Q1. Write an algorithm for knapsack greedy problem.

The algorithm is a greedy approach to the fractional knapsack problem, selecting items based on
their

value-to-weight ratio to maximize the total value within a given knapsack capacity.

Knapsack_Greedy(W,n)

//p[i] contains the profits of i items such that 1<i<n

//w[i] contains weights of I items

//x[i] is the solution vector

//W is the total size of knapsack

for i: = 1 to n do

if (w[i]<W) then //capacity of knapsack is a constraint

x[i] : = 1.0;

W = W - w[i];

if (i<=n) then x[i] : W/w[i];

}
Q2. Write an algorithm for 0/1 knapsack problem using backtrack

The algorithm is a backtracking approach to solving the 0/1 Knapsack Problem, exploring all possible

combinations of items to find the optimal subset that maximizes total value without exceeding the
knapsack

capacity.

def knapsack_backtrack(values, weights, capacity):

n = len(values)

def backtrack(index, current_weight, current_value):

nonlocal max_value

if index == n or current_weight == capacity:

max_value = max(max_value, current_value)

return

if current_weight + weights[index] <= capacity:

backtrack(index + 1, current_weight + weights[index], current_value + values[index])

backtrack(index + 1, current_weight, current_value)

max_value = 0

backtrack(0, 0, 0)

return max_value

# Example usage:

values = [60, 100, 120]

weights = [10, 20, 30]

capacity = 50

result = knapsack_backtrack(values, weights, capacity)

print("Maximum value:", result)

Q3. Write an algorithm for solving the problem of optimal binary search tree

(OBST).Give the time complexity.

The algorithm finds the arrangement of keys in a binary search tree that minimizes the average
search time,

considering the frequencies of each key, using dynamic programming with a time complexity of
O(n^3), where n

is the number of keys.

def optimal_bst(keys, frequencies):

n = len(keys)

dp = [[0] * n for _ in range(n)]

# Initialize the diagonal with the frequencies

for i in range(n):

dp[i][i] = frequencies[i]

for length in range(2, n + 1):

for i in range(n - length + 1):

j = i + length - 1

dp[i][j] = float('inf')

# Try every possible root in the range [i, j]

for r in range(i, j + 1):

c = dp[i][r - 1] + sum(frequencies[i:j + 1]) + dp[r + 1][j]

if r > 0:

c -= frequencies[r]

dp[i][j] = min(dp[i][j], c)

return dp[0][n - 1]
# Example usage:

keys = [10, 12, 20]

frequencies = [34, 8, 50]

result = optimal_bst(keys, frequencies)

print("Optimal Cost of Binary Search Tree:", result)

Q4. How does fraction greedy algorithm solve the following Knapsack

problem with capacity 20, P = (25, 24, 15) and W= (18, 15, 10)

page 1
Q5. Describe in brief Job Scheduling problem.

key elements of the Job Scheduling problem:

Tasks (Jobs): There is a set of tasks or jobs that need to be processed.

Resources (Machines or Processors): There is a set of resources available to process the tasks.

Each task requires certain resources to complete.

Processing Time: Each task has an associated processing time, indicating the time it takes to
complete

the task on a specific resource.

Constraints: There may be constraints such as precedence constraints (some tasks must be
completed before

others can start) or resource constraints (limited availability of resources).

Objective Function: The objective is to schedule the tasks in a way that optimizes a certain objective

function. Common objectives include minimizing the makespan (total completion time), maximizing
resource

utilization, or minimizing the total weighted completion time.

The Job Scheduling problem can take different forms depending on variations in the constraints and

objectives. Some well-known variants include:

Single Machine Scheduling: A single machine processes all tasks.

Parallel Machine Scheduling: Multiple machines process tasks simultaneously.

Flow Shop Scheduling: Tasks follow a fixed sequence through a set of machines.

Job Shop Scheduling: Tasks can follow different sequences through a set of machines.
Preemptive Scheduling: Tasks can be interrupted and resumed on the same or different machines.

Job_seq(D,J,n)

D[0] <- 0;

J[0] <- 0;

J[1] <- 1;

count <- 1;

for <- 2 to n do

t<-count;

while (D[J[t]] > D[i]) AND D[J[t]]!=t)) do t <- t-1;

if ((D[J[t]] < D[i]) AND (D[i]>t)) then

for s <- count to (t+1) step -1 do

J[s+1] <- J[s];

J[t+1] <- I;

count <- count + 1;

return count;

}
Q6. Find the correct sequence for jobs that maximizes profit using following

instance. Job ID (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Dead line (2, 1, 2, 1, 3).

page 2
Q7. Write control abstraction for Divide and conquer Strategy and comment on its

generalized recurrence equation

A control abstraction is a high-level description of a programming construct or pattern.

For the divide and conquer strategy, the control abstraction can be represented using a function or

procedure that recursively divides a problem into smaller subproblems, solves them independently,
and

then combines the solutions to obtain the final result

def divide_and_conquer(problem):

# Base case: Solve the problem directly if it's small enough

if is_base_case(problem):

return solve_base_case(problem)

# Divide the problem into subproblems

subproblems = divide(problem)

# Conquer: Recursively solve each subproblem

sub_solutions = [divide_and_conquer(subproblem) for subproblem in subproblems]

# Combine: Merge the solutions of subproblems to obtain the final result

result = combine(sub_solutions)

return result

Generalized Recurrence Equation:

In the context of divide and conquer algorithms, the recurrence equation describes the relationship
between

the time complexity of the original problem and the time complexity of its subproblems. Let's
consider a
generic recurrence equation for a divide and conquer algorithm:

T(n) = a.T(n/b) + f(n)

where:

- T(n) is the time complexity of the algorithm for a problem of size n

- a is the number of subproblems.

- n/b is the size of each subproblem.

- f(n) is the time complexity for dividing the problem, solving the base case, and combining
subproblem

solutions.

The recurrence equation captures the idea that the time complexity of a problem of size n is
proportional

to the sum of the time complexities of a subproblems of size n/b, plus the time spent on

dividing the problem and combining the solutions.

Analyzing this recurrence equation helps in understanding the overall time complexity of the divide
and

conquer algorithm. The Master Theorem is often used to solve such recurrence relations and
determine the time

complexity class of the algorithm.

Q8. Define OBST.

