PATHFIT  ARMS: Both raised sideward with a graceful curve at

shoulder level.
DANCE  FEET: Feet apart sideward of about a pace distance
 Plays an important part in the PE curriculum because it will allow
students to experience cultures from the different and around the  3rd Position
world.  ARMS: One arm raised in front as in 2 nd position; other arm
 Is masterful movement in a rhythmically coordinated, and expressive raised upward.
way. It is a vital part of a child’s movement education.  FEET: Heel of one foot close to instep of other foot.
 Creating dances means exploring the movement framework, selecting
movement elements and refining dance sequences.  4th Position
 ARMS: One arm raised in front as in 1 st position; other arm
DANCE is a HEALTH raised overhead.
 It has become an important factor in the prevention, treatment and  FEET: One foot in front of other foot of a pace distance.
management in several health circumstances.
 It can benefit both physical and mental health and subsidizes social  5th Position
communication.  ARMS: Both arms raised overhead.
 The correlation between dance and health has been subject of a  FEET: Heel of front foot close to big toe of rear foot.
number of research studies that show dance to be a largely healthy
exercise
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE FROM THE
THREE TYPES OF LEARNING EXPERINCE DURING DANCE DIFFERENT PERIODS
 Creating – students use the cognitive processes of application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation to create dances. DURING THE PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
 Performance – students recall and reproduce movements from  It had been a major form of religious ritual and social expression
existing dances. within the primitive culture.
1. Responding – learners observe, interpret, analyze, and evaluate as  It was used as a way of expression and reinforcing tribal unity and
they describe movement, qualities of movements, compositional strength.
structures and their feelings and understanding of a dance.  It is based in superstition and infused with magic. Shamans as lead
dancers acted as physicians and religious leaders and kept tribes
FUNDAMENTAL DANCE POSITION healthy, prosperous and safe.
 1st Position
 ARMS: Both arms raised in a circle in front of the chest with DURING THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
the finger tips about an inch apart.  ANCIENT EGYPT
 FEET: Heels close together, toes apart with an angle of about  3300 BCE( First dancing) believed that the 1 st people to dance
45 degrees. were the Egyptians. Archaeologists discovered paintings of
dancing figures in rocks, shelters and caves.
 2nd Position
  As a way of expressing religious service and teaching ancient performed by the nobility came about as well as the rise of the art of
myth; ballet in Italy and France.
 Three major dancers were involved;  Several other dance forms continued to sprout and spread across
o The king several countries.
o The priests who perform magical dances
o Virgin dancers who were trained to perform during DURING THE LATE 16th and 17th Centuries (1501-1700)
ceremonies led by the priest.  Masque Dancing (1600)
 ANCIENT CRETE  started from elaborate pageants and shows in the 16th century.
 Cretan used dance to perfect their military training which made  involved intricate costuming and stage designing that also
excellent. incorporated singing and acting as well as dancing.
 ANCIENT GREECE  It was often used as a court entertainment.
 Dance is also a form of entertainment and display.  A period in the history of dance in Italy, France, and England which
 Plato high lightened the two kinds of dance and music; the was considered to be pleasantly deep and rich. France became the
noble (fin and honorable) ignoble (imitating what is mean or forerunner in dance during this period.
ugly)  Dance increased as a court amusement and later transformed into
 ANCIENT ROME professional entertainment.
 Gave less importance to dancing which eventually became an
integral part of the corruption in the latter days of the roman
empire resulting the condemnation of dance by early
Christians. DURING THE 18th Century (1701-1800)
 Dance was primarily performed for religious, social and  Classical Persian Dancing (1795)
entertainment. However, theatrical entertainment was  This style of dance evolved from courtroom dancing.
prohibited but still existed and was performed within church  An era influencing Persian dance was the Qajar Dynasty
during religious ceremonies. which lasted from 1795 to 1925.
 Dancers would perform artistic and lively dances for the
DURING MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE Shah.
 Ballet (1440)  The music is usually played by a small band.
 Ballet started in this year in Italy, but didn’t really become  Tippity Tappity, Time for Tap (1800)
popular until around the year 1500.  Tap dancing originated from African tribe dancing.
 Ballet gained its popularity when a lady of the arts, Catherine  Tap dancing makes percussion sounds because of dancers
de Medici, married King Henry 11 and threw festivals where most commonly wearing leather shoes with two pieces of
they would perform ballet dances. metal and clip and clap against hard floors.
 Ballet is believed to be the main core of every single dance  Tap is still very popular to this day.
style.
 A vast dance movement occurred throughout the courts of Europe in DURING THE 19th Century (1801-1900)
the 15th and 16th centuries. During these times, new court dances  Merengue Dancing (1890)
  It is a Caribbean dance style that involves partners holding  refers to overall way of living – attitudes, habits, and behavior of a
each other in a tango-like position and moving their hips side person in daily life. According to studies, lifestyle contributes greatly
to side. to the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in the Philippines.
 Jazz and Acro (1900)  People who smoke cigarettes and drink alcoholic beverages for
 It involves doing smooth and flexible movements, and lots of example are likely to develop a wide range of diseases.
back bending and tricks. Both styles are widely popular to this  It includes the way in which people carry out major parts of their
day. lives such as working, playing, eating, coping, and so on and
 Ballroom dances also emerged during this period like Cotillion, sdiseases
Polonaise, Quadrille, Waltz and Polka.  So below are the ways to know what lifestyle is suitable for you.
th
20 Century Dances (1901-2000)
 Described as a period of “dance fever” wherein the young and old Active lifestyle
alike were not limited to express emotions through dance. If you are a hyperactive, outgoing, or a person who loves to always
 Contemporary Dance (1950). become busy or productive, this lifestyle is for you. An active lifestyle
 a style that combines jazz, ballet, and modern dance. It can be consists of having exercises daily, socializing with people, join groups or
many different styles, but most of the time it is melancholy and clubs in your neighborhood, and an active and healthy body and mind.
or intense. Having an active lifestyle doesn’t mean you should overuse your
 Hip Hop Dance(1970) body or mind — keep in mind your body or mind, don’t drain your energy.
 There are many styles of hip hop that include breaking,
popping, locking, and more. Street dance was performed both Healthy lifestyle
in night clubs and on Hip Hop Danc A healthy lifestyle is close and fitting with an active lifestyle. In
 It is associated with funk, breakdancing, and hip-hop. order to have a healthy lifestyle, you should choose your food, avoid
 Several social dance movements also evolved such as castle walk, junk foods, saturated fats, and sugar. Eat healthily. Have a diet and
tango, foxtrot, Charleston, Lindy Hop, Rumba, Mambo, Cha-Cha-cha, don’t overeat since it is not and never healthy plus it makes your kidney
Samba, Bossa Nova, Boogaloo and Twist. tired, which is not healthy too. Have a daily exercise like yoga, just
 Popular fad dances also emerged like YMCA and Macarena. simple exercises to keep your body and mind active and fit. Avoid bad
habits and be a responsible person for your own body.
21st Century Dance (2001- Present)
 Dance Nowadays (2018) Bohemian lifestyle
 Today’s dance style has taken a turn towards more hip-hop If you are an artistic, spiritual, musical person, this lifestyle fits
dances. you. To have a bohemian lifestyle you will tend to travel a lot, seek
 Small and popular dances that involve hip hop and that most adventures, make time for you spiritual culture, artistic performances,
everyone can achieve include the whip and nae nae, Gangnam and musical desires. You unleash the beast and go party, be an outsider,
Style (it’s a little old), shooting, and more. put in some boho outfits, and make a lot of friends.

LIFESTYLE Nomadic lifestyle

A nomad constantly moves from one place to another, a person
who doesn’t want to have any permanent place to be in. A lot of people
don’t fit this lifestyle since most of us need stability, security, and just The PICTURE 1 shows physical activity because you are just doing a
can’t leave the place we were born or a place where we fell in love. A desired task or activity without any goal while the PICTURE 2 shows
nomad feels comfortable and spends most of their time with some other physical exercise because you are doing an activity with a desired goal
people from time to time, but nomads avoid attachments since it might or plan to target.
restrain them from leaving a certain place.
Health and Wellness Benefits
Solo lifestyle 1. Looking Good- Experts agree that regular physical activity
For people who want to live solo or incapable of not having is one healthy lifestyle that can help you look your best. Of
anyone to be with them, mostly the very independent people. In solo course, other are proper nutrition, good posture, and good
lifestyle you will learn a lot like how to be much more responsible, you’ll body mechanics.
learn to entertain yourself, you can do anything you want with no one 2. Feeling Good – People who do regular physical activity fell
judging you or controlling you, and you discipline yourself. Having a better. If you are active and therefore more physical fit, you
solo lifestyle is not lonely, you can still have friends of course, and who can resist fatigue, you are less likely to injured and you are
knows one day you might move on, on having a solo lifestyle if you meet capable of working more efficiently.
the right person for you. 3. Enjoying Life- Like most people, enjoyment of life is
probably important to your personal wellness. But what if
Rural lifestyle you are too tired most of the days to participate in activity
If you love to grow crops, animals, and love nature and rural you really enjoy? Regular physical activity results to
areas, then the rural lifestyle is for you. You grow your own food, you physical fitness which is the key to being able to do more of
put up a farm and grow fruits and veggies and maybe animals. A rural the things you want to do.
lifestyle could be enjoyed by just sitting on your front porch, looking at 4. Meeting Emergencies- health and wellness allow you to be
the field, enjoying your cup of coffee or tea and just enjoy the fresh fit enough to meet emergencies and day- to- day demanding
breeze. Having a rural lifestyle doesn’t mean it’s just you, your family, situations.
your plants and animals, you also have that active community, which has 5. Being Physical Fit- Being physically active can build
a lot of festivities to gather the community having a consistently happy physical fitness which in turn provides you with many health
community. and wellness benefits.

Topic 3: MOVEMENTS
Physical energy
 Is basically the ability of the body system to work together Movement – is a change of position in space. Whenever there is no
efficiently with the least amount of effort. change of position, there is no movement. Learning how to move is the
 A person who is fits is able to carry out the typical daily activities most basic element of learning experience in physical education.
and still has enough energy or vigor to respond to emergency
LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS
situation and to enjoy leisure time activities as well.
Locomotor Movement Skills are used to move the body from one
place to another. They form the foundation of gross motor
coordination and involve large muscle movements.
  Skipping – is a combination of a step and a hop, first on
one foot and then on the other foot on a faster tempo. It is
 Walking – is the regular pacing of the feet; a simple done on the balls of the feet.
transferring of body weight from one foot to the other on the  Jumping- is a locomotor pattern in which the body propels
ground. (A transfer of one foot to the other foot is called a itself off the floor or apparatus into a momentary period of
step.) Scientifically, it is a process of losing balance and flight. It can be done in place or as a locomotor activity to
recovering it while moving forward upright position, the cover the ground. The fundamental jumping pattern
body displaying a little up and down or side to side consists of five basic variations (Graham, 2011):
movement.
 Running – is an increased speed in walking by lifting the
foot off the contact ground. Each leg in a mature running
pattern goes through a support phase and a recovery phase NON - LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS
and full sequence produces two periods of non-support. It is Non-locomotor movement skills are performed without appreciable
done with a slight body lean and knees are flexed and lifted. movement from place to place.
 Hopping – is a springing action from one foot and landing
on the same foot in any direction. It involves propelling the
body up and down on the same foot. The knee seldom  Bending – is contracting or shortening of body part from a
straightens fully. It can be produced in place or as a joint.
locomotor movement.  Stretching – is extending or straightening a body part from a
 Leaping – is an extension of a run, where the greater force joint.
is used to produce a higher dimension than a run. The  Rocking – occurs when the center of gravity is fluidly
springing from one foot propels the body upward and transferre from one body part to another.
landing on the opposite foot, actually, it is an elongated step  Swaying – is moving the body or body parts from joint side
to cover a distance or move over a low obstacle. to side.
 Sliding – is when the lead step is quickly followed by the  Pushing – is an act of shoving an object away form the body.
free foot closing to replace the supporting foot. It involves  Pulling – is an act of lugging or towing an object towards or
gliding sole of one foot along the floor. The lead foot with the body.
quickly springs from the floor into a direction of intended  Turnings – is rotation around a long axis of the body.
travel. The same foot always leads in a slide producing an  Twisting- is turning the body or body parts to oneside.
uneven rhythm: slide-close, slide-close, slide-close.  Circling – is moving the body or body part forming a circle.
 Galloping – is a combination of a step (full transfer of  Swinging – is moving the body or body parts from a joint
weight on one foot) and a cut by the transfer of weight on resembling a pendulum.
the other foot. A cut is a displacement of one foot with the
other foot. It is an exaggerated slide in forward direction.
The lead leg lifts and bends and then thrusts forward to Knowledge of safety techniques in gymnastics activities is a very important
support the weight. The rear foot quickly closes to replace
teaching prerequisite. To prevent injuries while learning gymnastics, the
the supporting leg as the lead springs up into its lifted and
bent position. class is divided into three periods.
Pre-Workout Period.
 This includes all activities and procedures that prepares the individual
for actual instruction and practice of all gymnastic skills.
o Check-up of uniforms
o Warm Up

Workout Period. (Actual Practice)

 In every plan, safety instructions should be incorporated when
reviewing and demonstrating the skills; the class should be aware of
the maximum safety precautions while it is performing the exercises
and skills.
 SAFETY SUGGESTIONS FOR ALL
a. Full attention is needed when a new skill is discussed and
demonstrated
b. When in doubt, ask questions.
c. When doing a skill for the first time, have a ready spotter.
d. Master the fundamentals before doing the skill.
e. Stop when instructions are given to stop.
f. Foolish acts have no place in the class NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
g. Learn to relax and fall to prevent injuries.
NUTRITION
Post-workout period  Is the science of food and nutrients, their action and interaction, in
 Relaxation exercises the relation to providing the body with the necessary substances to
maintain homeostasis.
 Keeping of equipment used in their proper place
 Nutritional imbalance impacts the health maintenance and disease
prevention and is essential for growth hand optimal bodily function

FOOD
 Is any substance, ORGANIC or INORGANIC, when ingested or
eaten, nourishes the body by BUILDING AND REPAIRING
TISSUES, SUPPLYING HEAT AND ENERGY, REGULATINNG
BODY PROCESSES.
  According to the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), food includes  State of complete physical, mental and social well being and not
articles used as drink or food, and the articles used for the component merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO) 1948
of such
DIETITIAN
FOOD QUALITY  Professional trained to assess nutrition status and recommend
1. It is safe to eat appropriate diet therapy
2. It is nourishing or nutritious
3. Its palatability factors (color, aroma, flavor, texture, etc.) satisfy the
costumer. NUTRITIONAL STATUS (NUTRITURE)
4. It has safety value  Is the condition of the body resulting from the utilization of essential
5. It offer variety and planned within socio-economical context nutrients.
6. It is free from toxic substance A. Optimum or Good Nutrition
 the body has an adequate supply of essential nutrients
NUTRIENT that are efficiently utilized and maintained in highest
 Is a chemical component needed by the body to achieve health Three possible level
General Functions: B. Malnutrition – poor nutrition (mal meaning “ BAD”) can be
 To provide energy (FUEL NUTRIENTS) either nutritional deficiency or overnutrition and
 To build and repair tissues (BODY BUILDING) hypervitaminosis.
 To regulate life processes (REGULATORY) Health  Primary – Faculty diet both in quantity and quality
 Secondary – multiple and include all conditions within
NUTRIENT CLASSIFICATION: the body that reduce the ultimate supply of nutrients to
 According to function: the cell after he food goes beyond the mouth
 Function as energy giving, body building and body regulating
 According to chemical nature/properties: DIGESTION
 Organic – protein, lipids, carbohydrates and vitamins  It is a mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller
 Inorganic – water and minerals components.
 According to concentration:
 Macro nutrients – Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats ABSORPTION
 Micro nutrients – Vitamins, Minerals and Water  It is a process where nutrients from foods are absorb by the body into
bloodstreams.
HEALTH
METABOLISM
  Is a chemical process of transforming foods into other substances to  Parasitism
sustain life.  Presence of interfering substance
 CATABOLISM – is the BREAKDOWN of complex
substances into simpler ones, resulting energy. MACRONUTRIENTS
 ANABOLISM – is the SYNTHESIS of simple substances into  Are the nutritive components of food that the body needs for energy
complex substances. Provides energy for tissue growth, and to maintain the body’s structure and systems, (MD Anderson
maintenance and repair Wellness Dietitian Lindsey Wohlford.)
 Carbohydrates
ENZYMES  Fats
 An organic catalyst that are protein in nature and are produced by  Protein
living cells. A catalyst speeds up or slows down chemical reactions
without itself undergoing change. MICRONUTRIENTS
 Are one of the major groups of nutrients your body needs.
CALORIES  They include:
 Fuel potential in a food. One calorie represents the amount of heat  Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune
required to raise one liter of water to one degree Celsius. function, blood clotting and other functions.
 Minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid
3 GROUPS OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES: balance and several other processes.
 AMYLASE – carbohydrate splitters
 LIPASE – fat splitters CARBOHYDRATES
 PROTEASES – protein splitters  Originally known as saccharides, a Greek word, meaning sugar.
 These are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
DIGESTABILITY OF AN AVERAGE PERSON oxygen.
 CHO – 90%  Source of ENERGY for the body
 PROTIENS – 92%  Consist of 60-100% of calories
 FATS – 95%  1 gram of carbohydrates contains 4 calories
 CHEMICAL NATURE: Ratio of hydrogens to oxygen is 2:1 CHO
FACTORS THAT AFFECT DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
 Crude Fibers – skin and seed of fruit CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Preparation and cooking COMPLEXITY – number of sugar unit
 Disease – intestinal cancer, diarrhea 1. Monosaccharides – simple sugar (ones sugar unit)
 Surgery – gastrectomy
 o Glucose – also known as dextrose, grape sugar, and physiologic o Cellulose – Non-digestible by humans.
sugar.  They lower the blood glucose level of people with
o Fructose – also known as fruit sugar or levulose sweetest of all diabetes, that is composed of glucose units from the main
sugar. constituent of the cell wall in most plants
o Galactose – also known as milk sugar. An important of the brain  important in the manufacture of numerous products such
and nerve tissue. as paper, textile and pharmaceuticals.
o Sugar alcohols – examples are mannitol and sorbitol. o Pectin – source from fruits and are often used as base for jellies
o Pentose – (ribose ang ribulose) – meat and seafood o Glycogen – animal starch. The store form of carbohydrates in the
o > simple sugar are water soluble and quickly absorb in the blood body (LIVER and MUSCLES).
stream o Inulin – a complex of sugar present in the roots of various plants
2. DISACCHARIDE – “Double Sugar”. Made up of monosaccharide. and used medically to test kidney function. It is
o Sucrose – Ordinary table sugar (glucose + fructose). a polysaccharide based on fructose.
o Lactose – Milk Sugar (glucose and galactose).
 necessary in calcium absorption and production of bacteria that FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
necessary in vitamin K production in the intestines.  Main source energy for the body.
 LAXATIVE EFFECT.  Protein sparing action.
o Maltose – is produced during the malting of cereals such as barley.  Necessary for normal fat metabolism
 Also called as malt sugar because it is derived from the  Cellulose (fiber) stimulates peristaltic movement of the
digestion of starch with the aid of the enzyme, DIASTASE, gastrointestinal tract. Absorb water to give bulk to the intestine.
found in sprouting grain  Lactose encourages the growth of beneficial bacteria, resulting in a
3. POLYSACCHARIDES – complex carbohydrates, composed of many laxative action.
sugar units.  Glucose is the sole source of energy in the brain. Proper functioning
o Starch – most important in human. They supply energy for longer of tissues.
period of time
 Example: rice, wheat, corn, carrots and potatoes. SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Starch are not water – soluble and require digestive  Whole grain
enzymes called amylase to break them apart.  Sweet potatoes and white potatoes, Bananas, dried fruits.
o Dextrin – formed by the breakdown of starch.  Milk (lactose)
 Obtained from starch by the application of heat or acids  Sugar, sweets, honey, maple sugar
and used mainly as adhesive and thickening agents.  “Empty Calories” – foods which do not contain any other nutrients
except carbohydrates.
COMMON PROBLEM AND DISEASES  Saturated Fat – shown to raise cholesterol
 Overweight  the most “dangerous” type of fat that lead to raise blood
 Diabetes cholesterol may lead to coronary heart disease.
 Tooth Decay  Difficult to metabolize causing weight gain.
 Depressed appetite  Source: butter, lard, meat, cheese, eggs, coconut oil,
 Fermentation causing gas formation chocolate, cakes, cookies.
 Cancer  Monosaturated Fats – lower level of “bad” cholesterol.
 Source: Nuts, avocado, canola oil, olive oil, sunflower oil,
DEFICIENCY peanut oil and butter, sesame oil.
 Ketosis – disease caused by lack of carbohydrates, in which the acid 
level of the body is raised.  Polyunsaturated Fats – Lower levels of cholesterol.
 Headache 
 Fatigue  Source: Sunflower, soybeans, flaxseed oils, wall nuts, fish
 Weakness
 Difficulty in concentrating
 Bad breath

