COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

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MODULE 1

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO COMPUT

CO – Students will be able to summarize the network models and its performance

NETWORK
k is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology.
e said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
ed not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites ca
many sizes, shapes and forms.
a single network but a network of networks and the Web is a distributed system that runs on t

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Uses of Computer Networks

1. Business Applications
resource sharing - a group of office workers share a common printer
Client-server model - two processes are involved, one on the client machine and
Communication takes the form of the client process sending a message over the

Half-Duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
Eg: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.

Full-Duplex
Data
BothFlow
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
Communication
Signals going between two devices can be simplex,
of thehalf-duplex, and full-duplex
This sharing caninoccur
one direction share the
in two ways: capacity link.
Simplex
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
Communication is unidirectional.
Or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directio
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Eg: telephone network.
Eg : Keyboards and traditional monitors.
The full-duplexmodeisusedwhencommunicationinboth directions is required all th
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in on
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directio

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 mobile computing
4. Social Issues
COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1
new social, ethical, and political problems.
anonymous (unknown) messages.

NETWORK HARDWARE
Two criterion for classifying networks are
Transmission technology
Scale
There are two types of transmission technology
A. Broadcast links
networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the ne
Short messages, called packets, sent by any machine are received by all the others.

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An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receivin
If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that machine processes the p
Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to a
When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by ever

Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines,

One possible scheme is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting. The remaining
B. Point-to-point links
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establ

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1. Local Area Networks (LAN)

Privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilome
They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company
LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
size
Their transmission technology
Their topology.

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DISADVANTAGE
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the n
EXAMPLE - connection of telephone regional offices

STAR TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a centr
The devices are not directly linked to one another
The controller (hub) acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to ano

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DISADVANTAGE
Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
Difficult to add new devices.
A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
Eg : Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology.
RING TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reac

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2.Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.
Example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities
Another example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that
3.Wide area network (WAN)
A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a count
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router th
The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV pr
This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

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NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Protocol Hierarchies:
• To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a
stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each
layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to
network.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher
layers, shielding those layers from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented.
• Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to
the layer above it.

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Layer N on one machine carries on a conversation with layer N on another machine

Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how c
In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer N on one machine to layer N o
Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately be
Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.

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A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given t

Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes
In some layers, headers can also contain sizes, times, and other control fields.
Layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets, prepend

Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and gives the resu
At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with he

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Design Issues for the Layers

Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. some form o
The rules for data transfer- In some systems, data only travel in one direction; in o
Error control is an important issue because physical communication circuits are no
way of telling the sender which messages have been correctly received and which

ent on them. To deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provis
m avoiding a slow receiver with data.
ty of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to mechanisms for di
route must be chosen. Sometimes this decision must be split over two or more layers (Routing)

A packet is logically connected to the packet traveling before it and to the packet t
Mr. Sunil J, Dept.
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all CIT Gubbi of a message have been delivered, the connection
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is terminated.
Connectionless Service
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Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines w
Syntax - The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning th
Semantics - The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits
Timing - The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent a

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

LISTEN is usually implemented by a block system call - the server process is blocked
CONNECT is usually implemented by a connection request to a server
The CONNECT call may need to specify the server’s address
The operating system then typically sends a packet to the peer asking it to connect
The client process is suspended until there is a response.
When the packet arrives at the server, the operating system sees that the packet is re
It checks to see if there is a listener
If so it unblocks the listener (wake-up call)
The server process may accept the connection with the ACCEPT call
This sends a response back to the client process to accept the connection.

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Next step: RECEIVE

The server prepares to accept the first client request
The RECEIVE call blocks the server
Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request (data or action) followed by the execution of R
The arrival of the request packet at the server machine unblocks the server so it can handle the requ
After it has done the work, the server uses SEND to return the answer to the client
The arrival of this packet unblocks the client, which can now inspect the answer. If the client has add
When the client is done, it executes DISCONNECT to terminate the connection. Usually, a DISCON

Fig:A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams.

