Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

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Continental Shelf Research

Bathymetric observations of an extreme tidal flow: Approaches to the Gulf

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The growing interest in tidal energy has led to a need to better understand the interaction between energetic tidal
Tidal flows flows and submarine bathymetry. The Gulf of Corryvreckan (GoC) is a highly energetic tidal channel, ~3.2 km
Mobile bedforms long and ~1.1 km wide with a maximum depth of 220 m occurring between the islands of Scarba and Jura,
Bathymetry
western Scotland, UK. A high-resolution bathymetric survey of the region, groundtruthed by sediment samples,
Hydrodynamics
has enabled the bathymetry to be related to Lagrangian flow data from GPS-tracked surface drifter buoys. The
maximum recorded drifter velocity was 4.75m/s within the GoC during the ebb (east-flowing) tide. Exiting the
GoC into open water to the west on the flood tide, the ‘Great Race’ decelerates and subsequently flows in a curve
to the north. East and west of the GoC, sedimentary bedforms lie on the flanks of the main flow paths. The
northern flank of the Great Race aligns with a 6 km elongate bedform (‘banner bank’) extending from the GoC.
East of the GoC, complex tidal bottom flows are suspected to result in uncommon sediment morphology,
including suspected sediment wave interference patterns expressed by the mobile bedforms. The novelty of these
findings indicates the importance of further research into sediment pathways in energetic tidal zones. A greater
understanding of how sediment transport may be modified during offshore construction is an important
consideration for offshore installations and the feasibility of marine renewables.

1. Introduction Fundy, Canada. Except for the Moskenstraumen, which occurs in open
water off the Lofoten Islands, Norway, the other five flows occur in
Bathymetry can focus tidal energy within physically constrained narrow topographic passages between islands and are a combination of
channels (Ponta and Jocovkis, 2008). With 15% of the UK’s electricity asymmetric tidal heights and complex submarine bathymetry (Shaw
demand to be provided by renewable energy in 2020, locally concen­ et al., 2012). Understandably, obtaining bathymetric and hydrodynamic
trated tidal energy is a predictable renewable resource (Iyer et al., 2013; data from these environments is difficult and they remain relatively
Lewis et al., 2017). However, when bathymetrically accelerated flows poorly understood.
are combined with an abundant sediment source, mobile submarine
bedforms can result, creating physically unstable seabed conditions 1.1. Regional setting
(Besio et al., 2008). To improve the cost-effectiveness of offshore and
coastal construction on the seabed, and thus harnessing tidal energy, it is The GoC occurs between the islands of Jura and Scarba, western
essential that interactions between mobile bedforms and energetic tidal Scotland, northwest UK. The GoC is ~1.1 km wide between the islands,
flows are better understood (Todd et al., 2014). There are many areas of and ~3.2 km long in an east-west orientation (Fig. 1). Both the islands of
global continental shelves where localised extreme tidal flows (>3m/s) Scarba and Jura, and the GoC between them, are composed of Jura
can occur. Some known examples and their anecdotal maximum tidal Quartzite, part of the Argyll Supergroup of Dalradian-age (~620Ma)
flow rates are; (1) the Saltstraumen, Norway (~10m/s), (2) Seymour meta-sediments. Both islands also contain Scarba Conglomerate occur­
Narrows, Canada (~8m/s), (3) Lofoten (Moskenstraumen), Norway ring along their east coasts (Anderton, 1985; Howe et al., 2015). The
(~7m/s), (4) the Gulf of Corryvreckan, Scotland, (~5m/s), (5) the generally homogeneous bedrock geology is locally interrupted by minor
Naruto Straits, Japan (~4m/s), (6) the Old Sow (~3m/s) in the Bay of igneous intrusions (i.e. dykes) possibly of Tertiary-age (Howe et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Armstrong), [email protected] (J.A. Howe), [email protected] (A. Dale), Christopher.Allen@
srsl.com (C. Allen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2021.104347
Received 10 September 2020; Received in revised form 17 December 2020; Accepted 4 January 2021
Available online 13 January 2021
0278-4343/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