OBST stands for "Optimal Binary Search Tree." An Optimal Binary Search Tree is a binary search tree
that

is constructed in such a way as to minimize the expected search time for a given sequence of keys. In
a

binary search tree, each node has two children, and keys are stored in a way that allows for efficient
search

operations.

The concept of an Optimal Binary Search Tree is particularly relevant in scenarios where there is a
set of

keys, each with an associated search frequency or probability. The goal is to arrange these keys in a
binary

search tree in a manner that minimizes the average search time.

The optimal arrangement of keys is determined by considering the probabilities of searching for
each key. Keys

with higher probabilities are placed closer to the root of the tree to reduce the average search time.
The

construction of an OBST involves dynamic programming techniques to compute the optimal

arrangement efficiently.

The OBST problem is a classic optimization problem in computer science, and finding the optimal
binary search

tree is important for designing efficient search algorithms, especially in the context of databases and

information retrieval systems.

Q9. What is dynamic programming ? Define the principle of optimality and explain it

for 0/1 knapsack

**Dynamic Programming:**

Dynamic programming is a powerful optimization technique used to solve problems that can be
broken down

into overlapping subproblems. It involves solving and storing the solutions to subproblems in a table
to

avoid redundant computations, leading to more efficient algorithms. Dynamic programming is

especially useful

for optimization problems, where the goal is to find the best solution among a set of feasible
solutions.

**Principle of Optimality:**

The Principle of Optimality, introduced by Richard Bellman, is a key concept in dynamic

programming. It states

that an optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions of its subproblems.
In other

words, if we have an optimal solution for a larger problem, it should consist of optimal solutions for
its

smaller subproblems.

**0/1 Knapsack Problem and Principle of Optimality:**

The 0/1 Knapsack Problem is a classic optimization problem where a set of items, each with a weight
and a

value, must be selected to maximize the total value without exceeding a given capacity.

The Principle of Optimality for the 0/1 Knapsack Problem can be expressed as follows:

1. **Subproblem Optimality:**

- Suppose we have a solution to the knapsack problem for a certain capacity and a subset of items.
If we

remove any item from the subset, the remaining problem should still be a knapsack subproblem
with an optimal
solution.

2. **Building Up Solutions:**

- We can build up the optimal solution to the original knapsack problem by considering the optimal

solutions to smaller subproblems.

- If K[i][w] represents the maximum value that can be obtained with the first i items and a

knapsack capacity of w, then the optimal solution to the original problem is given by K[n][W],

where n is the total number of items and W is the total knapsack capacity.

3. **Dynamic Programming Table:**

- The dynamic programming approach involves constructing a table (K[i][w]) to store the solutions
to

subproblems.

- Each entry K[i][w] represents the maximum value that can be obtained with the first i items and

a knapsack capacity of w.

4. **Recurrence Relation:**

- The values in the table are filled based on a recurrence relation that considers the optimal
solutions

to smaller subproblems.

- The recurrence relation is typically of the form:

K[i][w] = max(K[i-1][w], value[i] + K[i-1][w-weight}}[i]])

where value[i] is the value of the i-th item, and weight[i] is its weight.

By applying the Principle of Optimality and constructing the dynamic programming table, the 0/1
Knapsack

Problem can be efficiently solved, providing the optimal selection of items to maximize the total
value

within the given capacity.

Q10. Write an algorithm for solving the problem of optimal binary search tree (OBST).

Give the time Complexity

The optimal binary search tree problem can be solved using dynamic programming. Here's a Python
algorithm

for solving the optimal binary search tree problem and calculating the optimal cost:

```python

def optimal_bst(keys, frequencies):

n = len(keys)

# Create a table to store optimal cost

dp = [[0] * n for _ in range(n)]

# Base case: Single keys have the same cost as their frequencies

for i in range(n):

dp[i][i] = frequencies[i]

# Fill the table for chains of increasing length

for chain_length in range(2, n + 1):

for i in range(n - chain_length + 1):

j = i + chain_length - 1

dp[i][j] = float('inf')

# Try every possible root in the range [i, j]

for r in range(i, j + 1):

c = dp[i][r - 1] + sum(frequencies[i:j + 1]) + dp[r + 1][j]

if r > 0:

c -= frequencies[r]
 dp[i][j] = min(dp[i][j], c)

return dp[0][n - 1]

# Example usage:

keys = [10, 12, 20]

frequencies = [34, 8, 50]

result = optimal_bst(keys, frequencies)

print("Optimal Cost of Binary Search Tree:", result)

```

**Time Complexity:**

The time complexity of the dynamic programming solution for the optimal binary search tree
problem is O(n^3),

where n is the number of keys. This is because there are two nested loops, each running in O(n), and
there is

an additional loop iterating over the length of the subtrees, resulting in O(n^3) overall time
complexity.
Q11. Find an optimal solution for the following Knapsack

problem.

n=4,M=70,w={10,20, 30, 40} , P={20,30,40,50}

page 3
Q12. Explain Greedy Strategy: Principle, control abstraction, time analysis of control abstraction with

suitable example

**Greedy Strategy:**

**Principle:**

The greedy strategy is an algorithmic paradigm that follows the "make the locally optimal choice at
each

stage with the hope of finding a global optimum" approach. In other words, at each step, the
algorithm makes

the best choice based on the current information, without considering the consequences of that
choice on

future steps. The hope is that by consistently making locally optimal choices, the algorithm will reach
a

globally optimal solution.

**Control Abstraction:**

The control abstraction for a greedy algorithm typically involves a loop or recursion that makes a
series of

choices, each time selecting the option that appears most advantageous at that moment without
considering the

overall future consequences. The algorithm incrementally builds the solution by choosing the best
local

option at each step.

```python

def greedy_algorithm(problem):

solution = [] # Initialize an empty solution

while not is_solution_complete(solution):

candidate = select_best_candidate(problem, solution)

solution.append(candidate)
 return solution

```

**Time Analysis of Control Abstraction:**

The time complexity of a greedy algorithm's control abstraction is often determined by the number
of steps it

takes to reach a solution. In many cases, greedy algorithms have linear time complexity, making
them

efficient for large datasets.