FAT AND OTHER LIPIDS

 Fats, oils and waxes belong to the group of naturally occurring
materials called LIPIDS
 LIPIDS are those constituents of plants or animals which are insoluble
in water but soluble in other organic solvents.
 Most concentrated form of energy.
 Contains 9 calories per gram fat
 It is recommended 15-25% fat in the diet
 The basic unit of fat is called “triglyceride” which consist of molecule
of glycerol attached to the 3 fatty acids.
 It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in glyceride linkage.
 Chemical Nature: CnH2nO2 or CH3(CH2) －COOH

3 FORM OF FATTY ACIDS CLASSES

  Omega 3  High-density Lipoprotein (HDL)
 have a positive effect on reducing mortality from  sometimes called the “good” cholesterol because it carries
cardiovascular disease. cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver
 Provide the starting point for making hormones that regulate  Your liver then removes the cholesterol from your body.
blood clotting, contraction and relaxation of artery walls, and
inflammation. Reduce blood pressure. SOURCES OF DIETARY CHOLESTEROL
 Omega 6  RICHEST: egg yolk, fish roes, mayonnaise and shell fish
 “linoleic acid” polyunsaturated fatty acid.  MODERATE: fat on meat, duck, goose, cold cuts, whole milk,
 Lowers cholesterol level in the blood and helps in the cream, ice cream, cheese, butter and most commercially made cakes,
prevention of heart disease. biscuits and pastries.
 POOR: all fish and fish canned in vegetable oil, very lean meats,
FUNCTIONS poultry without skin, skimmed milk, low fat yoghurt and cottage
 Important source of calories to provide a continuous supply of energy. cheese.
 Protein sparing  CHOLESTEROL FREE: All vegetable and vegetable oils, fruit
 Maintain the constant blood temperature (including avocados and olives), nuts, rice, egg and sugar.
 Cushions vital organ such as kidney against injury.
 Facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A D E K) SOURCES OF FAT
 Provides satiety and delays onset of hunger.  Animal Fats-fat from meat, fish, poultry, milk, milk products and
 Contributes flavor and palatability to the diet. eggs.
 Vegetable Fats – margarine, seed and vegetable oil, nuts
CHOLESTEROL  Visible Fats – butter, cream, margarine, lard, fish liver oils, pork fat
 Is a major component of all cell membranes. It is required for  Invisible Fats – cheeses, olives, cakes, nuts, pastries
synthesis of sex hormones, bile acids and vitamin D. It is also a Diseases:
precursor of the steroid hormones  Heart Disease
 Is also made in the body and is taken also thru foods  Cancer
 a major factor in the development of heart disease
 Daily intake should not exceed 300 mg/day 10 Foods High Transfats
 Spreads – mayonnaise, margarine, butter
TYPES OF LIPOPROTEINS  Package foods – cake mixes, biscuits
 Low-density Lipoprotein (LDL)  Soups – noodle soups
 sometimes called the “bad” cholesterol because a high LDL  Fast foods – Mcdonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken
level leads to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries.  Frozen foods-frozen pies, pizza, breaded fish sticks, breaded chicken
  Baked goods – cupcakes  Lysine
 Cookies & cakes  Methionine
 Donuts  Threonine
 Cream Filled cookies  Phenylalanine
 Chips & Crackers  Serine
 Tryptophan
PROTEIN (CHON)  Valine
 the building blocks of the body.
Non- Essential Amino Acids
 It contains the elements of CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN AND
 are those that are produced by the body so not as necessary in
NITROGEN
the diet.
 Proteins is made up of amino acids which is the basic component of
 Alanine
protein
 Arginine
 There are 20 different amino acids
 Asparagine
 Comes from the Greek word proteinos meaning to hold or is the prime  Aspartic Acid
importance.  Cysteine
 This are complex organic compounds composed of amino as a  Glycine
building unit by a peptide bond.  Glutamine
 Chemical Nature: NH2 H-C-COOH  Glutamic Acid
 Histidine
AMINO ACIDS  Praline
 are the basic building blocks of proteins, and they serve as nitrogenous  Tyrosine
backbones for compounds like neurotransmitters and hormones
 Although there are hundreds of amino acids found in nature, only COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE PROTIEN:
about 20 amino acids are needed to make all the proteins found in the  Complete Protein
human body and most other forms of life.  contains all essential amino acid in sufficient quantities to
supply the body’s
TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS need
 Essential Amino Acids  are those that have all nine essential amino acids that our
 are those that are necessary for good health but cannot be bodies cannot naturally make
produced by the body and to must be supplied in the diet o Source: proteins from animals
 Isoleucine o Meat-beef, pork and lamb
 Leucine
 o Poultry-chicken, turkey and duck Maintaining a normal pH of the body.
o Fish  Hemoglobin and myoglobin, lipoproteins, insulin and epinephrine,
o Dairy Products-milk, yogurt, cheese and interferon, thrombin and digestion
 Contributing to enzymes activity that promotes chemical reaction in
 Incomplete Protein the body.
 deficient in one or more essential amino acids  Play a large role in the resistance of the body to disease.
 incomplete protein sources may have a few of the nine, but not
all of them DIETARY REQUIREMENT
Grains – beans, corn, oats, posta, whole grain breads  The average adults daily requirement to be 0,8 gram of protein each
Legumes, seeds arid Nuts-sesame seed, sunflower seed, peas, kilogram of the body weight.
rice,  Divide body weight by 2.2(the number of pounds per kilogram) 2.
Peanuts and cashew Multiply the answer obtained in the step 1 by 0.8 gram of protein per
 Vegetable-Broccoli kilogram of the body weight)
 Source: Plant (grains, legumes, seeds and nuts)
COMMON DISEASE
 Complimentary Proteins– two incomplete proteins combined to make 1. Heart Diseases
a complete protein. 2. Cancer (Prostate, Pancreas, Kidney, Breast and Colon)
 Source: munggo and rice, soybean and wheat, soybean and 3. Osteoporosis
nuts, peanut butter and sandwich, cereal and milk 4. Weight Control
5. Kidney Diseases
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS 6. Ketosis
 Structural Role 7. Protein- energy Malnutrition
 build and repair tissue  Marasmus – deficiency of all macronutrients
 1/5 or 20% of an adult body weight in protein  Kwashiorkor – deficiency in protein predominantly
 1/3 is in the muscle
 1/5 is in the bones and teeth Difference between Kwashiorkor and Marasmus
 1/10 is in the skin, and the rest is in the body fluids and tissues
Kwashiorkor Marasmus
 Fuel Nutrient –Supplies energy
 1 gram of protein supplies 4 kcal It develops in children whose It is due to deficiency of proteins and
 10-15% of diet. diet are deficient of protein. proteins.
 Regulator of the Physiologic Processes.
regulates osmotic pressure (Plasma proteins) It occurs in children between 6 It is common in infants under 1 year
 months and 3 years of age. age.  Vitamin D – Calciferol
 Vitamin E – Tocopherol
Subcutaneous fat us preserved. Subcutaneous fat is not preserved.
 Vitamin K – Phylloquinone
Edema is present. Edema is absent.  Vitamin C – Ascorbic Acid

Enlarged fatty liver. No fatty liver. CLASSFICATION OF VITAMIN

Ribs are not very prominent. Ribs become very prominent.  Fat Soluble
 Water Soluble
Lethargic Alert and irritable.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN (VIT. A, D, E, K)
Muscle wasting mild of absent. Severe muscle wasting.
 They are absorbed in the presence of fats and stored in the body
Poor appetite. Voracious feeder. (lymphatic system)
 Fat soluble vitamins generally have pre cursors or pro vitamins
The person suffering from The person suffering from Marasmus  They can be stored in the body; deficiencies are slow to develop
Kwashiorkor needs adequate needs adequate amounts of protein,
 Net absolutely needed daily from food sources
amounts of proteins. fats and carbohydates.
 Stable especially in daily cooking
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
 Water soluble vitamins are B-Complex group and Vitamin C
VITAMINS AND MINERALS 
 Vitamin” comes from the Latin word (vita” meaning life, “amine”  Dissolve in water and are not stored, they are eliminated in Urine so
means nitrogen compound) we need continuously supply of this vitamins in the diet everyday
 Complex organic compound to regulate body processes and maintain  are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage or preparation
body tissues  To reduce vitamin loss, refrigerate fresh product, keep milk and grain
 Vitamins do not give the body energy- 1 away from strong light
 Therefore, we cannot increase our physical capacity by taking extra  Use the cooking water from vegetable to prepare soup
vitamins
 Vitamins do not have caloric value.

NOMENCLTURE OF VITAMINS
 Vitamin B1 – Thiamine
 Vitamin A – Retinol  Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin
 Vitamin B3 – Niacin
 Vitamin B4 – Pantothenic Acid
 Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine
 Vitamin B8 – Biotin
 Pellarga
 Inability to absorb niacin or amino acid tryptophan may cause
pellarga
 It is characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and mental disturbance

MINERALS
 are not organic, but needed by the body in relatively small amounts
to help regulate body process and maintain tissue structure.
 Mineral DO NOT broken down during digestion nor destroy by heat
or light.

TRACE AND MAJOR MINERALS

 TRACE MINERALS – are required in our diet at amount not less
than 100g/day.
 MAJOR MINERALS – are required in our diet at amounts greater
than 100mg/day

PRIMARY ROLES
 Metabolic Health
 Antioxidant
 Blood Health
 Bone Health
Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome
 Electrolyte Balance
 Spectrum of Disorder
Wernicke Encephalopathy → Korsakoff Syndrome
MAJOR MINERALS
Wernicke Encephalopathy Mineral Symbo Function Deficiency Food Sources
 Opthalmoplegia – weakness or paralysis of eye muscle l
 Ataxia or unsteady gait
 Changes in mental state – confusion, apathy, difficulty concentrating Calcium C Maintenance Osteoporosis, Dairy
 Untreated – coma or death of bone and Convulsion, Products,
teeth Muscle spasm green leafy
vegetables,
 fish with energy iodized salts
bones metabolism

Phosphorus Ph Bone Growth Milk, cereal, Zinc Zn Fetal Whole grain

all foods development, meat, egg
wound healing
Magnesium Mg Muscle Green leafy
contraction, vegetables, Flouride Fl Teeth Dental Fortified
bone and teeth sea foo and maintenance carries water, tea, fish
structure legume bones

Sodium Na Body fluid and Hypertension, Salt, Selenium

acid base edema processed
balance foods Manganese

Potassium K Body fluid All whole Chromium

balance foods

Chloride Cl Body fluid Salt, Normal Values of Electrolytes in the Body

balance processed  Sodium: 135-145 mEq/L
foods  Potassium: 3.5-5 mEq/L
 Calcium: 4.5-5.5 mEq/L
 Magnesium: 4.5-5.5 mEq/L
 Phosphate: 1.7-2.6 mEq/L
TRACE MINERALS
 Chloride: 98-108 mEq/L
Mineral Symbol Function Deficeincy Food Source
WATER
Iron Fe Red blood cell Iron Dark green  Most important constituent
structure deficiency leafy  Major component of the body
anemia vegetables,  60-70% part of a body
liver and  Has no nutritional values and calories
legume
 Necessary to transport nutrients.
Iodine I Thyroid hormone Goiter Seafoods,  Regulate body temperature
development,  Remove waste materials
  Participates in the chemical reaction and energy production  the general term for a set of reference values used to plan and assess
 Recommended to drink at least 8 glasses a day nutrient intakes of healthy people.
 If trying to loose weight 12-15 glasses a day is recommended  It is the Standard Set average nutrient requirement values.
 A high intake of water aids in fat loss  It suggest upper limit of intakes, above which toxicity is likely to
 Vital every day occur.
 It also sets average nutrient requirements for use in nutrition research
Nutrient Recommendations-Standards and guidelines  These values, which vary by age and sex, include:
 Are set of Standards for healthy people’s energy and nutrient intakes. o Recommended Dietary Allowance
 Nutrition experts use these recommendations to assess intakes and o Adequate Intake (AI)
offer advice on amounts to consume o Telecotah Level (UL)
 These recommendations are issued by the Food and Nutrition Board of  The DRI committee has set values for all vitamins, minerals,
the of Medicine National Academy of Sciences. carbohydrates, fiber, lipids, protein, water and energy.
o This board addresses issues of safety, quality, and adequacy of  The advantage of DRI values is that it can be applied to diet goals of
the food supply: individuals.
 establishes principles and guidelines of adequate  Suggest upper limit of toxicity
dietary intake and renders authorative judgments on the  To set average nutrient requirements in researh
relationships among food intake, nutrition, and health.  DRI values have changed over the year
 DRI are estimates of the needs of healthy persons only.
Applications for Reference Intakes
 Medical problems alter nutrient needs
 Are used by governments, industry, academia, health services
 Benefits Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA).
o Serve as guide for procuring food supplies for groups of  is set to meet the needs of nearly all (97-98%) healthy people in each
healthy persons gender and life stage.
o They form the basis for planning meals for groups  This is the amount that should be consumed on a daily basis.
o They are used as reference point for evaluating the dietary  The RDA is two standard deviations above the EAR based on
intake of population subgroups. variability in requirements, or if the standard deviation is not known,
 Basis for food and nutrition education programs the RDA is 1.2 times the EAR
o Reference point for the nutrition labeling of food and dietary
supplements Estimated Average Requirement (EAR).
 is the estimated mean daily requirement for a nutrient as determined
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI): to meet the requirements of 50 percent of healthy people in each life
 stage and gender group (different amounts are provided based on age  is a range given as a percentage of total calorie intake – including
ranges and life stages. Such as pregnancy and lactation) carbohydrate, protein, and fat – and is associated with a reduced risk
 is based on the reduction of disease and other health parameters, of chronic disease and adequate intake of essential nutrients.
 It does not reflect the daily needs of individuals but is used to set the
RDA and for research purposes. SUMMARY ON DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE STANDARDS
Goals of DRI committee Nutrient Recommendations
Adequate Intake (AI)  The values are based on scientific research based on probability and
 is the recommended average daily nutrient level assumed to be risk, they are set for optimal intake (not minimum requirements),
adequate for all healthy people. reflect daily intakes (DI)
 is based on estimates-observed or experimentally determined  RDA & Al. Used by individuals for nutrient intake goals
approximations – and used when the RDA cannot be established o RDA-solid experimental evidence
because of insufficient data. o Al-scientific evidence and educated
 Guesswork Facilitating nutrition research & policy – EAR
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for safety. o Requirements for life stages and genders
 The Upper Limit is the maximum daily amount of nutrient that  Establish safety guidelines – UL
appears safe for most healthy people o Identification of potentially toxic levels
 The UL represents average daily intake from all sources, including o Danger zones
food, water, and supplements  Preventing chronic diseases
 Intake above upper limits is associated with toxicity symptoms > Most o Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution
often seen with overuse of supplements or intake of fortified foods.
o Ranges (AMDR) proportions
 Lack of a published UL does not indicate that high levels of the
Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)
nutrient are safe. Instead, it means there isn’t enough research
 is the average daily energy intake that should maintain energy
available at this time to establish a UL
balance in a healthy person.
 Set to maintain healthy body weight. Factors such as gender, age,
The Naïve View Versus the Accurate View of Optimal Nutrient Intakes
height, weight, and activity level are all considerations when
 Consuming too much nutrients endangers health (toxicity) and low
calculating this value.
levels (deficiency)
 Energy intake recommendation is set at a level predicted to maintain
 DRI recommends intake values within a safety range
body weight.
 The guidelines recommend physical activity to help balance calorie
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR).
intakes to achieve and sustain healthy body weight.
 It indicates the range of adequate intake of a macronutrient associated
with reduced risk of chronic diseases.
  It also suggest intake of vegetables, nutrient dense foods, whole grains  Limit potentially harmful dietary components
o Fat, sugar, cholesterol, salt, and alcohol
Calculations
 Calculate the percentage of calories from an energy nutrient in a days USDA MyPyramid Food Guide
meals by using this general Formula. (A nutrients calorie amount +  Always evaluate your diet by comparing the total food amounts that
total calories) X 100 it provides with those recommended by USDA
Calculate the percentage of calories from a protein in a days  USDA eating patterns helps diet planners in planning a healthy diet
meals.A days meal provide 50 grams of protein and 1,754 total that accurately provides the needed amount of food from each food
calories. group
First, Convert the protein grams to protein calories (protein provides 4  Vegetarians who eat no meat or its products can use USDA food
calories per gram) Therefore, 50x 4/1754 x100 =? patterns to make a balanced diet
Solve the following in the similar manner
a. For carbohydrate (carbohydrates provide 4cal/gram) Nutrient density
B. For fat (Fats provide 9cal/gram)  A measure of nutrients provided per calorie of food.
 A nutrient dense food provides vitamins, minerals and other
Dietary Guidelines Established for Americans beneficial substances with few calories.
 Is a Science-based advice to Promote health and Reduce risk of major
chronic disease Apply to most people age 2 and older GRAINS
 Choose nutritious foods based on USDA (The United States  Make at least half of the grain selections whole grains.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Guide  These foods contribute folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, iron,
 It uses food group plan- a diet planning tool. magnesium, selenium, and fiber.
o 1 oz grains is equivalent to 1 slice bread; c cooked rice, pasta,
Dietary Guideline- FOOD GROUP PLAN or cereal;
 Food group plan is a diet planning tool that sorts foods into groups o 1 oz dry pasta or rice; 1 c ready-to-eat cereal; 3 c popped
based on nutrient content and then specifies that people should eat popcorn.
certain minimum numbers of servings of food from each group  Whole grains (amaranth, barley, brown rice, buckwheat, bulgur,
o Help people achieve goals millet, cats, quinca, rye, wheat) and whole-grain, low-fat breads,
o Specifies portions cereals, crackers, and pastas; popcorn.
o Foods are sorted by nutrient density  Enriched bagels, breads, cereals, pastas (couscous, macaroni,
o Seven main classes of nutrients that the body needs. These are spaghetti), pretzels, rice, rolls, tortillas.
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fiber and
water.
  A Biscuits, cakes, cookies, cornbread, crackers, croissants, doughnuts, o Starchy Vegetables
french toast, fried rice, granola, muffins, pancakes, pastries, pies,  Baked beans, candied sweet potatoes, coleslaw, french fries, potato
presweetened cereals, taco shells, waffles. salad, refried beans, scalloped potatoes, tempura vegetables.

