transport packaging, food wrap film, packaging bags, or form, fill and seal
packaging film), Laminating film (e.g. laminating of aluminium or paper used for
packaging for example milk or coffee)

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• Barrier film (e.g. film made of raw materials such as polyamides and EVOH
acting as an aroma or oxygen barrier used for packaging food, e. g. cold meats
and cheese),
• Films for the packaging of medical products,
• Agricultural film (e.g. greenhouse film, crop forcing film, silage film, silage stretch
film).
Cable Extrusion
For the production of cables a cross head type extruder is used. The molten resin is
extruded using a cross head type die through which the conductor wire is fed. The
melt coats the conductor wire, forming an insulator layer. The finished product is
cooled, tested and wound up
Die swell
The contraction of the extrudate in the direction of extrusion and expansion in cross
section while emerging from the die is called extrudate swell. It is also called as die
swell.
Outer extrudate diameter
Die swell =
Diameter of the die
Extrudate swell may be reduced by
1) Decreasing extrusion rates
2) Increasing the melt temperature and die land
3) Increasing the draw down ratio
Melt fracture
The presence of rough surface, especially short cracks or ridges in the extrudate
surface in the machine direction is called melt fracture. Melt fracture can be controlled
by
1) Die streamlining
2) Lowering the extruder speed
3) Reducing the friction coefficient of die walls
4) Reducing the viscosity of the melt

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DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Work practice in an extruder
2) Field visit to an extruding unit

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Field visit
Case study
Chart preparation
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Single screw extruders are the work horse of extrusion. List the different parts
of a single screw extruder. Explain the functions of each.
2) While extruding a plastic product the product coming out of the die is found to
be larger than the die size. Explain this phenomenon? List the steps to minimize
this defect.
3) Plastic carry bags are made by blown film extrusion. Explain blown film extrusion
process with the help of a neat diagram?

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Unit IV
BLOW MOULDING & ROTATIONAL MOULDING

Blow moulding is a manufacturing process in which air pressure inflates heated plastic
in a mould cavity. It is used for the production of hollow plastic parts with thin walls,
such as beverage bottles, cosmetic containers and pharmaceutical packaging. Another
method used for the manufacture of hollow articles such as water tanks rotational
moulding. This unit details the different blow moulding and rotational moulding
operations used in plastic industry.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Describes the different blow moulding operations like extrusion blow mould-
ing, injection blow moulding and stretch blow moulding
• Analyses the problems, causes and remedies in blow moulding operation
• Describes the rotational moulding of plastics
• Analyses the defects, causes and remedies in rotational moulding
Blow Moulding
Blow moulding is a manufacturing process in which air pressure inflates heated plastic
in a mould cavity. It is used for the production of hollow plastic parts with thin walls,
such as beverage bottles, cosmetic containers and pharmaceutical packaging. There
are three types of blow moulding: extrusion, injection and stretch blow moulding.
Many thermoplastics, including polystyrene, PC and polyvinylchloride (PVC), can
be blow moulded. However, the most common resins are high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyethylene terepthalate (PET).
Extrusion Blow moulding
In extrusion blow moulding, a molten tube of plastic called parison is extruded into
a mould cavity. The mould sides are then clamped together, pinching and sealing the
parison tube at the bottom. Air is blown into the tube from the top, which expands
the hot resin wall into the shape of the cavity; the mould is cooled with water solidifying
the resin into the shape of the part. Once cooled, the part is ejected from the mould
and trimmed. A typical blow moulding operation show in the figure below.

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The basic extrusion blow-

moulding cycle is as follows.
The thermoplastic resin is melted
in the extruder and is extruded
out of the die head between two
mould halves. The tube of
melted plastic is called a parison.
The mould halves come together Fig: 3.4.1 blow moulding operation
when the parison has reached the
correct length. Pinch bars at the bottom of the mould close off the tube and maintain
some air in the parison to prevent the walls of the parison from sticking together
prematurely. The moulds are closed completely, sealing the parison and creating
flash on the edges of the mould. Air is blown through the blow pin mounted in the
head of the machine, forcing the soft plastic of the parison out against the walls of the
mould. The part is cooled in the mould, under pressure, until it can maintain its shape
and required dimensions. Before the mould is opened, the blowing air is stopped
and the air is vented to prevent part distortion. The mould is opened and the part is
stripped from the blow pin by either mechanical devices or by blowing it off. The
blow pin may also be retracted into the head.
The extrusion blow-moulding process is primarily used for smaller, high-quality bottles,
such as those required by the cosmetics industry, or whenever a good neck finish is
important. It is also used for open containers such as plastic drinking cups, which
could be moulded in conventional injection moulds, except that blow moulding yields
walls that are substantially thinner and lighter than those made by injection moulding,
without sacrificing any significant properties.
Most of the cycle time is taken up by the blowing and cooling step. Therefore
blowing and cooling control the machine cycle. The speed of the machine that melts
the resin and makes the parison must be configured to conform to the blowing/
cooling time.
Injection blow moulding
Injection blow moulding is a two-step process. A contoured preform is injection
moulded and then transferred to a blow mould cavity where it is inflated. The injection
blow-moulding process is limited to smaller sizes of parts than extrusion blow moulding.
The injection blow moulding process produces parts to tight dimensional or weight
tolerances that might not be achievable with the extrusion blow moulding process.

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Injection blow moulding is also used to mould parts out of materials such as PET or
polystyrene (PS) which are difficult to mould by the extrusion blow moulding process.
Injection blow-moulded parts can be produced without flash or trimming. Tooling is
more expensive for injection blow moulding, but the cycle times are faster than for
extrusion blow moulding.
During the injection stage, the melt is injected into a split parison cavity and around
a predetermined core rod. Once the melt is conditioned, the moulds open and then
rotate 120° to transfer the pre-form into a split blow-mould cavity (blow-mould
station). Compressed air enters through the core rod, blowing the conditioned parison
melt against the blow-mould cavity wall. After the material has cooled in the blow-
mould cavity, the moulds open and the finished container is then rotated 120° for
transfer to the pickoff (eject) station for removal from the core rod. In the pick-off
station, bottles are automatically removed from the core rods and fall directly into a
shipping carton or are placed in an upright position on a conveyer belt for post
handling.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of injection blow-moulded containers are:
• Precise neck finishes
• No trimming or reaming of excess flash.
• Repeatability.
• Excellent surface appearance.
• Greater range of rigid materials, such as polystyrene, SAN and ABS.
• Opportunity for parts consolidation.
• Multi material capability.
These advantages make injection blow moulding suitable for producing containers
to the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and
food.
Stretch blow moulding
Stretch blow moulding uses the same
procedures as injection blow moulding,
but prior to inflation, a ram stretches the
pre-form. The stretching aligns the
polymer chains, creating stronger parts Fig: 3.4.1 blow moulding operation

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with better clarity and gas barrier properties. There are two methods of stretch
blow moulding, ISBM (injection stretch blow moulding) and RHB (reheat and blow).
With ISBM, the injection moulded pre-form is immediately transferred to the blow
moulding tool. RHB uses pre-forms that are injection moulded and inventoried. The
pre-form is then reheated and blow moulded.
Table 3.4.1 Comparison between extrusion and injection blow moulding
Extrusion blow moulding Injection blow moulding

Parison is expanded against the walls of Injection moulded preforms are expanded
the blow mould by air pressure to take against the walls of the blow mould by
the shape of the mould air pressure

Pinch has to be cut from the part No. pinch off

Secondary operations is necessary Can be used directly

Programming of the parison is necessary High quality neck moulding provides

to get accurate weight of the part dimensional accuracy

Can be used for making bottles with Cannot be used for making bottles with
handles handles

Low tooling cost Comparatively high

Blow moulding defects

Parison Sag
This creates in an uneven wall thickness in the parison. During the formation of
parison it gets longer and heavier. As its gets heavier gravity starts to extend the
parison this is called parison
sag. Material with high melt
strength are needed in extrusion
blow moulding to reduce the
amount of sag in parison.
Axial thickness variation on
parison
Surface defects: Mottle,
Extrusion die liens Fig: 3.4.3 Parison sag

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Table 3.4.2 Faults causes and remedies in blow moulding

Fault Cause Action

Parison too long Excess extrusion output Reduce screw speed

Low melt viscosity leading Reduce barrel temperature
to parison sag Reduce die head temperature
Parison too short Insufficient extruder output Increase screw speed
Too low melt temperature Check heater functioning
Parison diameter too Incorrect die selection Check
large Excess die swell Raise melt temperature
Parison diameter too Incorrect die selection Check
small Excess parison sag Lower melt temperature
Excess parison wall Incorrect setting of parison Check
thickness thickness controller Raise melt temperature
Excess die swell
Parison wall too thin Incorrect setting of parison Check
thickness controller Lower melt temperature
Excess parison sag
Parison curls outward Die temperature too low Raise die temperature
as it leaves the die
Parison curls inwards Die temperature too high Lower die temperature
as it leaves the die
Shark skin (rough Die head temperature too Raise die head temperature
inside) low Raise Melt temperature
Melt temperature too low
Burn Marks Decomposition Check melt temperature
Check no dead spots
Check tip of the screw is not too
hot
Poor neck/ flash Blow pin badly set Check and adjust
separation Damaged cutting sleeve Replace
Displaced pinch weld Bent parison Check parison faults
Blunt parison knife Replace
De formed moulding Moulding ejected too hot Increase cooling time
Check cooling water supply to the
mould
Part sticks to the mould Mould too hot Check mould temperature
Moulding too hot Increase cooling time
Reduce melt temperature
Moulding does not Insufficient air Raise air pressure
fully inflate Increase blowing time

Rotational moulding
Rotational moulding or rotomoulding is a method of moulding plastics which is ideal
for the production of hollow articles, particularly large size products. It involves the
slow tumbling, heating, and melting of a thermoplastic powder in a bi-axially rotating
mould to produce seamless, hollow plastic parts. This process is typically used to
mould hollow parts, especially those with complex and varied shapes not easily

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obtainable by other hollow-art processes. It is a virtually shear-free and pressure-

free process.
Process Steps:
The Rotational Moulding process is essentially split into four operations:
Step 1: Loading resin into the mould
• A pre-measured amount of plastic material (in either liquid or powder form) is
placed in a cavity.
• The mould is then closed and indexed into an oven where materials are brought
up to the moulding temperature.
• As the mould is heated, it is rotated continuously about its vertical and horizon-
tal axes.
• This biaxial rotation brings all surfaces of the mould in contact with the plastic
material.
Step 2: Heating and fusion of resin
• The mould is rotated within the oven until all the plastic material has been picked
up by the hot inside surfaces of the cavity and densifies into a uniform layer.
• The machine moves the mould out of the oven and into the cooling chamber.
Step 3: Cooling before unloading
• Air or a mixture of air and water, cools the mould and the layers of molten
plastic material. This cooling process continues until the part has cooled
sufficiently to retain its shape.
• The machine then indexes the mould to the loading and unloading station.
Step 4: Unloading/Demoulding
• When the polymer has cooled sufficiently to retain its shape and be easily
handled, the mould is opened and the product removed.
• At this point powder can once again be placed in the mould and the cycle
repeated.

Fig: 3.4.4 Rotational moulding

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Fig: 3.4.5 Rotational Moulding machine

Raw Materials
To obtain the desired end product, the choice of a quality powdered resin is essential
in rotational moulding. One reason is the high temperatures used risk chemical
degradation in a less-than-quality product. Today, approximately 84 percent of all
resin used in rotational moulding is polyethylene (Table 3.4.1). A wide variety of
poly-ethylene powders with a wide range of properties, including melt index and
density are available in the market. While the effects of particle size on end-product
properties and processability are less critical, those of melt index and density are
considerable. The commonly used raw materials for rotational moulding are LDPE,
LLDPE, PP, EVA, and PVC
Table 3.4.3 Rotational moulding resin consumption

Resin Market share

Polyethylene 84%
Polycarbonate
Nylon
PVC 15%
Polyesters
Polypropylene
OTHERS 1%

Rotomoulding Process variables are:

• Oven temperature
• Oven residence time

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• Amount of polymer in the mould

• The speeds of rotation of the mould
• Nature of the cooling medium
• Duration of the cooling periods
• De-moulding temperature
The other factors affect the quality of product; although they may not be under the
direct control of moulder include:
• Power particle size
• Power particle size distribution
• Melt flow behaviour of the polymer
• Density of the polymer
• Mould material
• Shape of the mould
• Thickness of the mould
• Efficiency and type of oven
• Efficiency and type of cooling bay
Advantages of rotational moulding
• Very large parts can be manufactured
• Chemical waste and storage tanks up to 2,500 gallons
• Minimum design constraints
• Very low tooling costs
• No polymer weld lines
• Stress-free products
Disadvantages
• Slow cycle times mean high piece prices
• Narrow range of raw materials.
• Some geometrical features (such as ribs) are difficult to mould
Applications
Industrial & Commercial:
Industrial and commercial applications include Specialty tanks and containers for
fuel, water, and chemical processing, Livestock feeders, Drainage systems, Food
service containers, Instrument housings, Vending machines, Highway barriers and
road markers

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Consumer Products:
Rotational moulding is used to make consumer products such as Recreational, Special
Application, Toy & Transportation, Boats and kayaks, Childcare seats, Light globes,
Tool carts, Playing balls, Playground equipment, Truck/cart liners, Air ducts etc.
Table 3.4.4 Comparison of rotational and Blow moulding methods
Rotational moulding Injection blow moulding

Ideal for larger volume products Ideal for smaller volume products

Ideal for moulding perfect hollow objects Ideal for hollow objects with an opening
like ball at one end

Low cost for a given size capacity when Moulding process is costly
compared to blow moulding Costly moulds are used

Processability limited to thermoplastics Able to process wide variety of

like poly ethylene, PVC etc thermoplastics including ABS

Table 3.4.5 Faults causes and remedies in rotational moulding

Fault Cause Action

Warped parts Inadequate venting Use 13 mmdiameter vents per

Non uniform cooling cubic meter of mould volume
Check mould rotation during
cooling
Part stick in the mould Insufficient release agent, Re apply or use more release agent
degradation of release agent, Refinish damaged mould surfaces
Roughness or porosity on
mould surface
Uneven wall thickness Improper mould rotation Correct the mould rotation
Excessive flashing at Inside pressure high Provide venting
mould parting line Remate mould parting line
Adjust clamping pressure
Highly underfused Oven temperature low Increase oven temperature
parts, with many Heat transfer rate not Increase heat transfer using
small bubbles in wall adequate thinner moulds
or rough, powdery Resin powder too coarse Use finer mesh powder
inside surface

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DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Work practice on blow moulding machine
The operation of blow moulding machine requires mould setting temperature control,
air pressure and material
1. Mould setting: normally mould setting is done by adjusting the barrel up and
down and matched so that no gap exists between. It should be air tight, or else
the blowing air will escape
2. Temperature setting: the temperature of the melt is controlled indirectly by us-
ing the timer switch on or off the time. The duration of the heater on the period
is maintained is constant
3. Air pressure: air compressor is required to produce air. To regulate the pres-
sure a gauge is fitted on to the air compressor. Normally the pressure ranges
from 2kg/cm2 to 3 kg/cm2
4. Material :most material are produced with HDPE whose processing tempera-
ture ranges from 160 -2500C
Operation
Set the machine and mould ready for operation as per the setting procedures
described above, switch on the machine and waited until it reaches the required
temperature. After that feed the plastic material in the barrel by bringing down the
plunger. The operation is repeated till the right form of paison is obtained. The parison
is having excess length than the cavity of the mould. Close the mould and lock it.
Allow the air for blowing. After cooling the mould is opened and product is removed.
This process is repeated again and again for further production.
2) Field visit to blow moulding unit
3) Work practice on rotational moulding machine
Weigh required amount of LDPE/HDPE powder .It is then transferred in to an open
cold mould which is already coated with a mould releasing agent, silicon emulsion.
After loading mould is closed manually by clamps. The mould is then fixed with arms
and is rotated biaxially in a closed heating chamber where intense heat is supplied
.Rotational speed is 0-40 rpm for the minor axis and 0-12 rpm for major axis . The
temperature of the oven should be 200-500c depending on the product. After the
desired cycle time (2 to 20 minute) the mould is cooled quickly by spraying cold
water over the mould. Later, the mould is opened and the product is taken out.
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Field visit, Case study, Chart preparation
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Write the flow chart of rotational moulding process?
2) Compare and contrast rotational moulding with blow moulding?
3) Why vent is given to the rotational moulds