**Example: Fractional Knapsack Problem:**

Let's take the Fractional Knapsack Problem as an example of a greedy algorithm. In this problem, we
have a

knapsack with a maximum weight capacity, and we want to fill it with a combination of items to
maximize the

total value.

```python

def fractional_knapsack(values, weights, capacity):

n = len(values)

value_per_weight = [(values[i] / weights[i], weights[i], values[i]) for i in range(n)]

value_per_weight.sort(reverse=True)

total_value = 0

knapsack = []

for i in range(n):

if capacity == 0:

break

ratio, weight, value = value_per_weight[i]

 fraction = min(1, capacity / weight)

total_value += fraction * value

capacity -= fraction * weight

knapsack.append((fraction, weight, value))

return total_value, knapsack

# Example usage:

values = [60, 100, 120]

weights = [10, 20, 30]

capacity = 50

result, selected_items = fractional_knapsack(values, weights, capacity)

print("Total value:", result)

print("Selected items:", selected_items)

```

In this example, the greedy algorithm selects items based on their value-to-weight ratio, filling the

knapsack with fractions of items if needed. The time complexity of this greedy algorithm is O(n log
n),

where n is the number of items, primarily due to the sorting step.

Q13. Explain Dynamic Programming: Principle, control abstraction, time analysis of control
abstraction with

suitable example

**Dynamic Programming:**

**Principle:**

Dynamic Programming (DP) is an optimization technique that solves complex problems by breaking
them down into

simpler overlapping subproblems and solving each subproblem only once, storing the results for
future use.

The key principle of dynamic programming is the "principle of optimality," which states that an
optimal

solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions of its subproblems.

**Control Abstraction:**

The control abstraction in dynamic programming involves solving a problem by breaking it down into
smaller,

overlapping subproblems. Typically, a table or memoization array is used to store the solutions to

subproblems. The control abstraction often includes a loop or recursion that systematically solves
each

subproblem, making sure to avoid redundant computations.

**Time Analysis of Control Abstraction:**

The time complexity of the control abstraction in dynamic programming is determined by the
number of

distinct subproblems that need to be solved. If there are n subproblems, and each subproblem can
be solved

in constant time, then the time complexity is O(n). However, it's crucial to consider whether the
subproblems

are independent or overlapping.

**Example: Fibonacci Sequence using Memoization:**

A classic example to illustrate dynamic programming principles is calculating the nth Fibonacci
number.

Here's a simple example using memoization:

```python

# Memoization dictionary to store solutions to subproblems

memo = {}

def fibonacci(n):

# Base case

if n <= 1:

return n

# Check if the solution is already in the memoization table

if n not in memo:

# If not, calculate it recursively and store the result

memo[n] = fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

# Return the memoized result

return memo[n]

# Example usage:

result = fibonacci(5)

print("Fibonacci(5):", result)

```

In this example, the `fibonacci` function calculates Fibonacci numbers using memoization to avoid

redundant computations. The memoization table (`memo`) stores the solutions to subproblems, and
the time

complexity is greatly reduced compared to the naive recursive approach.

It's important to note that while the Fibonacci example illustrates the concept of memoization,
dynamic

programming is particularly powerful when solving more complex problems with overlapping
subproblems and

optimal substructure.
Q14. Explain the 'dynamic programming approach for solving problems, Write a dynamic
programming algorithm for creating an optimal binary search tree for a set of 'n' keys. Use the same
algorithm to construct the optimal binary search tree for the following 4 keys.

Key

ABCD

Probability

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3

**Dynamic Programming Approach for Optimal Binary Search Tree:**

The dynamic programming approach for constructing an optimal binary search tree involves
breaking down the

problem into smaller subproblems, solving them independently, and then combining the solutions to
obtain the

optimal solution for the original problem. The goal is to minimize the expected search cost,
considering the

probabilities of searching for each key.

**Algorithm for Constructing Optimal Binary Search Tree:**

```python

def optimal_bst(keys, probabilities):

n = len(keys)

# Initialize a table to store optimal solutions

dp = [[0] * n for _ in range(n)]

# Base case: Single keys have the same cost as their probabilities

for i in range(n):
 dp[i][i] = probabilities[i]

# Fill the table for chains of increasing length

for chain_length in range(2, n + 1):

for i in range(n - chain_length + 1):

j = i + chain_length - 1

dp[i][j] = float('inf')

# Try every possible root in the range [i, j]

for r in range(i, j + 1):

c = dp[i][r - 1] + sum(probabilities[i:j + 1]) + dp[r + 1][j]

if r > 0:

c -= probabilities[r]

dp[i][j] = min(dp[i][j], c)

return dp[0][n - 1]

# Example usage:

keys = ["A", "B", "C", "D"]

probabilities = [0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.3]

result = optimal_bst(keys, probabilities)

print("Optimal Cost of Binary Search Tree:", result)

```

In this example, the `optimal_bst` function takes a list of keys and their corresponding probabilities
and

calculates the optimal cost of constructing a binary search tree. The time complexity of this dynamic

programming solution is O(n^3), where n is the number of keys.

**Explanation:**

- The dynamic programming table `dp` is filled based on the recurrence relation, considering the
optimal

solutions to smaller subproblems.

- The final result is stored in `dp[0][n-1]`, representing the optimal cost of constructing the binary
search

tree for the entire set of keys.

- The algorithm minimizes the expected search cost by considering the probabilities of searching for
each key.

You can adapt the code to return additional information, such as the structure of the optimal binary
search

tree or the expected search cost for each key.

Q15. Explain the following terms with reference to greedy technique.

i) Feasible solution and optimal solution.

ii) Control of abstraction

**i) Feasible Solution and Optimal Solution in Greedy Technique:**

- **Feasible Solution:** In the context of the greedy technique, a feasible solution is one that
satisfies

the constraints of the problem. It is a solution that meets all the specified requirements or
conditions

without violating any constraints. In the process of employing a greedy strategy, the algorithm
generates a

sequence of choices, and at each step, it ensures that the chosen option is feasible according to the
problem

constraints. While not necessarily optimal, a feasible solution is a valid solution that adheres to the

problem's specifications.

- **Optimal Solution:** An optimal solution is the best possible solution among all feasible
solutions. It

represents the highest or lowest achievable value, depending on whether the goal is to maximize or
minimize a

certain criterion. In the context of greedy techniques, the algorithm makes locally optimal choices at
each

step, with the hope that these choices will lead to a globally optimal solution. However, it's essential
to

note that a locally optimal choice at each step doesn't guarantee a globally optimal solution.