FRUITS MILK, YOGURT AND CHEESE

 Consume a variety of fruits and no more than one-half of the  Make fat-free or low-fat choices. Choose lactose-free products or
recommended intake as fruit juice. other calcium-rich foods if you don’t consume milk.
 These foods contribute folate, vitamin A, vitamin C, potassium, and  These foods contribute protein, riboflavin, vitamin B12, calcium,
fiber magnesium, potassium, and, when fortified, vitamin A and vitamin
o 1 c fruit is equivalent to 1 c fresh, frozen, or canned fruit: /½e D.
dried fruit; o 1 c milk is equivalent to 1 c fat-free milk or yogurt;
o 1 c fruit juice. o 1½ oz fat-free natural cheese;
 Apples, apricots, avocados, bananas, blueberries, cantaloupe, cherries, o 2 oz fat-free processed cheese.
grapefruit grapes, guava, kiwi, mango, nectarines, oranges, papaya,  Fat-free milk and fat-free milk products such as buttermilk, cheeses,
peaches, pears. Pineapples, plums, raspberries, strawberries, cottage cheese, yogurt; fat-free fortified soy milk.
tangerines, watermelon: dried fruit (dates, figs, raisins); unsweetened  1% low-fat milk, 2% reduced-fat milk, and whole milk; low-fat,
juices. reduced-fat, and whole-milk products such as cheeses, cottage
 Canned or frozen fruit in syrup: juices, punches, and fruit drinks with cheese, and yogurt; milk products with added sugars such as
added sugars fried plantains. chocolate milk, custard, ice cream, ice milk, milk shakes, pudding,
sherbet; fortified soy milk.
VEGETABLES
 Choose a variety of vegetables each day, and choose from all five MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, LEGUMES, EGGS, AND NUTS
subgroups several times a week.  Make lean or low-fat choices. Prepare them with little, or no, added
 These foods contribute folate, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, fat.
vitamin E, magnesium, potassium, and fiber.  Meat, poultry, fish, and eggs contribute protein, niacin, thiamin,
o 1 c vegetables is equivalent to 1 c cut-up raw or cooked vitamin B. vitamin B12 iron, magnesium, potassium, and zinc:
vegetables; legumes and nuts are notable for their protein, folate, thiamin,
o 1 c cooked legumes; 1 c vegetable juice; 2 c raw, leafy greens. vitamin E, iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc, and fiber.
 Vegetable subgroups o 1 oz meat is equivalent to 1 oz cooked lean meat, poultry, or
o Dark Green Leafy Vegetables fish;
o Orange and deep Yellow Vegetables o 1 egg: ¼ c cooked legumes or tofu;
o Legumes o 1 tbs peanut butter: ½ oz nuts or seeds.
  Poultry (no skin), fish, shellfish, legumes, eggs, lean meat (fat-  Solid fats that are often added to foods such as butter, cream cheese,
trimmed beef, game, ham, lamb, pork); low-fat tofu, tempeh, peanut hard margarine, lard, sour cream, and shortening.
butter, nuts (almonds, filberts, peanuts, pistachios, walnuts) or seeds  Added sugars such as brown sugar, candy, honey, jelly, molasses,
(flaxseeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds). soft drinks, sugar, and syrup.
 Bacon; baked beans; fried meat, fish, poultry, eggs, or tofu; refried  Alcoholic beverages include beer, wine, and liquor.
beans; ground beef: hot dogs: luncheon meats: marbled steaks; poultry
with skin: sausages; spare ribs. Calories aren’t bad for you. Your body needs calories for energy. But eating
too many calories – and not burning enough of them off through activity can
OILS lead to weight gain…. Some people watch their calories if they are trying to
 Select the recommended amounts of oils from among these sources. lose weight.
 These foods contribute vitamin E and essential fatty acids (see Chapter
5), along with abundant calories. Empty calories
o 1 tsp oil is equivalent to 1 tbs low-fat mayonnaise;  calories from solid fats and/or added sugar.
o 2 tbs light salad dressing: 1 tsp vegetable oil; 1 tsp soft  Solid fats and added sugars add calories to the food but few or no
margarine. nutrients. For this reason, the calories from solid fats and added
 Liquid vegetable oils such as canola, corn, flaxseed, nut, olive, peanut, sugars in a food are often called empty calories
safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower oils: mayonnaise, oil-based
salad dressing, soft Trans-free margarine. DISCRETIONARY CALORIE ALLOWANCE
 Unsaturated oils that occur naturally in foods such as avocados, fatty  Are excess calories to enjoy once your required nutrient needs are
fish, nuts, olives, seeds (flaxseeds, sesame seeds), and shellfish. met.
 They can be used toward higher-fat forms of foods like milk, cheese
SOLID FATS AND ADDED SUGAR and meat, and high-fat and sugary toppings such as butter, sauce,
 Limits intakes of food and beverages with solid fats and added sugars. sugar and syrup.
 It deliver saturated fat and trans fat, and intake should be kept low.  Discretionary calories can also count towards soda, candy and
 It contribute abundant calories but few nutrients, and intakes should alcohol.
not exceed the discretionary calorie allowance calories to meet energy
needs after all nutrient needs have been met with nutrient-dense foods. PORTION CONTROL
 Alcohol also contributes abundant calories but few nutrients, and its  important when you’re trying to lose weight and keep it off.
calories are counted among discretionary calories.  PORTION
o is the amount of food you put on your plate, while a serving
 Solid fats that occur in foods naturally such as milk fat and meat fat is an exact amount of food.
(see in previous lists).
  Important because it allows for you to have a tight handle on how Values apply to average person eating 2000-2500
many calories you are presumably taking in.. calorie level a day
 This means eating what your body needs instead of mindlessly  These values are set for things that do not have an
overindulging. RDA.
 The Portion Plate is an interactive tool for teaching consumers  For example, Low fat food label should contain 3
 Is an actual melamine, dishwasher-safe plate that offers a tangible grams of fat or less per serving
demonstration of how much food we should eat. o RDI or Reference Daily value
 is based on RDA (recommended dietary allowance):
FOOD LABELS  It is established for 25 essential vitamins and minerals
 carry useful information to help you make good choices about food.  Separate RDI exist for infants, toddlers, aged 4+
 will tell you if the food contains an additive that you may want to pregnant and lactating women
avoid.  RDI and DRV are combined under daily value (DV) on food labels.
 The nutrition information panel helps you to compare the nutrient
profile of similar products and choose the one that suits your needs. EXCHANGE SYSTEM
 All food labels should have Daily values.  The exchange system is the basis of your meal plan.
 Diabetes diet
Foods with more than one ingredient must have an ingredient list on the label.  Weight loss, CVD, Renal, HTN, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis
Ingredients are listed in descending order by weight.  Excellent tool for:
Those in the largest amounts are listed first. This information is particularly o Meal planning
helpful to individuals with food sensitivities. o Calorie control
Those who wish to avoid pork or shellfish, limit added sugars or people who o Meeting AMDRs and DRIS
prefer vegetarian eating.
Advantages
 More than one energy source gives us
DAILY VALUES  variety of healthful food choices
 It is a food labelling standard, found in food labels.  According to different age groups
 It was established by Food and drug administration (FDA)  allows individuals to be accountable for what they eat
 Has 2 values
o DRV or Daily Reference value: Disadvantages
 Established for total fiat, saturated fatty acids, proteins,  Possibility of measurement error
cholesterol, carbohydrate, fiber, sodium.  Absorption rates vary in different individuals
 Portion sizes are based on:
  Grams of protein  Fresh, frozen and dry fruits have fiber
 Grams of carbohydrate >Grams of fat  beta carotene, vitamin C, and other antioxidants like lyco -pene
 Total number of Calories
VEGETBLES
To use the exchange system  High in vitamins and minerals
 Familiarize yourself with the different food groups and the amounts  Vegetables contain 2-3 grams of dietary fiber
indicated in your meal plan.  brightly color

Standard measurement used in this present: MILK AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES

 1cup = 236ml  an excellent source of calcium.
 1 tbsp = 14.8ml  Saturated fat content dairy
 1tsp = 4.2ml  Healthy bones and teeth,
 1oz = 29.57ml  Reduce high blood pressure
HANDY GUIDE TO PORTION SIZE  Control weight.
 PALM not including fingers and thumb – 3 ounces of cooked and
boneless meat. MEAT AND ALTERNATIVES
 FIST – a cup or 30 grams of carbs for foods  Primary source of protein
 THUMB – 1 tablespoon or serving of regular salad dressing reduced-  Choose lean Meat
fat mayonnaise, or reduced-fat margarine.  Eat fish at least twice a week
 THUMB TIP –1 teaspoon or 1 serving of margarine, mayonnaise, or  Beans fiber source
other fats or oils.
Hand sizes vary. These portion estimates are based on a woman’s hand size. FATS
Measuring or weighing foods is the most accurate way to figure out portion  Vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
size.  essential fatty acids
 weight gain
STARCHES
 increase in blood cholesterol levels
 Whole grain products average about 2 grams of fiber per serving
 A good source of B vitamins OTHER FOODS
 Measurement units after cooking  Contain added sugar
 low in vitamins, minerals, and fiber
FRUITS
 High in vitamins and minerals
 Starch Fruits Vegetable Milk Meat Fats Others nourishment, health supervision and efficient medical attention, and
s is taught the elements of healthy living (Reyala, 2000).
 Promotion and maintenance of optimum health of the women and
Carbo 15g 15g 5g 12g 0 0 15g newborn.
Protein 3g 0 2g 8 7 0 Vary
Philosophy of MCN
Fats 0 0 0 0-8g 3-8g 5g Vary  Is community-centered
 Is research-centered
Calorie 80 cal 60 cal 25cal 90- 35- 45 Vary
 Is based on nursing theory
150 100 cal
cal cal  Protects the rights of all family members
 Uses a high degree of independent functioning
 Places importance on promotion of health
Combining Food Guide Pyramid Plan with the Exchange Lists  Is based on the belief that pregnancies or childhood illness are
Helps choose foods that provide all nutrients Promotes adequacy, stressful because they are crises.
balance and variety exchange system uses calorie control and  Is a challenging role for the nurse and is a major factor in promoting
moderation high level wellness in families.
NCM 107 :  Pregnancy, labor and delivery and the puerperium are part of the
continuum of the total life cycle.
MOTHER and CHILD HEALTH  Personal, cultural and religious attitudes influence the meaning of
 Refer to mother and child relationship to one another and pregnancy for individuals and make each experience unique.
consideration of the entire family as well as the culture and  Maternal-child nursing is family centered. The father of the child is
socioeconomic environment as framework of the patient. as important as the mother.
 It involves the care of the woman and family throughout pregnancy
and childbirth and the health promotion and illness care for the Strategic thrusts
children and families.  Launch and implement the Basic Emergency Obstetric Care strategy
in coordination with the DOH.
Goals of MCH  It entails the establishments of facilities that provide
 To ensure that every expectant and nursing mother maintains good emergency obstetric care for every 125,000 population and
health, learns the art of child care, has normal delivery and bears which are located strategically.
healthy child.  Improves the quality of prenatal and postnatal care
 That every child, wherever possible lives and grows up in a family  Reduce women’s exposure to health risks through the
unit with love and security, in healthy surroundings, receives adequate institutionalization of responsible parenthood and provisions
 of appropriate health care package to all women of 14. Life Below Water
reproductive age especially those who are 15. Life on Land
o less than 18 years old and over 35 years of age, 16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
o women with low education and financial resources, 17. Partnerships for the Goals
o women with unmanaged chronic illness
o and women who had just given birth in the last 18 DEFINITION OF TERMS:
months. SEXUALITY
 Includes how you feel about your body, - interest in sexual activity,
Millennium Development Goals  Your need for touch,
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger  The ability to communicate your sexual needs to a partner, and
2. Achieve universal primary education  The ability to engage in satisfying sexual activity
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality SEXUAL HEALTH
5. Improve maternal health  integration of the somatic, emotional, intellectual and social aspects
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases of sexual being, in ways that are positively enriching and that
7. Ensure environmental sustainability enhance personality communication and love (WHO)
8. Global partnership for development
SEX
17 Sustainable Development Goals:  used to identify biologic male of female status.
1. No Poverty  also used to describe sexual behavior in general
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well being GENDER – indicates biologic male or female
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality GENDER IDENTITY
6. Clean Water and Sanitation  is one’s self image as a female or male
7. Affordable and Clean Energy  it is the result of a long series of developmental events that may or
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth may not conform to one’s apparent biologic sex
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
10. Reduced Inequalities  Puberty – stage where an individual reaches sexual maturity and is
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities physically capable of sexual reproduction
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
 Primary sex characteristics – sex organs directly involved in
13. Climate Action
reproduction
  Secondary sex characteristics – develop during puberty, not directly SOME GENERAL FINDINGS
involved in reproduction, but distinguish male from female  Sexual orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self
 Adolescent growth spurt – period of accelerated growth during that probably does not change
puberty  Bell (1981) reported that sexual orientation is determined
 Menarche – female’s first menstrual period before adolescence and usually 3 years before beginning
sexual activity
WHAT MOTIVATES SEXUAL BEHAVIOR?  No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood
 Necessary for the survival of the species (but not of the individual) experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience)
 Lower animals motivated by hormonal changes (in the female)  Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal
 Higher species are less influenced by hormones (more by learning and stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a
environmental influences) role in sexual attraction

SEXUAL ORIENTATION FACTORS AFFECTING SEXUALITY

 direction of a person’s emotional and erotic attractions  Developmental level
 Culture
TYPES:  Personal Ethics
 Heterosexual – sexual attraction for the opposite sex  Religious Values
 Homosexual – sexual attraction for the same sex  Medications
 Gay – typically used to describe male homosexuals  Health Status
 Lesbian – typically used to describe female
 Bisexual – sexual attraction for both sexes HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
 Transsexual – transgendered person  Phase 1: EXCITEMENT
 Muscle tension increases.
DETERMINATION OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION  Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
 Genetics  Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the
 role suggested by twin and family studies -16% of fraternal chest and back).
twins-one sibling is  Nipples become hardened or erect.
 48% of identical twins and homosexual  Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of
 Brain structure -differences found in hypothalamus of homosexual and the woman’s clitoris and labia minora (inner lips), and
heterosexual men erection of the man’s penis.
 Complex issue with no clear answers  Vaginal lubrication begins.
  The woman’s breasts become fuller and the vaginal walls Its advantage is the ability to concentrate on means of giving
begin to swell. and receiving love other than through sexual expression
 The man’s testicles swell, their scrotum tightens and begin  MASTURBATION
secreting a lubricating liquid  is self-stimulation for erotic pleasure
 Phase 2: PLATEAU  it can also be a mutually enjoyable activity for sexual partners
 The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
 The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and SEXUAL DISORDERS AND PROBLEMS
the vaginal walls turn a dark purple.  Sexual dysfunction – consistent disturbance in sexual desire, arousal,
 The woman’s clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be or orgasm that causes psychological distress and interpersonal
painful to touch) and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid difficulties
direct stimulation from the penis.  41% of women and 31% of men report sexual problems
 The man’s testicles tighten.  Low desire and arousal problems common among women
 Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure continue to increase.  Premature ejaculation and erectile problems common among men
 Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.
 Muscle tension increases.
 Phase 3: RESOLUTION
 male ejaculates, female vaginal contractions
 shortest phase of cycle, blood pressure & heart rate at their PARAPHILIA
peak  Any of several forms of nontraditional sexual behavior where sexual
 men typically experience one intense orgasm, many women gratification depends on an unusual experience, object, or fantasy
can have multiple  Exhibitionism – arousal from exposing one’s genitals to
 Phase 4: RESOLUTION strangers
 During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level  Fetishism – arousal in response to use of certain objects
of functioning, and swelled and erect body parts return to their (shoes, leather) or situations
previous size and color.  Frotteurism – arousal from touching or rubbing against a
 This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being, non-consenting person, such as in a bus or subway
enhanced intimacy and, often, fatigue.  Voyeurism – obtaining sexual arousal by looking at another
person’s body
TYPES OF SEXUAL EXPRESSION  Transvestism – an individual who dresses to take on the role
 CELIBACY of the opposite sex
 is abstinence from sexual activity.  Sexual sadisms – arousal achieved through intentionally
inflicting psychological/ physical pain
  Sexual masochism – sexual arousal achieved through  Mother is restricted from wearing tight-fitted clothing because it
intentionally being humiliated, beaten, bound, or made to could cause the fetus to become handicapped
psychological/physical pain  Mother is told to rub coconut oil unto her abdomen to prevent the
 Bestiality – sexual desire for animals formation of stretch marks
 Pedophilia – individuals who are interested in sexual
encounters with children

FILIPINO TRADITIONAL HEALTH BELIEFS

PRENATAL CARE
 Do not cross-over fence coz the baby will have the cord go over
his/her neck and choke
 Mother is discouraged to wear anything around the To determine if the child would be male or female
 Neck to prevent cord coil Do not go out at night, this will weaken the  Male
baby  The mother’s stomach is set on high as is pointy in contour
 Do not wear black clothes, this is bad luck for the baby  The mother retains her beauty throughout pregnancy
 Do not eat mangoes, this will cause a baby girl to have hair on her face  When walking, the mother would step with her left foot first
 Mother is given panigan, a wine marinated roots and herbs taken  Female
before eating to make the fetus healthy  The mother’s stomach is set lower & is more round in contour
 Mother is encouraged to eat raw eggs to build strength for labor, pigs  Melasma occurs (the mask of pregnancy) or swelling
tail to promote fetal movement, and calamansi so that the baby’s face occurred because it was said that the mother’s beauty was
would be smooth stolen by her child
 She is advised not to watch scary movies because it could cause her to  When walking, the mother would step with her right foot first
go into preterm labor
 She is advised also not to think negatively towards a person because it LABOR AND DELIVERY
would cause the baby to resemble that person  With the thin bamboo that was sharpened and then the hilot would
 It was believed that cleaning the toilet would cause the baby to be cute cut the umbilical cord and the placenta.Hilot would bathe the baby
 If the baby would be in breech position, the SO should walk down a and then wrapped the umbilical cord, coconut oil and tobacco in a
fight of stairs, on all fours, with the head down so that the fetus would piece of cloth for 7 days. After that, the hilot would tell the family to
turn and born normally burn the package in a pot filled with charcoal inside the house so the
smoke fill the entire house to make the house a good environment for
 Mother is restricted from walking outside without footwear to prevent
the baby
her form becoming ill
  The hilot would throw the placenta in the river. They believe this takes  Perineum
the bad luck away from the baby  Individual differences in:
 Ginger is either applied unto the stomach or boiled in water for the  Size
woman to drink to help ease the pain  Coloration
 The placenta would be hang, with the child’s name written on a piece  Shape of external genetalia are common
of paper so that he/she would become intelligent
 Families prefer to have boys first to help the farm in the future MONS PUBIS
 The triangular mound of fatty tissue that covers the pubic bone
POST PARTUM  It protects the pubic symphysis
 The hilot would teach the mother to bind her hips tightly to bring all  During adolescence sex hormones trigger the growth of pubic hair on
the muscles used in the birthing process back to normal again. The tear the mons pubis
on her vagina would also go back together and return to its pre-  Hair varies in coarseness curliness, amount, color and thickness
pregnancy state
 The hilot would come everyday to the house for 12 days to massage LABIA MAJORA (outer lips)
the mother’s body and hips.  They have a darker pigmentation
 Some refrained from hair washing for about one month to prevent  Protect the introitus and urethral openings
excessive heat loss, which would cause the head to shake  Are covered with hair and sebaceous glands
 Lighting of small fires around the bed while the mother and newborn  Tend to be smooth, moist, and hairless
were in it which is believed to promote strength as the mother healed  Become flaccid with age and after childbirth
and the newborn grew
LABIA MINORA (inner lips)
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY- REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM  Made up of erectile, connective tissue that darkens and swells during
MENSTRUAL CYCLE sexual arousal
EXTERNAL GENITALIA  Located inside the labia majora
 The vulva refers to those parts that are outwardly visible  They are more sensitive and responsive to touch than the labia
 The vulva includes: majora
 Mons pubis  The labia minora tightens during intercourse
 Labia majora
 Labia minora CLITORIS
 Clitoris  Highly sensitive organ composed of nerves, blood vessels, and
 Urethral opening erectile tissue
 Vaginal opening
 Located under the prepuce
  It is made up of a shaft and a glans  It is located between the bladder and rectum
 Becomes engorged with blood during sexual stimulation  It functions:
 Key to sexual pleasure for most women  As a passageway for the menstrual flow
 Urethral opening is located directly below clitoris  For uterine secretions to pass down through the introitus
 As the birth canal during labor
VAGINAL OPENING INTROITUS  With the help of two Bartholin’s glands becomes lubricated
 Opening may be covered by a thin sheath called the hymen during SI
 Using the presence of an intact hymen for determining virginity is
erroneous CERVIX
 Some women are born without hymens  The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina
 The hymen can be perforated by many different events  The cervical opening to the vagina is small
 This acts as a safety precaution against foreign bodies entering the
uterus
PERINEUM  During childbirth, the cervix dilates to accommodate the passage of
 The muscle and tissue located between the vaginal opening and anal the fetus
canal  This dilation is a sign that labor has begun
 It supports and surrounds the lower parts of the urinary and digestive
tracts UTERUS (womb)
 The perineum contains an abundance of nerve endings that make it  A pear shaped organ about the size of a clenched fist
sensitive to touch  It is made up of the endometrium, myometrium and perimetrium
 An episiotomy is an incision of the perinium used during childbirth for  Consists of blood-enriched tissue that sloughs off each month during
widening the vaginal opening menstrual cycle
 The muscles of the uterus expand to accommodate a growing fetus
INTERNAL GENITALIA and push it through the birth canal
 The internal genitalia consists of the:
 Vagina FALLOPIAN TUBES (Oviducts/ Uterine Tube)
 Cervix  Serve as a pathway for the ovum to the uterus
 Uterus  Male sperm fertilization site
 Fallopian Tubes  Fertilized egg takes approximately 6 to 10 days to travel through the
 Ovaries fallopian tube to implant in the uterine lining
VAGINA
 It connects the cervix to the external genitals OVARIES – female gonads/ sex glands
 They develop and expel an ovum each month Normal Menstruation
A woman is born with approximately 400,000 immature eggs called  9 years → 12 years → 16 years
follicles  Highest rate of anovulatory cycles < 20 or 40 > years old
 During a lifetime a woman release at 400 to 500 fully matured eggs  Duration of flow – 2-8 days
for fertilization  Amount of flow depends on how rapid endometrium sheds
 The follicles in the ovaries produce the female sex hormones,  Incomplete shedding – heavier flow, blood loss anemia
progesterone and estrogen  Counted from 1st day of flow
 These hormones prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized  Normal 21 – 35 days
egg  14 day luteal phase
MENSTRUATION  Cyclic events
 Consist of periodic changes occuring in the ovaries and uterus of a  Vaginal discharge
sexually mature, nonpregnant female that result in the  Mittleschmertz
 Production of secondary oocyte  Molimina
 Preparation of uterus for implantation  PMS

