LSAT

LOGICAL
REASONING
BIBLE
A Comprehensive System for Attacking the
Logical Reasoning Section of the LSAT
Copyright © 2002-2018 by PowerScore Incorporated.

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Author: David M. Killoran

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 Contents
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
Additional Resources ..................................................................................................................... 4
A Brief Overview of the LSAT ........................................................................................................ 6
The Logical Reasoning Section ................................................................................................ 6
The Analytical Reasoning Section ............................................................................................ 7
The Reading Comprehension Section ...................................................................................... 7
The Experimental Section ......................................................................................................... 7
The Writing Sample................................................................................................................... 7
The LSAT Scoring Scale ................................................................................................................ 8
The LSAT Percentile Table ............................................................................................................ 9
The Use of the LSAT.................................................................................................................... 10

Chapter Two: The Basics of Logical Reasoning

The Logical Reasoning Section ................................................................................................... 13
The Section Directions ............................................................................................................ 13
The Parts of a Logical Reasoning Question ........................................................................... 15
Approaching the Questions—What To Read First? ................................................................ 15
Analyzing the Stimulus................................................................................................................. 17
The Range of Stimulus Topics—Including Science ................................................................ 18
.................................................................................................................. 19
LSAT Vocabulary..................................................................................................................... 21
Arguments versus Fact Sets ................................................................................................... 23
Identifying Premises and Conclusions .................................................................................... 24
One Confusing Indicator Form ................................................................................................ 27
Premise and Conclusion Recognition Mini-Drill ...................................................................... 28
Additional Premise Indicators ................................................................................................. 32
Counter-Premise Indicators .................................................................................................... 33
Additional Premise and Counter-Premise Recognition Mini-Drill ............................................ 35
Recognizing Conclusions Without Indicators .......................................................................... 38
Complex Arguments..................................................................................................................... 40
A Commonly Used Construction ............................................................................................. 43
Decoding Text .............................................................................................................................. 45
Killer Sentences ...................................................................................................................... 45
.............................................. 45
Reference Words .................................................................................................................... 50
Reference Substitution ............................................................................................................ 52

the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible i

Understanding the Stimulus ......................................................................................................... 53
Truth versus Validity ................................................................................................................ 53
Argument Analysis .................................................................................................................. 53
Inferences and Assumptions ................................................................................................... 55
The Mind of an LSAT Author ................................................................................................... 56
Read the Fine Print ................................................................................................................. 57
Tracking Indicators and Concepts........................................................................................... 58
Scope ...................................................................................................................................... 59
Notating Arguments ................................................................................................................ 59
Summarizing Arguments ......................................................................................................... 61
Fluidity of Analysis and Concept Application........................................................................... 61
Final Chapter Note ....................................................................................................................... 62
Premise and Conclusion Analysis Drill .................................................................................... 63

Chapter Three: The Question Stem and Answer Choices

The Question Stem ...................................................................................................................... 77
Analyzing the Question Stem .................................................................................................. 78
The Thirteen Logical Reasoning Question Types ................................................................... 79
Question Type Notes............................................................................................................... 88
Question Type Variety ............................................................................................................. 89
Question Stem Wording Variations ......................................................................................... 90
Double-Question LSAT Logical Reasoning Stimuli ................................................................. 91
“Most” in Question Stems ....................................................................................................... 92
Identify the Question Stem Drill .............................................................................................. 93
“Except” and “Least” in Question Stems ................................................................................. 99
Except and Least Identify the Question Stem Mini-Drill ........................................................ 103
Prephrasing Answers ............................................................................................................ 106
The Answer Choices .................................................................................................................. 107
Question Approach Review ....................................................................................................... 110
Tricks of the Trade ..................................................................................................................... 112
Answer Transferring .............................................................................................................. 113
Filling in the Ovals ................................................................................................................. 113
Practicing with Time .............................................................................................................. 114
Final Chapter Note ..................................................................................................................... 115

ii the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

Chapter Four: Must Be True and Most Strongly
Supported Questions
Must Be True Questions ............................................................................................................ 119
Most Strongly Supported Questions ........................................................................................... 121
Prephrasing with Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported Questions ............................ 122
Returning to the Stimulus ...................................................................................................... 124
New Information and the Idea Umbrella ............................................................................... 125
............................................................. 126
Language: Negatives, Double Negatives, and Triple Negatives ........................................... 129
Correct Answers in Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported Questions Reviewed ........ 131
Incorrect Answers in Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported Questions ..........................132
Idea Application: An Analysis of Correct and Incorrect Answers ........................................... 135
Stimulus Opinions versus Assertions .................................................................................... 138
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 140
Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported Question Type Review .................................... 140
Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported Question Problem Set ..................................... 142