**ii) Control of Abstraction in Greedy Technique:**

Control of abstraction in the context of greedy techniques refers to the high-level organization and

structure of the algorithm. It involves defining a control structure or control abstraction that dictates
how the algorithm makes decisions and progresses towards a solution. Greedy algorithms often
follow a

specific control abstraction that guides the selection of choices at each step without considering the

consequences on future steps. This abstraction helps in managing the flow of the algorithm and
ensures that

each decision is locally optimal.

For example, a typical control abstraction in greedy algorithms involves a loop or recursion where, at
each

step, the algorithm selects the most advantageous option based on the current information. The
control

abstraction ensures that the algorithm incrementally builds a solution by consistently making locally

optimal choices. The hope is that the accumulation of these locally optimal choices leads to a
globally

optimal or near-optimal solution.

In summary, feasible solutions in the greedy technique are choices that adhere to problem
constraints, while

an optimal solution represents the best possible outcome among all feasible solutions. Control of
abstraction

involves defining the high-level structure of the algorithm, guiding the selection of choices at each
step in

a way that aligns with the greedy strategy.

Q16. What are the general character of branch and bound approach?

The branch and bound approach is a general algorithmic paradigm used for solving optimization
problems,

particularly combinatorial optimization problems. Here are the general characteristics of the branch
and

bound approach:

1. **Exploration of Solution Space:**

- The branch and bound approach explores the solution space systematically by dividing it into
smaller

subproblems.

- It decomposes the original problem into a tree-like structure, where each node represents a
subproblem.

2. **Branching:**

- The algorithm uses branching to create subproblems by dividing the current problem into smaller,

independent parts.

- At each node of the tree, the algorithm makes decisions that lead to the creation of child nodes,

representing the subproblems.

3. **Bounding:**

- The bounding step involves determining bounds on the possible values of the objective function
for each

subproblem.

- These bounds help in pruning the search space by eliminating subproblems that cannot lead to an
optimal

solution.

4. **Pruning:**

- Pruning involves eliminating certain branches or subproblems from further consideration based
on

bounding information.
 - Subproblems that are guaranteed to have suboptimal solutions or cannot contribute to an
optimal solution

are pruned.

5. **Optimal Solution Search:**

- The primary goal is to find the optimal solution to the problem by exploring the solution space
efficiently.

- The algorithm systematically prunes branches of the solution space where optimal solutions
cannot exist.

6. **Exploration Strategy:**

- Branch and bound can use different exploration strategies, such as depth-first search or breadth-
first

search, depending on the nature of the problem.

7. **Memory and Storage:**

- The algorithm may require substantial memory and storage, especially for large problems with an

extensive solution space.

- Pruning and bounding information need to be stored and updated during the exploration.

8. **Heuristics:**

- Heuristics may be employed to guide the exploration and speed up the search process.

- Heuristics help in making decisions about which branches to explore first, improving the
efficiency of

the algorithm.

9. **Termination Criteria:**

- The algorithm terminates when certain criteria are met, such as finding an optimal solution or
exploring

the entire solution space.

10. **Applicability:**
 - The branch and bound approach is applicable to a wide range of combinatorial optimization
problems,

including problems in operations research, scheduling, resource allocation, and more.

Overall, the branch and bound approach is a systematic and versatile algorithmic paradigm used for
finding

optimal solutions to combinatorial optimization problems by exploring and efficiently pruning the
solution

space.
Q17. Explain the fractional knapsack problem with an example.

The fractional knapsack problem is a classic optimization problem in computer science and
mathematics. In this problem, you are given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, and a
knapsack with a maximum weight capacity. The goal is to determine the maximum value of items to
include in the knapsack without exceeding its capacity. Unlike the 0/1 knapsack problem, in the
fractional knapsack problem, you can take fractions of items.

Here's an example to illustrate the fractional knapsack problem:

**Example:**

Let's say you have a knapsack with a weight capacity of 10 units, and you are given the following
items:

1. Item A: Weight = 2 units, Value = 6 units

2. Item B: Weight = 5 units, Value = 10 units

3. Item C: Weight = 8 units, Value = 12 units

4. Item D: Weight = 1 unit, Value = 3 units

The goal is to maximize the total value in the knapsack. We can solve this problem using the
following steps:

1. **Calculate the value-to-weight ratios for each item:**

- Item A: \( \frac{6}{2} = 3 \) units/value

- Item B: \( \frac{10}{5} = 2 \) units/value

- Item C: \( \frac{12}{8} = 1.5 \) units/value

- Item D: \( \frac{3}{1} = 3 \) units/value

2. **Sort the items based on their value-to-weight ratios in descending order:**

- Item A (3 units/value)

- Item D (3 units/value)
 - Item B (2 units/value)

- Item C (1.5 units/value)

3. **Fill the knapsack with items in order until it is full:**

Starting with the highest value-to-weight ratio, fill the knapsack with fractions of items until the
capacity is reached.

- Add all of Item A (2 units) - total value: \(2 \times 3 = 6\) units

- Add all of Item D (1 unit) - total value: \(1 \times 3 = 3\) units

At this point, the knapsack is full (total weight = 3 units), and the total value is \(6 + 3 = 9\) units.

The optimal solution is to take a fraction of both Item A and Item D, resulting in a total value of 9
units with a total weight of 3 units. This approach maximizes the value within the weight capacity
constraints.
Q18. Write and explain an algorithm for greedy design method:

A greedy algorithm is an algorithmic paradigm that follows the problem-solving heuristic of making
the locally optimal choice at each stage with the hope of finding a global optimum. In other words, a
greedy algorithm makes the best possible decision at each step without considering the entire
problem, hoping that this will lead to an optimal solution for the whole problem.

Here is a general outline of a greedy algorithm:

1. **Define the Problem:**

Clearly, define the problem and identify the objective or goal.

2. **Identify Subproblems:**

Break the problem into smaller subproblems. Each step of the algorithm should contribute to
solving one of these subproblems.

3. **Define a Greedy Criterion:**

Determine the criterion for making a locally optimal choice at each step. This criterion should lead
to the best immediate solution without considering the overall problem.

4. **Make Greedy Choice:**

At each step, make the choice that appears to be the best according to the greedy criterion.

5. **Reduce to Subproblem:**

Simplify the problem by removing the chosen elements or reducing it in some way. This turns the
problem into a smaller instance of the same problem or a related subproblem.