MENSTRUAL CYCLE SEQUENTIAL STEPS IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 Process in which females ripen or release one mature egg Proliferative Phase
 From beginning of menstruation to the beginning of next  On the 3rd day of the menstrual cycle, SERUM ESTROGEN level is
 Average menstrual cycle – repeat every 28 days or 21 to 40 days at its lowest triggers the HYPOTHALAMUS to produce FSHRF –
 Average menstrual period – 5 days follicle stimulating hormone releasing factor.
 Blood loss- 50cc or ¼ cup of fibrinolysis  FSHRF stimulate the APG to produce FSH-(follicle stimulating
hormone) which will act on one immature oocyte within the ovary
Key Terms and Definition inside a primordial follicle stimulating it’s growth.
 Menarche – age at onset of menstruation  Because of FHS, ESTROGEN will now be produced in increasing
 Primary amenorrhea – absence of menstruation despite signs of amounts inside the follicle, which is found inside the OVARY. Once
puberty the estrogen is produced, the primordial follicle will now be termed
 Secondary amenorrhea – absence of menstruation for 3-6 months in as GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE (mature secondary oocyte)
a woman who previously menstruated  The graafian follicle is therefore the structure which contains high
 Dysfunctional uterine bleeding – irregular bleeding due to amounts of estrogen.
anovulation or anovulatory cycle  ESTROGEN in the Graafian follicle will cause the cells in the uterus
 Oligomenorrhea – menstrual interval greater than 35 days to proliferate, increasing it’s thickness to about eightfold. This
uterine phase is called PROLIFERATIVE PHASE.
  FOLLICULAR PHASE – change from primordial to Graafian  SECRETORY PHASE because it secretes the most important
follicle hormone of pregnancy
 Estrogenic Phase – predominance if estrogen  Progesterone – hormone of pregnancy
 Postmenstrual Phase – since it comes after menses  LUTEAL PHASE– In view of the change of Graafian follicle
 It is also called PREOVULATORY PHASE. to Corpus luteum
 POSTOVULATORY PHASE – occurs just after ovulation
Ovulation Phase  And it is also called the PREMENSTRUAL PHASE.
 On the 13th day of the menstrual cycle, there is now VERY HIGH
LEVEL of ESTROGEN, and VERY LOW LEVEL OF Menses
PROGESTERONE which will stimulate the HYPOTHALAMUS to  By the 25th day of the menstrual cycle, if the mature ovum has not
produce LHRF (luteinizing hormone releasing factor) been fertilized by then, the corpus luteum will start to contain
 LHRF will stimulate the APG to produce LH (Luteinizing hormone) diminishing amounts of estrogen & progesterone.
 LH in turn will stimulate the OVARY to produce PROGESTERONE.  Since estrogen, which made the thickened uterine lining, &
 The increased amounts of both ESTROGEN & PROGESTERONE progesterone which increased the capillaries, have diminished, the
pushes the now mature OVUM to the surface of the ovary, until the thickened lining of the uterus will degenerate & slough off & the
following day (the 14th day of menstrual cycle), the Graafian follicle capillaries will rupture after 3 – 4 days, thus beginning another
ruptures & releases the mature ovum = OVULATION menstrual cycle.
 Once OVULATION has taken place, the Graafian follicle appears  The corpus luteum, which has now turned white, is called CORPUS
yellowish because of large amounts of Progesterone. It is termed as ALBICANS.
CORPUS LUTEUM

Luteum / Secretory Phase ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

 PROGESTERONE causes the glands of the uterine endothelium to  When the ovary releases the mature ovum from the graafian follicle
become twisted in appearance because of the increasing number of on the day of ovulation,
capillaries.  MITTELSCHMERZ – a normal pain sensation felt in either
 Progesterone is the hormone designed to promote pregnancy because the right or left lower quadrant of the woman’s abdomen
makes the uterus nutritionally abundant with blood in order for the  The fist 14 days of the menstrual cycle is a very variable period. The
fertilized ovum to survive should conception takes place. last 14 days (the second half of the menstrual cycle) is a fixed period.
 PROGESTATIONAL PHASE because progesterone makes the  Exactly two weeks after ovulation, menstruation will occur,
uterine environment rich, soft & spongy like a velvet for unless pregnancy takes place because the corpus luteum has 2
suitable implantation of the fertilized ovum weeks life span.
 In a 28 days cycle, ovulation takes place on the 14th day.
  In a 32 days cycle, ovulation takes place on the 18th day.  During the first half of the cycle (Days 1-14) the pituitary produces
 In a 26 days cycle, ovulation takes place on the 12th day. FSH, which stimulates egg production.”
 Subtract 14 days from the cycle.  This hormone also triggers the release of estrogen from the ovaries.
 Menstruation takes place even without ovulation, as in women taking
contraceptives. Changes in Pituitary Hormones Days 14-28
 Ovulation can also occur even without menstruation, as in  On the 14th day the pituitary begins releasing LH causing ovulation
breastfeeding women.  LH also directs the production of progesterone which maintains the
growth of the endometrium..
PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME  If the egg is not fertilized upon arrival in the uterus progesterone
 Prevalence levels drop causing estrogen levels to drop leading to menstruation.
 Variable symptoms, retrospective association CHANGES IN OVARIES
 Cultural conditioning: negative view of menstruation  Stage 1 – An egg is beginning to mature within a cluster of cells
 Myriad of luteal phase symptoms in varying degrees called a follicle
 Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder  Stage 2 – Rapid follicle and egg growth
 Treatment options:  Stage 3 – Ovulation occurs; fully mature egg bursts out of the follicle
 Inhibition of prostaglandin release (fertile) empty follicle transforms into the corpus luteum
 SSRIS  Stage 4 – Egg travels through fallopian tube (7 days) if not fertilized
 OCPs upon arrival in uterus the corpus luteum shrinks triggering
menstruation and ripening of new egg.
Parts Responsible for Menstruation:
 Hypothalamus CHANGES IN IVARIAN HORMONE
 Anterior pituitary gland  Estrogen “Hormone of Women”
 Uterus  gradually increases during days 1-14
 Ovaries  signals body to thicken the lining of the uterus
 Levels drop sharply after ovulation.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle  Primary function:
 Proliferative Phase  Development of secondary sexual characteristics in
 Secretory phase female
 Ischemic phase  Inhibits FHS
 Menstruation  Responsible for hypertrophy of the myometrium
 Responsible for Spinnbarkeit and Ferning (Cervical
Changes in Pituitary Hormones Days 1-14: Mucus or billing method)
  Spinnbarkeit – clear, slippery texture of the  Stage 3-Endometrium continues to thicken
uncooked egg typical of cervical mucus during  Stage 4- The endometrium is at it’s thickest point.
ovulation
 Ferning – test for the presence of estrogen
causing the cervical mucus to dry on fernlike DAY 1 -14 DAY 14-28
pattern Pituitary Gland Pituitary Gland
 Billing method – estimating ovulation time by ↓ ↓
changes in the mucus of the cervix during Produces FSH Produces LH (Luteinizing
menstrual cycle ( Follicle Stimulating Hormone) Hormone)
 Responsible for the development of ductile structure in ↓ ↓
the breast Triggers formation of the Triggers Ovulation and the
 Responsible for the increase osteoblastic activity Follicle formation of the Corpus Luteum
 Vaginal lubrication and sexual desire Within the ovary Within the ovary
 Sodium retention causing weight gain ↓ ↓
 Progesterone “Hormone of Mother” Produces Estrogen & Ovum Produces Progesterone
 Levels remain low during the first half of the cycle ↓ ↓
 increase sharply during the second half of the cycle. Triggers uterine lining Continues uterine lining thickening
 Maintaining the growth of the endometrium lining. thickening
 Primary function
 Prepare the endometrium for implantation
 Secondary function
 Inhibit uterine contraction
 Inhibit LH
 Decrease GI motility
 Development of mammary gland
 Increase in the basal body temperature
 Mood swings in women

CHANGES IN THE UTERUS

 Stage 1- Menstruation Endometrium breaks down and blood, mucus,
tissue, and the egg are shed through the vagina.
 Stage 2- Menstrual flow stops & endometrium begins to thicken.
 FERTILIZATION / conception, impregnation, fecundation
 is the union of the sperm and ova
 Begins with 46 pair of chromosomes, splits off to 23 then combine
for a unique new 46 pair.
 Stages of fetal Development:
A. Pre-embryonic- 1st 2 weeks after fertilization
B. Embryonic-week 3 to 8th week or (14 to 60 days)
C. Fetal- 8th week until birth

FERTILIZATION PROCESS
A. Life span
 Ovum-28-48 hours
 Sperm-48-72 hours
 normally-2.5 ml containing 50-200 million of spermatozoa/ml
or average of 400 million per ejaculation
B. Terms:
 Fornix – where the sperm is deposited after the implantation
 Capacitation – the final process the sperm undergoes to be ready to
fertilize

The development of a Fetus:

 Ovulation to fertilization
 Zygote
 Morula
 Blastocyst
 Thropoblast
 Stages and Time Frames
 Ovum
 Zygote
 Morula
PHYSIOLOGY OF CONCEPTION  Blastocyst
 Embryo
  Fetus
FUNCTION OF DECIDUA
2. Implantation  Contains hormone that makes possible the opposition of the floating
 S/S-slight vaginal bleeding blastocyst
 Three Processes of Implantation:  Attracts the floating blastocyst
 Apposition-when the blastocyst begin to brush to the  Has unique blood supply
endometrial lining  Postulate to have growth factor that promote placenta growth
 Adhesion- when the blastocyst begins the attach the  Limit the extent of thropoblastic penetration
endometrial lining  Limit infectious process for
 Invasion-when the blastocyst begin to settle down in the
endometrial lining CHORIONIC VILLI
 are probing finger like structure that reach out to the endometrial
3. Development of Placenta lining that develops after 11 to 12 days
 A. Chorionic villi formation  3 parts: (1 central core and 2 Outer covering layers)
 b. Placenta  Mesoderm-central core layer that contains capillaries fetal
 C. Decidua formation  Syncytiotrophoblast-production of placental hormone
 Cytotropoblast- inner part of the two layers “Langhan layers”
Embryonic and Fetal Structure: and disappear
 A. The decidua
 B. Chorionic villi Hormones – Produces by the Chorionic Villi
 C. The placenta  HCG
 D. Umbilical cord  Progesterone
 E. Membranes and amniotic fluid  Estrogen
 HPL
DECIDUA  Relaxin
 “Pregnant endometrium”
 Latin term for “Falling off” PLACENTA
 3 Parts:  1 arises from the thropoblastic layer
 decidua basales- lies directly where the embryo is implanted  a multifunctional organ for it serves as fetal lung, kidney and GIT
 establish communication with maternal blood vessels and as a separate endocrine organ
 decidua capsularis – it covers the fetus  FUNCTION:
 Decidua vera- the remaining portion of the 1. Respiratory
 2. GIT  Mother transmits immunoglobulin G (IgG) to fetus providing limited
3. Circulatory passive immunity.
4. Endocrine  Leakage: caused by membrane defect: may allow maternal and fetal
5. Protects the fetus blood mixing.
 Facilitates gas and nutrient exchange between maternal and fetal
Facts: blood.
 Weigh-500-1000g  The blood itself does not mix.
 15-20 cm in diameter
 2-3 cm thick Umbilical Cord
 contains 15-20 cotyledons – Dirty Duncan” and “Shiny Schultz”  is formed from the amnion and the chorion
 Connecting link between fetus and placenta.
Layers of the placenta:  Contains: 2 arteries and 1 vein supported by mucoid material
 Maternal surface (Wharton’s jelly) to prevent kinking and knotting.
 Fetal surface  Contains NO pain receptors.
 Function:
Deoxygenated blood leaves fetus through the umbilical arteries and enters  Transports oxygen and nutrients to fetus from the placenta
placenta, where it is oxygenated. Oxygenated blood leaves placenta through and returns waste products from the fetus to the placenta.
the umbilical vein, which enters fetus  transport 02 and nutrient to the fetus and waste product from
the placenta
PLACENTA produce protein hormones: Facts:
 Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG)- 8-10 days past conception, is  53 cm or 21 inches long at term
basis for pregnancy test  2 cm thick or ¾ inches
 Progesterone  composed of: 1 vein and 2 arteries
 Estrogen  Contains: Wharton jelly
 Human Placental Lactogen  Unique: absence of nerve endings and receptors
Problem:
Sieve/filter-allows smaller particles 0 through and holds back larger  Short cord- abruptio placenta (nauna placenta)
molecules. Passage of materials in either direction is effected by:  Long cord-cord coil or cord prolapse (presenting part umbilicus
 Diffusion: gases, water, electrolytes D Membranes
 Facilitated transfer: glucose, amino acids, minerals.  develops from the chorionic villi thus forming the fetal membranes
 Pinocytosis: movement of minute particle  has 2 layers:
  Chorionic membranes- the outermost layer  Acts as a excretion-collection repository
 Amniotic membranes- lies beneath the chorionic membranes
 FXN-produces amniotic fluid VIABILITY
 Capability of fetus to survive outside uterus at the earliest gestational
Fetal Membrane age – 22-24 weeks
 Amnion  Survival depends on:
 Chorion  Maturity of fetal central nervous system
Amniotic fluid or “Bag of Water”  Maturity of lungs
 clear, musty or mousy odor with crystallized ferning pattern
 Clear, yellowish fluid surrounding the developing fetus. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Average amount 1000 ml.  Terminal SAC period- 24 Weeks to birth
 Growth of primitive alveoli
Facts:  Pulmonary surfactants produced which act as wetting agents that
 Normal amount-500-1000 cc prevent alveolar walls from sticking
 Ph-7.2  Insufficient surfactant – RDS
 Problems: Poly and Oligo  Lecithin/Sphingomyelin-Phospho Lipids
 Oligohydramnios – Having <300ml ; associated with fetal  L/S Ratio
renal abnormalities.  30-32 Weeks 1.2:1
 Hydramnios– Having > 2 L ;, associated with GI and other  35 Weeks 2:1 (MATURITY)
malformations. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Functions:  1st System to function
 Cushion fetus during sudden trauma  FHR 120-160/Min
 Maintains temp  Can hear FHR with doppler at 10-12 Weeks
 Facilitate musculoskeletal development
 Prevent cord compression FETAL CIRCULATION
 Helps in the delivery process  Arteries in umbilical cord and fetal body carry deoxygenated blood.
 Protects Fetus  Vein in cord and those in fetal body carry oxygenated blood
 Supports Symmetrical Growth  Ductus venosus
 Prevents Adherence to amnion  connects umbilical vein and inferior vena cava; bypassing
 Allows Movement portal circulation
 Source of oral fluid  Foramen Ovale
  allows blood to flow from right to left atrium, bypassing  Changes are initiated by baby’s first breath.
lungs.  Fetal and Neonatal Circulation
 Blood is shunted from right atrium to left atrium, skipping  1/Req = 1/R, +1/R2
the lungs.  Before birth R, is high. Thus most of blood bypasses the lung.
 More than one- third of blood takes this route.  After birth R1 decreases and blood is directed through the
 Is a valve with two flaps that prevent back-flow. lungs.
 Ductus Arteriosus
 allows blood flow from pulmonary artery to aorta, Foramen Ovale – Closes shortly after birth, fuses completely in first year.
bypassing fetal lungs; Ductus arteriousus –Closes soon after birth, becomes ligamentum
 The blood pumped from the right ventricle enters the arteriousum in about 3 months.
pulmonary trunk. Ductus venosus – Ligamentum venosum
 Most of this blood is shunted into the aortic arch through Umbilical arteries –Medial umbilical ligaments
the ductus arteriousus. Umbilical vein – Ligamentum teres
 By the third month of development, all major blood vessels are present
and functioning.
 Fetus must have blood flow to placenta.
 Resistance to blood flow is high in lungs. PROBLEM WITH PERSISTENCE OF FETAL CIRCULATION
 Patent (open) ductus arteriosus and patent foramen ovale each
UMBILICAL CIRCULATION characterize about 8% of congenital heart defects.
 Pair of umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood & wastes to  Both cause a mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen- poor blood; blood
placenta. reaching tissues not fully oxygenated. Can cause cyanosis.
 Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from the  Surgical correction now available, ideally completed around age two.
placenta.  Many of these defects go undetected until child is at least school age.

UMBILICAL VEIN TO PORTAL CIRCULATION HEPATIC SYSTEM

 Some blood from the umbilical vein enters the portal circulation  Liver functions 4-6 weeks
allowing the liver to process nutrients.  Full liver function after delivery
 The majority of the blood enters the Ductus venosus, a shunt which
bypasses the liver and puts blood into the hepatic veins. MUSCULO-SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Bones and muscles develop by 4th week
WHAT HAPPENS AT BIRTH?  Fontanels – areas where >2 bones meet
 The change from fetal to postnatal circulation happens very quickly.  7-8 Weeks arms & leg movements
  10th week-Fingernails, toenails
GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM
 Forms during 4th week
 Middle portion of the intestine projects out into cord during 5th week. IMMUNE SYSTEM
Returns during 10th week. If this does not occur-  Passive Immunity- FROM MOM – breastfeed
 Omphalocele present at birth  Active immunity- FROM FETUS
 Meconium – Dark green to black tarry waste accumulated in
the fetal intestine near term FETAL GROWTH DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES

RENAL SYSTEM Origin and Development of Organs – cephalocaudal manner

 Kidneys form in 5th week and begin to function 4 weeks later.  Primary Germ Layers:
 Voiding into amniotic fluid  Endoderm
 Low volume can show renal dysfunction  Development Into linings of the GIT, Resp. tract,
 Renal malformation can be diagnosed in utero.  tonsils, thyroids-for basal metabolism
 GFR is low at birth  parathyroid – for calcium metabolism
 Thymus gland-for development of immunity,
NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM  Bladder and urethra
 Formed from the ectoderm during the 3rd week  Mesoderm – Forms into the supporting structures of the body
 Respiratory effort 18 1/2 WKS – 4 months, 2 Weeks and ½  Connective tissues,
week  Cartilage,
 Swallowing 12 ½ WKS – 3 months and ½ week  bones,
 Muscles, and
 Sucking 29 WKS – 7 months and 1 week
 Reproductive system,
 Fetal movement felt 16-20 WKS – 4 or 5 months (Quickening)
 Kidneys, and ureters
 Ectoderm
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Formation of the Nervous system
 Thyroid gland 1st to develop
 Skin, Hair, Nails
 Insulin produced at 20 weeks  Mucous membrane of the mouth and anus

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM In cases of multiple congenital anomaly, the structures