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Unit V
THERMOFORMING & CALENDARING

Over view of the unit

This unit deals with two major processing processes- thermoforming, used for
manufacturing a range of products from cups to boat hulls and rotational moulding
widely used to produce hollow articles like tanks.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Explain the different thermoforming processes and their respective features.
• Identify the different thermoforming materials and applications.
• Explain the plastic calendaring process and distinguish between different types
of calenders.
• Describe the different gauge control methods in calendaring.
Thermo forming
Introduction
Thermoforming is a plastic manufacturing process in which the thermoplastic sheets
are formed with the application of heat and pressure in a mould. The thermoplastic
sheet is held horizontally over a mould surface and clamped with a holding device.
The sheet is heated up until it is soft it is pressed into or stretched over the mould
surface by application of air pressure or by any other means. The softened sheet
conforms to the mould shape and it is held in place until it cools. The mould cavity is
opened and the thermoformed part is released.
Thermoforming set-up usually consists of the clamping unit, heaters, mould, and air
cooling system. The moulds should be cleaned after every cycle, as materials in the
mould can cause change in the shape of the finished goods. There are different types
of thermoforming process depending upon the pressure required i.e., vacuum forming,
pressure forming, matched die forming, Plug assist forming and drape forming.
Vacuum Forming
In this process, the vacuum pressure is used to form the heated thermoplastic sheet
into the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is placed on the mould surface and

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fixed with the help of clamping unit. The sheet is heated until it is softens and thereafter
vacuum needs to be applied quickly. A surge tank is used to quickly pull the air out
between the mould cavity and the sheet. When the vacuum is created, the sheet
conforms to the shape of the mould cavity. The formed part is cooled and then
ejected from the mould cavity. The schematic of vacuum forming process is shown
in the following figure

Fig: 3.5.1 Vacuum Forming

Pressure Forming
The pressure forming process
is closely related to vacuum
forming. In this process, the air
pressure required is much
higher as compared to the
vacuum forming. The
preheated plastic sheet is Fig: 3.5.2 Pressure Forming

placed on the mould surface, and then air pressure is applied quickly above the
sheet as shown in figure. The high pressure is developed in between the softened
sheet and the pressure box. Due to high pressure, the preheated plastic sheet can be
deformed into the mould cavity in a fraction of a second. The formed sheet is held in
the mould cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The formed part thereby solidifies
and is ejected from mould cavity. Prototype parts can also be made using pressure
forming process.
Matched die forming
Matched die forming is also called
mechanical forming. In this process,
mould consists of two parts i.e. die
and punch as shown in figure. The
thermoplastic sheet is heated with the
application of heat until it softens.
The preheated sheet is placed into
Fig: 3.5.3 Matched Die Forming

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the mould surface (that is called die) and through punch pressure is applied on the
hot sheet. The air in between the die and softened sheet is evacuated by using
vacuum pump, and therefore the thermoplastic sheet conforms to the mould shape.
The formed part is cooled and ejected from the mould cavity.
Plug Assist Forming
Plug assist thermoforming is one of the process variant of vacuum or pressure forming.
Its purpose is to pre-stretch the heated polymer sheet prior to the application of
pressure and/or vacuum during the final part formation. In this type of forming, the
plastic sheet is mechanically pre-stretched by a plug that is pushed into the hot
plastic before the application of vacuum/pressure to the mould. The plug has a
geometry that is usually 10 - 30 percent smaller than the interior of the female mould
cavity. A pressure is then applied to draw the material against the cavity walls and
complete the forming operation. The major advantage of plug-assist forming is that
it gives a better wall thickness uniformity than can be obtained by other forming
processes, especially for conical cup or box shapes.
The plug can be used to carry material towards the areas that would have been too
thin if just straight pressure/vacuum forming is used. The plug is constructed of materials
with low thermal conductivity to keep the plastic sheet from cooling when the sheet
comes in contact with it. Materials such as wood, syntactic foam and cast thermoset
plastics can be used to make a low thermally conductive plug. Aluminum with
temperature controlled electric heaters can also be used. Aluminium plugs produce
excellent results but are usually more costly.
Plug Assist vacuum forming
After the plastic sheet is heated and sealed across the mould cavity, a plug shaped
roughly like the mould cavity (but smaller) is plunged into the plastic sheet, pre-
stretching the material. When the plug platen has reached its closed position, a vacuum
is drawn through the mould to complete the formation of the sheet.
Plug Assist Pressure Forming
Plug assist pressure forming is similar to plug assist vacuum forming, except that as
the plug enters the sheet, air under the sheet is vented to the atmosphere. When the
plug completes its stroke and seals the mould, air pressure is applied from the plug
side.

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Fig: 3.5.4 Plug assisted vacuum forming Fig: 3.5.5 Plug assisted vacuum forming machine
Drape forming
Drape forming is similar to straight vacuum forming except that after the sheet is
framed and heated, it is mechanically stretched and a pressure differential is then
applied to form the sheet over a male mould. However, the sheet touching the mould
remains close to its original thickness. It is possible to drape-form items with a
depth-to-diameter ratio of approximately 4: 1
Process steps
Step 1: The plastic sheet is clamped in a frame and heated. Heating can be timed or
electronic sensors can be used to measure sheet temperature or sheet sag.

Fig: 3.5.6 Drape forming

Step 2: Drawn over the mould: either by pulling it over the mould and creating a
seal to the frame or by forcing the mould into the sheet and creating a seal. The
platen can be driven pneumatically or with electric drive.
Step 3: Then vacuum is applied through the mould, pulling the plastic tight to the
mould surface. A fan can be used to decrease sheet cooling time.
Step 4: After the plastic sheet has cooled, the vacuum is turned off and compressed
air is sent to the mould to help free it from the plastic. The platen then moves down

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pulling the mould from the formed part. The formed sheet is unclamped, removed
and a new cycle is ready to start.
Advantages
• Better part dimensional control on inside of part
• Lower mould costs
• Ability to grain surface (tubs, showers, counter tops, etc
• Faster cycle times.
Disadvantage: More scrap due to larger clamps and trims area.
Applications:
• Large panels that require retaining a simple non-flat shape as in a curved dis-
play wall.
• Constructions of wide sections of odd-shaped walls that will still retain overall
even material thickness.
Materials Used for thermoforming
The different types of thermoplastic materials which can be processed using
thermoforming process are: Acrylic (PMMA), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
Cellulose acetate, Low density polyethylene (LDPE), High density polyethylene
(HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Applications
Thermoforming process is used for variety of applications, for example, food
packaging, automotive parts, trays, building products and aircraft windscreens. Thick
gauge parts are used as cosmetic surfaces on permanent structures such as trucks,
medical equipment, material handling equipment, electrical and electronic equipment,
spas and shower enclosures, vehicle door and dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility
vehicle beds, and plastic pallets. Thin gauge parts are primarily used to package or
contain a food item, disposable cups, containers, lids, blisters and clamshells.
The advantages and disadvantages of the thermoforming process are given below:
Advantages:
• Extremely adaptive to design requirement
• Rapid prototype development
• Low initial setup costs
• Low production costs

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• Less thermal stresses than injection moulding and compression moulding

• Good dimensional stability
Disadvantages:
• Poor surface finish
• Parts may have non-uniform wall thickness.
• All parts need to be trimmed
• Ribs and bosses cannot be moulded easily
• Limited number of materials can be used
• Very thick plastic sheets can't be formed
Calendaring
Calendaring is the process of squeezing a plastic melt between two or more counter
rotating rolls to form a continuous film and sheet. In general extrusion film blowing is
the preferred method for producing films or sheets from polyolefins, but calendaring
has a major advantage of causing less thermal degradation and so it is widely used
for heat sensitive materials such as PVC. The PVC sheet was first successfully
calendered in the 1930s in Germany. The rigid compounds contain no plasticizer
where as plasticized compounds contains at least 20% plasticizer. The basic limitation
of the calendaring operation is that the width of the calendered film or sheet is limited
to the width of the calendar rolls
The calendaring machine consists of two or more rolls mounted on a rigid frame.
The nip or roll profile decide the shape of the article. The molten material is fed to
the calender rolls from a Banbury mixer - two-roll mill system, from a large extruder
or from PVC dough mixer. There are different types of calendar machine based on
the number of rolls and the position or orientation of rolls
I Type
The I type calender, was
for many years the
standard calender used. It
can be built with one more
roller in the stack. This
design was not ideal
though because at each Fig: 3.5.7. Different calender machines
nip there is an outward
force that pushes the rollers away from the nip.

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L Type
In L type the rolls are arranged in the L configuration. Since some rollers are at 90o
to others their roll separating forces have less effect on subsequent rollers. L type
calenders are often used for processing rigid vinyls and inverted L type calenders
are normally used for flexible vinyls.
Z Type
The z type calender places each pair of rollers at right angles to the next pair in the
chain. This means that the roll separating forces that are on each roller individually
will not affect any other rollers.
Roll Bending
Owing to the large separating forces developed in the calender gap, the rolls tend to
bend. The pressures are highest in the middle of the width of the roller and due to
this the rollers get deflected. This deflection causes the sheet being made to be
thicker in its center than it is at its sides. There are three methods that have been
developed to compensate for this bending:
1. roll crowning
2. roll bending
3. roll crossing
Roll crowning uses a roller that has a bigger diameter in its center to compensate for
the deflection of the roller. Roll bending involves applying moments to both ends of
the rollers to counteract the forces in the melt on the roller. With roll crossing the
rollers are put at a slight angle to each other and because of this the force of the
rollers on the melt is higher in the middle where the rollers are on top of each other
more, and less force is applied on the edges where the rollers are not directly over
top of each other.
Advantages and disadvantages of calendaring
The best quality sheets of plastic today are produced by calenders; in fact, the only
process that competes with the calender in sheet forming is extruding. The calender
also is very good at handling polymers that are heat sensitive as it causes very little
thermal degradation. Another advantage to calendaring is that it is good at mixing
polymers that contain high amounts of solid additives that don't get blended or fluxed
in very well. This is true because compared to extrusion the calender produces a
large rate of melt for the amount of mechanical energy that is put in. Due to this

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companies are able to add more filler product to their plastics and save money on
raw materials. Calenders are very versatile machines meaning that it is very easy to
change settings like the size of the roller gap.
Calender installations require large initial capital investment. Film and sheet extrusion
are competitive processes because the capital investment for an extruder is only a
fraction of the cost of a calender. However, the high quality and volume capabilities
of calendaring lines make them far superior for many products. Calendaring in
principle is similar to the hot rolling of steel into sheets. The process of calendaring is
also used extensively in the paper industry.

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Collection and analysis of thermoformed products.
2) Field visit to a thermoforming unit.
3) Working practice on vacuum forming, pressure forming methods

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Seminar
Field visit report
Participation in discussion
Oral Evaluation

Theory Evaluation Questions

1. What is the advantage of plug assisted forming over vacuum forming?
2. What is matched mould forming? Write any two advantages?
3. Explain how medicine tablets are packed?

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Unit VI
TESTING OF PLASTICS

Introduction
Plastic and plastic products are becoming more and more customer oriented and
hence have to be tested for ensuring the quality and performance requirements. This
unit deals with the mechanical, thermal and environmental testing of plastic raw
materials and plastic products.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Identify the significance of testing, specifications and standards
• List the typical tests conducted in the plastic industry
• Determine the specific gravity, hardness, tensile, flexural, and impact
properties of plastics
• Describe the testing of MFI, Vicat Softening point, Heat distortion
temperature and Environment stress crack resistance of plastics
Testing of Plastics
Testing has become an integral part of any manufacturing process to ensure the
reliability and performance of the products. It helps to evaluate the manufacturing
process and to check the suitability & consistency of the product obtained from
intermediate stages of manufacture. Testing helps to build a level of confidence in
both the supplier as well as the customer. The following are some of the major
reasons for testing.
1. To prove design concepts
2. To provide a basis for reliability
3. Safety
4. Protection against product liability suits
5. Quality control
6. To meet standards and specifications
7. To evaluate competitors products
8. To verify the manufacturing process
9. To establish the history for new materials

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Specifications and standards

A specification is a detailed description of requirements, dimensions, materials etc.
A specification for a plastic material involves defining particular requirements in terms
of density, tensile strength, thermal conductivity and other related properties. The
specification also relates to standard test methods to be used to determine such
properties.
A standard is something established for use as a rule or a basis of comparison in
measuring or judging capacity, quantity, content, value, quality etc. The purpose of
the standard is to develop a common language, so that there can be no confusion
among the concerned parties. Majority of the standards originate from the industry.
The standards are generally established by organizations such as BIS (Bureau of
Indian Standards), ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers), ISO (International Standards Organization)
The common tests that are performed in a plastic processing industry are as follows
1) Specific Gravity (ASTMD 792)
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of the given volume of a material
to that of an equal volume of water at a stated temperature. The temperature selected
for determining the specific gravity of plastic is 23 C.
Test Method -This method requires the use of a precision analytical balance
equipped with a stationary support for an immersion vessel above or below the
balance pan. A beaker is used as an immersion vessel. The test specimen of any
convenient size is weighed in air. Next, the specimen is suspended from a fine wire
attached to the balance and immersed completely in distilled water. The weight of
the specimen in water is determined.
The specific gravity of the specimen is calculated as follows:
a
Specific gravity = (a+w) - b
Where,
a = weight of specimen in air;
b = weight of specimen and wire in water,
w = weight of totally immersed sinker (if used) and partially immersed wire
2) Tensile Properties (ASTM-D 638)
Tensile strength, elongation and tensile modulus measurements are among the most
important indications of strength in a material. Tensile test, in a broad sense, is a

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measurement of the ability of a material to with stand forces that tend to pull it apart
and to what extend the material stretches before breaking. Tensile test data and
graph provides information about the resilience and toughness of material. Dumbbell
shaped specimen are used for tensile test. Specimens from thermoplastic & thermoset
can be moulded by Injection, compression or transfer moulding process.
Equipment
A tensile tester / Universal Testing Machine is used for measuring the tensile properties
of the plastic specimen. It is fitted with load cell and extensometer to record load
and extension accurately.
Procedure
Dumbbell shaped specimens as per the
specifications are prepared and the width
and thickness of each test specimen in
narrow parallel portion is measured. Mark
Gauge length on the specimen and the
specimens are placed in the grips of the
tensile tester or Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) at a specified grip separation and
pulled until failure. Attach extensometer
Fig: 3.6.1 Tesile testing
with specimen for measuring extension.
Force (load) (N)
Tensile strength =
Original Cross - section area of the specimen (mm2 )

Change in length (elongation)

 Elongation at yield, strain(ε) = 
Original length (gague length)
Percent Elongation = ε × 100
3) Flexural testing ASTM D 790
Flexural strength is the ability of a material to
with stand bending forces applied
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. The
stress induced due to flexural load is the
combination of compressive and tensile
stresses. If a material is used in the form of a
Fig: 3.6.2 Flexural testing beam, flexural test is more relevant for design
than a tensile test

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Equipment
Universal testing machine consisting of flexural test fixture such as specimen support
and loading nose is used. Machine consists of load cell and internal extensometer
for recording the load and deflection of specimen. Rectangular shaped specimen of
recommended size127mm x 12.7mm x 6.4mm is prepared by moulding or machined
from sheets
Procedure
Measure length, width and thickness of specimen accurately using a micrometer.
Adjust span length between two supports equal to 16 times of specimen thickness.
Place specimen on the support centrally with load axis perpendicular to loading
nose. The test is initiated by applying a load to the specimen at a specified cross
head rate.
Calculate Flexural strength by using following formula:
Flexural Strength = 3 PL/ 2bd2
Where P = Load in N
L = Distance of supports in mm.
b = Width of specimen in mm.
d = Thickness of test specimen in mm.
4) Impact tests
Impact tests measures the ability of the plastics material to resist a rapidly applied
stress. The test is commonly performed by striking a plastic bar with pendulum or
hammer at a specified speed and then measuring the load to break. . It is expressed
in J/m or Kg. Impact test is directly related to the toughness of material.
There are two major types of pendulum impact tests
1. Izod Impact
2. Charpy Impact.
Izod impact tests
Izod impact test indicates the energy required to break
notched specimens under standard conditions. The
pendulum of the machine is cantilevered upward and the
notch of the specimen should face the direction of impact. Fig: 3.6.3 Izod Impact
The pendulum is released and the force consumed in Testing
breaking the sample is calculated from the height of the