2015). In the strong tidal streams of the eastern GoC, a number of these primarily as bedload transport, indicated by the presence of apparently
intrusive dykes can be traced across the seafloor, visible on settled sediment in the bathymetric data. This depth is termed the
sediment-free bedrock surfaces. The Jura Quartzite is a brittle meta­ threshold reference level (Dey, 2014). The Rouse number is related to
morphic rock and the onshore outcrops contain several faults that can be the Shields number, which quantifies the relationship between the hy­
followed across the GoC between Scarba and Jura. The longest of these drodynamics and the sediment to determine a bed shear stress at which
faults, the Scarba Fault runs approximately north to south and can be grain incipient motion occurs (Shields, 1936). The threshold shear ve­
traced offshore for over 15 km. The pattern of faulting in the GoC pro­ locity describing grain incipient motion is termed the critical Shields
vides a clue to the area’s structural origin. A complex of radiating faults stress (Salevan et al., 2017). The critical Shields stress thence can be
extends east and west from an origin between the two islands, sug­ used to determine when the Rouse number becomes considerable.
gesting the submarine channel of the GoC is a ‘crush zone’ of faults Where the Rouse number becomes considerable in a predominantly
following regional compression possibly during the Caledonian bidirectional hydrodynamic system may be revealed by the occurrence
Orogeny, a mountain-building event ~600-400Ma (Stephenson and of wave-like sediment bedforms (Kumbhakar et al., 2017). These sedi­
Gould, 1995). Subsequently, the repeated glaciations of the Pleistocene ment bedforms may be highly dynamic if a residual tidal velocity is
(<2Ma) has led to erosion of the channel, a consequence of the topo­ present, migrating >100m/yr (Van Landeghem et al., 2012; Van Dijk
graphic steering of ice between the islands. Lower relative sea levels and Lindenbergh, 2016). The residual tidal velocity is defined as the
during the Last Glacial Maximum of up to − 120 m and possible stronger time-averaged flow velocity during a tidal cycle (Pingree and Griffiths,
late glacial tidal conditions (Scourse, 2013) may also have produced 1979). Whereas the wave height of the feature is generally limited by the
further erosion of the channel and begun the extreme tidal flows that flow depth, the wavelength of the bedform scales with the grain size, bed
continue to the present day. shear stress and settling velocity (Coleman and Melville, 1996; Bar­
tholdy et al., 2005; Flemming, 2000). The composition and cohesivity of
the sediment grains may also prevent the formation of bedforms if they
1.2. Physical oceanography & sediment mechanics are too dense or too strongly cohered to become mobilised by the local
bed shear stress (Shields, 1937; Allen, 1979). The residual tidal velocity
The GoC is a highly energetic tidal channel (Dale et al., 2011). A also often shapes periodic bedforms from a symmetric (or trochoidal) to
tidally produced slope in sea surface heights between the two ends of the an asymmetric wave-structure. Bedform asymmetry is structurally
channel generates a barotropic pressure gradient. This pressure gradient resistant to the subordinate component of tidal flow that is not aligned
results in accelerated flows within the GoC which are reported to be with the residual tidal velocity. This structural resistance is defined by
3–6m/s during large spring tides (tide range >3 m). The hydrodynamics the lag parameter which scales with the volume of the bedform (Ter­
of the wider region combine to produce a highly dynamic and windt and Brouwer, 1986). Due to the large volume of the bedforms
flow-complex area (Benjamins et al., 2016). Due to the islands’ position documented here, they are suspected to be resistant to the subordinate
offshore from the Scottish mainland, a useful nomenclature relating to tidal flow (Reynaud and Dalrymple, 2012). The pronounced bedform
tidal flows must here be defined. The flood tide will refer to the flow to asymmetry documented is thus deemed an appropriate indication of
the west along Gulf of Corryvreckan. This tidal component results in the bedform migration providing the bottom flow conditions are broadly
‘Great Race’ - the westward flow exiting the GoC. Conversely, the ebb known (Borsje et al., 2014). For example, if bedforms evolve in a near
tide refers to the flow to the east, through the GoC into the Sound of Jura supercritical flow regime where the Froude number (Fr, describing the
(Dale et al., 2011). interaction between flow inertia and the length scale) > 0.84, then up­
Hydrodynamic flows may transport sediment. The method of trans­ stream migrating antidunes and cyclic steps may develop (Boguchwal
port (e.g. bedload, suspension or washload) and the sediment grain size and Southard, 1990). Cyclic steps are characterised by a steep face
transported is dependent on the bed shear stress (Belderson et al., 1982). leewards of the flow and usually positioned on declining gradients,
If the bed shear stress is sufficiently elevated, turbulent shear forces whereas antidunes are characterised by symmetrical face gradients
dominate the grain settling velocity and erosion-resistant bathymetry (West et al., 2019). Without considering the hydrodynamic regime,
will be revealed at the seabed. The Rouse number is a nondimensional misinterpreting the migration direction based on bedform geometry is
value describing the relationship between the sediment settling velocity possible. Providing that the hydrodynamic system produces a subcritical
and the bed shear velocity (Rouse, 1937). It is suspected that areas bottom flow, subaqueous ripples, dunes and waves may evolve from an
devoid of sediment deposition have low Rouse numbers (<1) with the initial bed instability (Coleman and Melville, 1996). These subcritical
sediment being transported predominantly as suspended and wash load. bedforms are distinguished by geometric scales. Subaqueous ripples are
A Rouse number >2.5 indicates that sediment transport will occur

Fig. 1. Location of the Gulf of Corryvreckan, western Scotland, UK. Indicated are the general tidal flow directions.