Chapter Five: Main Point Questions

Main Point Questions ................................................................................................................. 155
Two Incorrect Answer Types ................................................................................................. 156
Fill in the Blank Questions ......................................................................................................... 160
Main Point—Fill in the Blank Questions ................................................................................ 160
Final Chapter Note ................................................................................................................ 163
Main Point Question Type Review ........................................................................................ 163
Fill in the Blank Question Type Review ................................................................................. 164
Must Be True and Main Point Question Stem Mini-Drill ........................................................ 165
Main Point Question Problem Set ......................................................................................... 168

Chapter Six: Conditional Reasoning

............................................................................................. 173
To Diagram or Not to Diagram .............................................................................................. 174
Three Logical Features of Conditional Reasoning ................................................................ 175
Valid and Invalid Statements ................................................................................................. 176
Symbolic Representation and Diagramming Negatives ........................................................ 179
Valid and Invalid Statement Recognition Mini-Drill................................................................ 181
The Multiplicity of Indicator Words ........................................................................................ 184
How to Recognize Conditionality .......................................................................................... 186
The Unless EquationTM.......................................................................................................... 187
Conditional Reasoning Diagramming Drill ............................................................................ 188
Conditional Reasoning and Must Be True/Most Strongly Supported Problems .......................... 197

the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible iii

 Conditional Linkage .............................................................................................................. 202
Diagramming Conditional Statements with Subscripts ......................................................... 206
Diagramming Either/Or Statements ...................................................................................... 208
The Exception to the Rule: “Than Either”.............................................................................. 212
“Only,” “Only If,” and “The Only” ............................................................................................ 212
....................................................................... 214
The Double Arrow ................................................................................................................. 217
The Double-Not Arrow .......................................................................................................... 218
Either/Or, Multiple Condition, and Double Arrow Diagramming Drill ..................................... 220
Nested Conditionals .............................................................................................................. 227
Conditional Reasoning Review ............................................................................................. 230
Either/Or Review ................................................................................................................... 232
Multiple Conditions Review ................................................................................................... 233
Unusual Arrows Review ........................................................................................................ 234
When to Diagram Revisited .................................................................................................. 234
Don’t Force Conditionality On Every Problem ...................................................................... 236
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 236
.................................................................. 237

Chapter Seven: Weaken Questions

Weaken Questions..................................................................................................................... 251
How to Weaken an Argument ............................................................................................... 253
Common Weakening Scenarios............................................................................................ 255
Three Incorrect Answer Traps ............................................................................................... 255
Weaken Questions Analyzed ................................................................................................ 256
Weakening Conditional Reasoning ....................................................................................... 263
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 268
Weaken Question Type Review ............................................................................................ 268
Weaken Question Problem Set ............................................................................................. 270

Chapter Eight: Cause and Effect Reasoning

What is Causality? ..................................................................................................................... 281
How to Recognize Basic Causality ....................................................................................... 281
The Difference Between Causality and Conditionality .......................................................... 282
Causality in the Conclusion versus Causality in the Premises ............................................. 283
Situations That Can Lead to Errors of Causality ................................................................... 284
The Central Assumption of Basic Causal Conclusions ......................................................... 285
How to Attack a Basic Causal Conclusion ............................................................................ 287
Diagramming Causality ......................................................................................................... 288
A Basic Cause and Effect Problem Analyzed ....................................................................... 289

iv the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

Advanced Causal Reasoning ................................................................................................... 291
Possible and Probable Causes vs Certain Causes .............................................................. 291
Partial Cause and Multi-Cause Scenarios ............................................................................ 293
Increases and Decreases in Likelihood and Degree ............................................................ 295
An Advanced Cause and Effect Problem Analyzed .............................................................. 296
Basic Causal Reasoning Review .......................................................................................... 300
Advanced Causal Reasoning Review ................................................................................... 301
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 302
Causal Reasoning Problem Set ............................................................................................ 303

Chapter Nine: Strengthen Questions

The Second Family .................................................................................................................... 313
The Difference Between Strengthen, Justify the Conclusion, and Assumption Questions ...... 314
Strengthen Questions ................................................................................................................ 316
How to Strengthen an Argument ........................................................................................... 317
Three Incorrect Answer Traps ............................................................................................... 318
Strengthen Questions Analyzed............................................................................................ 319
Basic Causality and Strengthen Questions........................................................................... 323
Strengthen Question Type Review........................................................................................ 328
Strengthen Question Problem Set ........................................................................................ 329