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pendulum that reaches on the follow through. Izod value is useful in comparing various
types or grades of plastics.
Charpy impact testing
The charpy impact test uses a
rectangular bar which is struck by
a pendulum or hammer. The impact
strength may be expressed as the
amount of energy needed to break
a specified bar. The sample unlike
Izod test is supported at both ends
Fig: 3.6.4 Charpy impact testing
and has a notch at the other side of
the specimen, which is struck centrally.
5) Hardness Tests
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to deformation, indentation, or
scratch. Different test methods are used for measuring the hardness of plastics.
Principle of any hardness test method is forcing an indenter into the sample surface
followed by measuring dimensions of the indentation (depth or actual surface area
of the indentation).
The Durometer hardness test (ASTM D 2240
The Durometer hardness tester consists of a pressure foot, an indenter, and an
indicating device. The indenter is spring loaded and the point of the indenter protrudes
through the hole in the base. The test specimens are at least 3 mm thick and can
either be moulded or cut from a sheet. The test is carried out by first placing a
specimen on a hard, flat surface. The pressure foot of the instrument is pressed onto
the specimen, making sure that it is parallel to the surface of the specimen. The
durometer hardness is read within 1 sec after the pressure foot is in firm contact with
the specimen. The hardness numbers derived from either scale are just numbers
without any units. Two types of durometers are most commonly used -Type A &
Type D. Type A durometer is used for soft material. Type D durometer is used for
hard material
Rockwell Hardness ASTM D 785
Rockwell hardness number is derived from the net increase in depth impression as
the load on an indentor is increased from a fixed minor load a major load and then
returned to minor load.
The test specimen of 25mm x 25mm x 6mm is placed on the anvil of the apparatus

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and minor load is applied by lowering the steel ball onto the surface of the specimen.
The minor load indents the specimen slightly and assures good contact. The dial is
adjusted to zero under minor load and the major load is immediately applied by
releasing the trip lever. After 15 sec the major load is removed and the specimen is
allowed to recover for an additional 15 sec. Rockwell hardness is read directly off
the dial with the minor load still applied.
6) Thermal tests
Thermal properties play a vital role in evaluating the product performance as well as
predicting the processability characteristics in plastics for specific applications. These
properties are of great importance to the process engineers and designers in designing
the machines and tool for shaping of plastics. The following are the important thermal
tests conducted on plastics
6.1 Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT)
Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT) is a relative measure of a material's ability to
perform for a short time at elevated temperatures while supporting a load. The test
measures the effect of temperature on stiffness. It is defined as the temperature at
which a standard test bar (5 x ½ x ¼ inch) deflects 0.010 inch under a stated load
of either 66 or 264 psi when heated at the rate of 2°C/minutes. Specimens of
dimensions 127 mm in length, 13 mm in depth cut should be conditioned at 23
2°C and 50 5% relative humidity for
not less than 40 hrs prior to test.
The test specimens are positioned
edgewise in the apparatus to ensure
that they are properly aligned on the
supports. Carefully apply the load
66 psi or 264 psi is obtained on to
the specimen. Five minutes after
applying the load, adjust the
deflection measurement device to
zero position. Heat the liquid heat-
transfer medium at a rate of 2.0
0.2°C/min. Record the temperature
Fig: 3.6.5 : 3.6.5 Apparatus for the
of the liquid heat-transfer medium determination of HDT
at which the specimen has deflected
the specified amount at the specified stress.

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6.2 Vicat Softening Point (VSP) ASTM D 1525

The test determines the temperature at which a standard indentor penetrates 1mm
under the surface of a test specimen under load. Data obtained by this test method
may be used to compare the heat-softening qualities of thermoplastic materials. This
test method is also useful in the areas of quality control, development and
characterization of plastic material.
Test method
The specimen shall be flat, between 3 and 6.5
mm thick and at least 10 ×10mm in area or 10
mm in diameter. The test specimens shall be
conditioned at 23 2°C and at 50 5% relative
humidity of not less than 40 hrs. The sample is
immersed in the heating bath of the vicat apparatus.
A flat-ended needle placed in direct contact with
the test specimens. The specified weight of about
50N is applied to the load carrying plate.
Temperature of the bath is raised at the uniform Fig: 3.6.6 Vicat Softening point
rate of 500C/hr. The liquid is stirred well during Apparatus
the test. Temperature of the bath at which the indenting tip penetrates into the specimen
by 1.00 mm is recorded as the Vicat softening temperature of the test specimen.
6.3 Melt flow index (MFI) ASTM D (1238-70)
It is defined as the amount of material flow in ten minutes from a standard die under
prescribed conditions of temperature and
pressure. The unit of MFI is g/10min. The melt
index values help to distinguish between the
different grades of a polymer and is indicative
of the molecular weight of a polymer. A high
molecular weight material is more resistant to
flow than a low molecular-weight material.
The extrusion plastometer consists of a vertical
cylinder with a small die of 2 mm at the bottom
and a removable piston at the top. The material
is loaded in to the preheated cylinder. The
piston placed on top of the molten polymer
and its weight forces the polymer through the
Fig: 3.6.7 MFI apparatus
die and on to a collecting plate. Loads used

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are 1.2, 5 and 10 kg. The amount of polymer extruded after a specific interval is
weighed and normalized to the number of grams that would have been extruded in
10 minutes.
7. Environmental stress crack resistance (ESCR)
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR)
describes the tendency of poly ethylene products to
prematurely fail in the presence of detergents, water,
sunlight, oil etc under conditions of strain. It is a physical
phenomenon that involves no swelling or similar
mechanical weakening of the metal. The test is carried
out using 1.5*1/2 inch specimens cut from the sample.
It is bend through 1800 fixed to a holder. Holder is
inserted in to a test tube. Fill the test tube with soap or
any organic liquid. The tube is placed in a constant Fig: 3.6.7 Environmental stress
temperature bath. Test specimens are removed after crack resistance (ESCR)
specified time and observed for cracks.

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1. Demonstration about personal, machine & electrical safety while working on
plastics testing machines
2. Determination of Tensile properties of plastics
3. Determination of Density/Specific Gravity
4. Determination of Impact strength
Procedure
The procedure for the practical in this unit is detailed in the section 1 - 7 of this unit.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Practical evaluation
Oral Evaluation
Class test
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) What are the common thermal tests done on plastics?
2) Explain the Izod and Charpy impact tests on plastics
3) Describe the tensile and flexural property measurement of plastics
4) Identify the equipment used for measuring the hardness of plastics
5) Explain how to determine the specific gravity of a plastic sample in the laboratory

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Module IV
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Overview
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP), is a composite material made of a polymer matrix
reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon, or aramid. Other fibres
such as paper, wood or asbestos etc were rarely used. The polymer used is usually
an epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester thermosetting plastic. Combining fibres with resin
matrix results in composites that are strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant and
dimensionally stable. They also provide good design flexibility and require lower
tooling costs. Because of these advantages, composites are being used in a growing
number of industries, such as aerospace, automobile, civil infrastructure, wind energy,
marine and sports. Their high strength-to-weight ratio and design flexibility make
them ideal in structural components. High-strength lightweight premium composite
materials such as carbon fibre - epoxies are being used for aerospace applications
and in high performance sporting goods. Composite's superior electrical insulating
properties also make them ideal for appliances, tools and machinery. Tanks and
pipes constructed with corrosion-resistant composites offer extended service life
over those made with metals.
One of the advantages of composites is that, their components - fibre and resin
matrix, complement each other. While thin fibres are quite strong, they are also
susceptible to damage. Plastics are relatively weak, but are versatile and tough.
Combining these two components together, however, results in a material that is
more useful than either is separately. With the right fibre, resin and manufacturing
process, designers today can tailor composites to meet final product requirements
that could not be met by using other materials.
This module is divided into five units. The first unit covers the fundamentals of Fibre
reinforced composites, basic features and applications. Then different reinforcements,
matrix materials and other additives used in fibre reinforced composites dealt in
detail in second and third units respectively. Fourth unit is dedicated to the various
manufacturing processes used for making FRP products. The fifth unit deals with the
design of FRP products, materials selection, mould or pattern making and repair of
composites.

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Unit I
Introduction to Composites
Over view of the unit
This unit is an introduction to composite materials. It deals with the basic features,
components, properties and applications of fibre reinforced composites. Classification
of different composites, advantages, disadvantages and comparison of composite
materials with conventional materials are also covered.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
4.1.1 Explains composites, its basic features and constituents of composites,
role of matrix, reinforcement and interphase
4.1.2 Classifies different composites based on matrix, structure, and type of
reinforcements, orientation and applications
Introduction
Composites are materials made by combining two or more dissimilar materials. One
phase is the reinforcing phase and the other phase is the matrix phase in which the
reinforcing materials is embedded. The reinforcing material may be in the form of
fibres, particles, or flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally continuous. The
matrix phase is light but weak. The reinforcing phase is strong and hard and may not
be light in weight. But the combination of the two exhibits the best of individual
properties as well as enhanced properties that none of the individual components
possesses.
Example: helmet
Helmet is made of glass fibre and polyester resin. Both glass fibre and polyester are
brittle and cannot individually withstand the impact energy in an accident. However
the two together as group can have its impact resistance increased several folds
absorbing the energy by developing numerous micro cracks and preventing the shock
from transmitting to the head and brain. It is light in weight and can be moulded easily.
Constituents of composite material
Reinforcements:
Reinforcements give high strength, stiffness and other improved mechanical properties
to the composites. Also their contribution to other properties such as the co-efficient
of thermal expansion, conductivity etc is remarkable.

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Matrices:
Matrices gives shape to the composites and the reinforcement fibres are embedded
in it. It keeps the fibres in place and transfer stresses to the fibres, protects the
reinforcement from the environment, such as chemicals & moisture, protect the surface
of the fibres from mechanical degradation, and act as shielding from damage due to
handling.
Fibre-matrix interface:
When the load is applied on a composite material, the load is directly carried by the
matrix and it is transferred to the fibres from the matrix through fibre-matrix interface.
So, it is clear that the load-transfer from the matrix to the fibre depends on the fibre-
matrix interface. This interface may be formed by chemical, mechanical, and reaction
bonding. In most cases, more than one type of bonding occurs.
Advantages of composites
a) High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation
b) High strength to weight ratio
c) Can be tailor made to meet the design requirements
d) High resistance to impact damage
e) Simplified manufacturing processes
f) Close tolerances can be achieved without machining
Disadvantages of composites
a) Composites are more brittle than metals
b) Reuse and disposal may be difficult
c) Directional dependence of properties
d) Matrix is weak, therefore low toughness
e) Matrix is subjected to environmental degradation
Applications of composites
1. Aerospace
2. Land transport including road and rail transport
3. Marine vessels and ocean structures
4. Building and civil engineering construction including agriculture, aqua culture,
irrigation, water treatment, sewerage disposal and railway track construction
5. Chemical plants and corrosion resistant products and structures
6. Electrical electronics and communication applications

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7. Mechanical systems, machine elements and energy appliances

8. Biomedical appliances including prosthetic and orthotic devices and hospital
appliances
9. Sports goods and consumer durable goods
Indian composites scene
• Indian composites industry started in 1962 at Coimbatore
• Helmet production started in 1964 and chemical Plants were made in 1965
and marine application Started in 1967
• R & D in composites started in 1969 at VSSC and 1971 at NAL
• FRP research centre (the present composite Technology centre), IIT madras
started in 1974 for teaching, research and design
• Industrial production of FRP in 2001 was 55,000 Tonnes
• There are 1200 FRP fabricators 4 glass fibre Manufacturers and 91 resin manu-
facturers
Classification of composites
Composites have been in the nature before man made composites came into
existence. Wood, bamboo, bone, muscle, shell of beetle, horn of rhino, coconut
husk etc are examples of natural composites. Polymer matrix composites are made
using resins such as polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester etc and fibres such as glass fibre,
carbon fibre and aramids
Composite materials can be classified based on the type of matrices, type of
reinforcement and their orientation.
Classification of composites based on matrix
The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal
Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term
organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites,
namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites
commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
Classification of Composites based on reinforcements
Based on the form of reinforcement the composites are classified as fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced
composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or
continuous fibres.

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Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material.

These are further divided into short fibre and continuous fibre composites based on
the length of the fibres used. Depending on the fibre direction and orientation uniaxial,
biaxial, woven fabrics, knitted fabrics, braided fabrics, chopped strand mats etc are
used in composites.
Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a
matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood
particle boards are examples of this category.

Fig: 4.1.1 Different types of Fig: 4.1.2 Different forms of

composites reinforcement

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS

Prepare a sample FRP sheet using the given compounded polyester resin and glass
fibre.
Procedure
Take two clean OHP films. Apply one coat of release agent (wax or PVA) on to the
surface of the OHP films. Now apply a thin gel coat of compounded resin on one
film using a paint brush or roller. Place one layer of glass fibre and wet thoroughly

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with the compounded resin. Build successive layers to get the desired thickness.
Then apply a second gel coat. Place the other film above this and consolidate using
rollers. Keep it undisturbed for about half an hour to allow the resin to harden. After
30 remove the OHP films and finish the FRP sheet by trimming the edges.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

1) Assignment of the application of composites.

2) Chart - Classification of composites

Theory Evaluation Questions

1) Helmets are made of Fibre reinforced plastics
a. Explain how the combination of resin matrix and reinforcement fibre effec-
tively protects us from head injuries during an accident.
b. Identify the materials used in the construction of helmets
2) Many automobile components are nowadays made of FRP materials. Discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of FRP materials.
3) FRP materials consist of matrix and reinforcements. Explain the role of each in
a successful FRP product.
4) Classify the FRP products on the basis of matrices used for construction?
5) Classify the FRP products on the basis of the form of reinforcements used?
6) Discuss the advantages of FRP materials in aerospace, agriculture, and marine
applications
7) Which of the following combination is an essential part of a composite?
a) Filler and pigments c) Plastic resin and reinforcements
b) Catalyst and lubricants d) Resin and stabilizer
8) Which of the following are major advantages of composites
a) Unlimited moulding size c) High strength to weight ratio
b) Low capital investment d) All of the above

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Unit II
REINFORCEMENT FIBRES

Over view of the unit

Reinforcing fibres are a key component of polymer matrix composites. They impart
high strength and stiffness to the matrix materials. This unit deals with different kinds
of reinforcement fibres used for making Fibre Reinforced Composites. Different
fibres such as Glass fibre, Carbon fibre, Aramid fibres etc and the different forms in
which they are used in composites are also discussed. The terminologies used in
fibre science are also provided understand the fibre characteristics.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
4.2.1 Explains the functions and properties of reinforcing fibres used in composites
4.2.2 Identifies the different types of fibres like roving, continuous filaments,
chopped strand mats, woven fabric etc
4.2.3 Describes the properties and applications of different types of glass fibres,
carbon fibre, Aramid fibre, Boron fibre, UHMWHDPE fibres, and different
natural fibres used in composites and their applications
Reinforcing fibres
Reinforcing fibres are a key component of fibre reinforced composites. They impart
high strength and stiffness to the matrix material and share a major portion of the
load acting on the composite structure. Proper selection of the fibre type, volume
fraction, length, and fibre orientation is very important, since it influences the density,
strength, stiffness, electrical and thermal properties and cost characteristics of the
composites. The fibre generally occupies 30% - 70% of the matrix volume in the
composites. The fibres can be chopped, woven, stitched, and braided. They are
usually treated with sizing such as starch, gelatin, oil or wax to improve the bond as
well as to improve the handling. The most common types of fibres used in advanced
composites are fibreglass, aramid, and carbon. The fibreglass is the least expensive
and carbon being the most expensive. The cost of aramid fibres is about the same as
the lower grades of the carbon fibre. Other fibres used in composites include
polyethylene, aromatic polyester, boron fibres etc. In addition to this certain low
cost fibres such as cotton, jute, flax, sisal, asbestos etc are used in low cost composite
applications.