 7th week-Two layers of cells involved arise out of the same germ layer
 Vernix caseosa-Protects skin
 Lanugo – Fine hair
Fetal Developmental Milestones:  Corpus luteum last until end of second month
 1st trimester- period of organogenesis  Heart is functioning
 2nd trimester- period of continued feta growth and development with  Eyes, nose, lips, tongue, ears and teeth are forming
rapid increase in fetal length  Penis begins to appear in boys
 3rd trimester- period of most rapid growth and development because  Baby is moving, although the mother can not yet feel movement
of the rapid deposition of the subcutaneous fat.
3 Months – 2 ½ to 3 inches long ; Weight is about ½ to 1 ounce
NORMAL DURATION/LENGTH OF PREGNANCY  Kidneys are functional
 MONTHS:  Fetus begin to swallow amniotic fluid
 10 lunar month  Sex is distinguishable
 9 calendar month  FHT is audible using Doppler (10-12 weeks)
 WEEKS: 38-42 Wks (ave. of 40 weeks)  Placenta is complete
 DAYS  Buds of milk teeth appear
 280 days -singleton
 Baby develops recognizable form. Nails start to develop and earlobes
 260 days – Twins
are formed
 247 – Triplets
 Arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet and toes are fully formed
 Eyes are almost fully developed
FACTS OF FETAL DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES:
 Baby has developed most of his/her organs and tissues
1 month – ¼ inch in length
 Baby’s heart rate can be heard at 10 weeks with a special instrument
 Fetal heart tones begins
called a Doppler
 CNS development
 GIT and Respiratory tract remains as a single tube
4 Months – 6 ½ to 7 inches long; Weight is about 6 to 7 ounces
 2nd week-differentiation of the primary germ layers
 Lanugo begins to appear
 Heart, digestive system, backbone and spinal cord begin to form
 Buds of permanent teeth appear
 Placenta (sometimes called “afterbirth”) begins to develop
 FHT is audible by fetoscope (18-20 weeks)
 The single fertilized egg is now 10,000 times larger than size at
 Sex can be determined by ultrasound
conception
 Liver and pancreas are functional
 Baby is developing reflexes, such as sucking and swallowing and
2 Months – 1-1/8 inches long
may begin sucking his/her thumb
 All vital organs are formed or developed
 Tooth buds are developing
 Placenta is developed
 Sweat glands are forming on palms and soles
 Sex organs are formed
  Fingers and toes are well defined
 Sex is identifiable 7 Months – 14 to 16 inches long; Weight 2 ½ to 3 ½ pounds
 Skin is bright pink, transparent and covered with soft, downy hair  Surfactant develops
 Although recognizably human in appearance, the baby would not be  In males- testes descends to the scrotum
able to survive outside the mother’s body  In female- clitoris is prominent, labia majora are small and do not
covers the minora
5 Months – 8 to 10 inches long; Weight about 1 pound  Blood vessels of the retina is extremely susceptible to damage from
 Lanugo covers the body high oxygen
 Quickening  Taste buds have developed
 primi- 18-20th week  Fat layers are forming
 Multi- 16-18th week  Organs are maturing
 FHT is audible with stetoscope  Skin is still wrinkled and red
 fetal length of 19-25 cm  If born at this time, baby will be considered a premature baby and
 Definite sleeping and activity pattern are distinguishable require special care
 Hair begins to grow on baby’s head
 Soft woolly hair called lanugo will cover its body. Some may remain 8 Months – 16 ½ to 18 inches long ; 4-6 pounds
until a week after birth, when it is shed.  Lanugo starts to disappear
 Mother begins to feel fetal movement  Subcutaneous fat deposits
 Internal organs are maturing  Birth position may be assumed
 Eyebrows, eyelids and eyelashes appear  Iron stores
 Active moro reflex
6 Months – 11 to 14 inches long; Weight 1 ¾ to 2 pounds  Overall growth is rapid this month
 Vernix caseosa is present  Tremendous brain growth occurs at this time
 Passive antibody transfer  Most body organs are now developed with the exception of the lungs
 Eyelids open  Movements or “kicks” are strong enough to be visible from the
 Skin is red and wrinkled outside
 Low end age of viability (24th week)  Kidneys are mature
 Eyelids begin to part and eyes open sometimes for short periods of  Skin is less wrinkled
time  Fingernails now extend beyond fingertips
 Skin is covered with protective coating called vernix
 Baby is able to hiccup 9 Months – 19 to 20 inches long; 7 to 7 ½ pounds
  Lanugo and vernix caseosa completely disappear  January to March
 Sole of the foot has only one or two crisscross  Ex. September 6, 2006 (LMP)
 Amniotic fluid somewhat decreases 9-6-06
 The lungs are mature -3+7
 Baby is now fully developed and can survive outside the mother’s +1
body 6-13-07
 Skin is pink and smooth  Ex: January 1, 2007 (LMP)
1-1-07
+9+7
10-8-07 (EDC)

 Mc Donald’s Rule
 determine the AOG by measuring the fundal height in cm.
 Formula:
o Length of the fundus in cm x 8/7 = AOG in weeks
 Baby settles down lower in the abdomen in preparation for birth and o Length of fundus in cm x 2/7=AOG in lunar months
may seem less active o Fundic height in cm./4= AOG in months
 Bartholomew’s Rule
10 months – bone ossification of the skull  use to determine the AOG by fundic location
 height of fundus to abdominal cavity
MULTIFETAL PREGNANCY  Normal findings:
 Twins o 3rd month- just above the symphysis pubis
 Multifetal Pregnancies o 4th month- midway between the umbilicus and the
Symphysis pubis
METHODS OF EDC ESTIMATION o 5th month- at the level of the umbilicus
o 9th month- just below the xyphoid process
DIRECT NON-INAVASIVE PROCEDURE o 10th month-level at 8th month due to lightening
 Naegele’s rule
 used to determine the expected date of delivery by determining DIRECT INVASIVE METHOD
the LMP  Ultrasonography
 count back 3 months from the LMP then add 7 days  is the use of sound waves against an object
  use:
o Diagnose pregnancy as early as 6 weeks
o Confirm the presence, size and location of the placenta
and Amniotic fluid
o Establish if the fetus is growing and has no gross
defects
o Establish the presentation and position of the fetus
o Predict maturity by measuring the biparietal diameter
o Note: Biparietal diameter Normal: 8.5 cm or more=
2500 grams
= 40 weeks
 Radiography
 Amniocentesis
 obtain a sample of the amniotic fluid by inserting a needle
through the abdomen
 use to determine fetal lung maturity and genetic abnormality
DETERMINATION OF FETAL STATUS AND RISK FACTORS
 Fetal lung maturity
FETAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS – used to:
o done at the 36th week AOG
 Identify or confirm the existence of risk factors
o use to measure the surfactant
 Validate pregnancy
o Lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio= 2:1
 Observe progress of pregnancy
o Phosphatiglycerol (PG+)= definitive test
 Identify optimum time for induction of labor if indicated
 Genetic screening – done 1st or 12th week
 Maternal Serum Alpha Feto-Protein
TYPES OF FETAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
o measures the quantity of fetal serum protein
 Chorionic villi sampling (CVS)
o Increased-neural tube defect
 earliest test possible on fetal ceCVS
o Decreased-down syndrome  sample obtained by slender catheter passed through cervix to
 Chorionic Villi Sampling implantation site.
 removal if tissue sample from the fetal portion of the  Ultrasound
developing placenta  use of sound and returning echo patterns to identify intrabody
 Purpose: Genetic counselling structures.
 done-9-12 week  Useful early in pregnancy to identify gestational sac(s)
 Complication: fetal limb defect
  later uses include assessment of fetal viability, growth  Phosphatidylglycerol (PG) is found in amniotic fluid after 35
patterns, anomalies and adnexal masses. weeks.
 Used as an adjunct to amniocentesis; safe for fetus (no ionizing  Fetal movement count:
radiation).  teach mother to count 2-3 times daily, 30-60 minutes each
 Amniocentesis time, should feel 5-6 movements per counting time.
 location and aspiration of amniotic fluid for examination,  Mother should notify caregiver immediately of abrupt change
possible after the 14th week when sufficient amount is present. or no movement
 Used to identify chromosomal aberrations, sex of fetus, levels  PUBS (Percutaneous Umbilical Blood Sampling)
of alpha-fetoprotein and other chemicals indicative of neural  uses ultrasound to locate umbilical cord.
tube defects and inborn errors of metabolism, gestational age,  Cord blood aspirated and tested.
Rh factor.  Used in second and third trimesters.
 X-ray  Biophysical exams
 can be used late in pregnancy (after ossification of fetal bones)  a collection of data on fetal breathing movements; body
to confirm position and presentation movements, muscle tone, reactive heart rate, and amniotic
 not used in early pregnancy to avoid possibility of causing fluid volume.
damage to fetus and mother.  A score of 0-2 is given in each category and the summative
 Alpha-fetoprotein Screening: number interpreted by the physician.
 Maternal serum screens for open neural tube defects.  Primary suggested use to identify fetuses at risk for asphyxia.
 Alpha-fetoprotein is glucoprotein produced by fetal yolk sac,
GI tract, and liver. Test done between 16 and 18 weeks ELECTRONIC MONITORING
gestation  Non stress test (NST)
 Creatinine level  Accelerations in heart rate accompany normal fetal movement
 estimates fetal renal maturity and function, uses amniotic fluid  In high risk pregnancies, NST may be used to assess FHR on
 Bilirubin level: a frequent basis in order to ascertain fetal well-being.
 high early in pregnancy; drops after 36 weeks gestation; uses  Non-invasive
amniotic fluid.  Contraction stress test
 L/S ratio: uses amniotic fluid to ascertain fetal lung maturity  based on a principle that healthy fetus can withstand
 lung surfactants lecithin and sphingomyelin. decreased 02 during contraction, but compromised fetus
 At 35-36 weeks, ratio is 2:1, indicative of mature levels; once cannot.
ratio of 2:1 is achieved, newborn less likely to develop  CST is never done unless willing to deliver fetus
respiratory distress syndrome. TYPES:
 Nipple stimulated CST
 o massage or rolling of one or both nipples to stimulate  Chemicals, drugs, radiation, hyperthermia.
uterine activity and check effect on FHR
 Oxytocin challenge test (OCT)
o infusion of calibrated dose of IV oxytocin “piggy
backed” to main IV line; controlled by infusion pump
o amount infused increased every 15-20 minutes until
three good uterine contractions are observed within 10-
minute period.

TERATOGENS
 Environmental exposures that can adversely effect the developing
fetus
 Maternal Conditions
o Alcoholism,
o Diabetes
o Endocrinopathies
o Phenylketonuria (PKU)
o Smoking
o Nutritional problems
 Infections Agents
o Rubella
o Toxoplasmosis
o Syphillis
o Herpes Simplex
o Cytomegalic Inclusion Disease
o Varicella
o Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis
 Mechanical Problems (deformations)
o Amniotic band constrictions
o Umbilical Cord constraint
o Disparity in uterine size and uterine contents
  deals with the use of drugs in the prevention and treatment of disease.

TOXICOLOGY
 deals with the adverse effect of the drug and also the study of poisons
 i.e detection prevention and treatment of poisoning.(Toxicon poison
in greek.

CHEMOTHERAPHY:
 the use of chemicals for the treatment of infections or malignancies.

PHARMACY:
 the science of identification, compounding and dispensing of drugs .
 Includes collection. Isolation, purification, synthesis and
Standardization of medical substances.
PHARMACOLOGY
 the science that deals with the study of drugs and their interaction with SOURCES OF DRUGS – Natural or Synthetic
the living systems. NATURAL SOURCES:
 derived from Greek – pharmacon means drug and logos means study.  PLANTS,e.g Atropine Morphine Quinine digoxine, pilocarpine,
physostigmine.
DRUG – a substance used in the diagnosis .prevention or treatment of  ANIMALS e.g. Insulin heparin gonadotrophins and antitoxic sera
disease.
 MINERALS e.g. Magnesium sulphate, Aluminium hydroxide,
Iron,sulphur and radio active isotopes.
PHARMACOKINECTICS:
 MICROORGANISMS e.g. Antibacterial agents are obtained from
 the study of the absorption distribution, metabolism and excretion of
some bacteria and fungi.we thus have pencillins,cephalosporins,
drugs
tetracycline and other antibiotics.
 what the body does the drug (in greek kinesis = movement).
 HUMAN: some drugs are obtained from man,e.g Immunoglobulin
from blood, growth hormone from anterior pituitary and chorionic
PHARMACODYNAMICS:
gonadotrophins from the urine of pregnant woman.
 the study of the effect of the drugs on the body and their mechanism of
action ie what the drug does the body. SYNTHETIC:
 Most drugs are now synthesized .e.g quinolones, ,sulfonamides,
THERAPEUTICS:
pancuronium, neostigmine.
  Many drugs are obtained from cell culture .e.g urokinase from  Some drugs may not be absorbed due to certain physical
cultured kidney cells. characteristics, e.g streptomycin.
 some are now produced by recombinant DNA technology .e.g human  There may be irregularities in absorption.
insulin, tissue plasmogen activator and some drugs by Hybridoma  Irritation to the GIT may lead to vomitting.
technique, e.g monoclonal antibodies  Some drugs may be destroyed by gastric juices.e.g insulin.
 Cannot be given to unconscious and uncooperative patients.
 Some drugs may undergo extensive first pass metabolism in
ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION liver.
 depends on the properties of the drug and the patients requirements.  Patients may forget to take the tablet which is the practical
 A knowledge of advantage and disadvantage of the routes of drug problem
administration is essential.
 The route can be broadly divided into: ENTERIC COATED TABLET
 Enteral  Some tablets are coated with substances like cellulose-
 Parenteral  Acetate
 Local  Phthalate
 Gluten
ENTERAL ROUTE (ORAL INGESTION)  which are not digested by the gastric acid but get disintegrated in the
 the most common,oldest and safest routes of drug administration alkaline juices of the intestine.
 Things help effective absorption of the drugs given orally.  This will
 Large surface area of GI  Prevent gastric irritation.
 Mixing of content  Avoid destruction of the drug by the stomach.
 Difference in pH at different part of gut  Provide higher concentration of the drug in the small
 ADVANTAGES: intestine.
 Safest route  slow the absorption,and there by prolong the duration of
 Most convenient action.
 Most economical  ADVANTAGES:
 Drugs can be self-administered  Frequency of administration may be reduced.
 Non-invasive route  Therapeutic concentration may be maintained for along time
 DISADVANTAGES specially when noctural symptoms are to be treated.
 Onset of action is slower as absorption needs time.
 Irritant and unpalatable drugs cannot be administered.
 DISADVANTAGES:
  It is more expensive.  The drug is injected into the layers of the skin by:
 There may be releaes of the entire amount of the drug in a  Raising a bleb .c.g. BCG vaccine tests for allergy.
short time leading to toxicity.  By multiple punctures of the epidermis through a drop
of the drug, e.g. Smallpox vaccine.
PARENTERAL ROUTE  Only a small quantity can be administered by this
 Routes of administration other than the enteral route  Route and it may be painful.
 Drugs are directly delivered into tissue fluids or blood.  Subcutaneous (SC) injection
 ADVANTAGES:  Drug is deposited in the SC tissue,e.g.insulin, heparin. As this
 Action is more rapid and predictable than oral administration. tissue is less vascular, absorption is slow and largely uniform
 These routes can be employed in unconscious or uncooperative and this make the drug long- acting.
patients.  DISADVANTAGES:
 Gastric irritant can be given parenterally and therefore o As SC tissue is richly supplied by nerves irritant drugs
irritation to the GIT can be avoided. cannot be injected.
 It can be used in patients with vomitting or those unable to o In shock absorption is not dependable because of
swallow. vasoconstriction
 In emergencies parenteral routes are very useful. o Repeated administration at the same site can
 Digestion by the gastric and intestinal juices and the first pass causeLipoatrophy resulting in erratic absorption.
metabolism are avoided.
 DISADVANTAGES:  Drugs can also be administered subcutaneously as:
 Asepsis must be maintained.  Dermojet
 Injection may be painful.  a high velocity jet of drug solution is projected
 More expensive less safe and inconvenient. from a fine orifice using a gun.
 Injury to nerve and other tissues may occur.  The solution gets deposited in the SC tissue
from where it is absorbed .
PARENTERAL ROUTE INCLUDE  As needle is not required,this method is
 Injections painless.
 Inhalation  It is suitable for vaccines.
 Transdermal route  Pellet implantation
 Transmucosal route  Small pellets packed with drugs are implanted
SC
INJECTION  The drug is slowly released for weeks or
 Intradermal months to provide constant blood levels
  Sialistic implants  drug is injected into one of the superficial veins so that it
 drug is packed in sialistic tubes and implanted directly reaches the circulation and is immediately available
SC. for action.
 The drug gets absorbed over months to provide  Drug can be given IV as:
constant blood levels .e.g .hormones and  Bolus
contraceptives.  drug is dissolved in a suitable amount of
 The empty nonbiodegradable implant has to be vehicle and injected slowly. An initial large
removed. dose is given.e.g.heparin.
 INTRAMUSCULAR:  Slowly – over 15-20 min,e.g.aminophylline.
 Aqueous solution of the drug is injected into one of the large  Slow infusion
skeletal muscle-deltoid, triceps, gluteus or rectus femoris.  when constant plasma concentration are
 Absorption into the plasma occurs by simple diffusion. required ,e.g.oxytocin in labor or when large
 Large molecules enter through the lymphatic channels. As the volume
muscle are vascular absorption is rapid and quite uniform.  Have to be given.e.g.dextrose, saline.
 Drugs are absorbed faster from the deltoid region than gluteal
region especially in women .  Administration of IV solutions
 The volume of injection should not exceed 10ml  Intraperitonial:
 For infants rectus femoris is used instead of gluteus which is  Peritonium offers a large surface area for
not well-developed till the child absorption.
 Suspensions and colloids can be injected by this route.  also used for peritonial dialysis.
 ADVANTAGES:  Intrathecal:
 Intramuscular route is reliable.  can be injected into the subarachnoid space
 Absorption is rapid. for action on the CNS.
 DISADVANTAGES:  Some antibiotics and corticosteroids are also
 IM injection may be painful. injected by this route to produce high local
 It may result in an abcess. concentrations.
 Risk of nerve injury -irritant solutions can damage the  Intra-articular:
nerve if injected near the nerve.  are injected directly into a joint for the
 The needle may also be puncture the blood vessel. treatment of arthritis and other diseases of the
 INTRAVENOUS (IV) joints
 strict aseptic precautions are required
 Intra-arterial:
  drug is injected directly into the arteries  Adhesive patches of different sizes and shapes made
 it is used only in the treatment of peripheral to suit the area of application site
vascular disease, local malignancies and  application are chest, abdomen, upperarm back or
angiograms. mastoid region
 Intramedullary: o Inunction:
 involves injection into a bone marrow-now this  drug is rubbed in to the skin and it gets absorbed to
rarely used. produce systemic effects
o Iontophoresis
 Before starting infusion the IV line should be flushed  galvanic current is used for bringing about penetration
with saline of lipid insoluble drugs into the deeper tissues where
 Watch for sign of extravasation of fluid and its action is required,
thrombophlebitis. o Jet injection:
 Make sure that there are no air bubbles in syringe and  As absorption of drug occurs across the layers of the
tubing. skin