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

small bedforms with a wavelength (ƛ) <0.6 m existing in low energy Reson SVP 71 sound velocity probe. Attitude, heading, and positional
flow regimes; subaqueous dunes occur in tidally dominant regions and data were collected using an Applanix POSmv and provides positional
have wavelengths (ƛ) 0.6< ƛ <100 m; sediment waves typically occur in accuracy of <1 m. All data were compiled on board using Reson PDS
proximity to slope regions (e.g. continental margins) and possess ƛ software. Inshore, shallow water surveys were collected by the British
>100 m (Madricardo and Rizzetto, 2017; Wynn and Masson, 2008). Geological Survey (BGS) vessel RV White Ribbon using a Kongsberg
If the tidal asymmetry produces a large residual tidal velocity, ban­ EM3002D 300 kHz multibeam. Conductivity, temperature, and density
ner banks may be produced. Banner banks are found in energetic flow (CTD) dips were obtained during the survey using a Seabird 19+
systems and are defined as linear sediment bodies extending leeward of instrument.
an erosion-resistant bathymetric feature (e.g. bedrock outcrops, head­ Post-acquisition data processing was conducted by SAMS. The data
lands). An introduction to transient eddy formation in a flow leeward of were imported, cleaned and shoal surfaces prepared using basic mean
a headland is useful to describe banner bank formation. Approaching bathymetric and CUBE (Combined Uncertainty Bathymetric Evaluation)
and leeward of the headland, the evolution of the frictional Reynolds grids with manual and standard deviation filtering. Subsequent data
number (relation between advection and bottom friction), the Keulegan- manipulation and visualisation were conducted by the British Geolog­
Carpenter number (relation between local acceleration and advection), ical Survey, Edinburgh, using Caris HIPS and SIPS and Fledermaus
and the feature’s aspect (alongshore geometry) together influence the software. GeoTiff’s of the data layers were imported into ArcGIS v.10.2
across-flow pressure gradient. Due to the Bernoulli effect, the across- where geomorphological classification and mapping were conducted,
flow pressure gradient results in an offshore momentum flux. That is, via direct digitising of features. Tidal corrections were obtained by
the slower-moving water of the eddy (possessing greater nonhydrostatic measuring observed tide (from a Valeport tide gauge in Oban Bay
pressure) is transported towards the faster-moving main flow (possess­ (Northern Lighthouse Board Pier) and Easdale) and the DGPS position
ing lower nonhydrostatic pressure). Immediately leeward of the feature, from the vessel (Real Time Kinematic, RTK). Tidal height calculations
the across-flow velocity gradient, pressure gradient and thus offshore were conducted jointly with the Geological Survey of Ireland.
momentum flux are greatest. With the main flow decelerating down­ In conjunction with the bathymetric survey, the seabed sediments
stream, the gradients and thus the offshore momentum flux within the were sampled using a 0.1 m2 van Veen grab to inform the seafloor
eddy also reduce with distance. The resulting nonuniform entrainment sediment interpretations (Crump, 2013). The locations of samples are
into the main flow ultimately leads to a counter current inshore of it provided in Table 1 and shown in Fig. 2. These sample stations were
(Signell and Geyer, 1991). Adopting a simplified conceptual model