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Functions of a reinforcing agent

The functions of a reinforcing agent are:
1. These are the main load carrying constituents.
2. They contribute the desired properties to the composite.
3. It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material.
Requirements of reinforcement fibres
• High Modulus
• Fine diameter (flexible, smaller size defects)
• High aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio)
• Stable during processing conditions
- thermally
- chemically
- physically (mixing, pressing, injection operations)
Terminologies used in fibre reinforced composites
The following terms are frequently used to describe fibre characteristics and hence
it is necessary to know these terms.
Staple fibre : Represents discontinuous fibre
Filament : Represents a single continuous fibre
Strand : Represents a bundle of 204 untwisted fibres (filament)
Roving : Combination of strands to form thicker parallel bundles
Tow : Represents bundle of untwisted filaments in large numbers,
say 2000 to 12000 filaments.
Yarn : Represents bundle of twisted fibres (strands).
Sizes : Represents a thin coating of chemical applied on filament
surface to protect the fibres from damage and
environmental effects (e.g., polyvinyl acetate)
Coupling agents : Used to get good bonding between fibre and matrix (e.g.
chrome complexes, silanes)
Braiding : Two or more yarns are intertwined to form an elongated
structure. The long direction is called the bias direction or
machine direction.

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Chopped strands : Fibres are chopped to various lengths, 3 to 50 mm, for

mixing with resins.
Chopped strand Mat : Randomly dispersed chopped fibres or continuous fibre
strands, held together with a binder.
Cord : A relatively thick fibrous product made by twisting together
two or more plies of yarn.
Denier : A unit of linear density. It is the weight in grams of 9000m
long yarn.
Knitted fabric : One set of yarn is looped and interlocking to form a planar
structure.
Warp : Lengthwise yarn in a woven fabric.
Weft : Transverse yarn in a woven fabric. Also called fill.
Woven Fabric : Flat, drapable sheet made by interlacing yarns or tows
Woven roving : Heavy, drapable fabric woven from continuous roving.

Fig: 4.2.1 Fibre forms

Glass fibres
Glass fibres are the most common of all reinforcing fibres for polymeric matrix
composites (PMC). The principal advantages of glass fibres are low cost, high tensile
strength, high chemical resistance, and excellent insulating properties. The
disadvantages are relatively low tensile modulus and high density, sensitivity to abrasion
during handling, relatively low fatigue resistance, and high hardness
The three types of glass fibres commonly used in the fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP)
industry are E-glass S-glass and C-glass. E-glass has the lowest cost of all
commercially available reinforcing fibres, S-glass, has the highest tensile strength

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among all fibres in use and is more expensive than E-glass. C-glass is used in chemical
applications requiring greater corrosion resistance to acids.
Table 4.2.1 Chemical compositions of E- and S-glass fibres
Composition of Glass fibres (wt %)
Type SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO B2O3 Na2O
E glass 54.5 14.5 17 4.5 8.5 0.5
S glass 64 26 10

The principal ingredient in all glass fibres is silica (SiO2). Other oxides, such as
B2O3 and Al2O3, are added to modify the network structure of SiO2 as well as to
improve its workability. Various ingredients in the glass formulation are first dry-
mixed and melted in a refractory furnace at about 13700C. The molten glass is
extruded through a number of orifices contained in a platinum bushing and rapidly
drawn into filaments of ~10 µm in diameter. A protective coating (size) is then applied
on individual filaments before they are gathered together into a strand and wound on
a drum. The coating or size is a mixture of lubricants (which prevent abrasion between
the filaments), antistatic agents (which reduce static friction between the filaments),
and a binder (which packs the filaments together into a strand). It may also contain
small percentages of a coupling agent that promotes adhesion between fibres and
the specific polymer matrix for which it is formulated.
Table 4.2.2 Mechanical properties of glass fibres:

The basic commercial form of glass fibre is a strand, which is a collection of 204
parallel filaments. A roving is a group of untwisted parallel strands (also called ends)
wound on a cylindrical forming package. Rovings are used in continuous moulding
operations, such as filament winding and pultrusion. They can also be pre impregnated
with a thin layer of polymeric resin matrix to form prepregs. Prepregs are subsequently

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cut into required dimensions, stacked, and cured into the final shape in batch moulding
operations, such as compression moulding and hand layup moulding.
Chopped strands are produced by cutting continuous strands into short lengths. The
ability of the individual filaments to hold together during or after the chopping process
depends largely on the type and amount of the size applied during fibre manufacturing
operation. Strands of high integrity are called ''hard'' and those that separate more
readily are called ''soft.'' Chopped strands ranging in length from 3.2 to 12.7 mm are
used in injection-moulding operations. Longer strands, up to 50.8 mm in length, are
mixed with a resinous binder and spread in a two-dimensional random fashion to
form chopped strand mats (CSMs). These mats are used mostly for hand layup
mouldings and provide nearly equal properties in all directions in the plane of the
structure.
Glass fibres are also available in woven form, such as woven roving or woven cloth.
Woven roving is a coarse drapable fabric in which continuous roving are woven in
two mutually perpendicular directions. Woven cloth is weaved using twisted
continuous strands, called yarns. Both woven roving and cloth provide bidirectional
properties that depend on the style of weaving as well as relative fibre counts in the
length (warp) and crosswise (fill) directions. A layer of woven roving is sometime s
bonded with a layer of CSM to produce a woven roving mat. All of these forms of
glass fibres are suitable for hand layup moulding and liquid composite moulding.
Carbon fibre
A carbon fibre is a thin, long fibre composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibre-
reinforced composite materials are used to make aircraft and spacecraft parts, racing
car bodies, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, fishing rods, automobile springs, and
many other components where light weight and high strength are needed.
Carbon fibres are classified by the tensile modulus of the fibre. Low modulus carbon
fibres have a tensile modulus below 250 GPa. Other classifications, in ascending
order of tensile modulus, include "standard modulus," "intermediate modulus," "high
modulus," and "ultrahigh modulus." Ultrahigh modulus carbon fibres have a tensile
modulus of 500 - 1000GPa. As a comparison, steel has a tensile modulus of 200
GPa). Thus, the strongest carbon fibres are five times stronger than steel.
In general, the low-modulus fibres have lower density, lower cost, than the high-
modulus fibres. Among the advantages of carbon fibres are their exceptionally high
tensile strength-weight ratios as well as tensile modulus-weight ratios, very low
coefficient of linear thermal expansion (which provides dimensional stability in such
applications as space antennas), high fatigue strengths, and high thermal conductivity
(which is even higher than that of copper). The disadvantages are their low strain-

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to-failure, low impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity, which may cause
''shorting'' in unprotected electrical machinery. Their high cost has so far excluded
them from widespread commercial applications. They are used mostly in the
aerospace industry, where weight saving is considered more critical than cost.
Table 4.2.3 Mechanical properties of carbon fibres:

The raw material used to make carbon fibre is called the precursor. About 90% of
the carbon fibres produced are made from polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The remaining
10% are made from rayon or petroleum pitch. All of these materials are organic
polymers, characterized by long strings of molecules bound together by carbon
atoms.
The process for making carbon fibres is part chemical and part mechanical. The
precursor is drawn into long strands or fibres and then heated to a very high
temperature with-out allowing it to come in contact with oxygen. Without oxygen,
the fibre cannot burn. Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in the fibre to
vibrate violently until most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled. This process is
called carbonization and leaves a fibre composed of long, tightly inter-locked chains
of carbon atoms with only a few non-carbon atoms remaining.
After carbonizing, the fibres have a surface that does not bond well with the epoxies
and other materials used in composite materials. To give the fibres better bonding
properties, their surface is slightly oxidized. The addition of oxygen atoms to the
surface provides better chemical bonding properties and also etches and roughens
the surface for better mechanical bonding properties.
After the surface treatment, the fibres are coated to protect them from damage
during winding or weaving. This process is called sizing. Coating materials are chosen
to be compatible with the adhesive used to form composite materials. Typical coating
materials include epoxy, polyester, nylon, urethane, and others. The coated fibres
are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The bobbins are loaded into a spinning
machine and the fibres are twisted into yarns of various sizes.

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Aramid fibres
Aramid (aromatic polyamide) fibres have the lowest density and the highest tensile
strength-to-weight ratio. They are commonly known by the trade name Kevlar.
Aramid fibres are used in many marine and aerospace applications where lightweight,
high tensile strength, and resistance to impact damage are important. Like carbon
fibres, they also have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the longitudinal
direction, which is used in designing low thermal expansion composite panels. The
major disadvantages of aramid fibre reinforced composites are their low compressive
strengths and difficulty in cutting or machining.
Kevlar filaments are manufactured by extruding an acidic solution of a proprietary
precursor (a polycondensation product of terephthaloyol chloride and p-phenylene
diamine) from a spinneret. During the filament drawing process, Kevlar molecules
become highly oriented in the direction of the filament axis. Weak hydrogen bonds
between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in adjacent molecules hold them together in
the transverse direction. The resulting filament is highly anisotropic, with much better
physical and mechanical properties in the longitudinal direction than in the radial
direction. One interesting application of Kevlar fibres is in soft lightweight body
armors and helmets used for protecting police officers and military personnel. Kevlar
fibres do not melt or support combustion but will start to carbonize at about 4270C.
The maximum long-term use temperature recommended for Kevlar is 1600C. They
have very low thermal conductivity, but a very high vibration damping coefficient.
Except for a few strong acids and alkalis, their chemical resistance is good. However,
they are quite sensitive to ultraviolet light. Prolonged direct exposure to sunlight
causes discoloration and significant loss in tensile strength. The problem is less
pronounced in composite laminates in which the fibres are covered with a matrix.
Ultraviolet light-absorbing fillers can be added to the matrix to further reduce the
problem. Kevlar fibres are hygroscopic and can absorb up to 6% moisture. Absorbed
moisture seems to have very little effect on the tensile properties of Kevlar fibres.
Kevlar 49 and Kevlar 149 are two grades of commercial aramid fibres.
Table 4.2.4 Mechanical properties of Kevlar fibres:

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Extended chain polyethylene fibres

Extended chain polyethylene fibres, commercially available under the trade name
Spectra, are produced by gel spinning a high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Gel
spinning yields a highly oriented fibrous structure with exceptionally high crystallinity
(95%-99%) relative to melt spinning used for conventional polyethylene fibres.
Spectra polyethylene fibres have the highest strength-to-weight ratio of all commercial
fibres available to date. Two other outstanding features of Spectra fibres are their
low moisture absorption (1% compared with 5%-6% for Kevlar) and high abrasion
resistance, which make them very useful in marine composites, such as boat hulls
and water skis.
The melting point of Spectra fibres is 1470C; however, since they exhibit a high level
of creep above 1000C, their application temperature is limited to 800C-900C. The
safe manufacturing temperature for composites containing Spectra fibres is below
1250C, since they exhibit a significant and rapid reduction in strength as well as
increase in thermal shrinkage above this temperature. Another problem with Spectra
fibres is their poor adhesion with resin matrices, which can be partially improved by
their surface modification with gas plasma treatment. Spectra fibres provide high
impact resistance for composite laminates even at low temperatures and are finding
growing applications in ballistic composites, such as armors, helmets, and so on.
However, their use in high-performance aerospace composites is limited, unless
they are used in conjunction with stiffer carbon fibres to produce hybrid laminates
with improved impact damage tolerance than all-carbon fibre laminates.
Table 4.2.5 Mechanical properties of UHMWPE fibres:

Natural fibres
Examples of natural fibres are jute, flax, hemp, sisal, coconut fibre (coir), and banana
fibre. The components of natural fibres are cellulose micro fibrils dispersed in an
amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. Depending on the type of the natural
fibre, the cellulose content is in the range of 60-80 wt% and the lignin content is in

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the range of 5-20 wt%. In addition, the moisture content in natural fibres can be up
to 20 wt%. The use of natural fibre-reinforced composites are increasing because
• They are biodegradable, and unlike glass and carbon fibres, the energy
consumption to produce them is very small.
• The density of natural fibres is in the range of 1.25_1.5 g/cm3 compared with
2.54 g/cm3 for E-glass fibres and 1.8-2.1 g/cm3 for carbon fibres.
• The modulus-weight ratio of some natural fibres is greater than that of E-glass
fibres,
• Natural fibre composites provide higher acoustic damping than glass or carbon
fibre composites, and therefore are more suitable for noise attenuation.
• Natural fibres are much less expensive than glass and carbon fibres.
However, there are several limitations of natural fibres.
• The tensile strength of natural fibres is relatively low.
• Low melting point and high moisture absorption.
• At temperatures higher than 2000C, natural fibres start to degrade.
Natural fibre composites are now used in automobile door inner panel, seat back,
roof inner panel, and so on.
Boron fibres
Boron fibres have extremely high tensile modulus, in the range of 400 GPa. Coupled
with their relatively large diameter, boron fibres offer excellent resistance to buckling,
which in turn contributes to high compressive strength for boron fibre-reinforced
composites. The high cost of boron fibres sometimes even higher than that of many
forms of carbon fibres, restricts its use a few aerospace applications.
Boron fibres are manufactured by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of boron onto
a heated substrate (either a tungsten wire or a carbon monofilament). It is continuously
pulled through a reaction chamber in which boron is deposited on its surface at
11000C-13000C. Commercial boron fibres are produced in diameters of 0.1, 0.142,
and 0.203 mm, which are much larger than those of other reinforcing fibres.
Surfacing tissues
It is an overlay mat used as a top layer in laminates. Surfacing Tissue or surface mat
or veil consists of a thin randomly distributed fibrous mat. They are available in
different thicknesses ranging from 0.08 to 0.34 mm manufactured from C glass fibre
or synthetic fibres such as PAN or PET. Pattern, trade name and design can be

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printed on to the surface tissues. Surfacing tissues may be used to reinforce the gel
coat and is applied immediately after the gel coat while the resin is still wet and lightly
rolled to displace the air bubbles outwards. The advantages of surfacing tissues are
• They provide a resin rich finish with improved chemical and weathering
resistance.
• Ensure adequate bond between the resin rich surface layer and the bulk laminate
• Help to mask the pattern of the underlying glass reinforcement
• Provide a degree of elasticity to the surface layer to improve impact and abrasion
resistance
• It prevents fibre from protruding from the resin and giving a hairy finish

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Determine the denier of the given fibre sample.
Procedure
From the given fibre sample cut a length of 90 cms and place in an oven at 700 C for
1 hour. Cool in a desiccator and weigh. From this weight find out the weight of 9000
meters of the fibre and report as denier.
2) Prepare FRP sheets using Continuous Glass fibre and Chopped strand mats.
Take two clean OHP films. Apply one coat of release agent (wax or PVA) on to the
surface of the OHP films. Now apply a thin gel coat of compounded resin on one
film using a paint brush or roller. Place one layer of continuous glass fibre on one and
chopped strand mat on the other. Wet the fibres thoroughly with the compounded
resin. Build successive layers to get the desired thickness. Then apply a second gel
coat. Place one more OHP film above this and consolidate using rollers. Keep it
undisturbed for about half an hour to allow the resin to harden. After 30 remove the
OHP films and finish the FRP sheet by trimming the edges. Compare the directional
properties of both the sheets.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
1) Assignment - Comparison of different fibres
2) Group discussion - Different forms of reinforcement.

