Evolution of Programming Languages

• 40's machine level

– raw binary

• 50's assembly language

– names for instructions and addresses
– very specific to each machine

• 60's high-level languages

– Fortran, Cobol, Algol

• 70's system programming languages

– C
– Pascal (more for teaching structured programming)

• 80's object-oriented languages

– C++, Ada, Smalltalk, Modula-3, Eiffel, …
strongly typed languages
better control of structure of really large programs
better internal checks, organization, safety

• 90's "scripting", Web, component-based, …

– Java, Visual Basic, Perl, …
strongly-hyped languages
focus on interfaces, components

Why C++ first? Why not Java?

• historical sequence
– C++ tries to remedy drawbacks and limitations of C
– Java reacts to size and complexity of C++

• compatibility with C
– source and object

• mechanisms are visible and controllable, e.g.,

– classes have zero overhead in simplest cases
– classes are not mandatory
– garbage collection is not automatic but can be
programmed
– can use C I/O or define a new one

• C++ is a significantly more powerful language

– but is significantly bigger and more complicated

• personal taste and experience

1
Stacks in C: a single stack
int stack[100];
int *sp = stack; /* first unused */

#define push(n) (*sp++ = (n))

#define pop() (*--sp)

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

push(i);

Stacks in C: a stack type

typedef struct {
int stk[100];
int *sp;
} stack;

int push(stack s, int n) {

return *[Link]++ = n;
}

int pop(stack s) {
return *--[Link];
}

stack s1, s2;

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
push(s1, i);

2
Another stack implementation
typedef struct {
int *stk;
int *sp;
} stack;

int push(stack *s, int n) {

return *s->sp++ = n;
}
int pop(stack *s) {
return *--s->sp;
}

stack *s1, *s2; not initialized

s1->stk =
(int *) malloc(100 * sizeof(int));
ugly
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
push(*s1, i);

Problems

• representation is visible, can't be protected

(e.g., s1->stk)
• creation and copying must be done very carefully
– and you don't get any help with them
• no initialization
– you have to remember to do it
• no help with deletion
– you have to recover the memory when not in use
• weak argument checking between declaration and
call
– easy to get inconsistencies

• the real problem: no abstraction mechanisms

– complicated data structures can be built,
but access to the representation can't be controlled
– you can't change your mind once the first
implementation has been done

• abstraction and information hiding are

nice for small programs
absolutely necessary for big programs

3
C++

• designed & implemented by Bjarne Stroustrup

Bell Labs (1979-95) -> AT&T Labs (1995-)
– began ~ 1980; ISO standard 1998

• a better C
– more checking of interfaces (ANSI C)
– other features for easier programming
• data abstraction
– you can hide HOW something is done in a program,
– reveal only WHAT is done
– HOW can be safely changed as program evolves
• object-oriented programming
– inheritance -- new types can be defined that inherit
properties from previous types
– polymorphism or dynamic binding -- function to be
called is determined by data type of specific object
at run time
• parameterized types
– define families of related types, where the type is a
parameter
– templates or "generic" programming

C++ classes

• data abstraction and protection mechanism

derived from Simula 67 (Kristen Nygaard, Norway)

class thing {
public:
methods -- functions that define what operations can be
done on this kind of object
private:
variables and functions that implement the operations
};

• defines a data type 'thing'

– can declare variables and arrays of this type, create
pointers to them, pass them to functions, return
them, etc.
• object: an instance of a class variable
• method: a function defined within the class

• private variables and functions are not accessible

from outside the class
• it is not possible to determine HOW the
operations are implemented, only WHAT they do.

4
C++ synopsis
• data abstraction with classes
– a class defines a type that can be used to
declare variables of that type,
control access to representation

• operator and function name overloading

– all C operators (including assignment, ( ), [ ], ->,
argument passing and function return) can be
overloaded so they apply to user-defined types
• control of creation and destruction of objects
– initialization of class objects
– recovery of resources on destruction
• inheritance: derived classes built on base classes
– virtual functions override base functions
– multiple inheritance: inherit from more than one class
• exception handling
• namespaces for separate libraries
• templates (generic types)
• Standard Template Library
– generic algorithms on generic containers

• compatible (almost) with C

– except for new keywords

Stack class in C++

// stk1.c: stack of ints, 1st draft; no checking!!!

class stack {
private: // this is the default
int stk[100];
int *sp; // next free place
public:
int push(int);
int pop();
};

int stack::push(int n) // push n onto stack

{
return *sp++ = n;
}

int stack::pop() // pop top element

{
return *--sp;
}

5
Testing stk1.c

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
stack s;
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

[Link](i);
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
if ([Link]() != 9-i)
printf("oops: %d\n", i);
}

$ CC -g stk1.c (or g++ -g stk1.c)

$ [Link]

Constructors: making a new object

// stk2.c: constructors

class stack {
private:
int stk[100];
int *sp; // next free place
public:
stack(); // constructor
int push(int);
int pop();
};

stack::stack() { sp = stk; }

int stack::push(int n) // push n onto stack

{
return *sp++ = n;
}
int stack::pop() // pop top element
{
return *--sp;
}

6
Testing stk2.c

main()
{
stack s1, s2;
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

[Link](i);
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
[Link]([Link]());
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
if ([Link]() != i)
printf("oops: %d\n", i);
}

Memory allocation: new and delete

• new is a type -safe alternative to malloc

– delete is the matching alternative to free
• new T allocates an object of type T, returns
pointer to it
stack *sp = new stack;
• new T[n] allocates array of T's, returns pointer
to first
int *stk = new int[100];
– by default, throws exception if no memory
• delete p frees the single item pointed to by p
delete sp;
• delete [ ] p frees the array beginning at p
delete [ ] istk;