6. **Repeat:**

Repeat steps 3-5 until the entire problem is solved.

7. **Solution Construction:**

Construct the final solution from the locally optimal choices made at each step.

Let's illustrate this with a classic example:

**Greedy Algorithm: Coin Change Problem**

**Problem:**

Given a set of coin denominations and a target amount, find the minimum number of coins needed
to make up that amount.

**Greedy Criterion:**

At each step, choose the largest possible coin that does not exceed the remaining amount.

**Algorithm:**

1. Sort the coin denominations in descending order.

2. Initialize a variable to keep track of the total number of coins used.

3. For each coin denomination in the sorted list:

- While the current coin denomination does not exceed the remaining amount:

- Add the coin to the solution.

- Subtract the coin value from the remaining amount.

- Increment the total number of coins.

4. Return the total number of coins as the result.

**Example:**

Coin denominations: [25, 10, 5, 1]

Target amount: 63

**Execution:**

- Choose a 25-coin: Remaining amount = 38, total coins = 1

- Choose a 25-coin: Remaining amount = 13, total coins = 2

- Choose a 10-coin: Remaining amount = 3, total coins = 3

- Choose a 1-coin: Remaining amount = 2, total coins = 4

- Choose a 1-coin: Remaining amount = 1, total coins = 5

- Choose a 1-coin: Remaining amount = 0, total coins = 6

**Result:**

The minimum number of coins needed to make up 63 is 6 (25 + 25 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1).

Q19. Write control abstraction for greedy strategy

In computer science, control abstraction refers to the process of abstracting or isolating control
structures in a program, allowing the programmer to focus on high-level design without worrying
about the details of control flow. Here's a control abstraction for a generic greedy strategy, written
in a pseudo-code style:

```plaintext

Control Abstraction: GreedyStrategy

Input:

- A problem instance P

- Greedy criterion function G

- Solution construction function C

Output:

- A solution to problem P

Procedure:

1. Initialize an empty solution S.

2. While the problem P is not completely solved:

a. Select the next feasible candidate solution according to the greedy criterion G.

b. Update the solution S using the selected candidate with the construction function C.

3. Return the final solution S.

```

Explanation:

- **P:** Represents the problem instance that needs to be solved using a greedy strategy.

- **G:** Represents the greedy criterion function, which determines the locally optimal choice at
each step.
- **C:** Represents the solution construction function, responsible for updating the current solution
based on the selected candidate.

The control abstraction outlines the general steps involved in applying a greedy strategy to solve a
problem. The specific details of the greedy criterion and solution construction are left abstract,
allowing for flexibility in applying this strategy to various problems.

When implementing this control abstraction for a specific problem, you would define the problem
instance, the greedy criterion function, and the solution construction function according to the
characteristics of the problem at hand. This abstraction helps to modularize the design, making it
easier to understand and maintain.
Q20. Name the elements of dynamic programming ? How does the dynamic programming solve the
problem ? Dynamic programming is a powerful optimization technique used in computer science
and mathematics to solve problems by breaking them down into simpler subproblems and solving
each subproblem only once, storing the solutions to subproblems in a table to avoid redundant
computations. The core elements of dynamic programming include:

1. **Optimal Substructure:**

- The optimal solution to the overall problem can be constructed from the optimal solutions of its
subproblems.

- Essentially, the problem can be broken down into smaller, overlapping subproblems, and the
solution to the larger problem can be built from solutions to the smaller subproblems.

2. **Overlapping Subproblems:**

- The problem can be decomposed into subproblems that are reused several times.

- When solving the larger problem, the same subproblems are encountered multiple times.

3. **Memoization (or Tabulation):**

- Dynamic programming involves storing the solutions to subproblems in a data structure (either a
table or a memoization cache) so that they can be looked up and reused when needed.

- This helps avoid redundant computations and improves the overall efficiency of the algorithm.

4. **Recursive Formulation:**

- Problems are often solved using recursive relations or recurrence relations.

- The solution to a problem is expressed in terms of solutions to smaller instances of the same
problem.

**How Dynamic Programming Solves Problems:**

The process of solving a problem using dynamic programming generally involves the following steps:

1. **Formulate the Problem:**

- Clearly define the problem and express it in terms of smaller subproblems.

2. **Define the Recursive Relation:**

 - Express the solution to the problem in terms of solutions to its subproblems.

- This is often done using a recursive relation or recurrence relation.

3. **Identify Overlapping Subproblems:**

- Recognize which subproblems are solved multiple times during the solution process.

4. **Choose a Memoization (or Tabulation) Approach:**

- Decide whether to use a top-down approach (memoization) or a bottom-up approach

(tabulation) to store and reuse solutions to subproblems.

5. **Implement the Algorithm:**

- Write code to solve the problem, making use of the memoization table or tabulation table to
store and retrieve solutions to subproblems.

6. **Handle Base Cases:**

- Clearly define the base cases that represent the smallest subproblems and provide direct
solutions to them.

7. **Optimize and Analyze:**

- Analyze the time and space complexity of the algorithm to ensure efficiency.

- Optimize the algorithm if necessary, considering factors such as space and time constraints.

Dynamic programming is particularly effective for problems that exhibit both optimal substructure
and overlapping subproblems. It is widely used in a variety of applications, including optimization
problems, sequence alignment, and pathfinding, among others.
Q21. Comparison of greedy approach and dynamic programming.
Q22. Write an algorithm for finding minimum cost binary searchtree sing dynamic programming
strategy. Show that the computingtime of this algorithm is O (n2)

OR Write an algorithm for optimum binary search tree

Q23. What are the characteristics of greedy method?

The greedy method is a problem-solving strategy that involves making the locally optimal choice at
each stage with the hope of finding a global optimum. In other words, a greedy algorithm makes the
best possible decision at each step without considering the consequences of that decision on future
steps. Here are some characteristics of greedy methods:

1. **Greedy Choice Property:**

- At each step, the algorithm makes the choice that seems best at that particular moment.

- It doesn't reconsider the decision made at previous steps.

2. **Optimal Substructure:**

- A problem exhibits optimal substructure if an optimal solution to the overall problem can be
constructed from optimal solutions of its subproblems.

- Greedy algorithms often rely on optimal substructure to make the locally optimal choices lead to
a globally optimal solution.

3. **Irreversibility:**

- Once a decision is made, it is never reconsidered.