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Theory Evaluation Questions

1) Glass fibres are the most used fibres in FRP Industry.
a. Compare the different types glass fibres used in the FRP industry.
b. List the various forms of glass fibre reinforcement.
2) Which of the following fibres are most suited for Aerospace applications
a) Glass fibre c) Carbon fibre
b) Kevlar fibre d) Polyester
3) Prepregs is a
a) Reinforcement c) Curing agent
b) Pre coated reinforcement d) Release agent
4) Carbon fibres are the highest strength fibres used in aerospace application.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of carbon fibre
5) List four natural fibres used for making FRP products and suggest one application
for each
6) Carbon fibre and aramid fibres are high strength fibres. Compare the properties
of carbon fibres and aramid fibres
7) Discuss the advantages of using surface mats or veil
8) Define the following
a) Filament b) Strand c) Roving

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Unit III
MATRIX MATERIALS AND ADDITIVES

Over view of the unit

In composites, the resin matrix acts as a binding agent which holds the fibres together
and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. Polyester and epoxy resins are the most
widely used resins in the FRP industry. Apart from this other thermoset resins such
as phenolic resins, polyurethanes and certain thermoplastics like poly ether ether
ketone, nylon, poly ether imide etc are also used as matrix materials. Thermoplastic
composites are used in small quantities and hence are not included in this unit.
Thermoset resins require curing agents, catalysts, filler, pigments etc, to develop full
functional properties. In addition to this core materials, which are widely used to
enhance the stiffness and reduce weight and saves materials are also covered in this
unit.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Describes the properties and applications of epoxy resins, polyester resins,
phenolic resisns and vinyl ester resins used in composites
• Describes the curing reaction, gelation, gel time, cure time and cure rate of
different thermoset resins
• Describes the functions of various additives used in composites
• Explains the use of different core materials in composites
Introduction
The resin materials used in FRP industry are available in a variety of forms, as
powders, liquid resins, solutions in organic solvents etc covering a wide range of
viscosity. Resins that can be used at low pressures are preferred for FRP as the
manufacturing equipments mostly involve low pressure, less costly and simple
machines. The important resins are epoxies, polyesters, vinyl esters, and phenolics.
Functions of matrix
In a composite material the matrix material serves the following functions.
• Holds the fibres together
• Protects the fibre from environment

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• Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to
the same strain
• Enhances transverse properties of a laminate
• Improves the impact and fracture resistance of a component
• Help to avoid propagation of crack growth
• Carry inter laminar shear
Thermosets and thermoplastics
Both thermosets and thermoplastics are used as matrix materials for composites. A
thermosetting material is one which when cured by heat or chemical reaction is
changed into an infusible and insoluble material. Thermosetting resins undergo
irreversible chemical crosslinking reaction upon application of heat. On the other
hand thermoplastics do not undergo crosslinking upon application of heat. They
simply melt on application heat and can be shaped by application of pressure. They
can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling. Different types of
thermoset and thermoplastic resins commonly use are as follows.
Table 4.3.2 Polymer matrix materials for Composites
Thermosets Thermoplastics
Epoxy resin Polypropylene
Polyesters Nylon
Vinyl ester Poly ether ether ketone (PEEK)
Phenolics Poly ether imide (PEI)

Epoxy Resins
Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical
properties and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their almost
exclusive use in aircraft components. As a laminating resin their increased adhesive
properties and resistance to water degradation make these resins ideal for use in
applications such as boat building. The term 'epoxy' refers to a chemical group
consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms that are already bonded
in some way.
Usually identifiable by their characteristic amber or brown colouring, epoxy resins
have a number of useful properties. Both the liquid resin and the curing agents form
low viscosity easily processed systems. Epoxy resins are easily and quickly cured at

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any temperature from 5°C to 150°C, depending on the choice of curing agent. One
of the most advantageous properties of epoxies is their low shrinkage during cure
which minimises fabric 'print-through' and internal stresses. High adhesive strength
and high mechanical properties are also enhanced by high electrical insulation and
good chemical resistance. Epoxies find uses as adhesives, caulking compounds,
casting compounds, sealants, varnishes and paints, as well as laminating resins for a
variety of industrial applications. Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular
structure similar to vinyl ester with reactive sites at either end. In the epoxy resin,
however, these reactive sites are formed by epoxy groups instead of ester groups.
The absence of ester groups mean that the epoxy resin has particularly good water
resistance. The epoxy molecule also contains two ring groups at its centre which are
able to absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and
therefore give the epoxy resin very good stiffness, toughness and heat resistant
properties.
Chemistry
Epoxies are characterized by the presence of one or more
epoxide functional groups in the polymer chain. Figure 4.3.1
shows the epoxide functional group, where R1 represents
the functionalized molecule. Fig: 4.3.1 Epoxide group

Epoxy resin formed by the reaction between bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin, known
as Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA), currently commands a 75% share of
the epoxy-resin market.

Fig: 4.32 Structure of Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA)

Hardener (Curing agent)
The epoxy resins can be cured by amine type or anhydride type curing agents.
Amine type
Aliphatic amine is curing agent for epoxy resin ant able to cure at room temperature.
The cured resin has excellent properties, and its heat resistance is 100°C. Aromatic

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amine has been developed to achieve greater heat resistance and chemical resistance
than those of aliphatic amine.
Aromatic amine has weaker basicity than aliphatic amine and slowly cures at room
temperature due to steric hindrance by the aromatic ring. The curing virtually stops
in the B-stage of a linear polymer solid due to the large difference in the reaction of
primary and secondary amines. Normally, the curing of aromatic amine requires
heating in two steps. The first heating is carried out at a rather low temperature of
approximately 80°C so as to lessen heat generation, and the second heating is carried
out at a high temperature of 150°C to 170°C.
Anhydrides
Anhydrides used as epoxy-resin curing agents have been used as curing agents for
electrical insulating materials. Anhydrides require severer curing conditions than
amine-based curing agents, but are suitable for making large mouldings, as they
have a long pot life and form cured resins having relatively well-balanced electrical,
chemical, and mechanical properties while generating a small quantity of heat.
Polyester resins
Polyester resins are the most widely used resin systems, particularly in the marine
industry. Unsaturated polyester resin is a thermoset, capable of being cured from a
liquid or solid state when subject to the right conditions. Polyesters are produced by
the condensation reaction of di alcohols, such as a glycol, with di-basic acids such
as terephthalic acids. This reaction, together with the addition of compounds such
as saturated di-basic acids and cross-linking monomers, forms the basic process of
polyester manufacture. There is a wide range of polyesters made from different
acids, glycols and monomers, all having varying properties. There are two principle
types of polyester resin used as standard laminating systems in the composites industry.
Orthophthalic polyester resin is the standard economic resin used by many people.
Isophthalic polyester resin is now becoming the preferred material in industries such
as marine where its superior water resistance is desirable. Idealized chemical structure
of a typical polyester is given below.

Fig: 4.3.3 Chemical structure of typical Isophthalic polyester

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Most polyester resins are viscous, pale coloured liquids consisting of a solution of a
polyester in a monomer which is usually styrene. The addition of styrene in amounts
of up to 50% helps to make the resin easier to handle by reducing its viscosity. The
styrene also performs the vital function of enabling the resin to cure from a liquid to
a solid by 'cross-linking' the molecular chains of the polyester, without the evolution
of any by-products. These resins can therefore be moulded without the use of
pressure and are called 'contact' or 'low pressure' resins. Polyester resins have a
limited storage life as they will set or 'gel' on their own over a long period of time.
Often small quantities of inhibitor are added during the resin manufacture to slow
this gelling action. For use in moulding, a polyester resin requires the addition of
several ancillary additives which include Catalyst, Accelerator, Thixotropic agents,
Pigments, Fillers, Chemical/fire/ UV resistant additives
Catalysts are added to the resin system shortly before use to initiate the polymerisation
reaction. The catalyst does not take part in the chemical reaction but simply activates
the process. An accelerator is added to the catalysed resin to enable the reaction to
proceed at workshop temperature at a greater rate. The molecular chains of the
polyester can be represented as follows, where 'B' indicates the reactive sites in the
molecule.

Fig: 4.3.4 Schematic Representation of Polyester Resin (Uncured)

With the addition of styrene 'S ', and in the presence of a catalyst, the styrene crosslinks
the polymer chains at each of the reactive sites to form a highly complex three
dimensional network as follows:

Fig: 4.3.5 Schematic Representation of Polyester Resin (Cured)

Great care is needed in the preparation of the resin mix prior to moulding. The resin
and any additives must be carefully stirred to disperse all the components evenly
before the catalyst is added. This stirring must be thorough and careful as any air
introduced into the resin mix affects the quality of the final moulding. It is also

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important to add the accelerator and catalyst in carefully measured amounts to control
the polymerization reaction to give the best material properties. Too much catalyst
will cause too rapid a gelation time, whereas too little catalyst will result in under-
cure. Colouring of the resin mix can be carried out with pigments. Filler materials are
used extensively with polyester resins to reduce the cost of the moulding and to
impart specific properties to the moulding
Fillers are often added in quantities up to 50% of the resin weight although such
addition levels will affect the flexural and tensile strength of the laminate. The use of
fillers can be beneficial in the laminating or casting of thick components where
otherwise considerable exothermic heating can occur. Addition of certain fillers can
also contribute to increasing the fire-resistance of the laminate.
Phenolic resin
Phenolic or PF resins were the first polymeric resins produced commercially from
simple low molecular weight compounds. These are prepared by the
polycondensation between phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of either an
acid or a base catalyst. The nature of the product is dependent on the type of
catalyst and the mole ratio of reactants. The initial phenol-formaldehyde reaction
products may be of two types, novolacs and resols.
Novolacs are prepared by reacting formaldehyde and a molar excess of phenol
under acidic conditions. Novolacs do not contain any reactive groups and hence
require the addition of a crosslinking agent and heat to achieve cure. The novolacs
are also referred to as two-stage resins. A resol is prepared by reacting phenol with
an excess of formaldehyde under basic conditions. Although initial methylol formation
is rapid, subsequent condensation is slow. This results in low molecular weight liquid
resols containing 23 benzene rings. When the resol is heated cross-linking via the
uncondensed methylol groups occurs. Resols are also known as one-stage resins.
Phenolic resins have high temperature resistance of up to 2500C and have good
mechanical strength, dimensional and thermal stability, high chemical resistance, and
good dielectric properties. Some of the disadvantages of phenolic resins include by-
product generation during curing, high shrinkage on cure, and porosity in the laminates.
Vinyl ester resins
Vinyl ester resins are the most recent addition to the family of thermoset resins.
There are two basic types of vinyl esters having commercial significance. viz. general
purpose lower molecular weight vinyl esters and the high heat resistant vinyl esters.
General purpose vinyl esters have excellent mechanical properties and outstanding

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chemical resistance to acids, bases and many solvents. Heat resistant vinyl esters
have 10 -300C higher heat resistance than the general purpose ones. The
disadvantages of vinyl esters are: vinyl esters are not as good as epoxy resins with
regard to bondability to other surfaces and high cost.
Gelation, curing & post curing
On addition of the catalyst or hardener a resin will begin to become more viscous
until it reaches a state when it is no longer a liquid and has lost its ability to flow. This
is the 'gel point'. The resin will continue to harden after it has gelled, until, at some
time later, it has obtained its full hardness and properties. This reaction itself is
accompanied by the generation of exothermic heat, which, in turn, speeds the reaction.
The whole process is known as the 'curing' of the resin. The speed of cure is controlled
by the amount of accelerator in a polyester or vinyl ester resin and by varying the
type, not the quantity, of hardener in an epoxy resin. Generally polyester resins
produce a more severe exotherm and a faster development of initial mechanical
properties than epoxies of a similar working time.
With both resin types, however, it is possible to accelerate the cure by the application
of heat, so that the higher the temperature the faster the final hardening will occur.
This can be most useful when the cure would otherwise take several hours or even
days at room temperature. A quick rule of thumb for the accelerating effect of heat
on a resin is that a 10°C increase in temperature will roughly double the reaction
rate. Therefore if a resin gels in a laminate in 25 minutes at 20°C it will gel in about
12 minutes at 30°C, providing no extra exotherm occurs. Curing at elevated
temperatures has the added advantage that it actually increases the end mechanical
properties of the material, and many resin systems will not reach their ultimate
mechanical properties unless the resin is given this 'postcure'. The postcure involves
increasing the laminate temperature after the initial room temperature cure, which
increases the amount of cross-linking of the molecules that can take place. To some
degree this postcure will occur naturally at warm room temperatures, but higher
properties and shorter postcure times will be obtained if elevated temperatures are
used. This is particularly true of the material's softening point or Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg), which, up to a point, increases with increasing postcure
temperature.
Additives and Modifiers
A wide variety of additives are used in composites to modify materials properties
and tailor the laminate's performance. Although these materials are generally used in

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relatively low quantity by weight compared to resins, reinforcements and fillers, they
perform critical functions.
Catalysts, Promoters, Inhibitors
In polyesters, the most important additive is catalyst or initiator. Typically, organic
peroxide such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is used for room temperature
cured processes, or Benzoyl peroxide is added to the resin for heat-cured moulding.
When triggered by heat, or used in conjunction with a promoter (such as cobalt
naphthenate), peroxides convert to a reactive state (exhibiting free radicals), causing
the unsaturated resin to react (cross-link) and become solid. Some additives such
as TBC (tertiary butyl catechol) are used to slow the rate of reaction and are called
inhibitors. Accelerators such as DMA (dimethyl aniline) speed curing.
Additives used in thermoset and thermoplastic composites include the following:
• Fire retardants: Combustion resistance is improved by proper choice of resin,
use of fillers or flame retardant additives like ATH (alumina trihydrate),
bromine, chlorine, borate and phosphorus.
• Air release agents: most laminating resins, gel coats and other polyester
resins might entrap air during processing and application. This can cause air
voids and improper fibre wet-out. Air release additives are used to reduce
such air entrapment and to enhance fibre wet-out.
• Viscosity control: in many composite types, it is critical to have a low, workable
viscosity during production. Lower viscosity in such filled systems is usually
achieved by use of wetting and dispersing additives. These additives facilitate
the wet-out and dispersion of fillers resulting in lower viscosity.
• Electrical conductivity: most composites do not conduct electricity. It is
possible to obtain a degree of electrical conductivity by the addition of metal,
carbon particles or conductive fibres. Electromagnetic interference shielding
can be achieved by incorporating conductive materials.
• Toughness: can be enhanced by the addition of reinforcements. It can also be
improved by special additives such as certain rubber or other elastomeric
materials.
• Antioxidants: plastics are sometimes modified with antioxidants, which retard
or inhibit polymer oxidation and the resulting degradation of the polymer.
• Antistatic agents: are added to polymers to reduce their tendency to attract
electrical charge. Control of static electricity is essential in certain plastics

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processing and handling operations, as well as in finished products. Static charges

on plastics can produce shocks, present fire hazard and attract dust.
• Foaming agents: are chemicals that are added to polymers during processing
to form minute cells throughout the resin. Foamed plastics exhibit lower density,
decrease material costs, improve electrical and thermal insulation, increase
strength-to-weight ratio and reduce shrinkage and part warping.
• Plasticizers: are added to compounds to improve processing characteristics
and offer a wider range of physical and mechanical properties.
• Slip and blocking agents provide surface lubrication. This results in reduced
coefficient of friction on part surfaces and enhances release of parts from the
mould.
• Heat stabilizers: are used in thermoplastic systems to inhibit polymer
degradation that results from exposure to heat.
• Ultraviolet stabilizers: both thermoset and thermoplastic composites may
use special materials which are added to prevent loss of gloss, crazing, chalking,
discoloration, changes in electrical characteristics, embrittlement and
disintegration due to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Additives, which protect
composites by absorbing the UV, are called ultraviolet absorbers. Materials, which
protect the polymer in some other manner, are known as ultraviolet stabilizers.
Colorants
Colorants are often used in composites to provide color throughout the part. Additives
can be mixed in as part of the resin or applied as part of the moulding process (as a
gel coat). Also, a wide range of coatings can be applied after moulding.
Release Agents
Release agents facilitate removal of parts from moulds. These products can be added
to the resin, applied to moulds, or both. Zinc stearate is a popular mould release
agent that is mixed into resin for compression moulding. Waxes, silicones and other
release agents may be applied directly to the surface of moulds.
Thixotropic agents
In some processes such as hand lay-up or spray-up, thixotropic agents may be
used. When "at rest", resins containing thixotropic agents remain at elevated viscosities.
This reduces the tendency of the liquid resin to flow or drain from vertical surfaces.
When the resin is subjected to shear, the viscosity is reduced and the resin can be
easily sprayed or brushed on the mould. Fumed silica and certain clays are common
thixotropic agents.