INHALATION TRANSMUCOSAL
 Volatile liquids and gases are given by inhalation  Drugs are absorbed across the mucous membranes.
 ADVANTAGES:  It includes:
o Almost instaneous absorption of the drug is achieved because  Sublingual:
large surface area of the lungs. o The tablet or pellet containing the drug is placed under the
o Hepatic first pass metabolism is avoided. tongue
o Absorption and excretion through lunges. o it dissolved and the drug is absorbed across the sublingual
 DISADVANTAGES: mucosa
o Irritant gases may enhance pulmonary secretions and should be  Nasal
avoided by this route. o Drugs can be administered through nasal route
 Rectal :
TRANSDERMAL ROUTE: o Rectum has a rich blood supply and drugs can cross the rectal
 Highly lipid soluble drugs can be applied over the skin for slow and o Mucosa to be absorbed for systemic effect.
prolonged absorption, o Drugs absorbed from the upper part of the rectum are carried
 Forms of transdermal drug delivery. by the superior hemorrhoidal vein to the portal circulation
o Adhesive units: o Enema
  is the administration of a drug in liquid form into the  Prodrug is an inactive form of a drug which gets
rectum metabolized to the active derivative in the body.
 enema may be evacuant or retension enema.  Osmotic pumps are small tablet shape units
 Evacuant enema containing the drug and an osmotic substances in two
o In order to empty the bowel,about different chambers. The tablet swallowed and reaches
600ml of soap water is administered per the gut, water enter into the tablet through SPM .the
rectum osmotic layers swells and pushes the drug slowly.
o given prior to surgeries,obstetric o Computerized miniature pumps:
proceduresand radiological examination  Programmed to release drugs at a definite rate and
of gut. continuously
 Retention enema: o Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies against the tumor.
o administered with about 100ml of fluids o Liposome are phospholipids suspended in aqueous vehicles
and is retained in the rectum for local to form minute vesicles ;mainly used for malignant tumors.
action. NURSES RESPONSIBILITIES:
TOPICAL  Ensure the correct drug is administered by the right route and in the
 may be applied on the skin for local action as ointment cream, right dose.
gel .powder,  History of allergy should be taken particularly before parenteral
 may also be applied on the mucous membrane ascin the eyes,ears, and administration of the drugs.
nose as ointment .drops and sprays.  Monitor the adverse effect.
 Drugs may be administered as suppository for rectum,bougie  Drugs should be kept in safe place.
 Check the prescription drug label and the patients name before the
SPECIAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM administration of drugs.
 Used to improve drug delivery to prolong the duration of action and
improve the patient compliance special drug delivery system are used. PHARMACOKINETICS
o Ocusert  the study of the absorption distribution, metabolism and excretion of
 are thin elliptical units that contains the drug reservoir the drugs
which slowly release the drug by diffusion.  the movement of the drugs into,within and out of the body.
o Progestasert  once drug is administered it is absorbed,i.e .enters the blood, is
 is inserted into the uterus where it delivers progesterone distributed to different parts of the body, reaches the site of action is
constantly for one year. metabolized and excreted.
o Trans dermal adhesive units  Drugs may be transported across the membrane by Passive or active
transport.
  Passive transport:  The extent of FPM differs from drug to drug and person to person.
o Drug moves across a membrane without any need for energy  may result in partial to total inactivation of the drug when it is partial,
 Active transport it can be compensated by giving higher dose of particular drug
o It is the transfer of drugs against a concentration of drugs
against a concentration gradient and needs energy.
o It is carried by a specific carrier protein.
o only drugs related to natural metabolites are transported by this
Bioavailability
process.
 is the fraction of the drug that reaches the systemic circulation
ABSORPTION following administration of any route.
Bioeqivalence
 The passage of the drug from the site of administration
 It is the study of comparison bioavailability of different formulation
 Administration into the circulation
of the same drug.
 occurs by one of the processes i.e passive diffusion o active transport.
 several factor influence the rate and extent of absorption of a drug,they
Distribution
are:
 After a drug reaches the systemic circulation it gets distributed to
 Disintegration and dissolution time
various tissues.
 Formulation
 It should be cross several barriers before reaching the site of action.
 Particle Size
 Lipid Solubility  also involves the same process.i.e filtration,diffusion and specialized
 pH and ionization transport.
 Area and vascularity of the absorbing surface  Various factors determine the rate and extent of
 Gastrointestinal Motility o Lipid solubility
 Presence of food o Ionization
 Metabolism o Blood flow
 Disease o Binding to plasma proteins and cellular protein.
 unionized and lipid soluble drugs are widely distributed through out
FIRST PASS METABOLISM / PRESYSTEMIC METABOLISM / the body.
FIRST PASS EFFECT
 Is the metabolism of the drug during its passage from the site of Plasma Protein binding
absorption to the systemic circulation.  The free or unbound fraction of the drug is the only form available
 Drugs given orally may be metabolized in the gut wall and in the liver for action,metabolism and excretion,
before reaching the systemic circulation.  The protein bound form serves as a reservoir.
  PB prolongs the duration and action of drug  Large molecules are excreted through the bile.
o Tissue binding
 some drugs get bound to certain tissue constituent EXCRETION
because of special affinity for them.  major organs of excretion are the kidneys,intestine,biliary systemand
 TB delays excretion and thus prolongs the duration of the lungs.
drug.  Drugs are small amounts are excreted in saliva,sweat,and milk.
o Blood brain barrier (BBB)  Renal excretion
 The endothelial cells of the brain capillaries have tight o Kidney is the most important organ of drug excretion.highly
junctions, moreover glial cells envelope the capillaries lipid soluble drugs are reabsorbed in in the renal tubules,so
and together these form the BBB. their excretion is slow.
o Placental barrier: Lipid soluble unionized drugs readily cross o Unabsorbed portion of the orally administered drugs are
the placenta. eliminated through the feces.large water soluble conjugates
are excreted in the bile.
METABOLISM / BIOTRANSFORMATION  The lungs are the main route of elimination for gases and liquids
 the process of biochemical alteration of the drug in the body
 Body treats most of the drugs as foreign substance and tries to Plasma half-life (t1/2)
inactivate and eliminate them by various biochemical reactions.  is the time taken for the plasma concentration of a drug to be reduced
 Theses processes convert the drugs into more polar,water soluble to half its value
compounds so that they are easily excreted through the kidneys. Minimum dose
 Some of the drugs are largely unchanged in urine  the smallest dose required to produce a desired therapeutic effect of
 Some are metabolized kidney,lungs,blood and skin. the drug
 The chemical reactions of biotrasformation can take place in two Maximum dose
phases.  is the largest dose of the drug that can be safely given to a patient
o Phase I (Non-synthetic reactions) without producing harmful effect.
 convert the drug to more polar metabolite by Toxic dose
oxidation,reduction.or hydrolysis.  is the dose of the drug which produce undesirable effects in majority
 If the metabolites are not water soluble it undergoes of the patients
phase II reactions. Lethal dose – is the dose of the drug which can cause death
o Phase II (Synthetic reaction)
 Water soluble substance present in the body combine PHARMACODYNAMICS
with the drug to form a highly polar compounds it  the study of actions of the drugs on the body and their mechanism of
excreted by the kidneys. action,
  To know what drugs do and how they do it.  By physical action
 Drugs produce their effects by interacting with the physiological  By chemical interaction
system of the organisms. By such interaction drugs can only modify  By altering metabolic processes
the rate of function of various systems  Through receptor –Drugs may interact specific receptor in the body.
 Thus drugs act by:  Through enzymes and pumps
o Stimulation is the increase in activity of the specialized cells o Drugs may act by inhibition of various enzymes, thus altering
o Depression is the decreased in activity of the specialized cells the enzyme-mediated reaction
o Irritation  Through ion channel
 can occur on all types of tissues in the body and may o Drugs may interfere with the movement of ions across
result in inflammation, corrosion and necrosis of cells. specific channels, e.g. Ca channel blocker. K channel blocker.
o Replacement
 drugs may be used for replacement when there is PHYSICAL ACTION
deficiency of natural substances like hormones  The action of drug could result from its physical properties. E.
metabolites or nutrients CHEMICAL INTERACTION
o Anti-infective and cytotoxic action  Drugs may act by chemical reaction.
 drugs may act by specifically destroying infective o Antacids – Neutralize gastric acids
organism o Oxidising agents – kmn04 (germicidal)
o Modification of immune status: Alternating metabolic processes
 vaccines and sera act by improving our immunity  Drugs like antimicrobial alter the metabolic pathway in the micro
while immunosuppressant’s act by depressing organism resulting destruction of MO
immunity, Receptor
 is a site on the cell with which an agonist binds to bring about a
SITES AND MECHANISM OF DRUG ACTION change.
 Sites : drugs may produce their effects by locally or systematically  Are proteins. They may be present in the cytoplasm or on the
 Local: drugs may act at the site of application.e.g antibiotics, nucleus.
antifungal agent.  Functions of receptors
o identify the compound
Drugs may act by one or more complex mechanism of action. Fundamental o when the Compound binds to the receptor,it has convey the
mechanism of drug action may be:
message
 Through receptor o To bring about a response.
 Through enzymes and pumps
 Through ion cchannel
  Agonist :a substance that binds to the receptor and produce a response.  The antagonist inhibits the binding of the agonist to
 Antagonist :binds to the receptor and prevents the action of agonist on the receptor such antagonism may be reversible or
the receptor. irreversible.
 Partial agonist:It binds to the receptor but has low intrinsic activity o Reversible competitive antagonism:
that is, produce partial response.  The agonist and antagonist compete for the same
receptor.
DRUG SYNERGISM AND ANTAGONISM  By increasing the concentration of the agonist, the
When two or more drugs are given concurrently the effect may be additive, antagonism can be overcome.it is thus reversible
synergistic or antagonistic. antagonism and atropine compete at muscarnic
 Additive effect receptor the antagonism can be overcome by
o the effect of two or more drugs get added up and the total increasing the concentration of Ach at the receptor.
effect is equal to the sum of their individual actions o Irreversible antagonism:
 Synergism  The antagonist binds so firmly by covalent bonds to
o when action of one drug is enhanced or facilitated by another the receptor that it dissociate slowly not at all.
drug the combination is synergistic  It block the agonist the blockade cannot be overcome
o the total effect of the combonation is greater than the sum of by increase the dose of agonist hence it is irreversible
their independent effect antagonism.
o often called ‘potentiation’ or supra- additive effect.e.g
FACTORS MODIFYING DRUG ACTION
acetylcholine + physostigmine.
 Body weight – Dose: body wt(kg) × average adult dose
 Antagonism
 Age– age(years) / age+12 = adult dose
 one drug opposing or inhibiting the action of another drug is
antagonism.  Sex
 Based on the mechanism antagonism may be:  Species and Races
o Chemical antagonism  Diet and Environment
 Two substances chemically interact to result in  Route of Administration
inactivation of the effect  Genetic factor
o Physiological antagonism: o Acetylation of drugs
 Two drugs act at different sites to produce opposing o G6PS Deficiency
effect.  Dose
o Antagonism at the receptor level  Disease
 Repeated Dosing
 Cumulation
  Tolerance
 Tracy phylaxis
 Psychological Factor PHARMACOKINETICS
 activities within the body
PHARMACOLOGY  It includes:
 Is the study of drugs and its origin, chemical structure, preparation, o Absorption
administration, action, metabolism and excretion o Distribution
o Metabolism
Implication of Pharmacology to Nursing o Excretion
The study of drugs that alter functions of living organisms.
 Responsible for drug administration Absorption
 Responsible for the administration of  Involves the way a drug enters the body and passes into the fluids
 Medications that they direct others to give. and tissues.
 Ethical and legal responsibilities o Passive transport
o Active transport
DRUGS o Pinocytosis
 Are chemicals that alter physiochemical processes in body cells.  Rate of Absorption:
 They can stimulate or inhibit normal cellular functions. o Drug Solubility
 Used Interchangeably with medicines.  Water soluble drugs
 lipodystrophy
Drug Names o Route of Administration
 Generic or Nonproprietary Name o Degree of blood flow through the tissues
o name approved by the Medical or Pharmaceutical Associations
in the original country of manufacture and is adopted by all  Factors affecting Absorption
countries. o Drug Solubility
o E.g. Paracetamol  water soluble drugs
 Brand name or trade name:  lipodystrophy
o Name given by the manufacturer of the drug o Bioavailability- the extent to which active ingredients are
o E.g. Adol or Panadol absorbed and transported to sites of action.
 Chemical name o pH
o Name that describes the atomic or chemical structure o Drug concentration
 o Circulation to site of absorption  the time required for the body to eliminate 50% of the drug. – It is
o Absorbing surface important in planning the frequency of dosing.
o Route of administration o Short half-life (2-4 hours): needs to be given frequently
o Presence of body conditions o Long half life: (21-24 hours): requires less frequent dosing
 Note: It takes 5 to 6 half lives to eliminate approximately 98% of
DISTRIBUTION drug the body
 Is defined as the way the drug moves from the circulating body fluids  Liver and kidney disease patients may have problems of excreting a
to its site of action. drug.
Note: The greater the blood supply in a body organ, the faster the  Difficulty in excreting a drug increases the half-life and increases the
medication is absorbed risk of toxicity.
 Therapeutic effect-certain blood level is maintained for the drugs to  implication: may require frequent diagnostic tests . and measuring
be effective. renal and hepatic function.
 Toxic effect – when blood level increase significantly over the
therapeutic level. PHARMACODYNAMICS – Drug + cellular components = response drug
 Bioavailability effect
o Is defined as the extent to which active ingredients are  the study of biochemical, and physiologic and effect of drugs.
absorbed and transported to sites of action.  “what the drug does to the body”
 Factors  Primary Effects – desired or therapeutic effect
o Drug solubility  Secondary Effects – all other effects whether desirable or
o Pharmaceutical formulation undesirable.
o PH
o Food DRUG ATTACHMENT
 Medication chemically
METABOLISM / BIOTRANSFORMATION  Binds to specific sites called “receptor sites”
 the process by which drug is converted by the liver to inactive  Agonist – Full activation
compounds through a series of chemical reactions. o chemical fits at receptor site well
 Plasma, kidneys and membranes of intestines. o Drugs that occupy receptors and activate them
 Antagonist – No activatii
EXCRETION o a chemical blocks another chemical from getting to a receptor
 Is the elimination of drugs from the o Drugs that occupy receptors but do not activate them
o Antagonists block receptor activation by agonists
HALF LIFE
  Partial agonist – less activation o Synergistic effect
o attach to the receptor but only produce a small effect  takes place when the effect of 2 drugs taken at the
same time is greater than the sum of each drug given
BASICS OF DRUG ACTION alone.
 Desired action – the expected response of a medication  E.g. combining diuretics & adrenergic blockers to
 Side effects – known and frequently experienced, expected reaction to lower the BP
drug.
 Adverse reaction – unexpected, unpredictable reactions that are not PHARMACOTHERAPEUTIC
related too usual effects of a normal dose of the drug.  the use of drugs to treat diseases.
 Depends on:
DRUG INTERACTION o Severity
 Takes place when one drug alters the action of another drug o Urgency
 Some are helpful but often produce adverse effects. o Prognosis of patient’s condition
 Common Drug Interactions
o Additive effect
 takes place when 2 drugs are given together & double Routes of Drug Administration
the effect is produced. Enteral Medications
 Alcohol + aspirin= Pain relief  Administered directly into the G.I.T. through the oral, nasogastric
o Antagonistic effect (NG) or rectal routes
 takes place when 1 drug interferes with the action of  Advantages:
another drug. o Convenience for nurse & patient
 – Protamine sulphate to counteract heparin toxicity o Most medications are available in oral route Inexpensive to
o Displacement effect make oral preparations
 takes place when 1 drug replaces another at the drug o Can be removed by gastric lavage or make to make
receptor site, increasing the effect of the 1 drug.  Disadvantages
o Incompatibility o Cannot be administered to very nauseated/vomiting or
 occurs when 2 drugs mixed together in a syringe unconscious persons
produce a chemical reaction so they cannot be given. o some loose their effectiveness if with gastric secretions
 E.g. Protamine sulfate & vitamin
o onset of action may vary due to changes in absorption in the
o Interference
GIT
 occurs when 1 drug promotes the rapid excretion of
another, thus reducing the activity of the 1”.
FORM OF ORAL MEDICATION o Cleanse Soften
 Capsules-are gelatin containers that hold powder or liquid medicine. o Disinfect
 Emulsions-areiquids made up of drugs dissolved in alcohol & water o Lubricate
with coloring & flavoring agents added. o Eg. Clotrimazole-cream
 Emulsions-are solutions that have small droplets of water & o atropine-eye-dilate the pupil
medication dispersed in oil, or oil & medication dispersed in water.  Transdermal route
 Lozenges – are medicines mixed with a hard sugar base to produce a o Nitroglycerin (skin patch) systemic vasodilation in angina
small, hard preparation of various shapes & sizes. Pharmacology  Inhalation
 Suspensions– are liquids w/ solid, insoluble drug particles dispersed o provides rapid delivery of drugs to a large area of mucus
throughout. membranes & tissues of the respiratory system.
 Syrups –are liquids w/ a high sugar content designed to disguise the o Anesthesia
bitter taste of a drug. Pediatric use. o Bronchodilators –
 Tablets – dried, powdered drugs compressed into small shapes.
 Intranasal – desmopressin for diabetes insipidus
o Calcitonin- a peptide hormone for tx of osteoporosis
PARENTERAL ADMINISTRATION
 Intrathecal injection-
 When the patient cannot take an oral medication
o introduction of hypodermic needle into the subarachnoid
 When the medication must be given quickly
space for the purpose of instilling a material for diffusion
 When medication might be destroyed by gastric enzymes
throughout the spinal fluid.
 When medication must be given at a rate 5.
 Intraventricular-space into the ventricle
 When the medication is not available in an enteral form. o Both gains access to the CSF e.g. amphotericin B in
meningitis
 INTRAMUSCULAR – 90°
o Provides faster medication absorption because of muscle’s FIRST PASS EFFECTS
greater vascularity  Drugs taken orally are absorbed from the small intestine directly into
 SUBCUTANEOUS-45° the portal venous system.
o Placing medications in the loose connective tissue under the  The portal veins deliver these absorbed molecules into the liver,
dermis which immediately transforms most of the chemicals delivered to it
 INTRADERMAL-15° by a series of liver enzymes.

PROTEIN BINDING
OTHER ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION
 Topical administration – skin
  Most drugs are bound to some extent to proteins in the blood to be A patient is taking a drug that has a half- life of 12 hours. You are trying to
carried into circulation. determine when a 50-mg dose of the drug will be gone from the body. – In
 The protein-drug complex is relatively large & cannot enter into 12 hours, half of the 50 mg (25 mg) would be in body.
capillaries & then into tissues to react. The drug must be freed from  In another 12 hours (24 hours) half
the protein’s binding site at the tissues. o My 25 mg (12.5 mg) would remain in the body.
o After 36 hours, half of 12.5 mg (6.25 mg) would remain
 Tightly bound o After 48 hours, half of the 6.25 mg (3.125 mg) would remain
o released very slowly o After 60 hours, half of the 3.125 mg (1.56 mg) would remain
o These drugs have very long duration of action (not freed to be o After 72 hours, half of the 1.56 mg (0.78 mg) would remain
broken down or excreted), slowly released into the reactive o After 84 hours, half of the 0.78 mg (0.39 mg ) would remain
tissue. o Twelve more hours (for a total of 96 hours) would reduce the
 Loosely bound – tend to act quickly and excreted quickly drug amount to 0.195 mg
 Compete for protein binding sites o Finally, 12 more hours (108 hours) would reduce the amount
o alters effectiveness or causing toxicity when 2 drugs are given of the drug into the body to 0.097 mg, which is negligible
together.  Therefore, it would take 4 ½ to 5 days to clear the drug from the
body.
HALF- LIFE
 the time it takes for the amount of drug in the body to decrease to one-
half of the peak level it previously achieved.
 E.g. – 20 mg of a drug with half-life of 2 hours, 10 mg of the drug will
remain 2 hours after administration. Two hours later, 5 mg will be left
(one-half of the previous level); in 2 more hours, only 2.5 mg will
remain.

Why to know half-life?

 To determine the appropriate timing for a drug dose or – determining
the duration of a drug’s effect on the body.
 Determining the Impact of Half-Life on Drug Levels
PAGKILALA SA IBAT IBANG URI NG TEKSTO

Tekstong impormatib
 ay nag lalahad ng mga bagong kaalaman, pangyayari, paniniwala, at
mga impormasyon.
 Ang mga kaalaman ay sistematikong nakaayos at inilalahad nang
buong linaw upang lubos na maunawaan.
 Kadalasang sinasagot nito ang mga batayang tanong na ANO,
KAILAN, SAAN, SINO at PAANO
 Layunin nito na maging daluyan ng makatotohanang impormaasyon
para sa mga mambabasa, sapagkat marami ang nagtitiwala na may
katiyakan ang mga impormasyon sa mga ganitong uri ng teksto.
 Ito ay nag lalayong magbigay ng impormasyon o magpaliwanag ng
malinaw at walang pagkiling tungkol sa ibat ibang paksa tulad ng sa
mga hayop , sports, agham, o siyensya, kasaysayan, gawain, panahon
at iba pa.

SA PAG BUO NG ISANG TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO,

MAHALAGANG ISAMA ANG SUMUSUNOD NA MGA ELEMENTO
PAMAGAT
 nag lalaman ng pangunahing ideya o paksa ng teksto.
 nag lalayong hikayatin ang mga mambabasa na magpatuloy sa pag
babasa.