• new uses T's constructor for objects of type T

– need a default constructor for array allocation
• delete uses T's destructor ~T()

• use new/delete instead of malloc/free

– malloc/free provide raw memory but no semantics
– this is inadequate for objects with state
– never mix new/delete and malloc/free

7
Dynamic stack with new, delete
// stk3.c: new, destructors, delete; explicit size

class stack {
private:
int *stk; // allocated dynamically
int *sp; // next free place
public:
stack(); // constructor
stack(int n); // constructor
~stack(); // destructor
int push(int);
int pop();
};

stack::stack()
{
stk = new int[100]; sp = stk;
}

stack::stack(int n)
{
stk = new int[n]; sp = stk;
}

stack::~stack() { delete [ ] stk; }

Where are we?

• a class is a user-defined type

• an object is an instance (variable or value) of
that type
• public part defines interface it supports
– member functions in the public part define legal
operations on an object
• private part defines implementation
– functions and data values that implement interface
• constructors are members that define how to
create new instances
• destructor is a member that defines how to
destroy an instance ( e.g., how to recover its resources )

• there's more to constructors

– show up implicitly in declarations, function arguments,
return values, assignment
– the meaning of explicit and implicit copying must be
part of the representation

8
Inline definitions, default arguments
// stk4.c: inline definitions, default size

class stack {
int *stk; // allocated dynamically
int *sp; // next free place
public:
stack(int n);
~stack() { delete [ ] stk; }
int push(int n) { return *sp++ = n; }
int pop() { return *--sp; }
int top() { return sp[-1]; }
};
inline stack::stack(int n = 100)
{ // ^ default argument
stk = new int[n];
sp = stk;
}

main() {
stack s1(10), s2;

// could use 2 constructors instead of default arg

// stack(); stack(int n);

Overloaded functions / default args

• default arguments: syntactic sugar for a single

function
stack::stack(int n = 100);
• declaration can be repeated if the same

• explicit size in call

stack s(500);
• omitted size uses default value
stack s;

• overloaded functions: different functions,

distinguished by argument types
• these are two different functions:
stack::stack(int n);
stack::stack();

9
Change of representation

// stk5.c: change of representation (no checking)

class stack {
private:
struct blk { // private to this class
int n;
blk *nb;
blk(int sz = 0, blk *next = 0);
};
blk *sp; // top == head of the list

public:
stack(int = 0) { sp = 0; }
~stack() { while (sp) pop(); }
int push(int n);
int pop();
int top() { return sp->n; }
};

Representation as linked list

stack::blk::blk(int sz, blk *next)
{
n = sz;
nb = next;
}

int stack::push(int n)
{
blk *bp = new blk(n, sp);
sp = bp;
return n;
}

int stack::pop()
{
blk *bp = sp;
int n = sp->n;
sp = sp->nb;
delete bp;
return n;
}

10
Aside on implementation

• a class is just a struct

– no overhead
– no "class Object" that everything derives from
– member functions are just names
– definition is such that C++ can be translated into C
– original C++ compiler was a C++ program ("cfront")
that generated C

struct stack { /* sizeof stack == 8 */

int *stk__5stack ;
int *sp__5stack ;
};
...
struct stack __1s1 ;
struct stack __1s2 ;
int __1i ;
...

Cfront output, continued...

main() {
stack s1(10), s2;
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
[Link](i);
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
[Link]([Link]());
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
if ([Link]() != i)
printf("oops: %d\n", i);
}

( (( ((& __1s1 )-> stk__5stack = (((int *)__nw__FUi (

(sizeof (int ))* 10 ) ))), ((& __1s1 )-> sp__5stack =
(& __1s1 )-> stk__5stack )) ), (((& __1s1 )))) ;
( (( ((& __1s2 )-> stk__5stack = (((int *)__nw__FUi (
(sizeof (int ))* 100 ) ))), ((& __1s2 )-> sp__5stack =
(& __1s2 )-> stk__5stack )) ), (((& __1s2 )))) ;
for(__1i = 0 ;__1i < 10 ;__1i ++ )
( (((*((& __1s1 )-> sp__5stack ++ )))= __1i )) ;
for(__1i = 0 ;__1i < 10 ;__1i ++ )
( (__2__X1 = ( ((*(-- (& __1s1 )-> sp__5stack )))) ), (
(((*((&__1s2 )-> sp__5stack ++ )))= __2__X1 )) ) ;
for(__1i = 0 ;__1i < 10 ;__1i ++ )
if (( ((*(-- (& __1s2 )-> sp__5stack )))) != __1i )
printf ( (char *)"oops: %d\n",__1i ) ;
( (( ( __dl__FPv ( (char *)(& __1s2 )-> stk__5stack ) ,
(( (( 0 ) ), 0 ))) , 0 ) )) ;
( (( ( __dl__FPv ( (char *)(& __1s1 )-> stk__5stack ) ,
(( (( 0 ) ), 0 ))) , 0 ) )) ;

11
Where are we now?

• hiding representation with private

• member functions for public interface
– classname :: member()
• constructors to make new instances and initialize
them
• destructors to delete them cleanly
• change of representation
– as long as the public part doesn't change
• nothing magic about implementation

What we have ignored (besides error checking):

• implications of assignment and initialization

– declarations, function arguments, function return
values
– if we don't do anything, will get memberwise
assignment and initialization

The meaning of explicit and implicit copying MUST

be part of the representation

12