- Greedy algorithms are generally not concerned with undoing decisions made earlier, even if it
might lead to a better solution.

4. **Greedy Choice Criteria:**

- The algorithm needs a criterion to make decisions at each step. This criterion is usually based on a
specific property or value related to the problem.

5. **May or May Not Produce Optimal Solution:**

- Greedy algorithms don't always guarantee an optimal solution for every problem.

- The greedy approach is more likely to work when a problem has the greedy-choice property and
optimal substructure.

6. **Efficiency:**

- Greedy algorithms are often efficient in terms of time complexity because they make local
decisions without considering the entire solution space.
7. **Example Problems:**

- Greedy algorithms are commonly used for problems like the minimum spanning tree, Huffman
coding, activity selection, and fractional knapsack.

8. **No Backtracking:**

- Unlike backtracking algorithms, which may undo choices to explore other paths, greedy
algorithms do not backtrack.

It's important to note that while greedy algorithms are simple and computationally efficient, they
may not always provide the globally optimal solution. The choice of the greedy criterion is crucial,
and the method's success depends on the problem at hand.
Q24. Consider the following instances of the knapsack problem: n = 3, m = 20, (P1,P2,P3) =
(24,25,15) and (W1, W2,W3) = (18,15,20) find the feasible solutions
Q25.
st
Q26.

Explain general strategy of greedy method with the help of its control abstraction for the subset
paradigm. Write an algorithm which uses this strategy for solving the knapsack problem

Certainly! The general strategy of the greedy method with the control abstraction for the subset
paradigm involves defining functions that guide the selection of elements to form a subset. For the
knapsack problem, the selection function would choose items based on a specific criterion (e.g.,
value-to-weight ratio), and the feasibility function would check if adding an item violates any
constraints (e.g., exceeding the knapsack capacity). Here's a breakdown of the control abstraction
and an algorithm for the knapsack problem:

### Greedy Subset Paradigm Control Abstraction:

1. **Selection Function (`select`):**

- Determine the criterion for selecting the best element to add to the current solution. For the
knapsack problem, this could be based on the value-to-weight ratio.

2. **Feasibility Function (`is_feasible`):**

- Check if adding the selected element to the current solution violates any constraints. For the
knapsack problem, this involves verifying that the total weight does not exceed the knapsack
capacity.

3. **Objective Function (`evaluate`):**

- Define an objective function to evaluate the overall goodness of the solution. This could be the
total value of selected items.

4. **Greedy Algorithm (`greedy_algorithm`):**

- Initialize an empty solution.

- While the solution is not complete:

- Use the selection function to choose the best element.

- Check feasibility with the feasibility function.

- If feasible, add the selected element to the solution.

- Update the current solution.

- Return the final solution.

### Knapsack Problem Greedy Algorithm:

```python

def select(value_weights):

# Selection Function: Choose items with the highest value-to-weight ratio

return max(value_weights, key=lambda x: x[0] / x[1])

def is_feasible(current_weight, capacity):

# Feasibility Function: Check if adding the item violates the capacity constraint

return current_weight <= capacity

def evaluate(selected_items, values):

# Objective Function: Evaluate the total value of the selected items

return sum(values[i] for i in selected_items)

def greedy_algorithm(values, weights, capacity):

n = len(values)

value_weights = [(values[i], weights[i], i) for i in range(n)]

selected_items = []

current_weight = 0

while len(selected_items) < n:

# Selection

item = select([(v, w) for v, w, _ in value_weights if _ not in selected_items])

index = item[2]

# Feasibility

if is_feasible(current_weight + weights[index], capacity):

selected_items.append(index)

current_weight += weights[index]
 total_value = evaluate(selected_items, values)

return selected_items, total_value, current_weight

# Example usage:

values = [24, 25, 15]

weights = [18, 15, 20]

capacity = 20

selected_items, total_value, total_weight = greedy_algorithm(values, weights, capacity)

print("Selected items:", selected_items)

print("Total value:", total_value)

print("Total weight:", total_weight)

```

In this example, the `select` function chooses items based on the highest value-to-weight ratio. The
`is_feasible` function checks whether adding an item violates the knapsack capacity. The `evaluate`
function calculates the total value of the selected items. The `greedy_algorithm` function uses these
functions to construct a locally optimal solution to the knapsack problem.
Q27. What is dynamic programming? Is this the optimization technique? Give reasons. What are its
drawbacks? Explain memory functions

**Dynamic Programming:**

Dynamic Programming (DP) is a technique in computer science and mathematics for solving
optimization problems. It is a method for efficiently solving a broad range of search and optimization
problems which exhibit the property of overlapping subproblems and optimal substructure. Dynamic
Programming involves breaking down a problem into smaller, overlapping subproblems and solving
each subproblem only once, storing the solutions to subproblems in a table to avoid redundant
computations. The solutions to the subproblems are then used to build up solutions to larger
subproblems until the original problem is solved.

**Key Characteristics of Dynamic Programming:**

1. **Overlapping Subproblems:** The problem can be broken down into smaller, overlapping
subproblems.

2. **Optimal Substructure:** An optimal solution to the problem can be constructed from optimal
solutions of its subproblems.

**Is Dynamic Programming an Optimization Technique?**

Yes, dynamic programming is often used for optimization problems. The goal is to find the best
solution from a set of feasible solutions. By storing and reusing solutions to overlapping
subproblems, dynamic programming avoids redundant computations, leading to more efficient
solutions.

**Reasons Dynamic Programming is Used for Optimization:**

1. **Optimal Substructure:** Dynamic programming is particularly effective when the problem

exhibits optimal substructure, allowing the optimal solution to the overall problem to be constructed
from optimal solutions of its subproblems.

2. **Memoization:** The technique of memoization, where solutions to subproblems are stored for
reuse, helps avoid recomputation and significantly improves the efficiency of the algorithm.

**Drawbacks of Dynamic Programming:**

1. **High Memory Requirements:** Dynamic programming algorithms often require the storage of
solutions to subproblems in a table. This can result in high memory requirements, especially for
problems with large input sizes.
2. **Computational Complexity:** While dynamic programming can provide efficient solutions, the
time complexity can still be high for some problems, and finding an optimal solution may not always
be feasible for very large instances.

3. **Difficulty in Formulation:** Identifying and formulating a problem to be suitable for dynamic

programming can be challenging. Not all problems naturally lend themselves to this approach.