INTRODUKSYON
 naglalaman ng pambubungad na mga pangungusap o talata na
nagpapakilala sa paksa o isyu na tatalakayin.
  Dito rin inilalatag ang layunin ng teksto at kung ano ang maaasahang  Layunin nito ang manghikayat o mangumbinsi sa babasa ng teksto.
impormasyon mula sa pagbabasa.  Isinulat ang tekstong persuweysib upang mabago ang takbo ng isip
ng mambabasa at makumbinsi na nag punto ng manunulat, at hindi sa
KATAWAN iba, ang siyang tama.
 naglalaman ng malalim na pagsusuri, mga datos, at iba pang
impormasyon na susuporta sa pangunahing ideya o paksa ng teksto Tekstong Naratib
 ang mga impormasyong ito ay dapat ayusin nang maayos at  Ang tekstong ito ay pagsasalaysay o pagkukuwento ng mga
magkaroon ng malinaw na pagkasunod sunod. pangyayari sa isang tao o mga tauhan, nangyari sa isang lugar at
panahon o sa isang tagpuan, nang may maayos na pagkakasunod-
KONGKLUSYON sunod mula simula hanggang katapusan.
 nagbibigay ng pagsusuri o pagsusumming up sa mga nailahad sa  Ang pag sulat nito ay maaring batay sa obserbasyon o nakikita ng
katawan ng teksto may akda, maaari din namang ito ay nanggaling mula sa sarili niyang
 maaaring magbigay ng pahayag o panawagan na may kaugnay sa karanasan.
paksa o isyu  Maaring hinango sa totoong pangyayari sa daigdig (di-piksyon), o
nanggagaling lamang sa kathang isip ng manunulat (piksyon)
Tekstong deskriptib
 ay isang uri ng paglalahad at naisasagawa sa pamamagitan ng Tekstong prosidyural
mahusay na pag lalarawan.  ay nagpapaliwanag kung paano ginagawa o binubuo ang isang
 Ang uri ng sulatin ito ay nag lalayon na makapagpinta ng imahe sa bagay.
hiraya ng mambabasa gamit ang limang pandama: PANINGIN,  Naglalahad ito ng wastong pagkakasunod sunod ng mga hakbangin,
PANDINIG, PANLASA, PANG-AMOY, at PANDAMA. proseso o paraan sa paggawa.
 Layunin nito na makapagbigay ng malinaw na instruksiyon o
DALAWANG URI NG TEKSTONG DESKRIPTIB direksyon upang maisakatuparan nang maayos at mapagtagumpayan
DESKRIPTIB IMPRESYUNISTIK ang isang makabuluhanggawain.
 uri ng tekstong naglalarawan na nanagpapakita lamang ng pansariling
pananaw o opinion at personal na pakiramdam ng sumulat. Tekstong Argumentatibo
DESKRIPTIB TEKNIKAL  Ay naglalayong manghikayat, naglalahad ito ng mga oposisyong
 uri ng tekstong naglalarawan na nagpapakita ng obhetibong pananaw umiiral na kaugnayan ng mga proposisyon na nangangailangang
sa tulong ng mga tiyak na datos, mga ilustrasyon, at dayagram. pagtalunan o pagpapaliwanagan.
Tekstong nanghihikayat o tekstong persuweysib  Ay isang uri ng teksto na ang pangunahing layunin ay makapaglahad
 Ay naglalahad ng mga pahayg upang makapanghikayat o ng katuwiran,
makapangumbinsi sa mga tagapakinig o mambabasa.
  Ang manunulat ay kailangang maipagtanggol ang kanyang posisyon sa o Ito rin ay pag- unawa sa wika ng awtor sa pamamagitan ng
paksa o isyung pinag uusapan. mga nasusulat na simbolo.
o Paraan din ito ng pagkilala, pagpapakahulugan at pagtataya sa
SAMARI mga simbolong nakalimbag
 Tekstong impormatib  Lorenzo et al. (1994).
o naglalahad ng mga bagong kaalaman, pangyayari, paniniwala, o Ang isang masining na pagbabasa ay yaong umaalinsunod sa
at mga impormasyon mga alituntunin nang maayos, tama at mabisang pagbabasa na
 Tekstong Deskriptib nagiging kapaki- pakinabang sa bumabasa o mga nakikinig
o isang uri ng paglalahad at naisasagawa sa pamamagitan ng  Richards, Platt at Platt (1992).
mahusay na paglalarawan. o Ang pagbasa ay pag-unawa sa nakasulat na teksto upang
 Tekstong nanghihikayat o tekstong persuweysib maunawaan ang nilalaman nito.
o naglalahad ng mga pahayag upang makapanghikayat o o Maaari itong gawin sa matahimik na paraan at maaari rin
makapangumbinsi sa mga tagapakinig o mambabasa. naman sa paraang oral.
 Tekstong naratib  Belvez et al. (1987),
o isang uri ng tekstong naglalayong makapag kuwento o o Ang pagbasa ay pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at
magsalaysay. kaisipan sa mga sagisag na nakalimbag upang mabigkas nang
 Tekstong prosidyural pasalita ang mga ito.
o nagpapaliwanag kung paano ginagawa o binubuo ang isang o A pagbasa’y isang bahagi ng pakikipagtalastasan na kahanay
bagay ng pakikinigag,pagsulat.
 Tekstong argumentatib o Ito’y pag-unawa sa wika ng may-akda sa mga nakasulat na
o naglalayong manghikayat, naglalahad ito ng mga oposisyong simbolo paraan ng pagkilala, pagpapakahulugan at pagtataya
umiiral na kaugnayan ng mga proposisyon na ng mga kagamitang nakalimbag
nangangailangang pagtaluhan o pagpapaliwanagan.
Ang Proseso ng Pagbasa
PAGBASA A. Prosesong Sikolohikalng pagbasa :
 Tumangan et al. (1997).
o Ang pagbasa ay interpretasyon ng mga nakalimbag na simbolo Teoryang Iskema
ng ito ng mga nakatitik na sagisag ng mga kaisipan.  Ang teksto, pasalita man o hindi aywalang taglay na kahulugan.
 Austero et al. (1999).  Ang isang teksto ay nagbibigay ng direksyon sa tagapakinig o
o Ang pagbasa ay ang pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at tagabasa kung paano bubuuin ang kahulugan nito mula sa dating
kaisipan sa mga sagisag na nakalimbag upang mabigkas nang kaalaman o background knowledge na tinatawag ding iskema.
pasalita.
 ito ay nakaorganays na sa ating dating kaalaman at mga karanasan kaisipang nabubuo ng mga mambabasa ang mahalaga upang
kung saan nakalagay na sa ating isipan at maayos na nakalahad ayon maunawaan ito
sa kinabibilangan nito.
 Ang dating mga kaalamang ito ay hindi lamang basta o nananatiling B. Interaktibong Proseso ng Pagbasa
nakaimbak sa ating mga utak, bagkus ang mga ito ay patuloy na Teoryang “Bottom Up”
ginagamit sa pag-uugnay ng ating mga makabagong karanasan o  Binibiyang diin na ang pagbasa ay nag pagkilala ng mga serye ng
kaalaman. mga nakasulat na simbolo upang maibigay ang kaakibat nitong
 Patuloy ang mga iskemang ito na nadaragdagan, nalilinang, tunog.
napauunlad at nababago.  Ang pagkatuto sa pagbasa ay nag-uumpisa sa pagkilala ng mga titik o
 matatawag ding “kahon ng impormasyon” kung saan nakaimbak lahat letra hanggang sa salita, parirala o pangungusap patungo sa talata
ang ng mga karanasan. bago maibigay ang kahulugan ng binasang teksto.
 Ang isang indibidwal ay nakabubuo ng isang konsepto na nanggaling  Ang unang hakbang upang makilala ang mga nakalimbag na
na sa dati niyang kaalaman. Tulad halimbawa ng konseptong anumang simbolo ng binabasang teksto tulad ng mga letra na siyang
“pagpasok sa eskwelahan” bumubuo ng mga nakasulat na salita.
o Ang mga iskema ay nagmumula sa ating panlahat na karanasan o Badayos (1999), ang isang taong umaayon sa pananaw ng
na ating naiuugnay sa kasalukuyan na kung saan mayroon bottom up ay naniniwala na ang pagbasa ay ang pagkilala ng
nabubuong konsepto na ang eskwelahan ay lugar kung saan mga salita, ang teksto ang pinakamahalagang salik sa pagbasa
nag-aaral ang mga bata, may malalaking mga gusali ang  Maibibigay ang kabuuang kahulugan ng tekstong binasa sa huling
makikita, at may mga masisipag na mga guro. bahagi nito.
o Kasama na rin sa iskemang ito kung paano tinuturuan ang mga  Ang pag- unawa sa binasa ay nagsisimula sa teksto patungo sa
batang mag-aaral pati na rin ang tamang pagkilos, pagsasalita, tagabasa na kung saan ang teksto –“bottom” at tagabasa –“up”.
maging ang pagsasamahan ng mga guro sa eskwelahan.
 Ang lahat ng mga bagong impormasyong ating natutunghayan ay Teoryang “Top Down”
nananatili at naiimbak sa ating dating kaalaman o iskema. Bago pa  nagsisimula sa kaisipan ng tagabasa (top) patungo sa teksto (down)
man magbasa ang isang tao ng tekstong napili, ay mayroon na siyang sapagkat ang dating kaalaman o prior knowledge ang nagpapasimula
ideya tungkol dito batay sa taglay niyang iskema. Ito ay ayonn sa ng pagkilala niya sa teksto.
bagong paniniwala asa proseso ng pagbasa.  Habang nagbabasa ang isang indibidwal ito’y nakikipag-usap sa
 Babasahin pa rin ang teksto upang mapatunayan sa sarili na ang mga may-akda sa pamamagitan ng teksto kung kaya’t masasabing ang
haka o hula ay tama o may pagkakahawig o may pagkukulang. Sa tagabasa ay isang aktibong indibidwal sapagkat gamit niya ang
ganitong pangyayari, masasabi na ang teksto ay isa lamang instrument dating kaalaman
sa proseso ng pagbuo ng kahulugan. Hindi ang teksto, kundi ang  Tunghayan ang tatlong impormasyon ayon kay Badayos (1999)
o Impormasyong Semantika
  ang pagpapakahulugan sa mga salita at pangungusap o Ano ang pamagat ng akda? Ano ang gusting iparating sa atin
o Impormasyong Sintaktik o impormasyong istruktura ng ng teksto?
wika o Ano ang layunin nito? Magbigay ba ng impormasyon o
 tungkol sa pagkakaayos at istruktura o kayarian ng magbigay ng kawilihan sa mambabasa?
wika. o Ano ang ginamit na istilo ng may-akda?
o Impormasyong Grapho-Phonic o May alam ka ba tungkol sa may akda?
 ugnayan ng mga letra (grapheme) at mga tunog o Kailan naisulat ang akda?
(phonemes) ng wika kasama rito ang impormasyon  Maari nating gamitin bilang mga huwaran na magiging basehan
tungkol sa pagbaybay na naghuhudyat ng kahulugan upang makalikha tayo ng pamamaraang interpretasyon at paglutas ng
Teoryang Interactiv. mga balakid na siyang kailangan sa pagbasang kritikal ng teksto.
 Pinagsamang teoryang bottom up at top down
 hindi lamang ang teksto ang bibigyang atensyon, kasam dito ang pag- Habang nagbabasa
uugnay ng sariling karanasan at pananaw o ang kaalaman.  Ang mga tekstong dumaraan sa yugtong ito ay dumaraan sa iba’t
ibang uri ng pag-aanalisa rin tulad ng pagsagot sa mga tanong.
 Ilan san mga katanungang ito ay kung tama o mali ang pagpili ng
tamang salita.
C. Mga Elemento ng Metacognitiv na Pagbasa  Ayon kay Lachica (1999), ang mga sumusunod ay makatutulong
Sa pagbabasa natin ng anumang teksto mayroon tayong sinusunod na proseso upag matuto tayong bumasa at magbigay ng reaksyon sa nilalaman at
na kung saan magiging magaan at maayos ang ating pag-unawa sa binabasa, ginamit na wika sa pamamagitan ng anotasyon at analisa:
May tatlong proseso ng pagbasa ayon kay Lachica (1999) o Anotasyon
 napakahalaga dahil naitutuon natin ang atensyon sa
Bago magbasa
nilalaman at wika ng teksto.
 Karaniwang itinatanong ng guro sa mga mag-aaral ang mga  isang paraan ng pagbibigay kahulugan impormasyon
sumusunod bago basahin ang isang akda sa teksto
 Ang mga binibigyang halaga bago magbasa sa pagbasang kritikal ay  ginagawa sa pamamagitan ng pagsasalungguhi
ang mga sumusunod: paggawa ng katanungan at paggawa ng balangkas.
o sanhi kung bakit naisulat ng awtor ang paksa o Pagsasalungguhit
o Kaangkupan ng paraang ginamit at lapit sa pagsulat ng teksto  pagsalungguhit sa mga salita o pariralang di
o Ang pagbubuo ng mga sariling kuro-kuro sa sulatin mauunawaan. Pagkatapos ay bibigyang kahulugan ang
 Dito natin nagagamit ang kritikal na pag-iisip kung bakit naisulat ang mga salitang sinalungguhitan batay sa pagkakagamit
teksto at paano ginawa ito ng may- akda. Maaari rin nating itanong nito sa pangungusap
ang mga sumusunod:
  Maaaring hanapin ang kahulugan nito sa diksyunaryo o o Dito maaari nating itanong ang mga sumusunod:
mga referensyang aklat o talakayan kasama Ang guro  Ano ang nais bigyang diin ng may-akda sa kanyang
o Pagtatanong sinulat?
 Nakikita ang ating pagiging kritikal na mambabasa sa  Alin sa mga nabanggit ang itinuturing niyang
pamamagitan ng pagsulat sa mga katanungang ito sa katotohanan?
gilid ng pahinang binabasa.  Konklusyon ayon sa
 Maaaring tanda ito ng hindi natin pagkaunawa sa  Maituturing bang katotohanan ito?
binabasang teksto o may pag-aalinlangan tayo sa takbo  Anu-ano ang mga katibayang isinaad ng may-akda o
ng pagtalakay ng may-akda sa teksto, o kaya nama’y manunulat?
may kulang ang ating kaalaman tungkol dito. o Kapag mataman nating sinusuri ang ating pagbabasa sa kritikal
 na pamamaraan, ito’y nagpapahiwatig na:
o Pagbabalangkas.  Hindi basta naniniwala sa lahat nang binabasa
 pagbabalangkas ng pangunahing paksa ng teksto at ang  Handa tayong maglahad ng mga tanong na sa ating
pagkafocus ng talakay ay nakatutulong nang malaki sa palagay ay hindi tama
pag-unawa natin sa mga impormasyong nakasaad.  Dadaan sa malalim na pagsusuri ang argumento
 Makikita ang pagkakaayos ng mga kabatiran na  May nakahandang katwiran o dahilan upang
binibigyang suporta sa loob ng teksto. tanggapin ang ilan at salungatin ang iba.
 Kailangang alam nating tukuyin ang pangunahing ideya  May kakayahan ang bawat indibidwal na ihiwalay ang
ng bawat talatang ating binabasa. payak na katotohanan sa mga opnion lamang, pati na
 Maisasagawa ang gawaing ito kung tatandaan natin na ang pagkakaroon ng lakas ng loob na itanong ang
halos argumento sa unahan o hulihan talata at ng mga pagkakaiba ng dalawa Mahalaga rin na malaman natin
pangatnig na naghuhudyat ng pinakagitna ng kung paano ginamit ang wika sa paghahayag ng
argumento. Ng Tulad ng mga salitang dahil dito, katotohanan at opinyon.
samakatwid, alalaong baga, at iba pa. o Sa pag-aanalisa sa wikang ginamit, ang mga sumusunod ay ating
kilalanin:
Nagkakaroon ng malaking pagkakataon ang mga mambabasa na maunawaang  Ang kadalasang paglitaw ng mga magkakatulad na
mabuti ang bawat pahiwatig ng manunulat sa tulong ng pagsasalungguhit, imahe
pagtatanong at pagbabalangkas  Magkakasunod na paglalarawan
 Walang pagkakaiba ng paglalarawan sa tao at
o Analisa pangyayari
o Ang argumentong ito ay tumutukoy sa katotohanan o pahayag ng  Pag-uulit ng mga salita, parirala, mga halimbawa at
may-akda na maaaring suportahan ng mga opinion o kuro-kuro. ilustrasyon
  Parehong istilo ng pagsulat at marami pang iba  higit na gamitin kung unang yugto ng pag-aaral ng pagbasa ang pag-
uusapan dahil sa yugtong ito ay nagsisimula pa lamang na kumilala
Pagkatapos magbasa at magbigay ng interpretasyon ang mag-aaral sa mga nakatalang
 Napapalawak pa ang kaalamang sa pamamagitan ng pagsulat ng buod, sagisag ng kaisipan.
ebalwasyon, paglilimi at muling pagbubuo.  Ginagamit kung may tagapakinig na nais makibahagi sa mga
 Itoang pamamaraang lohikal matapos ang pagbabasa ng teksto. interpretasyon ng mga nakalimbag na sagisag.
 Sa paggawa ng lagom makikita ang mga natutuhan sa pagbabasa at  Ang mga sumusunod na bagay ay sapat tandaan upang maging
pag-aalaala sa binasang teksto bilang pagtatamo sa mga kaalaman maayos ang pagbasa nang malakas:
 Mahalaga ring matutuhan natin ang paggawa o pagsulat ng o Kailangang katamtaman lamang ang agwat ng aklat buhat sa
ebalwasyon, mga komentaryo o m opinyon tungkol sa binasa. mata ng bumasa
 Ayon kay Carl Woodward o Kailangan ang sapat na lakas ng boses.
o ang pagbabasa ng aklat ay isang mabisang upang maabo ang o Dapat maging malinaw ang pagbigkas ng mga salita
makabagong karunungan at kaalaman ng tao magmula noong o Sundin ang mga bantas upang malaman kung saan ang din ng
unang panahon hanggang kasalukuyan. binabasa.
o Kailangang tumingin sa mga nakikinig paminsan-minsan
DALAWANG PARAAN NG PAGBABASA
MGA PANUKATAN O DIMENSION SA PAGBASA
Tahimik na Pagbasa.  Ang mga babaasahin ay nakatutulong sa paghahandog sa mag-aaral
 mata lamang ang siyang ginagamit sa pagbabasa at walang tung o ng mayayamang karanasan na makatutulong sa paglinang ng
pasalitang ginagawa. mabubuting kaalaman, kasanayan, pag-uugali, kawilihan at saloobin
 mapabibilis kung isasaalang-alang ang mga sumusunod: at mga pagpapahalaga sa ikalilinang ng lahat ng mga ito, may mga
o Sapat na ilaw at tahimik na lugar upang mapangalagaan ang panukatan sa pagtatanong, ito ay panukatan o dimension sa pagbasa.
paningin.  Narito ang limang panukatan o dimension sa pagbasa.
o Isaisip ang buong diwa ng binabasa at hindi ang bawat salita
lamang Unang Dimensyon-Pag-unawang literal (1)
o Sumangguni sa diksyunaryo kung may salitang hindi a. Pagpuna sa mga detalye
maunawaan b. Pagpuna sa wastong pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari
o Pakilusin ang mata simula sa kaliwa pakanan. c. Pagsunod sa panuto
o Iwasan ang pagkibot ng labi kapag nagbabasa nang tahimik. d. Pagbubuod o paglalagom sa binasa
e. Paggawa ng balangkas ng binasa
Pasalitang pagbasa f. Pagkuha sa pangunahing kaisipan
 mata at malakas na tinig ang siyang ginagamit sa pagbasa. g. Paghanap ng tugon sa mga tiyak na katanungan
 h. Pagbibigay ng katotohanan upang mapatunayan ang isang nalalaman j. Pagsunod sa panuto
na k. Pagbubuod o paglalagom sa binasa
i. Paghanap ng katibayan para sa o laban sa isang pansamantalang l. Paggawa ng balangkas ng binasa
konklusyon m. Pagkuha sa pangunahing kaisipan
j. Pagkilala sa mga tauhan n. Paghanap ng tugon sa mga tiyak na katanungan
k. Pag-uuri-uri ayon sa pamagat o. Pagbibigay ng katotohanan upang mapatunayan ang isang
nalalaman na
Ikalawang Dimensyon (2) p. Paghanap ng katibayan para sa o laban sa isang
 Pagkaunawang ganap sa mga kaisipanng may-akda lakip ang mga pansamantalang konklusyon
karagdagang kahulugan q. Pagkilala sa mga tauhan
a. Pagdama sa katangian ng tauhan r. Pag-uuri-uri ayon sa pamagat
b. Pag-unawa sa mga tayutay at patalinghagang salita
c. Paghinuha ng mga katuturn o kahulugan Pagbibigay ng kuro- Ikaapat na Dimensyon (4)
kuro at opinyon  pagsasanib ng mga kaisipang nabasa at ng mga karanasan upang
d. Pagkuha ng kalalabasan magbunga ng bagong pananaw at pagkaunawa
e. Paghinuha sa mga sinundang pangyayari a. Pagbibigay ng mga opinyon at reaksyon
f. Pagbibigay ng solusyon o kalutasan b. Pag-uugnay ng binasa sa sarili at sa tunay na buhay
g. Pagkuha ng pangkalahatang kahulugan ng isnag binasa c. Pagpapayaman sa talakayan ng aralin sa pamamagitan ng
h. Pagbibigay ng pamagat paglalahad ng mga kaugnay na karanasan
d. Pag-aalaala sa mga kaugay na impormasyon
Ikatlong Dimensyon (3) e. Pagbibigay ng katotohanan upang dagdagan ang mga
 pagkilatis sa kahalagahan ng mga kaisipan at ng kabisaan ng nalalaman na
pagkalahad f. Pagpapaliwanag ng nilalaman o ng binasa batay sa sariling
a. Pagbibigay ng reaksyon karanasan
b. Pag-iisip na masaklaw at malawak
c. Paghahambing at pagbibigay ng pagkakaiba Ikalimang Dimensyon (5)
d. Pagdama sa pananaw ng may-akda  pagkilala ng sariling kaisipan ayon sa mga kasanayan at
e. Pag-unawa sa mga impresyon o kakintalang nadarama a. Kawilihan sa binasang seleksyon
f. Pagpapahalaga sa binasa b. Pagbabago ng panimula ng kwento o lathalain
g. Pagkakilala sa pagkakaroon o kawalan ng kaisipan ng mga c. Pagbabago ng wakas ng kwento o lathalain
pangungusap d. Pagbabago ng pamagat ng kwento
h. Pagpuna sa mga detalye e. Pagbabago ng katangian ng mga tauhan
i. Pagpuna sa wastong pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari f. Pagbabago ng mga pangyayari sa kwento o lathalain
 g. Paglikha ng sariling kwento batay sa binasa A. Pagbasa ng Tekstong Pang-Agham Panlipunan at Pangkasaysayan