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The Relationship of services to protocols:

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OSI REFERENCE MODEL

ends data from one location to another.
s signals from one point of the network to another. The software consists of instruction sets tha
work systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems

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PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication chan
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node
Other Responsibilities :
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium – defines the characteristics of th

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Representation of bits - To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals (electri

Data rate (The transmission rate) - the number of bits sent each second is also defi
Synchronization of bits - the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration - The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices

Physical topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to m
Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission be
In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The sim
In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same ti
In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the sa

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DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the ne
Other responsibilities :
Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the ne

Flow control - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
Error control - The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding me
Access control - When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data lin

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NETWORK LAYER
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the so
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a netw
If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devi
Other Responsibilities :

Logical addressing - The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer ha
Routing - When independent networks or links are connected to create internetwo

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TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire me
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process
Other responsibilities
1. Service-point addressing - delivery of message not only from one computer to t

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TheThe network
network layer
layer gets
gets each
each packet
packet to to
thethe correct
correct computer;
computer; thethe transport layer
2. Segmentation
transport layer getsand
the reassembly - A message
entire message is divided
to the correct intoon
process transmittable segme
that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly - A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemblethe
reassemble message upon
the message correctly correctlyuponarrivingatthe
arriving at the
destination.
destination.
3. Connection
Connection control
control- The
- transport layer can
The transport be either
layer can be either
connectionless
connectionlessor or
connection
connectionoriented.
oriented.
4. Flow control - The transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link

5. Error control - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the recei
Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

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SESSION LAYER
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities :
Dialog control - The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allow
Synchronization - The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchr

PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the informati
Specific responsibilities :
1. Translation - Because different computers use different encoding systems, the p

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Encryption - To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure priva

Compression - Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the inf

APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote fi
Other Responsibilities:
1. Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) - A network virtual terminal is a software version

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File transfer, access, and management - This application allows a user to access fil
Mail services - This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storag
Directory services - This application provides distributed database sources and acc

TCP/IP Reference Model

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
Host-to-network
Internet
Transport
Application

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Host-to-network
At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
Internet Layer
TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.
IP uses four supporting protocols:
ARP
RARP
ICMP
IGMP

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Internetworking Protocol (IP)

IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol.
IP provides no error checking or tracking.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported s
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or b
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.
In LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address, usually
ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet addres
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
RARP allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physica
It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a

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Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP isamechanismusedbyhostsandgateways to send notification of datagram p
ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group

Transport Layer
Transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP
and UDP.
IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one phys
UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message fr
A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some
Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation
Many protocols are defined at this layer – FTP, DNS, TELNET, SMTP etc.

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP is a reliable transport protocol.
TCP is connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both end
TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, and an ac

Merits of TCP/IP model:

• It operated independently.
• It is scalable.
• Client/server architecture.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP:
• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• The model cannot be used in any other application.
• Replacing protocol is not easy.
• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

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A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model:

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A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols:

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CHAPTER-2: PHYSICAL LAYER

One major task of Physical Layer is to provide services for the data link layer.
a link layer consists of 0s and 1s organized into frames that are ready to be sent across the tra
This stream of 0s and 1s must first be converted into signals.
f the services provided by the physical layer is to create a signal that represents this stream
The transmission medium must be controlled by the physical layer.

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At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet. It i

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 COMPUTERFor example,
NETWORKS an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second
(21CS52) hands gives inform
Module-1
digital data refers to information that has discrete states. a digital clock that repor

NETWORK PERFORMANCE
1. Bandwidth
Bandwidthisthedatacarryingcapacityof
the
Network/transmission medium. Bandwidth is usually measured in
bits transferred per second (bps) through a path or link.
bandwidth in hertz
It is the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range of frequencies th
bandwidth in bits per second
It is the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

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2.Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a netw
Practical measure of the amount of data actually transmitted through a channel.
It depends on the latency.
3.Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing dela

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
sion medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to

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Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plas
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
Noise and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
In one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the n
Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influen

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twi
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the secon
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable

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Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of lig
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propaga
Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index.

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Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidt
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-
Advantages:
Higher bandwidth.
Less signal attenuation.
Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
Resistance to corrosive materials.

Light weight.
Greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages:
Installation and maintenance
Unidirectional light propagation
Cost.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA (WIRELESS)

hout using a physical conductor.
eless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available
tion in several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of- sight propagation

Ground propagation:
Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the ea
These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting anten
Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power,
Sky propagation:
Higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of at

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This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

Line-of-sight propagation:
Very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna
Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough or close en
Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be complete

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Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are norma
Radio waves are omnidirectional and use omnidirectional antennas.
When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. Thi
A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
Radio waves that propagate in the sky mode can travel long distances. This makes

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Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micr
Microwaves are unidirectional.
The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
Characteristics of microwave propagation:
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight
Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz
Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities

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Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 m
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
Infrared signals useless for long-range communication.
We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain in
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for using these sign

RJ 45 Connector network interface card (NIC)

Router

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PHYSICAL LAYER DEVICES

twork before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the
that they do not amplify the signal.
nal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength.

2. Hub
A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the c
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
Transmission mode is half duplex.
Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets w

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Types of Hub:
Active Hub
These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean, boost, a
Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before broadc
Passive Hub
These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the acti
Can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

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