Chapter Ten: Justify the conclusion Questions

....................................................... 337
............................................ 338
Identifying Justify the Conclusion Question Stems ............................................................... 339
Justify the Conclusion Stimuli ............................................................................................... 340
Solving Justify Questions: The Mechanistic ApproachTM ....................................................... 344
Test Maker Tricks: Justify the Conclusion Questions ............................................................ 348
Justify the Conclusion—Fill in the Blank Questions .............................................................. 350
Justify the Conclusion Question Type Review ...................................................................... 351
Justify the Conclusion Question Problem Set ....................................................................... 353

Chapter Eleven: Assumption Questions

..................................................................... 361
The Supporter/Defender Assumption Model ...................................................................... 363
TM

The Assumption Negation TechniqueTM ................................................................................ 370

Negating Statements ............................................................................................................ 371
Logical Opposition ................................................................................................................ 372
Negating Conditional Statements ......................................................................................... 374
Statement Negation Drill ....................................................................................................... 375

the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible v

 Three Quirks of Assumption Question Answer Choices ....................................................... 379
Assumptions and Conditionality ............................................................................................ 380
Assumptions and Causality ................................................................................................... 383
Flawed Assumption Questions .............................................................................................. 386
Assumption Question Type Review ...................................................................................... 387
Assumption Question Problem Set ....................................................................................... 390

Chapter Twelve: Resolve the Paradox Questions

Resolve the Paradox Questions ................................................................................................ 401
Stimulus Peculiarities ............................................................................................................ 401
Question Stem Features ....................................................................................................... 402
Active Resolution .................................................................................................................. 403
Address the Facts ................................................................................................................. 405
Resolve the Paradox Question Review ................................................................................ 408
Resolve the Paradox Question Problem Set ........................................................................ 409

Chapter Thirteen: Formal Logic

................................................ 417
............................................................................................................ 417
.......................................................................... 419
................................................... 424
Some and Most Diagramming Drill ....................................................................................... 425
The Rules of Reversibility ..................................................................................................... 427
The Special Case of “Some are Not” .................................................................................... 428
Reversibility Recognition Mini-Drill ........................................................................................ 429
Inherent versus Additive Inferences ...................................................................................... 431
The Logic Ladder™ ................................................................................................................ 432
Inherent Inference Recognition Drill ...................................................................................... 433
The Negative Logic Ladder™ ................................................................................................. 436
Two Rules of Diagram Creation ............................................................................................ 437
The 11 Principles of Making Formal Logic Inferences .......................................................... 438
Some Train Diagramming Mini-Drill ...................................................................................... 443
Most Train Diagramming Mini-Drill ........................................................................................ 447
The Complete Table of Formal Logic Additive Inference RelationshipsTM ............................. 456
Formal Logic Additive Inference Drill .................................................................................... 457
Formal Logic Problem Set .................................................................................................... 460

vi the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

Chapter Fourteen: Method of Reasoning Questions
Method of Reasoning Questions ............................................................................................... 471
Prephrasing in Method of Reasoning Questions .................................................................. 472
The Fact Test in Method of Reasoning Questions ................................................................ 472
Stimulus Notes ...................................................................................................................... 473
Incorrect Answers in Method of Reasoning Questions ......................................................... 473
Idea Application: Correct and Incorrect Answers Analyzed................................................... 475
Method of Reasoning-Argument Part Questions ....................................................................... 480
Method—AP Stimulus Structure ........................................................................................... 481
A Common Wrong Answer .................................................................................................... 485
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 485
Method of Reasoning Question Type Review ....................................................................... 486
Method of Reasoning Argument Part Question Type Review ............................................... 487
Method of Reasoning Problem Set ....................................................................................... 488