**Memory Functions in Dynamic Programming:**

Memory functions, also known as memoization tables, are used to store the solutions to
subproblems in dynamic programming. They are crucial for avoiding redundant computations. The
memory function is typically implemented as a table or an array, and each entry corresponds to the
solution of a specific subproblem. When a subproblem is encountered, its solution is computed and
stored in the table. If the same subproblem is encountered again, the precomputed solution is
retrieved from the table rather than recomputing it.

The memory function helps in trading off computation time for memory space, making dynamic
programming algorithms more efficient by eliminating duplicate work.
Q28. What are the common step in the dynamic programming to solve any problem?

The dynamic programming approach involves breaking down a problem into smaller, overlapping
subproblems and solving each subproblem only once, storing the solutions to subproblems in a table
for reuse. The common steps in dynamic programming to solve a problem are as follows:

1. **Characterize the Structure of an Optimal Solution:**

- Understand and define the structure of an optimal solution to the problem. Identify how an
optimal solution can be constructed from the optimal solutions of its subproblems.

2. **Define the Recursive Nature of the Problem:**

- Express the problem recursively in terms of smaller subproblems. Identify the recurrence relation
that relates a larger instance of the problem to its smaller subproblems.

3. **Formulate a Recursive Algorithm:**

- Formulate a recursive algorithm based on the recurrence relation. This algorithm will involve
solving the same subproblems multiple times, leading to redundancy.

4. **Memoization:**

- Introduce memoization to avoid redundant computations. Create a table or an array

(memoization table) to store the solutions to subproblems. Before solving a subproblem, check if its
solution is already in the table. If yes, use the stored solution; otherwise, compute and store the
solution.

5. **Bottom-Up Approach (Optional):**

- Convert the recursive algorithm to an iterative, bottom-up approach. Start solving the smallest
subproblems first and use their solutions to build up solutions to larger subproblems iteratively.

6. **Define the Base Cases:**

- Clearly define the base cases, which are the smallest subproblems that can be solved directly
without further recursion. Base cases serve as the termination criteria for the recursive algorithm.

7. **Build the Optimal Solution:**

 - Once the memoization table is filled, use it to reconstruct the optimal solution to the original
problem. Start from the base cases and use the solutions stored in the table to build up the solution
iteratively.

8. **Time and Space Complexity Analysis:**

- Analyze the time and space complexity of the dynamic programming algorithm. Evaluate how the
memoization table and recursion contribute to the overall efficiency of the solution.

9. **Optimize Space (Optional):**

- In some cases, you may optimize space usage by realizing that you only need solutions to a
certain number of recent subproblems. Instead of storing solutions for all subproblems, maintain a
rolling window of relevant solutions.

10. **Implement and Test:**

- Implement the dynamic programming algorithm based on the finalized approach. Test the
algorithm with different inputs to ensure correctness and efficiency.

These steps provide a systematic process for applying dynamic programming to various problems.
It's important to adapt these steps to the specific characteristics of the problem at hand and
carefully design the recurrence relation and memoization table for optimal performance.
Q29. Write an algorithm for finding minimum cost binary search tree sing dynamic programming
strategy. Show that the computing time of this algorithm is O(n2)

The algorithm for finding the minimum cost binary search tree (BST) using dynamic programming is
commonly known as the "Optimal Binary Search Tree" algorithm. This algorithm aims to construct a
binary search tree with the minimum expected search cost for a given set of keys and their
probabilities. Below is an algorithmic description of this process:

```python

def optimal_bst(keys, frequencies):

n = len(keys)

# Initialize cost and root tables

cost = [[0] * (n + 1) for _ in range(n + 1)]

root = [[0] * n for _ in range(n)]

# Initialize diagonal elements of the cost table with frequencies

for i in range(n):

cost[i][i + 1] = frequencies[i]

root[i][i] = i

# Dynamic programming to fill the tables

for length in range(2, n + 1):

for i in range(n - length + 2):

j = i + length - 1

cost[i][j] = float('inf')

for r in range(i, j):

c = cost[i][r] + cost[r + 1][j] + sum(frequencies[i:j])

if c < cost[i][j]:

cost[i][j] = c

root[i][j - 1] = r

return cost, root

# Function to print the constructed optimal BST

def print_optimal_bst(keys, root, i, j, level=0):

if i <= j:

r = root[i][j - 1]

if level == 0:

print(f"Root: {keys[r]}")

else:

print(f"Level {level} - Left of {keys[root[i][j - 1]]}: {keys[r]}")

print_optimal_bst(keys, root, i, r, level + 1)

print_optimal_bst(keys, root, r + 1, j, level + 1)

# Example usage:

keys = [10, 12, 20]

frequencies = [34, 8, 50]

cost_table, root_table = optimal_bst(keys, frequencies)

print("Cost Table:")

for row in cost_table:

print(row)

print("\nRoot Table:")

for row in root_table:

print(row)

print("\nOptimal Binary Search Tree:")

print_optimal_bst(keys, root_table, 0, len(keys) - 1)

```
This algorithm uses a dynamic programming approach to fill the `cost` table, which represents the
minimum cost of constructing a binary search tree for each subarray of keys. The `root` table is used
to keep track of the roots of optimal subtrees. The `print_optimal_bst` function is then used to print
the constructed optimal BST.

Now, let's discuss the time complexity:

The dynamic programming algorithm has a nested loop structure where each cell in the `cost` table
is computed by considering all possible roots for subtrees. The time complexity is O(n^2), where n is
the number of keys. This is because the outer loop runs for n iterations, and for each iteration, the
inner loop has a maximum of n iterations. Therefore, the overall time complexity is O(n^2).
Q30. What is memory function? Explain why it is advantageous to use memory functions

A memory function, also known as memoization, is a technique used in dynamic programming to

optimize the efficiency of algorithms by storing and reusing solutions to previously solved
subproblems. In dynamic programming, problems are often decomposed into smaller overlapping
subproblems, and solving these subproblems can be a computationally expensive task. Memoization
involves caching the solutions to subproblems in a data structure (usually a table or an array) so that
if the same subproblem is encountered again, the precomputed solution can be retrieved instead of
recomputing it.