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Fillers
Use of inorganic fillers in composites is increasing. Fillers not only reduce the cost of
composites, but also frequently impart performance improvements that might not
otherwise be achieved by the reinforcement and resin ingredients alone. Fillers can
improve mechanical properties including fire and smoke performance by reducing
organic content in composite laminates. Also, filled resins shrink less than unfilled
resins, thereby improving the dimensional control of moulded parts. Important
properties, including water resistance, weathering, surface smoothness, stiffness,
dimensional stability and temperature resistance, can all be improved through the
proper use of fillers.
There are a number of inorganic filler materials that can be used with composites
including:
• Calcium carbonate is the most widely used inorganic filler. It is available at low
cost in a variety of particle sizes and treatments from well-established regional
suppliers, especially for composite applications. Most common grades of calcium
carbonate filler are derived from limestone or marble and very common in
automobile parts.
• Kaolin (hydrous aluminum silicate) is the second most commonly used filler. It
is known throughout the industry by its more common material name, clay.
Mined clays are processed either by air flotation or by water washing to remove
impurities and to classify the product for use in composites. A wide range of
particle sizes is available.
• Alumina trihydrate is frequently used when improved fire/smoke performance
is required. When exposed to high temperature, this filler gives off water
(hydration), thereby reducing the flame spread and development of smoke.
Composite plumbing fixture applications such as bathtubs, shower stalls and
related building products often contain alumina trihydrate for this purpose.
• Calcium sulfate is a major flame/smoke retarding filler used by the tub/shower
industry. It has fewer waters of hydration, and water is released at a lower
temperature. This mineral filler offers a low cost flame/smoke retarding filler.
Other commonly used fillers include Mica, Feldspar, Wollastonite, Silica, Talc, Glass
microspheres, Flake glass, Milled glass fibres etc.
Advantages of using Fillers in Composites
• Fillers reduce the shrinkage of the composites part.

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• Fillers influence the fire resistance of laminates.

• Fillers lower compound cost by diluting more expensive resin and may reduce
the amount of reinforcement required.
• Fillers can influence the mechanical strengths of composites.
• Fillers serve to transfer stresses between the primary structural components of
the laminate
• Uniformity of the laminate can be enhanced by the effective use of fillers.
• Crack resistance and crack prevention properties are improved with filled resin
systems.
• Low-density fillers are used extensively in marine putty and the transportation
industry. They offer the lowest cost of filled systems, without the increases of
weight that affect the performance of the final product.
Core Materials for Sandwich Structures
Sandwich composites are becoming more and more popular in structural design,
mainly for their ability to substantially decrease weight while maintaining mechanical
performance. This weight reduction results in a number of benefits, including
increased range, higher payloads and decreased fuel consumption. All have a positive
impact on cost as well as a decreased impact on the environment. These benefits
are possible because, as has long been known, separating two materials with a
lightweight material in between increases the structure's stiffness and strength. This
distinction, along with many
other material characteristics
available through strategic
choice of core material - such
as thermal insulation, low
water absorption, sound and
dielectric properties, among
others - benefit a wide range
Fig: 4.3.6 Sandwich composite structure
of industries and applications,
including wind, marine, aerospace, transportation and industry.
Core materials are used to provide stiffness, thermal insulation and light weight to
composite structures especially in boat and wind blade construction. These materials
include balsa wood, plastic forms of PU and PVC, PET, PES and honey comb
structures.

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Gel Coats
Gel coats are considered resins but have a very special purpose. A gel coat is a
specially formulated polyester resin incorporating thixotropic agents to increase the
gel coat's viscosity and non-sag properties, fillers for flow properties, pigments to
give the desired color, and additives for specific application properties, such as gel
time and cure. Gel coats are primarily used for contact moulding (hand or spray lay-
up). The gel coat, usually pigmented, provides a moulded-in finished surface that is
weather and wear resistant. The gel coat helps in hiding the glass reinforcement
pattern that may show through from the inherent resin shrinkage around the glass
fibres. Considerations used for the proper selection of a gel coat are compatibility of
the underlying FRP materials to ensure good adhesion of the gel coat, as well as the
operating environment. The most common current usage of gel coats in "in-mould
applications." That is, the gel coat is sprayed into the mould and the laminate is
applied behind it. Adhesion of the laminating resin to the gel coat is a critical issue.
Thickness of the gel coat can vary depending on the intended performance of the
composite product. Gel coats are typically applied by spray application to
approximately 16-20 mils wet film thickness. While gel coats do not add any structural
strength to the FRP part, gel coats should be resilient. Gel coats should be able to
bend without cracking. They should be resistant to thermal cracking (cracking that
may occur with dramatic changes in temperature). The primary measurements of
resilience are flexural modulus and elongation. Gel coats should be UV stable and
pigmented sufficiently to provide good opacity.
Gel coats are used to improve weathering, filter out ultraviolet radiation, add flame
retardancy, provide a thermal barrier, improve chemical resistance, improve abrasion
resistance, and provide a moisture barrier. Gel coats are used to improve the product
appearance such as the surface of a boat hull or golf cart. A unique benefit of gel
coats is that they are supplied in many colors by the incorporation of pigments per
the specification of the engineer.

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Study of resin curing reaction
Procedure
Polyester resin: Take 100 gms of unsaturated polyester resin and add sufficient
quantity of catalyst (MEKP) and accelerator (Cobalt naphthenate). Mix it thoroughly
and kept undisturbed for curing. Observe the curing exotherm, gel time and cure
time.

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Epoxy resin: Take 100 gm of Epoxy resin and mix it with amine type hardener and
heated to establish the curing. Difference the curing pattern of both epoxy and
polyester resin are reported.
2) Study of sandwich composites
Procedure
A sandwich composite structure is made by using polyester and glass fibre and with
PVC form as core material. First the gel coat is applied then the glass fibre
reinforcement is placed and consolidated. It is then wet with resin and then a PVC
form core is placed on one half of the laminate and the other half is left alone. The
other surface of the core is wet with the resin and then glass fibre reinforcement is
used as the same as bottom layer and the gel coat is applied. After curing observe
the stiffness in the sandwich portion and non sandwich portion.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
1) Seminar on core materials
2) Group discussion - Different thermoset resins and applications
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Epoxy and polyester resins are the most used resin matrix materials in FRP
Industry.
a. Compare the different properties and applications of Epoxy and polyester
resins
b. Compare the curing / hardening of Epoxy and polyester resins.
2) Which of the following Resin is the most used in FRP industry
a) Epoxy resin c) Unsaturated polyester resin
b) Vinyl ester resin d) Phenolic resin
3) Which of the following is a curing agent used in polyester.
a) Aliphatic amine c) Anhydride
b) MEKP d) Tertiary butyl catechol
4) In addition to fibre reinforcement, fillers are also used in FRP composites. List
the advantages of using fillers FRP products
5) Which of the following thermoset resin give very low shrinkage on cure
a) Poly ester c) Furan resin
b) Epoxy resin d) Poly urethane
6) Gel coats give good surface finish and protection to FRP laminates. Explain the
preparation of gel coats.

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Unit IV
MANUFACTURING METHODS

Over view of the unit

Reinforced plastics composites are a combination of resin matrix, fibres and fillers,
which when cured produces a solid structure. There are plenty of methods to produce
a composite structure. Each method has its own merits and limitations. Selection of
particular manufacturing process is based on the type of matrix and fibres, temperature
to form and cure the matrix, the geometry of the end product and cost effectiveness.
This unit covers the various manufacturing methods used in the FRP industry.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Describes different open mould FRP manufacturing processes such as Hand
lay-up, spray-up, and filament winding.
• Explains the preparation FRP products using closed mould processes such as
compression moulding, vacuum bag moulding, pressure bag moulding, auto-
clave moulding and injection moulding.
• Describes the preparation of prepregs, SMC and DMC compounds for FRP
processing.
• Explains the Resin transfer moulding and Vacuum assisted resin transfer moul-
ding methods
• Explains the continuous processes such as pultrusion and braiding.
• Prepares FRP products using different manufacturing processes.
Introduction
The fabrication of composites is a complex process and it requires simultaneous
consideration of various parameters such as component geometry, production volume,
reinforcement & matrix types, tooling requirements, and process and market
economics. The most widely used manufacturing methods for polymer fibre
composites are as follows.
Open mould processes
• Hand lay-up
• Spray lay-up
• Filament winding
Closed mould processes
• Compression moulding

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• Vacuum bag moulding

• Pressure bag moulding
• Autoclave moulding
• Injection moulding
• Resin transfer moulding
• Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding
Continuous processes
• Pultrusion
• Braiding
Open mould processes
Hand lay-up method
The Hand Lay-up involves the following operations:
• The mould is coated with a release agent, to prevent sticking of the moulded
part to the mould surface.
• The prime surface layer of the part is formed by applying gel coat.
• A layer of fine fibre reinforcing tissue is applied.
• Layers of the liquid matrix resin and reinforcing fibres in form of woven fabric,
roving or chopped strands are applied. The resin mixture may be applied by
either brush or roll.
• The part is cured (usually at room temperature).
• The part is removed from the mould surface.
There are two methods of Hand Lay-up:
Wet Lay-up: Dry reinforcement (fibre mat or woven cloths) is first applied to the
mould, and then is saturated with
liquid resin
Dry Lay-up: Reinforcement
and resin (thermoset) are
applied simultaneously as a
pre-impregnated fibre tape
(prepreg) The resin in the
prepreg sheets is 'B' staged (i.e.
solidified and tacky but only
partially cured)
Fig: 4.4.1 Hand Lay-up process

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Advantages
• Simplest method, low-cost tooling, and wide range of part sizes.
• Design changes can be readily made.
• Minimum investment in equipment.
• With skilled operators, good production rates and consistent quality are
obtainable.
Disadvantages
• Low concentration of reinforcing phase (up to 30%)
• Low densification of the composites (entrapped air bubbles)
• Labour intensive
• Difficult to control the hand laminating process
Application
Boats, tanks, bath ware, housings, Bus, truck, auto components, architectural
products, and many other products ranging from very small to very large parts.
Spray lay-up
In spray lay-up method, the fibre is chopped in a hand held gun and fed into a spray
of catalysed liquid resin directed at the mould. The resin will wet the reinforcement
fibres which are simultaneously chopped in the same spray gun. The deposited
materials are cured under standard conditions.
Advantages
• Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin
• low-cost tooling
Disadvantages
• Laminates tend to be
resin rich and therefore
excessively heavy.
• Only short fibres can be
incorporated which
limits the mechanical
properties of the
laminate.
• Resins needs to be in
Fig: 4.4.2 Spray Lay-up process
low viscosity to be
sprayable.
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Filament winding
Filament winding consists of winding resin impregnated fibres or roving of glass,
aramid, or carbon on a rotating mandrel in predetermined patterns. The method
makes void free product possible and gives high fibre volume ratio up to 80%. In
the wet method, the fibre picks up the low viscosity resin either by passing through
a trough or from a metered application system. In the dry method, the reinforcement
is in the pre impregnated form.
After the layers are
wound, the component is
cured and removed from
the mandrel. This method
is used to produce
pressure vessels, rocket
motor cases, tanks,
ducting, golf club shafts,
and fishing rods Fig: 4.4.3 Filament Winding
Thermoset resins used in
filament wound parts include polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies, and phenolics. This
method can be automated and provides high production rates. Highest-strength
products are obtained because of fibre placement control. Control of strength in
different direction is also possible.
Closed mould processes
Compression moulding
Compression moulding is considered as the primary method of manufacturing for
many structural automotive components. It is done by transforming sheet-moulding
compounds (SMC) into finished products in matched moulds. It has the ability to
produce parts of complex geometry in short periods of time. It allows the possibility
of eliminating a number of secondary finishing operations, such as drilling, forming,
and welding.
The moulding compound is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mould
is then closed and pressure is applied to force the material to fill up the cavity. A
hydraulic ram is often used to produce sufficient force during the moulding process.
Excess material is channelled away by the overflow grooves. The heat and pressure
are maintained until the material is cured. The final part is removed from the mould
after curing. The moulding pressure may vary from 1.4 to 34.5 MPa and the mould

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temperature is usually in
the range of 130 oC to
160oC.
There are two different
types of compounds most
frequently used in
compression moulding:
Bulk Moulding
Compound (BMC) and
Sheet Moulding
Compound (SMC). SMC Fig: 4.4.4 Compression moulding
costs higher but can be
pre-cut to conform to the surface area of the mould.

Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC)

Sheet moulding compound is a composition of resins, fibers, pigments, fillers and
other additives that have been compounded and processed into sheet form to facilitate
handling in the moulding operation. The sheet moulding compound is cut to a shape
which is slightly larger than the mould area and is placed into the bottom mould
cavity. Both top and bottom cavities are kept at an elevated temperature. The press
is then activated and the material is pressed into the cavities under high compression.
The heated cavities activate the curing of the material. The part is then removed and
sometimes post cured in a post cure oven.

Bulk Moulding Compound (BMC)

Bulk Moulding Compound (BMC) is a thermosetting resin mixed with reinforcement,
fillers etc into a viscous compound for compression or injection moulding. The Bulk
moulding compound is preformed into the shape of the mould cavity. This preform is
placed in the lower mould cavity and moulded under heat and pressure to get the
product.

Prepregs
Prepregs are high quality reinforcement fibers which are pre-impregnated with a
resin system and partially cured to B stage. Prepregs are prepared by passing the
fibre through a resin rich solution which is then dried to remove the solvent. The
excess resin is removed using a doctor blade and then the cured to B stage. Prepregs

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reduce the handling damage to dry fibers, reduces the voids and improves fiber
wetting. The disadvantages of prepregs are higher cost and limited shelf life.

Types of Compression Moulding

1. Hot pressing in which the moulding charge is heated while shaping.
2. Cold pressing which uses a wet lay-up process and the product is pressed to
the required shape, but cured without the application of heat.
Advantages
1. Good finish on both sides.
2. Faster production.
3. Uniform product quality.
4. Less labor.
5. Very little finishing operations required.
Disadvantages
1. This process is not suited for low volume of production because of high cost of
moulds and press.
2. The process is also not suitable for very large sized products.
Application
Automotive exterior panels especially for commercial vehicles, Radio & appliance
knobs, ash trays & electrical parts.
Vacuum bag moulding
The mechanical properties of open-mould laminates can be improved with vacuum
bagging. By reducing the pressure inside the vacuum bag, external atmospheric
pressure exerts force on the bag. The pressure on the laminate removes entrapped
air, excess resin and compacts the laminate. A higher percentage of fibre reinforcement
is the result. Additionally, vacuum bagging reduces styrene emissions. Vacuum bagging
can be used with wet lay-up laminates and prepreg advanced composites. In wet
lay-up bagging the reinforcement is saturated using hand lay-up, then the vacuum
bag is mounted on the mould and used to compact the laminate and remove air
voids.
Process
• In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a flexible film (PVA, nylon, polyethylene)

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is placed over the wet lay-up, the edges sealed, and a vacuum drawn.
• Pulling a vacuum from within the bag uses atmospheric pressure to eliminate
voids and force excess resin from the laminate.
• The addition of pressure further results in high fibre concentration and provides
better adhesion between layers of sandwich construction.