Chapter Fifteen: Flaw in the Reasoning Questions

Flaw in the Reasoning Questions .............................................................................................. 501
The Value of Knowing Common Errors of Reasoning .......................................................... 502
Common Errors of Reasoning Explained .................................................................................. 503
Errors in the Use of Evidence ............................................................................................... 503
General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion .................................................... 503
Internal Contradiction......................................................................................................... 504
Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization................................................................................ 504
Errors in Assessing the Force of Evidence ........................................................................ 505
Source Argument .................................................................................................................. 508
Circular Reasoning ............................................................................................................... 509
Errors of Conditional Reasoning ........................................................................................... 510
Mistaken Cause and Effect ................................................................................................... 511
Straw Man ............................................................................................................................. 512
Appeal Fallacies .................................................................................................................... 513
Survey Errors ........................................................................................................................ 515
Errors of Composition and Division ....................................................................................... 517
Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept ..................................................................................... 518
False Analogy ....................................................................................................................... 518
False Dilemma ...................................................................................................................... 519
Time Shift Errors ................................................................................................................... 520
Relativity Flaw ....................................................................................................................... 520
Sunk Cost/Concorde Fallacy ................................................................................................ 522
Numbers and Percentages Errors ........................................................................................ 523
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 523
Flaw in the Reasoning Question Problem Set ...................................................................... 524

the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible vii

Chapter Sixteen: Parallel Reasoning Questions
Parallel Reasoning Questions ................................................................................................... 539
Parallel Flaw Questions ........................................................................................................ 539
The Peril of Abstraction ......................................................................................................... 540
Solving Parallel Reasoning Questions .................................................................................. 541
What To Do If All Else Fails ................................................................................................... 553
There is No Order to How You Apply Each Test ................................................................... 557
Parallel Reasoning Question Review .................................................................................... 558
Parallel Reasoning Question Problem Set ............................................................................ 560

Chapter Seventeen: Numbers and Percentages

Numbers and Percentages ........................................................................................................ 569
Numbers and Percentages Principles ....................................................................................... 569
Number and Percentages Misconceptions ................................................................................ 573
Markets and Market Share .................................................................................................... 586
Numbers and Percentages Review ...................................................................................... 589
Numbers and Percentages Problem Set .............................................................................. 591

Chapter Eighteen: Evaluate the Argument Questions

Evaluate the Argument Questions ............................................................................................. 601
The Variance TestTM .............................................................................................................. 603
Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 607
Evaluate the Argument Question Type Review ..................................................................... 608
Evaluate the Argument Question Problem Set ..................................................................... 609

Chapter Nineteen: Cannot Be True Questions

Cannot Be True Questions ........................................................................................................ 615
The Stimulus/Answer Choice Relationship ........................................................................... 618
.......................................................................................................... 619
Two Notable Stimulus Scenarios .......................................................................................... 622
Cannot Be True Question Review ......................................................................................... 626
Cannot Be True Question Problem Set................................................................................. 627

Chapter Twenty: Point at Issue and Point of

Agreement Questions
Point at Issue Questions ............................................................................................................ 635
Incorrect Answers in Point at Issue Questions...................................................................... 636
The Agree/Disagree TestTM ................................................................................................... 637

viii the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

Point of Agreement Questions ................................................................................................... 642
The Agree/Agree TestTM ........................................................................................................ 642
Point at Issue Question Review ............................................................................................ 643
Point at Issue Question Problem Set .................................................................................... 644

Chapter Twenty-One: Principle Questions

Principle Questions .................................................................................................................... 653
Words to Watch For: “Conform” and “Judgment” .................................................................. 653
............................................................................................. 655
Principle Question Review .................................................................................................... 667
Principle Question Problem Set ............................................................................................ 668

Chapter Twenty-Two: Section Strategy and Time

Management
Approaching the Section Strategically ....................................................................................... 679
Section Structure .................................................................................................................. 679
Time Management: The Nexus of Speed and Accuracy ....................................................... 680
Pacing Guidelines ................................................................................................................. 682
The Answer Choices .................................................................................................................. 687
Three in a row? ..................................................................................................................... 687
Guessing Strategy ................................................................................................................ 688
Using a Timer ............................................................................................................................. 690
Test Readiness .......................................................................................................................... 691
The day before the test ......................................................................................................... 691
The morning of the test ......................................................................................................... 691
At the test center ................................................................................................................... 692
After the test .......................................................................................................................... 693
Afterword.................................................................................................................................... 694

Online Appendix Information

Online Appendix Information ...................................................................................................... 695

Glossary and Index

Glossary and Index .................................................................................................................... 697

the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible ix

About PowerScore

PowerScore is one of the nation’s fastest growing test preparation companies. Founded in 1997,
PowerScore offers LSAT, GMAT, GRE, SAT, and ACT preparation classes in over 150 locations in
the U.S. and abroad. Preparation options include In Person courses, Accelerated courses, Live Online
courses, On Demand courses, and private tutoring. For more information, please visit our website at
powerscore.com or call us at (800) 545-1750.