**Advantages of Using Memory Functions (Memoization):**

1. **Avoidance of Redundant Computations:**

- One of the primary advantages of using memory functions is the avoidance of redundant
computations. By storing solutions to subproblems, the algorithm can quickly retrieve and reuse
these solutions when encountering the same subproblem multiple times. This can lead to significant
time savings, especially in recursive algorithms with overlapping subproblems.

2. **Improved Time Complexity:**

- Memoization helps improve the time complexity of algorithms, making them more efficient.
Instead of repeatedly solving the same subproblems, the algorithm leverages the stored solutions,
resulting in a faster overall execution time.

3. **Optimal Substructure Utilization:**

- Dynamic programming relies on the optimal substructure property, where the optimal solution to
the overall problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to its subproblems. Memoization
ensures that the optimal solutions to subproblems are readily available, allowing for efficient
construction of the global optimum.

4. **Space-Time Tradeoff:**

- While memoization introduces some additional space complexity to store the solutions, it often
results in a favorable space-time tradeoff. The increased space usage is justified by the reduction in
redundant computations, leading to a more efficient overall algorithm.

5. **Simplified Recursive Algorithms:**

- Memoization simplifies the implementation of recursive algorithms by handling the bookkeeping

of solutions to subproblems. This can lead to cleaner and more understandable code, as the
algorithm does not need to explicitly manage the storage and retrieval of intermediate results.
6. **Applicability to Various Problems:**

- Memoization is a versatile technique that can be applied to a wide range of problems, including
optimization problems, search problems, and other scenarios where subproblems are solved
repeatedly.

In summary, memory functions, through memoization, play a crucial role in dynamic programming
by reducing redundant computations, improving time complexity, and facilitating the efficient
construction of optimal solutions. While there is an additional space overhead, the tradeoff often
results in a net gain in terms of algorithmic efficiency.
Q31. Write an algorithm for 0/1 knapsack problem using dynamic programming approach

The 0/1 Knapsack Problem is a classic optimization problem where the goal is to maximize the total
value of items selected, subject to a constraint on the total weight of those items. Here's an
algorithm for solving the 0/1 Knapsack Problem using dynamic programming:

```python

def knapsack_dynamic_programming(values, weights, capacity):

n = len(values)

# Initialize a 2D table to store solutions to subproblems

# The table is initialized with zeros.

table = [[0] * (capacity + 1) for _ in range(n + 1)]

# Build the table in a bottom-up manner

for i in range(1, n + 1):

for w in range(capacity + 1):

# If the current item's weight is greater than the current capacity,

# we cannot include it in the knapsack, so the value is the same as

# without considering this item.

if weights[i - 1] > w:

table[i][w] = table[i - 1][w]

else:

# Decide whether to include the current item or not

# Maximize the value by choosing the optimal solution

table[i][w] = max(table[i - 1][w], values[i - 1] + table[i - 1][w - weights[i - 1]])

# Backtrack to find the selected items

selected_items = []

i, j = n, capacity

while i > 0 and j > 0:

if table[i][j] != table[i - 1][j]:

selected_items.append(i - 1)
 j -= weights[i - 1]

i -= 1

# Return the maximum value and the indices of selected items

return table[n][capacity], selected_items

# Example usage:

values = [60, 100, 120]

weights = [10, 20, 30]

capacity = 50

max_value, selected_items = knapsack_dynamic_programming(values, weights, capacity)

print("Maximum value:", max_value)

print("Selected items:", selected_items)

```

This algorithm uses a bottom-up dynamic programming approach to fill a table (`table`) where
`table[i][w]` represents the maximum value that can be obtained with the first `i` items and a
knapsack capacity of `w`. The final result is found in `table[n][capacity]`, where `n` is the number of
items.

The algorithm also includes a backtrack step to determine which items were selected to achieve the
optimal solution. The selected items are stored in the list `selected_items`. The time complexity of
this dynamic programming solution is O(n * capacity), where `n` is the number of items and
`capacity` is the knapsack capacity.
Q32. What is dynamic programming? Define principle of optimality and explain it for 0/1 knapsack

**Dynamic Programming:**

Dynamic Programming is a powerful optimization technique used to solve problems by breaking

them down into simpler overlapping subproblems and solving each subproblem only once, storing
the solutions to subproblems in a table for future use. The key idea is to avoid redundant
computations by memoizing (storing) intermediate results, leading to more efficient solutions for
problems with overlapping substructures and optimal substructure properties.

**Principle of Optimality:**

The Principle of Optimality is a fundamental concept associated with dynamic programming. It states
that an optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions of its subproblems.
In other words, if a problem can be divided into smaller subproblems, and we know the optimal
solution to each subproblem, then we can construct the optimal solution to the original problem.

**Application to 0/1 Knapsack Problem:**

The 0/1 Knapsack Problem is a classic optimization problem where the goal is to select a subset of
items with given weights and values to maximize the total value while staying within a given weight
capacity. The Principle of Optimality is applied to the 0/1 Knapsack Problem in the following way:

1. **Optimal Substructure:**

- The 0/1 Knapsack Problem exhibits optimal substructure, meaning that the optimal solution to
the entire problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to its subproblems.

2. **Recurrence Relation:**

- Define a recurrence relation that expresses the optimal value of the knapsack problem in terms of
the optimal values of subproblems. Let \(C[i][w]\) represent the optimal value for considering the
first \(i\) items and having a knapsack capacity of \(w\). The recurrence relation is often of the form:

\[C[i][w] = \max(C[i-1][w], \text{{value}}[i] + C[i-1][w-\text{{weight}}[i]])\]

- This recurrence relation considers the decision of whether to include the \(i\)-th item in the
knapsack.

3. **Principle of Optimality for 0/1 Knapsack:**

- The principle states that the optimal solution to the 0/1 Knapsack Problem can be found by
considering the optimal solutions to subproblems. Specifically, the optimal solution to \(C[i][w]\) can
be constructed from the optimal solutions to \(C[i-1][w]\) and \(C[i-1][w-\text{{weight}}[i]]\).
4. **Constructing the Optimal Solution:**

- After filling the dynamic programming table using the recurrence relation, the optimal solution
can be reconstructed by backtracking through the table. Starting from the bottom-right corner, trace
the decisions that led to the optimal value.

In summary, the Principle of Optimality for the 0/1 Knapsack Problem is a key concept that guides
the dynamic programming approach by expressing the optimality of the entire problem in terms of
the optimality of its subproblems.