(neglecting hydrodynamic shear), the intersection between these two
oppositely flowing water bodies may be expressed by a zero-crossing in Table 1
the across-flow horizontal velocity profile. Where the fluid velocity is Gulf of corryvreckan grab samples.
below some critical value either side of the zero-crossing (dependent on Grab Position Date Water Bathymetric Context Sediment
the sediment grain size), sediment deposition occurs (Duffy, 2006). Number ( Depth Description
Fig. 2) (m)
Oriented parallel to the dominant flow axis, the linear sediment depo­
sition is thus defined as a banner bank (Shaw et al., 2012; De Castro 1 56 29/ 47 Between bedrock Shell sand
8.51 N 6/12 outcrops southwest
et al., 2017).
5 of GoC
Banner banks are geomorphologically distinct. There is a noted 44.96 W
ambiguity, however, in the nomenclature assigned to less distinct 2 56 29/ 92 West of GoC, Coarse shell
across-flow bedforms (Off, 1963; Allen, 1980; Ashley, 1990). The au­ 8.68 N 6/12 determined to be the sand
thors here adopt the classifications of Ashley (1990), with medium to 5 less defined south
45.64 W banner bank
large ‘dunes’ being equivalent to ‘megaripples’ as defined by Dalrymple
4 56 9.7 N 29/ 114 Initial segment of Coarse shell
(1979). In addition, the novelty of academic and commercial interest in 5 6/12 north banner bank, sand
the study region means that features identified have yet to be officially 45.9 W west of the GoC
named. The names used here are merely placeholders facilitating the 5 56 29/ 140 ~300 m north of the Muddy sand
10.14 N 6/12 northern banner
reader’s navigation around the GoC and its approaches.
5 bank, west of the
46.5 W GoC
1.3. Aims 6 56 29/ 87 West of the Grey Sandy mud
11.4 N 6/12 Dogs tidal race,
This study presents the first detailed bathymetric and oceanographic 5 between isles Scarba
45.6 W and Lunga
surveys of the GoC and its approaches. The aims of this study are: (1) to 7 56 29/ 200 Further west of #6, Sandy mud
provide a preliminary assessment of the flow paths surrounding and 11.38 N 6/12 within the
within the GoC; (2) assess deposition and hydraulic reworking of the 5 recirculation zone of
sediment at the boundaries of the flow regime; (3) provide a quantitative 47.55 W the Great Race,
north of GoC
analysis of local hydrodynamic-bathymetric interactions.
11 56 17/ 82 Northeastern slope Coarse shell
10.17 N 7/12 into the Scour Pit, sand
2. Methods 5 east of the GoC
39.75 W
2.1. Seabed survey 13 56 18/ 37 ~100 m east of the Coarse sand
10.08 N 7/12 Trellis Dune and gravel
5
Seabed bathymetric data were collected by the Scottish Association 38.7 W
for Marine Science (SAMS) using a multibeam echo sounder (MBES) 16 56 8.4 N 19/ 39 At eastern flank of Coarse sand
during 2012–2013 as part of the INIS Hydro project on behalf of the 5 7/12 Reosa Bank and gravel
37.0 W
Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA). SAMS vessel RV Calanus uti­
18 56 9.9 N 20/ 70 Amongst outcrops Muddy sand
lised a hull-mounted Reson Seabat 7125 dual-frequency (200 & 400 5 7/12 east ~850 m east of and gravel
kHz) multibeam. The system utilises 256 and 512 beams across a 120◦ 36.79 W the Trellis Dune
swath providing data coverage approximately three times water depth 90 56 8.8 N 24/ 37 500 m north Pebbles and
and a bathymetric resolution, depending on water depth, of up to a few 5 10/ northeast of Reosa boulders
36.79 W 12 Bank, craggy seabed
centimetres. Sound velocity data was collected from a hull mounted