For supplemental information about this book, please visit the Logical Reasoning Bible website at
powerscore.com/lrbible. The website contains additions to the text and answers to questions
submitted by students.

About the Author

David M. Killoran, a graduate of Duke University, is an expert in test preparation with over 25 years
of teaching experience and a 99th percentile score on a LSAC-administered LSAT. In addition to
having written the renowned PowerScore LSAT Logic Games Bible, the PowerScore LSAT Logical
Reasoning Bible, and many other popular publications, Dave has overseen the preparation of
countless students and founded two national LSAT preparation companies.

x the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

 1
Chapter One:
Introduction
3
1 Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 3
Additional Resources............................................................................................. 4
A Brief Overview of the LSAT ............................................................................... 6
The Logical Reasoning Section ......................................................................... 6
The Analytical Reasoning Section ...................................................................... 7
The Reading Comprehension Section ............................................................... 7
The Experimental Section .................................................................................. 7
The Writing Sample ............................................................................................ 7
The LSAT Scoring Scale ....................................................................................... 8
The LSAT Percentile Table .................................................................................... 9
The Use of the LSAT ........................................................................................... 10

2
 1

Introduction
Welcome to the PowerScore LSAT Logical Reasoning Bible. We
congratulate you on your savvy purchase—you have bought the
most advanced book ever published for the LSAT Logical Reasoning
section. The purpose of this book is to provide you with a powerful and
comprehensive system for attacking the Logical Reasoning section of the
Law School Admission Test (LSAT). To accomplish this goal, the book
covers all aspects of Logical Reasoning, from argumentation to question
types to the logical concepts that underlie each question.

The strategies and techniques discussed herein are drawn from our world-
renowned LSAT courses and tutoring programs. As we progress through
the chapters, we will demonstrate how the PowerScore methodology
works by applying the techniques to real LSAT questions. Each of these
questions is used with the permission of LSAC, the administrators of the If you are looking
LSAT, and no question in this book has been modified from its original to further
improve your
form.
LSAT score, we
also recommend
In order to apply our methods effectively and efficiently, we strongly that you pick
recommend that you carefully read and re-read each of the concept up copies of
discussions. We also suggest that as you finish each question you look at the renowned
PowerScore
both the explanation for the correct answer choice and the explanations
LSAT Logic
for the incorrect answer choices. Closely examine each problem and Games Bible and
determine which elements led to the correct answer, and then study the LSAT Reading
analyses provided in the book and check them against your own work. By Comprehension
doing so you will greatly increase your chances of recognizing the patterns Bible. When
combined with
present in every Logical Reasoning section.
the Logical
Reasoning Bible,
This book also contains a variety of drills and exercises that supplement you will have
the discussion of techniques and question analysis. The drills help a formidable
strengthen specific skills that are critical for LSAT excellence, and for this methodology for
attacking the
reason they are as important as the LSAT questions. In the answer keys to
test. The other
these drills, we will often introduce and discuss important LSAT points, so LSAT Bibles are
we strongly advise you to read through every explanation. available through
our website at
The last chapter of this book is an extensive analysis of overall section powerscore.com
and at fine
strategy and time management. The preceding chapters also address timing
retailers.
and how to go faster, but if you struggle with time management, you can
read this chapter at any point in your studies (and if you cannot finish
the entire book prior to your test, be sure to read this chapter before the
LSAT).

chapter one: introduction 3

1

At the end of this book there is a complete quick-reference answer key to

all problems in this book. The answer key contains a legend of question
identifiers, as well as chapter-by-chapter answer keys and a unique
reverse lookup that lists all questions used in this book sorted by the
LSAT administration date and PrepTest number. This is helpful if you are
trying to schedule practice tests and need to know which tests we use for
questions.

Additional Resources
Overall, this book has been carefully designed to explain the concepts
behind the Logical Reasoning section, and we are confident you will
increase your Logical Reasoning score by thoroughly studying and
correctly applying the system explained in this book. Because new
LSATs appear every several months, and access to accurate and up-to-
date information and assistance is critical, there are also several other free
PowerScore LSAT preparation resources for Logical Reasoning Bible
students:

1. We have devoted a section of our website exclusively for Logical

Reasoning Bible students. This free online resource area offers:

• Written supplements to the book, including further

examinations of section difficulty and LSAT language

• Answers to specific questions posed by the readers of the

LSAT Logical Reasoning Bible

• LSAT Bible study plans based on how much time you have
available to prepare, and in conjunction with the other
LSAT Bibles

• Updates to the material in the book

• A book evaluation and comment form

4 the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

 1

The exclusive LSAT Logical Reasoning Bible online area can be

accessed at:

powerscore.com/lrbible

2. If you would like to talk to the author of this book or ask questions
about the material, please visit our free LSAT discussion forum at:
Forum users ask
about all aspects
of the LSAT,
including test
forum.powerscore.com/lsat mentality, the
best study plans,
how to solve
certain types of
questions, and
Staffed regularly by our LSAT instructors, the forum offers how to go faster
thousands of searchable answers to student questions, including on the LSAT.
many lengthy explanations of individual LSAT questions, and
additional concept and strategy discussions.