Fig: 4.4.5 Vacuum bag moulding

Advantages
• Vacuum bag moulding can produce laminates with a uniform degree of
consolidation
• Remove entrapped air, thus reducing the finished void content
• Complete fibre wet-out can be accomplished if the process is done correctly.
• Improved core-bonding.
• Higher percentage of fibre reinforcement
• Reduces styrene emissions.
Disadvantages
• Wall thickness is depend on operator skill
Pressure bag moulding
Pressure bag moulding is similar to the vacuum bag moulding method except that air
pressure, usually 200 to 350 kPa, is applied to a rubber bag, or sheet that covers
the laid up composite to
force out entrapped air and
excess resin. Pressurized
steam may be used
instead, to accelerate the
cure. Cores and inserts can
be used with the process,
and undercuts are
Fig: 4.4.6 Pressure bag moulding

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practical, but only female and split moulds can be used to make items such as tanks,
containers, and wind turbine blades.
Autoclave moulding
Autoclave moulding is a modification of pressure-bag and vacuum-bag moulding.
This advanced composite process produces denser, void free mouldings because
higher heat and pressure are used for curing the resin. A non adhering film of polyvinyl
alcohol or nylon is placed over the lay-up and sealed at the mould flange. Autoclaves
are essentially heated pressure vessels into which the bagged lay-up on the mould is
placed for curing. Curing pressures are generally in the range of 350 to 700 kPa and
cure cycles normally involve many hours. The method accommodates higher
temperature matrix resins such as epoxies, having higher properties than conventional
resins.
Autoclave size limits part size. It is widely used in the aerospace industry to fabricate
high strength/weight ratio parts from pre impregnated high strength fibres for aircraft,
spacecraft and missiles. Many large primary structural components for aircraft, such
as fins, wing spars and skins,
fuselages and flying control
surfaces, are manufactured by
this method.
The starting material for
autoclave moulding process is
prepreg. After layup, a porous
release cloth and a few layers
of bleeder papers are placed on
top of the prepreg stack. The
bleeder paper is used to absorb
the excess resin in the moulding
Fig: 4.4.7 Autoclave moulding
process. The complete layup is
covered with another Teflon sheet and then a thin heat resistant vacuum bag. The
entire assembly is kept inside an autoclave where a combination of pressure and
temperature is applied and the plies are converted into a solid laminate.
Injection moulding
Injection moulding is a closed mould process in which molten polymer (commonly
thermoplastic) mixed with very short reinforcing fibres (10-40%) is injected under
high pressure into a mould cavity through an opening (sprue).

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Process
• Polymer-fibre mixture in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Moulding machine
through a hopper.
• The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a
split mould, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.
• Screw acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer-fibre mixture is
injected into the mould and then it retracts backward in the moulding step.
Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.
• The mould is equipped with a cooling
system providing controlled
cooling and solidification
of the material.
• The polymer is held in the
mould until solidification
and then the mould opens
and the part is removed
from the mould by ejector
pins. Fig: 4.4.8 Injection moulding
Advantages
• Highly productive method
• High accuracy and control of shape of the manufactured parts.
• Profitable in mass production of large number of identical parts.
Disadvantages
• Limited length of fibres decreasing their reinforcing effect.
Applications
Containers, household goods, auto components, electronic parts, flower pots.
Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM):
Resin transfer moulding is a low pressure closed moulding process for moderate
volume productions. Dry continuous strand mats and woven reinforcements are laid
up in the bottom half of the mould. Preformed glass reinforcements are often used
for complex mould shapes. The mould is closed and clamped, and a low viscosity,
catalyzed resin is pumped in, displacing the air through strategically located vents.
The injection pressure of resin is in the range of 70-700 kPa.

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Fig: 4.4.9 Resin transfer moulding

Advantages and limitations
RTM process gives better control on product thickness and good finish on both
sides. Metallic moulds are not necessary because the product curing is generally
done under ambient temperature. By applying gel coats on both sides, the product
will have a smoother finish on both sides. When the injection pressure is increased,
there is a tendency for fibre wash. This tendency can be countered by using continuous
strand mats or special woven performs. Other advantages can be listed as follows.
1. Controlled usage of fibre and resin reduces the material wastage and unit cost
2. A variety of mould shapes and sizes can be moulded sequentially.
3. A wide range of resin systems can be used including polyester, vinyl ester,
epoxy, phenolics etc.
4. Styrene emission is practically eliminated during resin transfer into the mould.
5. Low labor cost and lower capital cost
6. Close tolerances in the product
7. As RTM is a closed mould technique, the moulded parts are reproducible.
8. RTM produces parts at a rate that is 5-20 times faster than open moulding
technique.
9. Low Void Content - Void content less than 1% can be consistently achieved
with RTM.
10. Low Operator Skills
Some of the limitations are given below:
1. Since, this process can develop pressures up to 5 to 10 bars, tool rigidity and
clamping techniques have to be designed for such pressures.

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2. Handling of large and heavy moulds requires adequate lifting equipments.

3. Unlike in compression moulding, post trimming is required for this process.
4. The process is more costly than hand lay-up for small production runs.
5. The tooling can get complicated for cavities with projections or undercuts.
6. Parts having open cell cores (inside) such as honeycomb cores porous foams,
tubular structures are difficult to make by RTM.
7. The process may become uneconomical for thin and smaller parts.
Types of RTM machines
There are two types of RTM injection equipments based on position of mixing of
catalyst with resin.
Two pot system
This system has two equal volume containers or pots. In one of these pots the resin
is mixed with accelerator. In the other pot the resin is mixed with the catalyst. Two
pumps are used to pump these mixtures to the injection points where they are mixed
well in the mixing head.
Catalyst injection system
In this system the catalyst is not mixed with the resin until it reaches the entry pot
attached to the mould. The resin mixed with accelerator is pumped into the injection
chamber. The catalyst is taken separately into the chamber by means of controlling
valve. In this system the gel and cure time can be controlled by varying the amount
of catalyst used.

Fig: 4.4.10 RTM Machines

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Application
RTM is a variation of compression moulding and is particularly used for moulding
intricate shapes. It is also useful when metal inserts have to be incorporated as in
electrical components. It is used frequently when the mould sections are very delicate,
when the moulded parts has thick sections 3.2 mm or more, or when an insert is
retained in the cavity for moulding in place. In the semiconductor industry, package
encapsulation is usually done with transfer moulding due to the high accuracy tooling
and low cycle time of the process.
Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM)
This method is also referred to as vacuum infusion process (VIP) moulding. VARTM
is accomplished on a single open mould. This process has been used to make both
thin and very thick laminates. Fabrics or core materials are laid up as a dry stack of
materials as in RTM and covered with peel ply and a knitted type of non-structural
fabric. The whole dry stack is then vacuum bagged, and once bag leaks have been
eliminated, resin is allowed to flow into the laminate using vacuum. The resin
distribution over the whole laminate is aided by resin flowing easily through the non
structural fabric, and wetting the fabric.
Process
The mould is cleaned with acetone
and release agent is applied. Dry
fabric preforms or core materials are
laid on the mould. Spiral tubes are
then laid on the two sides of the
mould, one for resin infusion and
other for suction. The completed
lay-up is covered with a vacuum Fig: 4.4.11 Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer
Moulding
bag and sealed. The resin is then
infused by connecting one side of the tube to the resin tank and applying vacuum
through other side. The resin flows and fills the cavity. When the resin flows out
through the other side, the resin flow is cut off and the vacuum is maintained until the
resin cures.
Materials
Resins : Any resin with low viscosity, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester
Fibres : Fabrics made from carbon, Kevlar, Quartz, glass and polyester fibre.

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Advantage
• Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) is ideal for the manufacture
of large-scale composite structures.
• The advantages of the VARTM process over the RTM process are scalability
and affordability for the fabrication of large composite structures.
• Cored structures can be produced in one operation.
• Cost-effective: Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a
vacuum bag.
Disadvantages
• Relatively complex process to perform well.
• Resins must be very low in viscosity, properties, thus compromising mechanical
• Un-impregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
Application
VARTM applications including marine, wind mill blades, ground transportation and
infrastructure parts
Continuous processes
Pultrusion : Pultruded composites consist of fibres predominantly in axial directions
impregnated by resins in order to form a most efficient composite product. Surface
mats are used for surface appearance and also to improve chemical and weather
resistance. Polyester resins are widely used in the pultruded products. The pultrusion
process generally consists of pulling of roving/ mats through a preforming fixture to
take its shape of the product and then heated where the section is cured continuously.
The following are the parts of pultrusion machine
Creel - Creel generally consists of bookcase type shelves where roving from
individual packages are pulled out for a resin bath. Metal book shelves are best.
Resin bath: The resin bath is a tank which contains resin through which the fibres
are passed to get impregnated with resin before forming. A grid or comb is attached
at the entry and exits of resin bath in order to maintain horizontal alignment and also
to avoid the excessive resin.
Preforming Fixtures: These fixtures consolidate the reinforcements and move them
closer to the final shape provided by the die. Generally, fluorocarbon or ultra high
molecular weight polyurethanes are used as fixtures since these are easy to
manufacture and also it is easy to clean it for later purpose.

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Heated Dies: The chrome plated electrically heated matched metal die through
which the fibre impregnated with resin are pulled and extruded. In case of thick
section the curing can be speeded up by using both radio frequency (RF) radiation
and conductive heat.
Pulling Section: A pair of continuous caterpillar belts containing pads are used for
pultrusions. A double set of cylinders with pad pullers can be synchronized for an
intermittent pull.
Cut-Off saw: A conventional saw with an abrasive or a continuous rim diamond
wheel with coolant is generally used for cutting the desired product.
The pultruded sheet consists of both continuous strand roving as well as mat layers.
Mat layers are added to increase the transverse strength. Generally, the matrix
materials used in pultrusion are polyester and vinyl ester from thermoset polymers
(epoxy has long cure time) and PEEK and polysulfone from thermoplastic polymers.

Fig: 4.4.12 Pultrusion process

The reinforcing fibres are pulled through a liquid resin bath to thoroughly wet every
fibre. The reinforcements are then guided and formed, or shaped, into the profile to
be produced before entering a die. As the material progresses through the heated
die, which is shaped to match the design profile, the resin changes from a liquid to a
gel, and finally, into a cured, rigid plastic.
A pulling device grips the cured material and pulls the material through the die. It is
the power source for the process. After the product passes through the puller, it is
sawed into desired lengths. Although pultrusion is ideally suited for custom shapes,
some standard products include solid rods, hollow tubes, flat sheets, hat sections
bars, angles, channels, and I-beams.
Applications of Pultrusion:
• Electrical application including transformers.
• Supports in bridges and structures.
• Automobiles.
• Pipes and rods.

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Advantages of Pultrusion
Pultrusion is the most cost-effective method for the production of fibre-reinforced
composite structural profiles. The primary advantages of pultruded FRP profiles are
listed as below:
• Production is continuous.
• Material scrap rate is low.
• The requirement for support material is eliminated i.e., breathers, bleeder, cloth,
separator film, bagging film, edge tape, etc.
• Labour requirements are low.
• Products with high fibre content can be produced
Disadvantages
• Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
• Heated die costs can be high
• Wear of die is high.
Braiding
The braiding process involves the weaving of fibres into shape by repeatedly crossing
them back and forth over a mandrel. The use of braiding process in the aircraft
industry is generally restricted to non-structural applications. The braiding process
has been utilized extensively for covering of the electrical wires and fuel lines. The
primary advantage is that braiding offers is a rapid, automated method for forming
an interwoven structure. The braiding carriers follow a zigzag path in a large circle
surrounding the mandrel. The surface of the mandrel is tightly woven with the fibres
in a helical pattern. Due to high level of conformability and the damage resistance
capability of braided structures, the composite industry had found structural
applications of braided composites ranging from rocket launchers to automotive
parts to aircraft structures.
Thickness is built up by over braiding previously braided layers similar to a ply lay-
up process. Braiding can take place vertically or horizontally. A schematic of a
horizontal braider is shown in Figure
4.4.13. Although braiding is similar
to filament winding, the major
difference between braiding
and filament winding is that
braids are interlaced
structures having as many
as 144 or more interlacing
per braiding cycle.
Fig: 4.4.13 Schematic of a horizontal braider

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DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Produce FRP roofing sheets by hand lay-up process.
2) Produce FRP winnows using hand lay up
3) Produce FRP flower pots
4) Produce FRP kitchen zincs
5) Produce FRP Sheets by vacuum Infusion
6) Field visit to filament winding, pultrusion, marine products manufacturing units
Procedure
The procedure for the manufacture of FRP products are detailed under manufacturing
methods

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
1) Field visit report on FRP manufacturing methods
2) Group discussion – Faults causes and remedies in FRP processing.

Theory Evaluation Questions

1) A number of FRP manufacturing methods are available. Classify the various
methods as open mould, closed mould and continuous process
2) Hand lay-up is the simplest FRP processing method.
Explain the hand lay-up process for making laminates. Discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of hand lay up
3) Which of the following FRP product is made by filament winding
a) Tanks c) Tubs
b) Pipes d) All of the above
4) Which of the following process require low labor content
a) Hand lay-up c) Resin transfer moulding
b) Vacuum bag moulding d) Pultrusion
5) Vacuum infusion is an FRP processing method which is gaining importance
today. Explain the vacuum infusion process?
6) Discuss the faults causes and remedies in hand layup process.
7) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pultrusion process

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Unit V
QUALITY AND SAFETY IN FRP PROCESSING

Over view of the unit

The essential difference between FRP composites and almost all other structural
materials is that, whilst the chemical composition and properties of other materials
e.g. steel or aluminium, are mainly determined by the manufacturer, with reinforced
plastics, the fabricator determines these properties himself i.e. he makes his own
material. Quality control is therefore extremely important if high quality mouldings
are to be produced consistently, economically and safely. This section deals with
aspects of quality control from the storage of materials through the various stages of
moulding production to the delivery of quality moulded parts.
Learning outcomes
The learner :
• Identifies and practices safe storage of FRP raw materials
• Practices good housekeeping and follow work instructions
• Observes health and safety practices during FRP processing.
• Explains the different process control parameters in FRP processing.
• Prepares and maintain simple moulds using plaster of paris
• Does minor repairs of FRP products
Storage of raw materials
Resins, curing agents and associated solvents should be stored separately, in cool,
dry, well ventilated places away from the working area.
Resin should be stored in the dark in suitable closed containers. It is recommended
that the storage temperature should be less than 20ºC where practical, but should
not exceed 30ºC. Ideally, containers should be opened only immediately prior to
use, and should never be left open. Where containers have to be stored outside,
they should be protected to prevent any ingress of water, or possible early
polymerisation from the effects of direct sunlight.
After several months or years of storage, polyester resins will set to a rubbery gel,
even at normal ambient temperatures. This storage life or shelf life varies depending
on the resin type, but provided that the recommendations above are followed, most

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Crystic resins will have a storage life of at least 3 months (for pre-accelerated resins)
or 6 months (for non-accelerated resins).
Organic peroxide catalysts should be segregated from resins and accelerators.
Containers should be stored in a well ventilated, flameproof area at a maximum
temperature of 20ºC. Bulk storage should ideally be in a secure brick building, but
smaller quantities can be stored in suitable metal cabinets. Containers should be
opened only immediately prior to use, and should never be left open.
Accelerators should be stored in a well ventilated, flameproof area at a maximum
temperature of 20ºC. Containers should be opened only immediately prior to use
and should never be left open.
All storage areas should be kept clean and free from combustible materials such as
rags. Good standards of hygiene should be observed. Any accidental spillages must
be dealt with immediately.
Reinforcements can be kept in the main workshop as long as they are stored and
tailored away from the moulding area. All reinforcements should be stored in their
original packaging in a warm, dry, dust free environment.
Stock Control
All containers and packaging should be appropriately marked, designated and
documented. Good stock control is important as the use of stocks in strict rotation
helps to avoid storage times longer than the manufacturer recommends, thus ensuring
that materials are always used in their optimum condition.
Workshop Conditions
Any building where composite manufacturing is carried out should be dry, adequately
heated and well ventilated. Ideally, the building should be spacious, to allow adequate
room for all operations, and have a high ceiling. The temperature of the building
should be controlled between 15ºC and 25ºC, at all times, and fluctuations in
temperature must be avoided. Ventilation should be good by normal standards, but
draughts should be avoided. Doors and windows should not, therefore, be used for
ventilation control. Although diffused daylight lighting is the preferred type, fluorescent
lighting is an acceptable alternative and is most commonly used.
The working area should be divided into sections as follows:-
1. Reinforcement Preparation area
It is important to tailor reinforcing fibres in a cool, dry environment away from the
general moulding and trimming / finishing areas. Moisture and dust must be avoided