PAGBASA SA TEKSTONG AKADEMIKO AT PROPESYONAL AGHAM PANLIPUNAN

 isang disiplina na nagsusuri sa ugnayan ng mga tao sa lipunan at
TEKSTO kung paano sila nakikitungo sa isa’t isa at sa kanilang kapaligiran.
 isang babasahin na puno ng mga ideya ng iba’t-ibang tao at  ay batay sa pag-aaral at pagsusuri ng mga relasyong ito mula sa iba’t-
impormasyon. ibang larangan gaya ng antropolohiya o pamahalaan, sikolohiya at
sosyolohiya.
TEKSTONG PANG AKADEMIK  nangangailangan ng malaking panahon sa pagbabasa.
 ay ginagamit ng mga mag-aaral sa paaralan at lumilinang sa ating  Tiinatawag na “mga agham” dahil ang mga propesyonal sa larangang
kaisipan upang mapahusay ang ating kaalaman. ito ay nagtitipon ng mga datos sa pamamagitan ng eksperimentasyon,
 Hailimbawa ng mga Teksto tungkol sa Agham Panlipunan, obserbasyon, at sarbey; nagsusuri ng mga datos; at bumubuo ng
kasaysayan, Ekonomiks, Sosyolohiya at iba pa. kongklusyon mula sa mga sinuri
 Inihaharap sa mga propesyon sa larangang ito ang resulta ng kanilang
TEKSTONG PROPESYONAL pananaliksik upag ang proyekto ay muling masubok o pagtuunan pa
 may kinalaman sa propesyon o kursong kinuha isang mag-aaral sa ng ibayong pag-aaral.
kolehiyo o pamantasan.
Halimbawa
 Ang pagbasa nito ay nangangailangan din ng masusing pag-aaral Ang Pagtuturo sa Filipino ng Agham Panlipunan II
sapagkat may ginagamit na natatanging wika sa iba’t-ibang disiplina. Malaya C. Ronas
 Ito ay may sariling rejister ng wika na kailangang maunawaan ng
Ang agham Pnlipunan II ay isa lamang sa labng-apat na kurso na
mambabasa.
kabilang sa programang malawakan edukasyon ng Unibersidad ng Pilipinas.
 Mga paraan na ginagamit upanh maunawan ang teksto Layunin nito na Hahad at siriin ang mga pangunahing tradisyon ng kanluran
o paglalagay ng glosaryo sa hulihang bahagi ng aklat tungkol sa panlipunan, pang-ekonomiy, at pampulitikang kaisipan. Bilang
o paggamit ng talababa, ilustrasyon, dayagram, grap malawakang sarbey, ang kurso ay sumasaklaw sa sinauna, medyibal, at
o pagbibigay ng depinisyonng salita, modrnong panahon ng sibilisasyong kanluran.
o pabibigay ng pahiwatig sa kahulugan ng salita batay sa Hindi na lubos na tinatanggap ang pananaw na ito sa ating
paggamit nito sa pangungusap. modernong panahon. Sa katunayan, ito ay tinalikuran na ng sosyolohiya.
 Mahalaga ang mga nabanggit na paraan at nakatutulong sa mambabasa Ayon kay Alvin Gouldner, ang pananaw na pansosyolohiya ay nakatuon sa
na maunawaan ang mga teknikal na salita at mga terminolohiya na kabuuan ng lipunan. Ang lipunan ay tiuturing na may identidad na iba sa
mga indibidwal. Sa gaitong pananw, ang lipunan ay humuhubog ng mga
ginagamit sa teksto.
paniniwala ng indibidwal sa pamamagtan ng pamilya, simbahan, paaralan, at
pamahalaan.
 Ang kakanyahan ng lipunan ay idiniin din ni Emile Durkheim, ng estado, itinuring sa mahabang panahon na ang lakaran sa pamilihan ay
tinaguriang “Ama ng Sosyolohiya” sa France. Sinabi ni Durkheim na: Ang sakop ng kapangyarihan ng estado. Ang kalakalan sa ibayong dagat ay
metodong pansosyolohiya na aming ginamit ay buung-buong nakatayo sa kasangkapan ng esta upang pagyamanin ang kaban ng estado. Ang layunin
batayang prinsipyo na, ang mga kaganapang sosyal ay dapat pag-aralan bilang ay pagkalap ng ginto at pla pamamagitan ng kalakalan at kolonyalismo. Ang
mgabagay; bilang mga realidad na bukod sa indibidwal. Hindi nauunawaan na patakarang ito ay tinawag na merkantilismo, isang patakarang kumilala sa
hindi maaring magkaroon ng Sosyolohiya kung walang mga lipunan kung kapangyarihan ng estado na pamahalaan at pakialaman ang lakaran sa
mayroon lamang mga indivbidwal. pamilihan.
Samakatwid, nakatuon ang pansin ng sosyolohiya sa buong lipunan at Mahigpit ang pagtutol ni Smith sa merkantilismo. Naniwala siya na
hindi sa indibidwal o sa kalikasan ng tao. Gayon pa man, mahirap na sabihing dapat magkaroon ng kalayaan ang pamilihan mula sa estado sapagkat ito ang
lipunan na ang dapat pag-aralan. Sa katunayan, patuloy na pinag-aaralan ang paraan upa higit pang lumaki ang produksyon ng ekonomiya. Tinawag niya
kalikasan ng indibidwal sa disiplinang sikolohiya. Ang sikilohiya ng mga ang patakarang it laissez faire. Ang patuloy na paglaki ng ekonomiya ang
sinaunang pilosopo na tulad ni Plato ay makikita sa kanilang metapisika. daan tungo sa kabutihan pamumuhay ng mga taong doon ay naninirahan.
Ayon sa kanya, ang kalikasan ng tao ay nakasalalay sa elemento na Ipinaliwanag niya na ang paglaki ekonomiya ay nakasalalay sa paglago ng
nangingibabaw sa kanyang kaluluwa. Kung katwiran ang nangingibabaw, siya kapital sapagkat mula lamang sa mga namumuhunan nanggaling ang
ay marunong: kung katapangan, siya ay matapang: at kung pagnanasa, siya ay panibago at dagdag ng kapital na nagmula sa kanilang tubo.
mapag-angkin. Ang kalikasang ito ng tao ay makikita rin sa kalikasan ng
bayan,dagdag ni Plato. Sa pagsusuri ni Karl Max, ang sistemang laissez faire ay
mapagsaman sa produkto ng mga manggagawa. Itinuring ni Marx na ang
Ang aspekto ng sikilohiya ay makikita rin sa mga modernong lahat ng halaga ay gal sa paggawa, na ang paggawa lamang ang tunay na
pilosopong nag- aaral ng ekonomiya na tulad ni Adam Smith at Alfred batayan ng kayamanan ng bayar Ang tubo na napupunta sa mga
Marshall. Ayon kay Smith,ang pagkamakasarili ng tao ay nagdudulot ng namumuhunan, ang may-ari ng mga instrumento produksyon, ay galing din
pangkalahatang pakinabang para sa lipunan. Lumihis si Smith sa tradisyon ng sa mga manggagawa. Ang mga manggagawa ay hindi binabayaran ng sapat
kaisipan na kailangang itakwil ang pagkamakasarili kung nais ng tao na na sahod na dapat sana ay batay sa kanilang produksyon, manapa’y ang
maging mabuti. Ayon naman kay Marshall,ang kilos ng tao sa pamilihan ay kanilang sahod ay nasa antas lamang na kung tawagin ay subsistence wage.
mauunawaan kung siya ay itinuturing na homo economicus, isang tao na
naghahanap ng mas malaking kasiyahan bilang mamimili, o mas malaking Ang pagwasak sa buong sistema ng laissez faire o kapitalismo ang
gantimpala bilang tagagawa ng mga produkto. Sa katunayan ay iginiit ni tanging paraan upang mawala ang “pagsasamantala ng tao sa kanyang kapwa
Joseph Schumpeter na ang ekenomikong pagsusuri ay hindi pangunahing tao.” Ito ay mangyayari, wika ni Marx, sa pamamagitan ng tunggalian ng
aspekto ng kaisipang kaunlaran noong panahong klasiko. Ang modernong mga uri. Lulupigin ng uring proletaryo ang uring burgis upang ang isang
pagsusuri ng ekenomiya ay nagsimula noong huling bahagi ng siglo 17 nang makatarungang lipunan- isang lipunang pantay-pantay na wala nang
talakayin ni Locke ang konseptong “halaga at mga patakaran tungkol sa mapagsamantalang uri. Sa makatarungang lipunan ni Marx, ang mapanikil
pananalapi. Itinuloy ni smith ng suriin niya ang iba pang aspekto ng na estado ay unti-unting maglalable.
ekonomiya tulad ng “presyo,” produksyon,” distribusyon, kalikasan ng
Bukod sa pagkakapantay-pantay, marami pang ibang prinsipyo ang
pamilihan at ang kaugnayan nito sa estado.
nagging batayan ng konseptong “katarungan” sa sibilisasyong kaunlaran. Sa
Ang kaugnayan ng pamilihan at estado ay isa sa mga pangunahing mga Griyego, an armonya ng mga uri sa bayan ang kahulugan ng
isyung pampolitikang ekonomiya. Sa pananaw na ganap ang kapangyarihan katarungan. Ibig sabihin nito na ang bawat tao ay may natural na gawain na
dapat gampanan sa bayan at tungkulin niyang manatili sa kanyang uri upang
gampanan ang gawaing ito. Maaari siyang maging pinuno, mandirigma o o Lumalawak ang kaisipan ng isang mananaliksik dahil sa
manggagawa. Ngunit ang kanyang papel sa bayan ay dapat na nakasalalay sa walang humpay na pagbabasa, pag-iisip, panunuri, paglalahad
kanyang likas na kakayahan na maaaring alamin sa pamamagitan ng at paglalapat ng interpretasyon.
sistemang edukasyon. Ang prinsipyong pagkakapantay-pantay ng proporsyon
ay ginamit ding batayan para sa konseptong “katarungan.” Ibig sabihin nito na  Lumalawak ang karanasan
ang mga taong nagtataglay ng kabutihan(virtue) ang dapat na mamuno sa o Ang kasanayan sa paghahanap at pagtingin sa mga naisulat
bayan. Ito ang nararapat na daan tungo sa minimithing “mabuting buhay.” hinggil sa paksang pinag-aralan ay napauunlad dahil sa
marami siyang nakasalamuha sa pangangalap ng mga
Ang espiritwal na mithiin ng buhay ay hindi kailanman makakamit sa
mahahalagang datos, pagbabasa at paggalugad sa mga
lupa. Ito ang paninindigan ng mga pangunahing pilosopong Kristiyano. Sa
kaugnay na literatura.
Kristiyanong pananaw ang tunay na katarungan ay matatagpuan sa kaharian
ng Tagapagligtas Ang kahariang ito ay wala sa ibabaw ng lupa kundi nasa
 Nalilinang ang tiwala sa sarili
kalangitan. Walang makalupang bayan ang maaaring magdala sa tao sa
o pagkaroon ng respeto at tiwala sa sarili kung maayos at
pangakong buhay na walang hanggan. Ang pagtalikod sa kanyang
makasariling interes, at ang ganap na pagpapasailalim sa mga utos ng Diyos, matagumpay na naisakatuparan ang alinmang pag-aaral na
ang tanging daan tungo sa mithiing espiritwal ng buhay. Nangingibabaw ang isinagawa,
Kristiyanong pananaw na ito sa Europe mula nang huling bahagi ng o Bilang isang mag-aaral sa pananaliksik, marapat na tingnan
sibilisasyong hanggang sa panahong medyibal. ang sarili bilang isang iskolar na masigasig na kabahagi ng
isang gawaing pang iskolar.

TUNGKULIN AT RESPONSIBILIDAD NG MANANALIKSIK

 Tungkulin ng mananaliksik ang sumagot sa sarili niyang katanungan at
patunayan sa sarili ang kaniyang mga pag-aakala at pananaw nito.
PANANALIKSIK  Dapat ding isaalang-alang ng mananaliksik ang paggalang sa mga datos
 “Ang pananaliksik ay isang barometro ng kahusayan ng isang mag-aaral – na nakalap, sa pamamagitan ng pagpapahalaga sa intellectual property at
pinatutunayan nito na napagtatagumpayan niya ang mga hamon ng mga taong kakapanayamin.
akademya sa pagtuklas ng malawak na karunungang matatagpuan sa labas  Lalong-lalo na mahalaga ang kredibilidad ng isang mananaliksik.
nito” – Mayor at Ganaban, 2011  Ang pagiging orihinal sa ginawang papel pananaliksik na magtatakda ng
 Isang maingat at sistematikong pag-aaral at pagsisiyasat sa ilang larangan kahusayan sa pagtuklas
ng kaalaman na isinasagawa upang tangkaing mapagtibay ang katwiran.
PLAGIARISM / PANUNULAD
RESEARCH  mula sa salitang Latin “plagiaries” na ang literal na ibig sabihin ay
 hango sa matandang salitang Pranses na recherché galing na ang ibig kidnapper.
sabihin sa Ingles ay to seek and to search again.  ito ay isang paraan ng pagnanakaw; kung saan ang isang tao ay gumamit
o ng hiram ng ideya o gawa ng iba at hindi nilagay ang pinagkunan o
KABUTIHANG DULOT NG PANANALIKSIK binigyan ng credit ang kanyang pinagkukunan.
 Nadagdagan at lumalawak ang kaisipan
Mga Anyo ng Plagiarism
 Minimalistic Plagiarism o Maaring sa iyong ginawang artikulo, libro atbp., ay may
o ang mga ideya o konsepto na nakuha o nabasa mo mula sa katulad o sadyang ginaya at hindi mo tinukoy kung saan mo
kanilang sources ay kanilang ginamit pero sarili nilang salita o ito nakuha o ginaya.
paraphrasing. o
 Intellectual Property Law
 Full Plagiarism o uri ng batas kung saan ang mga nagimbentong mga
o tumutukoy sa iyong ginawa na parehong pareho mula sa iyong manunulat, artist atbp., ay binibigyan ng ‘exclusive property
pinagkunan. rights’o sila ang kinikilalang nagmamay-ari ng kanilang
o Bawat salita, parirala o talata ay gayang gaya mula sa ginawa.
pinagkukunan.  Dahil sa exclusive property rights na ito, hindi natin
basta-bastang magagamit o makikita ang bagay na
 Partial Plagiarism kanyang ginawa o naimbento hanggang hindi niya
o may dalawa o mahigit pa ang iyong pinagkukunan at pinapayagan.
kombinasyon ng mga ito ang kinalabasan ng iyong ginawa. D o RA No. 8293 o Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines
o ito nangyayari ang rephrasing o pagbabago ng ilang salita.  Ilan sa uri ng intellectual property rights ay
copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design
rights and trade secrets. Sources: Plagiarism. (n.d.).
Wikipedia Retrieved November 29, 2010.
 Source Citation
o tumutukoy sa uri ng plagiarism kung saan maaring binigay ang  O’Hare at Funk (2000 sa Bernales et al., 2012)
pangalan ng may-akda o pinagkunan pero hindi na madaling o Ang pananaliksik isang pangangalap ng impormasyon mula
mahanap dahil kulang o hindi sapat ang impormasyon na sa iba’t ibang hanguan sa pamamaraang impormatibo at
binigay. obhektibo.
o Minsan naman ay mali ang ibinibigay na pinanggalingan ng o Ito ay isang paraan o proseso ng pagtuklas o pagdiskubre sa
impormasyon o pinagsasama ang ilang sariling sinulat sa akda pamamagitan ng makaagham na paraan upang masagot ang
ng iba mga katanungan, matugunan ang mga pangangailangan, at
 Ghostwriter mapagtibay ang mga dating kaalaman.
 isang ganap na plagiarist dahil gawain nila ang
sumulat ng mga sulat na ginawa ng iba ang ETIKA NG PANANALIKSIK
inaako na parang sila ang gumawa  Paggalang sa karapatan ng iba
 Pagtingin sa lahat ng mga datos bilang confidential
 Self-Plagiarism / Recycling Fraud  Pagiging matapat sa bawat pahayag
o uri ng plagiarism kung saan inilathala mo ang isang materyal  Pagiging obhektibo at walang kinikilingan
na nalathala na pero sa ibang medium.

PAGPILI NG PAKSA
PAKSA 2. Ano-ano ang mga batas o impormasyon ang wala pa o
 Ayon kay Dayag, Alma, et al 2016 kulang pa at kailangan ko pang saliksikin?
o ang salitang paksa ay kadalasang tumutugon sa ideyang  Mahalaga ang pagbuo ng balangkas bago simulan ang pagsulat upang:
tatalakayin sa isang sulating pananaliksik. o Higit na mabibigyang-diwa ang paksa
 ay isa sa pinakamahalagang bahagi ng isang papelpananaliksik.  Ang paksa ang pinakasentro ng sulatin, kaya
 Ang pagpili ng isang paksa ay dapat nakapokus lamang sa isang direksyon nakatutulong ang pagbuo ng balangkas.
upang hindi mahirapan sa pagbuo ng pahayag. Mahalagang maisaalang- o Nakapagpapadali sa proseso ng pagsulat.
alang ang mga gabay sa pagpili ng pinkaangkop na paksa  Dahil nakaplano na ang bawat bahagi ng sulatin sa
o Interesado ka o gusto mo ang paksang pipiliin mo proseso ng pagsulat ng pananaliksik.
 Paksang marami ka nang nalalaman o Nakatutukoy ng mahihinang argumento.
 Paksang gusto mo pang higit na malaman  Dahil sa pagbabalangkas ay nahahati ang malalaking
 Paksang napapanahon ideya at nilalagyan pa ng sumusuportang detalye para
o Mahalagang maging bago o naiiba at hindi kapareho ng mapatibay ang argumento at matutukoy kung alin ang
mapipiling paksa ng mga kaibigan mo mahina at dapat ayusin at rebisahing mga argumento.
o May mapagkukunan ng sapat at malawak na impormasyon → o Nakakatulong maiwasan ang writer’s block.
Maaring matapos sa takdang panahong nakalaan  Magkaroon ng direksiyon ang manunulat at mapag-
isipan ang kanyang isusulat.
HAKBANG SA PAGPILI NG PAKSA
1. Alamin kung ano ang inaasahan o layunin ng susulatin URI NG BALANGKAS
2. Pagtatala ng mga posibleng maging paksa para sa sulating  Paksa o Papaksang balangkas (Topic Outline)
pananaliksik o ito ay binubuo ng mga parirala o salita na siyang mahalagang
3. Pagsusuri sa mga itinalang ideya punto hingil sa paksa
4. Pagbuo ng tentatibong paksa
5. Paglilimita sa paksa  Papangungusap na Balangkas (Sentence Outline)
o binubuo ng mahahalagang pangungusap na siyang
kumakatawan sa mahalagang bahagi ng sulatin.
PAGBUO NG TENTATIBONG BALANGKAS
 Patalatang Balangkas- Ang binibigyang-diin ay ang pagkakaugnay.
BALANGKAS / OUTLINE
 ay kalansay ng mga ideya na pinagbabatayan ng aktuwal na proyektong
gagawin
 Ang sistema ng isang maayos na paghahati-hati muna sa mga kaisipan
ayon sa talatuntuning lohikal na pagkasunud-sunod bago ganapin ang
pagunlad ng pagsusulat. (Arrogante, 1992)
 Nagsisilbing gabay upang masagot ng mananaliksik mahalagang tanong
1. Ano-ano ang mga bagay na alam ko na o nasasaliksik ko na
at maaari ko nang i-organisa patungkol sa aking paksa?