3. If you have an issue that you prefer not to discuss on the public
forum, please do not hesitate to email us at:

[email protected]

4. And please feel free to connect with me directly via Twitter!:

@DaveKilloran

We are happy to assist you in your LSAT preparation in any way, and we
look forward to hearing from you!

chapter one: introduction 5

1

A Brief Overview of the LSAT

In 2019, LSAC will The Law School Admission Test will be administered four times in
begin offering the 2018: in February, June, September, and November. This standardized
LSAT six times a test is required for admission to any American Bar Association-approved
year, in January,
March, June, law school. According to LSAC, the producers of the test, the LSAT is
July, September, designed “to measure skills that are considered essential for success in law
and November. school: the reading and comprehension of complex texts with accuracy
and insight; the organization and management of information and the
ability to draw reasonable inferences from it; the ability to think critically;
and the analysis and evaluation of the reasoning and arguments of others.”
The LSAT consists of the following five sections:

short arguments, 24-26 total

2 Sections of Logical Reasoning
questions per section
3 long reading passages, 2 short
1 Section of Reading Comprehension comparative reading passages,
26-28 total questions
4 logic games, 22-24 total
1 Section of Analytical Reasoning
questions

one of the above three section

1 Experimental Section
types

You are given 35 minutes to complete each section. The experimental

section is unscored and is not returned to the test taker. A break of 10 to 15
minutes is given between the 3rd and 4th sections.

The five-section test is followed by a 35 minute writing sample.

At the conclusion
of the LSAT, The Logical Reasoning Section
and for five
business days
Each Logical Reasoning Section is composed of approximately 24 to 26
after the LSAT,
you have the short arguments. Every short argument is followed by a question such as:
option to cancel “Which one of the following weakens the argument?” “Which one of the
your score. following parallels the argument?” or “Which one of the following must
Unfortunately, be true according to the argument?” The keys to this section are time
there is no way
management and an understanding of the reasoning types and question
to determine
exactly what types that frequently appear.
your score
would be before Since there are two scored sections of Logical Reasoning on every LSAT,
cancelling. Logical Reasoning accounts for approximately 50% of your score.

6 the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

 1

The Analytical Reasoning Section

This section, also known as Logic Games, is typically the most difficult
for students taking the LSAT for the first time. The section consists of four
games or puzzles, each followed by a series of five to eight questions. The
questions are designed to test your ability to evaluate a set of relationships
and to make inferences about those relationships. To perform well on this
section you must understand the types of games that frequently appear and
develop the ability to properly diagram the rules and make inferences.

The Reading Comprehension Section

This section is composed of three long reading passages, each

approximately 450 words in length, and two shorter comparative reading
passages. The passage topics are drawn from a variety of subjects, and
each passage is followed by a series of five to eight questions that ask
you to determine viewpoints in the passage, analyze organizational
traits, evaluate specific sections of the passage, or compare facets of two
different passages.

The Experimental Section

Each LSAT contains one undesignated experimental section, which does

not count towards your score. The experimental section can be any of
the three section types described above, and the purpose of the section
is to test and evaluate questions that will be used on future LSATs. By
pretesting questions before their use in a scored section, the experimental
section helps the makers of the test determine the test scale.

The Writing Sample

A 35-minute Writing Sample is given at the conclusion of the LSAT. The For many years
Writing Sample is not scored, but a copy is sent to each of the law schools the Writing
Sample was
to which you apply. In the Writing Sample you are asked to write a short
administered
essay that defends one of two possible courses of action. before the LSAT.