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as they may affect the moulding characteristics of the reinforcement, resulting in

poor quality mouldings.
2. Compounding & Mixing area
The compounding and/or mixing of resins is best kept to a separate section of the
workshop, preferably in the charge of one responsible person. Accurate weighing
apparatus and a low shear mechanical mixer are required, as well as suitable catalyst
dispensing equipment. If accelerators and catalyst are to be added, separate
dispensers must be used as catalyst and accelerator can react with explosive violence.
All measuring and mixing should be restricted to this one area, which should be kept
as clean as possible to prevent contamination.
3. Mould Preparation and Moulding area
The layout of the workshop can be fairly flexible to allow for different types and
sizes of moulding. As with most other kinds of manufacturing operations, it is best
for the operators to remain in one place and the moulds to move from station to
station as the moulding operation is completed, although this is not always possible.
It is important to keep moulds away from direct sunlight, as this may cause premature
gelation of the resin. Any fluorescent lighting should be installed as far above the
moulds as possible, as it can also affect the cure of the resin. Cleanliness is important
for the health of the operators and for preventing contamination of resin and
reinforcement. Containers of resin, solvents, etc. must not be left open. Any spillages
should be attended to immediately and contaminated waste material should be
removed and disposed of safely.
The health and safety at working atmosphere and is also important, in particular,
attention should be paid to the concentration of styrene vapour in moulding shops.
Developments in resin technology mean that resins with low styrene emissions and
low styrene contents, are now available. Although these resins significantly reduce
the amount of styrene in the atmosphere during lamination and consolidation, adequate
extraction facilities are still essential in this area of the workshop.
4. Trimming and finishing area
Effective dust extraction is essential in this area of the workshop, and should preferably
be of the downdraught type. A good standard of cleanliness is also important, to
prevent contamination of partly cured mouldings.
Mould Care
The production of quality composite mouldings will depend to a great extent on the

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quality of the moulds used for their manufacture. It is therefore important to ensure
that moulds are properly maintained throughout their life. Moulds should be cleaned
regularly, particularly where wax release agents are used, as any wax build up may
result in a dulling of the mould surface. This will then transfer to the surface of the
moulding, creating dull areas which are difficult, if not impossible, to remove. Impacting
the back surface of a mould in order to remove a moulding is not recommended as
it can result in cracking of the gel coated surface of the mould. Whilst these cracks
will not affect the mould structure, they are unsightly and will transfer to the surface
of any mouldings taken from the mould. Great care should be taken when repairing
any damage to moulds, particularly in the gel coat surface, and repairs should be
carried out as soon as is practical after the damage occurs. The development of
mould re-surfacing products, such as those in the Crystic range, means that the life
of moulds can now be extended even if the gel coat is damaged beyond repair.
The Curing Reaction
Different resin types exhibit different cure characteristics, but whichever resin type is
being used, it is important that the recommended cure cycle is followed. The cure of
a polyester resin will begin as soon as a suitable catalyst is added, but the speed of
cure will depend on the resin and the activity of the catalyst. Without the presence of
an accelerator, heat or ultraviolet radiation, the catalysed resin will have a pot life of
hours or sometimes days. This rate of cure is too slow for practical purposes, so for
room temperature conditions an accelerator is used to speed up the reaction. Although
these days the vast majority of resins are pre-accelerated by the manufacturer, some
of the more specialised resin systems still require the addition of an accelerator to
facilitate cure. In these cases, the quantity of accelerator added will control the time
to gelation and the rate of hardening. For many of today's processes, the limited pot
life of a catalysed resin is impractical, and in these instances it is advisable to add the
accelerator to the resin first. The accelerated resin will remain usable for days or
even weeks, and quantities can be catalysed as and when required. The curing
reaction of a polyester resin is exothermic, and the temperature of an unfilled resin
casting can rise to over 150ºC, though this temperature rise would be considerably
less in a laminate. The resins and catalysts available today have been specially
developed to dramatically reduce exotherm temperatures, enabling moulders to
produce larger and thicker composite structures without the problems associated
with heat buildup. There are three distinct phases in the curing reaction of a polyester
resin:

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1. Gel time. This is the time between the addition of the curing agent (catalyst or
accelerator/catalyst) and the setting of the resin to a soft gel.
2. Hardening Time. This is the time from the setting of the resin to the point where
the resin is hard enough to allow a moulding to be released from its mould.
3. Maturing Time. This is the time taken for the moulding or laminate to acquire its
full hardness, chemical resistance and stability, and can vary from hours to days
to weeks depending on the resin and the curing system used. Maturing will
take place at room temperature, but post curing a moulding at elevated
temperatures will accelerate this process. When post curing is used, it is
recommended that the moulding is allowed to mature at room temperature for
a period of 24 hours before exposure to elevated temperatures. Figure 16
shows equivalent post cure times and temperatures. Resin properties are
improved by post curing. For critical applications such as those requiring
maximum heat resistance, post curing is essential, preferably by increasing
temperature in stages up to the required operating temperature.
Hot Curing
Polyester resins are often hot moulded in the form of dough or sheet moulding
compounds, or in continuous processes such as pultrusion (see Processes section).
However, a simple hot moulding formulation is possible, using Benzoyl peroxide as
the catalyst. These catalysts, which normally contain50% benzoyl peroxides, are
available in powder or paste form, and should be added at 2% into the resin. The
catalyst must be thoroughly dispersed in the resin, and the catalysed mix will remain
usable for about a week at room temperature (18ºC to 20ºC).Cure should take
place at temperatures between 80ºC and 140ºC, but for most applications, 120ºC
will be satisfactory. The actual moulding time will depend on the bulk or thickness of
the moulding, the type of resin used, and the heat capacity of the moulds. Insufficient
heat or time will result in an under cured moulding. Whilst the resin cannot be over
cured, it is not advisable to raise the temperature above 140ºC.
Cold Curing
The great majority of composite mouldings are manufactured using cold cure
techniques, and adequate cure is vital if high quality mouldings with optimum properties
are to be produced. Most of today's polyester resins are pre-accelerated, and require
only the addition of a suitable catalyst to initiate the curing reaction, though some
more specialised resins still require the addition of an accelerator as well as a catalyst.
Cobalt accelerators are the most common, though others, such as those based on
tertiary amines, are also used. The most common cold curing catalysts are methyl

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ethyl ketone peroxides (MEKP). These are supplied as liquid dispersions differing
only in their activity, reactivity and hardening rates. Cyclohexanone peroxide (CHP),
available as a stable paste dispersion, and acetyl acetone peroxide (AAP), are also
widely used in applications where their effect on cure characteristics are more
appropriate.
Resin to Glass Ratios
Resin to glass ratio has more affect on the physical properties of a fully cured laminate
than any other single factor. As a general guide, a high glass content will result in a
high strength laminate, whilst a high resin content will produce a laminate with better
chemical, water and weather resistance.
Process Control
Irrespective of the processing method, the following parameters have to be controlled
for achieving good quality products:
1. Binder solubility
2. Fibre wetting
3. Pot life-gel time
4. Peak exotherm temperature
5. Cure time
6. Viscosity
7. Degree of cure
Binder solubility time (BST) is the time taken to dissolve the binder in Chopped
Strand Mat by the matrix resin. Binders are used in chopped strand mats to hold the
fibers in position. CSM with higher binder solubility is used where complete wet out
is required in a short time with short gel time resins. BST Depends on types of
binder, viscosity of resin
BST < Wetting time < Gel time
Wetting time is the time taken to completely wet the fibre layers. Wetting is to be
ensured in moulding compounds and prepregs during their preparation and not at
the processing stage. Wetting time depends on type of fibre, type of size, mat thickness
/ roving size, BST of CSM and Viscosity of resin
Pot life is the time from addition of catalyst/hardener to gel time. Pot life depends on
Reactivity of Epoxy Resins, Inhibitor in USP, Catalyst in USP, Heat / Temperature.
Pot life can be adjusted by selecting hardener / moulding temperature in epoxy ,
percentage of catalyst in USP

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Peak exotherm temp. (PET) is the maximum temperature reached during cure due
to the heat of reaction. PET depends on Reactivity of resin, Amount of catalyst,
Heat dissipation during cure Type of catalyst. Excess temperature due to PET can
cause shrinkage, warping, residual stress, degradation of polymer ,smoke, resin
cracking or even fire. PET can be reduced by selecting a low exotherm resin,
controlling catalyst, controlling heat dissipation
Cure time is the time from addition of catalyst /hardener until in the resin attains initial
cure of 95% of total cure. Cure time depends on reactivity of resin, hardener system,
type and amount of catalyst, exotherm, external heat. Faster cure causes shrinkage
of the product, increase peak exotherm temperature. Cure time can be controlled
by selecting the suitable hardener, using high/medium reactivity resins and controlling
mould heat
Viscosity of a liquid indicates the resistance to flow of liquid. When viscosity is high
resistance to flow is high.
Polyesters have viscosity around 400-800 cP, where as epoxies have viscosity more
than 1200 cP. Viscosity of polyesters can be reduced by adding more styrene. But
high styrene content than what is required for reaction is not good. Viscosity of
epoxies can be reduced by heating and/or by adding reactive diluents such as low
viscosity glycidyl ethers. Fillers, chopped fibres, thixotropic additives and chemical
thickeners can increase viscosity
Degree of Cure
Some variability in properties can be caused by differences in the degree of cure of
a resin. Severe undercure in a laminate will be obvious since the laminate will be
noticeably soft, and will have a characteristic smell reminiscent of almonds. Slight
undercure, however, is often more difficult to detect, and whilst there may be little or
no affect on mechanical properties, undercured laminates exposed to weather will
deteriorate rapidly. A surface hardness test is the most practical method of assessing
degree of cure under workshop conditions, and the best instrument for measuring
this is a Barcol Impressor. Although Barcol hardness is not an absolute measure of
cure, it can highlight differences between well cured and poorly cured laminates.
Fully cured, unfilled cast polyester resins generally exhibit a Barcol hardness figure
between 40 and 50 (35 to 45 for gel coat resins), and average readings of less than
25 on a laminate would suggest undercure.
Tooling for composites
The moulds used for forming composites, also known as tools, can be made from

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virtually any material. For parts cured at ambient or low temperature, or for
prototyping, where tight control of dimensional accuracy isn't required, materials
such as fiberglass, high-density foams, machinable epoxy boards or even clay or
wood/plaster models often are suitable.
Tooling costs and complexity increase as the part performance requirements and
the number of parts to be produced increase. Plaster of Paris mould is good for one
piece. Wooden mould requires finishing after every cycle of moulding, FRP and cast
epoxy moulds are good for intricate shapes and last for up to 300 pieces. Metallic
moulds are required for making large number of pieces, intricate shapes and for
heating.
Sometimes, the shape of the part that you want to copy means that you can't make
a simple one-piece mould and in this case you will need to make a multi-part 'split
mould' which can be bolted together to lay-up the part and then unbolted and split
apart to remove the part.
Preparation of fiber glass moulds
Fiberglass moulds can be created in many different shapes and forms. Like any
other moulds it is most important to have no blind or reverse angles that can trap
your subject within the mould. To accomplish this we must plan to create the mould
in sections. Using a release agent that works with the resin is also very important.
The process of mould making starts once the pattern is ready. The pattern can be
made with plaster of paris, wood or a product itself, if we are going to replicate an
existing product. The pattern has to be coated with a mould release agent such as
wax or PVA. Once the mould release has been applied, then we can start applying
the resin, glass fibre layers. First a gel coat or a tooling coat is applied and allowed
to dry for 30 minutes. Above this successive layers of fibreglass and resin are applied
to build up the mould. Once the desired thickness is achieved, the resin is allowed to
cure. Once the whole system solidifies, the mould can be released from the pattern
and final finishing is done before using for production.
Repair
Some moulding faults can be rectified at the trimming and finishing stage of production.
Cracks, dents and small holes in the gel coat surface can be repaired using gel coat
filler (such as that in the Crystic range), a mixture of lay - up resin and filler powder
or, where better 'gap-filling' properties are required, a repair dough consisting of
resin and chopped glass fibre strands.

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Repairing Gel coat Scratches

1. Ensure the damaged area is clean, dry and free of oil, wax or grease, then tape
round with masking tape to protect the surrounding surface.
2. Mix the required quantity of gel coat filler and pigment paste thoroughly.
3. Add the appropriate amount of hardener and mix thoroughly.
4. Using a wooden spatula, press the gel coat filler firmly into the scratch, filling
proud of the surface. Remove the masking tape before the filler sets, and leave
to cure thoroughly for at least two hours.
4. When cured, rub down with wet and dry paper then use polishing compound
to restore the surface gloss.
Filling Dents and Cracks
Cracks, dents and even small holes can be repaired using mixtures of lay-up resin
and fillers. Care should be taken to use filler appropriate to the application - in boat
hulls for instance, glass bubbles should be used as most other fillers absorb water.
1. Remove any loose resin and reinforcement and ensure the damaged area is
clean, dry and free of grease.
2. Mix pigmented resin with filler powder or glass fibres until a paste of the required
consistency is achieved.
3. Add the correct amount of hardener (based on resin weight NOT resin/ filler
weight).
4. Tape around the damaged area then fill the dent using the resin/filler or resin/
glass fibre mix.
5. Leave to harden, then sand using progressively finer grades of wet and dry
paper, and use polishing compound to restore surface gloss. Repairing Laminate
Damage
When damage is not confined to the surface, resin and reinforcement should be laid
up, overlapping the edges to ensure good adhesion over a wide area. If the laminate
is fractured, the following procedure should be used, to effect a repair.
1. Remove the damaged area and chamfer the edges so that the hole is larger on
the gel coat side than on the reverse.
2. Abrade and clean the surrounding area to ensure adhesion.
3. If a large surface area is involved, a temporary mould should be built up on the

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exterior surface (see Figure 21). For smaller areas, polyester release film can
be used as a moulding surface.
4. Where damage is extensive, the moulding should be placed in its original mould
before repairs are carried out.
An example of Laminate repair method

Fig: 4.5.1 Repair of laminates

The visual inspection of mouldings should scrutinise the following:-
1. Surface imperfections and general appearance.
2. Entrapment of air bubbles in the laminate. The use of non- pigmented resins
facilitates this inspection.
3. Dimensions - assessment of any shrinkage or distortion.
The physical testing of laminates, i.e. mechanical and chemical testing, can be a
problem for the fabricator, as it involves the use of specialised test equipment. These
tests are, therefore, normally carried out by either the raw material supplier or
independent test houses.
The properties considered to be of most importance are:-
1. Ultimate tensile strength
2. Tensile modulus
3. Flexural strength (also known as bend or cross breaking strength)
4. Modulus in bend
5. Impact strength
6. Shear strength
None of these properties should be considered in isolation. For instance, it is possible,
by using a high glass content, to produce a laminate with a high tensile strength.

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However, such a laminate would be so thin that it would lack rigidity, so would be
unsuitable for use. Minimum thickness and resin to glass ratios are therefore also
important properties.

DETAILING OF PRACTICALS
1) Prepare a sample FRP mould with Plaster of paris
2) Perform a minor repair on an FRP laminate.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
1) Laboratory work
2) Assignment of the health and safety practices in FRP industry.
Theory Evaluation Questions
1) Briefly explain the safety practices to be observed in the storage of FRP raw
materials
2) Explain the process of gel coat repair on an FRP laminate.

List of References:
1. Fundamentals of Plastics processing (Vol.1) Injection and blow moulding by Sanjay
K Nayak.
2. Plastics Engineering Handbook By Fradoes J
3. Injection Moulding by A.S.Athalye
4. Injection Moulding Machines by F.Johannaber
5. Plastics Processing Handbook by J.A.Brydson
6. Plastics Processing Data Handbook by Donald V.Rosato & Dominick V.Rosato
7. Extrusion of Plastics - Fisher
8. Plastic Materials and Processing - A. Brent Strong
9. Lee, N. C., Plastic blow Moulding Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
10. Engineered Materials Handbook, ASM International Handbook committee, USA.
11. Polymer Processing by Baird
12. Advanced composite materials by Lalit Gupta
13. FRP Technology by Weatherhead
14. Fiber Reinforced composites by PK Mallick
15. Engineering composite materials by Bryan Harris.

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