Do not agonize over the Writing Sample; in law school admissions, the
Writing Sample is not a major determining element for three reasons: the You must
admissions committee is aware that the essay is given after a grueling attempt the
three hour test and is about a subject you have no personal interest in; Writing Sample!
If you do not,
they already have a better sample of your writing ability in the personal LSAC reserves
statement; and the committee has a limited amount of time to evaluate the right not to
applications. score your test.

chapter one: introduction 7

1

The LSAT Scoring Scale

Each LSAT Each administered LSAT typically contains 100 or 101 scored questions.
typically Some LSATs have 99 or 102 questions, but those question counts appear
contains 100 or far less frequently than 100 or 101. Your reported LSAT score is based on
101 questions
(not including the total number of questions you correctly answer, a number known as the
the Experimental “raw score.” After the raw score is determined, a unique Score Conversion
section Chart is used for each LSAT to convert the raw score into a scaled LSAT
questions), but score. Since June 1991, the LSAT has utilized a 120 to 180 scoring
the number of scale, with 120 being the lowest possible score and 180 being the highest
questions on
administered possible score. Notably, this 120 to 180 scale is just a renumbered version
LSATs has varied of the 200 to 800 scale most test takers are familiar with from exams like
from 99 to 102 the SAT and GMAT. Just drop the “1” and add a “0” to the 120 and 180,
questions. and you get the 200 to 800 scoring scale.

Although the number of scored questions per test has remained relatively
constant over the last twenty years, the overall logical difficulty of each
test has varied. This is not surprising since the test is made by humans,
and there is no precise way to completely predetermine an exact logical
difficulty. To account for these variances in test “toughness,” the test
makers adjust the Scoring Conversion Chart for each LSAT in order to
make similar LSAT scores from different tests mean the same thing. For
example, an LSAT given in June may be logically more difficult than an
LSAT given in December (meaning the questions on the June test are
harder overall), but by making the June LSAT scale “looser” than the
December scale, a 160 on each test would represent the same level of
performance. The looser scale would translate into needing to answer
fewer questions correctly to achieve that 160 (and thus also allowing more
questions to be missed). Perhaps, to achieve a 160 on the “harder” June
LSAT would require answering only 73 questions correctly (meaning
one could miss 28 questions on a 101 question test). For the “easier”
December LSAT, to achieve a 160 perhaps one would have to answer 75
questions correctly (allowing only 26 questions missed on a 101 question
test).

This scale adjustment, known as equating, is extremely important to law

school admissions offices around the country. Imagine the difficulties
that would be posed by unequated tests: admissions officers would have
to not only examine individual LSAT scores, but also take into account
which LSAT each score came from. This would present an information
nightmare.

8 the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

 1

The LSAT Percentile Table

It is important not to lose sight of what LSAT scaled scores actually Since the LSAT
represent. The 120 to 180 test scale contains 61 different possible scores. has 61 possible
scores, why
Each score places a student in a certain relative position compared to other didn’t the test
test takers. These relative positions are represented through a percentile makers change
that correlates to each score. The percentile indicates where the test the scale to 0 to
taker ranks in the overall pool of test takers. For example, a score of 166 60? Probably for
represents the 93rd percentile, meaning a student with a score of 166 merciful reasons.
How would you
scored better than 93 percent of the people who have taken the test in the tell your friends
last three years. The percentile is critical since it is a true indicator of your that you scored
positioning relative to other test takers, and thus law school applicants. a 3 on the LSAT?
123 sounds so
Charting out the entire percentage table yields a rough “bell curve.” The much better.
number of test takers in the 120s and 170s is very low (only 2.4% of all
test takers receive a score in the 170s), and most test takers are bunched in
the middle, comprising the “top” of the bell. In fact, approximately 40% of
all test takers score between 145 and 155 inclusive, and about 65% of all
test takers score between 140 and 160 inclusive.

The median score on the LSAT scale is approximately 151. The median, There is no
or middle score, is the score at which approximately 50% of test takers penalty for
have a lower score and 50% of test takers have a higher score. Typically, answering
incorrectly
to achieve a score of 151, you must answer between 56 and 61 questions
on the LSAT.
correctly from a total of approximately 101 questions. In other words, to Therefore, you
achieve a score that is perfectly average, you can miss between 40 and should ALWAYS
45 questions. To obtain a score of 170 (which is uniformly considered an guess on any
excellent score), you can typically miss between 8 and 14 questions. Thus, questions you
cannot complete.
it is important to remember that you do not have to answer every question
The last chapter
correctly to obtain an excellent LSAT score. There is room for error, and of this book
accordingly you should never let any single question occupy an inordinate contains a
amount of your time. discussion of
proper guessing
strategy
(because such
a thing actually
exists!).

chapter one: introduction 9

1

The Use of the LSAT

The use of the LSAT in law school admissions is not without controversy.
It is largely taken for granted that your LSAT score is one of the most
important determinants of the type of school you can attend. At many law
schools, a multiplier made up of your LSAT score and your undergraduate
grade point (GPA) average is used to help determine the relative standing
of applicants, and at some schools a sufficiently high multiplier guarantees
your admission. At most law schools, the LSAT makes up 60% or more
of the multiplier formula, meaning that your LSAT score significantly
outweighs your GPA from four years (or more) of college.

For all the importance of the LSAT, it is not without flaws. As a

standardized test currently given in the paper-and-pencil format, there
are a number of skills that the LSAT cannot measure, such as listening
The Law School skills, note-taking ability, work ethic, perseverance, etc. LSAC is aware
Admission
of these limitations and as a matter of course they warn all law schools
Council (LSAC) is
the organization against overemphasizing LSAT results. Still, because the test ultimately
that administers returns a number for each student, it is hard to escape the tendency to rank
the LSAT applicants accordingly. Fortunately, once you get to law school the LSAT
and related is largely forgotten. For the time being, consider the test a temporary
law school
hurdle you must leap in order to reach the ultimate goal.
application
services.
For more information on the LSAT, or to register for the test, contact
LSAC at (215) 968-1001 or visit their website at www.lsac.org.

With some of the basics of the LSAT out of the way, let us now move on to
discussing Logical Reasoning questions in detail.

10 the powerscore lsat logical reasoning bible

 2
Chapter Two:
The Basics
of Logical
Reasoning
3
2 Chapter Two: The Basics of
Logical Reasoning
The Logical Reasoning Section ................................................................ 13
The Section Directions .......................................................................... 13
The Parts of a Logical Reasoning Question .......................................... 15
Approaching the Questions—What To Read First?............................... 15
Analyzing the Stimulus ............................................................................. 17
The Range of Stimulus Topics—Including Science ............................... 18
................................................................................ 19
LSAT Vocabulary ................................................................................... 21
Arguments versus Fact Sets ................................................................. 23
Identifying Premises and Conclusions .................................................. 24
One Confusing Indicator Form .............................................................. 27
Premise and Conclusion Recognition Mini-Drill .................................... 28
Additional Premise Indicators ................................................................ 32
Counter-Premise Indicators .................................................................. 33
Additional Premise and Counter-Premise Recognition Mini-Drill .......... 35
Recognizing Conclusions Without Indicators ........................................ 38
Complex Arguments ................................................................................. 40
A Commonly Used Construction ........................................................... 43
Decoding Text ........................................................................................... 45
Killer Sentences .................................................................................... 45
............ 45
Reference Words .................................................................................. 50
Reference Substitution .......................................................................... 52
Understanding the Stimulus ..................................................................... 53
Truth versus Validity .............................................................................. 53
Argument Analysis ................................................................................ 53
Inferences and Assumptions ................................................................. 55
The Mind of an LSAT Author ................................................................. 56
Read the Fine Print ............................................................................... 57
Tracking Indicators and Concepts ......................................................... 58
Scope .................................................................................................... 59
Notating Arguments ............................................................................... 59
Summarizing Arguments ....................................................................... 61
Fluidity of Analysis and Concept Application ......................................... 61
Final Chapter Note ................................................................................... 62
Premise and Conclusion Analysis Drill .................................................. 63
 2
The Logical Reasoning Section
The focus of this book is on the two scored Logical Reasoning sections On average, you
of the LSAT, and each Logical Reasoning section contains a total of 24 have 1 minute
and 25 seconds
to 26 questions. Since you have thirty-five minutes to complete each to complete
section, you have an average of approximately one minute and twenty-five each question,
seconds to complete each question. Of course, the amount of time you but this varies
spend on each question will vary with the difficulty of each question slightly depending
and the total number of questions per section. For almost every student on how many
questions are in
the time constraint is a major obstacle, and as we progress through this the section.
book we will discuss time management techniques as well as time-saving
techniques that you can employ within the sections. The last
chapter of this
book contains
an extensive
The Section Directions discussion
of overall
Each Logical Reasoning section is prefaced by the following directions: section time
management.

“The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief
statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could
conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that
is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You
should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible,
superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best
answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.”

Because these directions precede every Logical Reasoning section, you

should familiarize yourself with them now. Once the LSAT begins, never
waste time reading the directions for any section.

Let’s examine these directions more closely. Consider the following

sentences:

“For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the
question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most
accurately and completely answers the question.”

chapter two: the basics of logical reasoning 13