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 2. The MBES bathymetry of the Gulf of Corryvreckan and its approaches. Named features are labelled, and subsequent figure locations are indicated by the black
rectangles indexed by [figure number]. The numbered white circles indicate the locations of sediment samples, relating to Table 1.

chosen for their proximity to distinct flow areas (e.g. Great Race) whilst 2.2. Drifter deployment
avoiding energetic hydrodynamic areas that would have jeopardised
sampling efficacy due to vessel instability. Wet sediment samples were A number of drifter units were deployed on several tidal cycles
classified based on Folk and Ward (1957). Samples were analysed using within the GoC to ascertain surface current patterns. The drifters con­
a laser-diffraction particle size instrument and the mean sediment grain sisted of a vertically floating pipe of length 2.4 m with a 0.5 m projection
size (D50) used to determine the sediment type. above the water surface, and four fins at the ballasted lower end. GPS

Fig. 3. The Great Race’s northern banner bank (upper left); indexed by the black rectangle, the bathymetric slope of the northern banner bank at the GoC’s western
approach (bottom left) with the depth profiles (right), indicated by the numbered white lines. White striations in the upper right corner of the bathymetry
are artefacts.

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

locations were logged every 60 s, providing surface Lagrangian flow the approaches to the Gulf of Corryvreckan (GoC) to the east and west.
paths. It is assumed that wind drag on the drifters’ surface exposure
made a relatively unimportant contribution to their velocity. 3.1.1. Sediment samples
Identified bedforms were digitised in ArcGIS and their slope, depth, Data from the sediment grabs revealed a range of grain D50. Sedi­
form characteristics (wavelength, height, and slope asymmetry), and ment morphology proximal to known high flow regions (e.g. Great Race
location in relation to the drifter tracks were retrieved. Banner Banks, Fig. 2) exhibits shell-laden sediment that ranged from 0.6
As the drifters provide data specific to a point moving with the flow, - 1.0 mm, classified as coarse shell sand. Away from these high flow
information regarding the evolution of the hydrodynamics at a fixed regions, the seabed expresses greater fractions of finer, muddy sediment,
point in space is limited. Interpretations are therefore largely specula­ classified as muddy sand and sandy mud (Wentworth, 1922). From
tive and only suggestions of predominant hydrodynamics are provided. Table 1, there appears to be little correlation between depth and grain
However, the correlation between submarine bathymetry and the GPS- size.
tracked drifters appears to provide a reliable inference of bathymetric-
hydrodynamic interactions. 3.1.2. MBES survey
As this is a tidally energetic site, we assume the water column to be To the west of the GoC, a 20.9 km2 bedrock basin extends west and
well-mixed with relatively uniform currents vertically, except for close northwest towards the islands of Colonsay and the Garvellachs (‘Deep
to the seabed where velocities are expected to decrease. We also suggest Basin Zone’, Fig. 2). The basin reaches a maximum depth of 287 m with
that residual tidal velocities may be broadly inferred by the form and an average slope of 9◦ (maximum 30◦ ) shallowing on the surrounding
orientation of bedforms. The maximum recorded velocities of the ebb bathymetry at an average of 140 m. The basin is the product of a sub-
and flood flow paths within and approaching the GoC differ spatially as seabed fault, oriented southwest to northeast that can be followed
per the observed drifter data (Figs. 8 and 9) resulting in spatially vari­ >30 km northeast into the Firth of Lorn (Howe et al., 2015).
able residual tidal velocities. As the form and orientation of a bedform The western extent of the GoC is bounded by bedrock walls (rela­
broadly agrees with the dominant component of the tidal flow, we tively steep, rocky slopes devoid of sediment), oriented obliquely at
suggest that bedforms here may be used as a valuable proxy to infer ~47◦ from the horizontal axis of the channel, but becoming parallel
bottom flow characteristics. between the shores of Scarba and Jura (‘Submarine Walls’ - Figs. 2 and
7). A northern submarine wall occurs from the southern shore of the
3. Results island of Scarba. This wall is ~1 km long and 60–100 m higher than the
central channel basin. In contrast, the southern submarine wall, north
3.1. Seabed survey from the Jura shore, is longer, being ~2.0 km long but only 30–80 m
high. The central east-west channel defining the GoC (‘Meandering
The multibeam echosounder (MBES) bathymetric data are presented Channel’ – Fig. 2), separates both parallel submarine walls before they
in Figs. 2–8. Features referred to in the text are identified in Fig. 2 with become obliquely oriented at the terminals of the gulf. The submarine
increased image resolution provided in Figs. 3–8. A total of 137 km2 of walls to the west of the GoC end where a 40◦ steep bedrock slope occurs
seafloor was surveyed, with water depths ranging from 5 m to 287 m. in water depths of 118 m–162 m (‘Bedrock Slope’ – Fig. 2). West of this
The complex bathymetry results from energetic tidal erosion and older break in slope, a large 1.3 km2 complex of protruding outcropping
subglacial erosion (Howe et al., 2015). Bedforms occur predominantly at bedrock occurs (‘Bedrock Feature’ - Fig. 2). The complex bathymetry of

Fig. 4. The Great Race’s dune field (upper left); indexed by the black rectangle, the bathymetric slope of the subaqueous dune field in the southern sector of the
GoC’s western approach (upper right) with the depth profile (below) indicated by the numbered white line. Gaps in the depth profile are data gaps in the bathymetry
produced by surveying in hydrodynamically energetic waters.

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 5. The Convoluted Bank (upper left); indexed by the black rectangle, the bathymetric slope of the Convoluted Bank (bottom left) with the depth profiles (right),
indicated by the numbered white lines. The asymmetry in the cross section of the dunes comprising the bedform’s northern section suggests that the northern section
of this feature is mobile. Meanwhile the symmetry in the southern section’s cross section suggests a more spatially fixed structure.

this extensive outcrop has a shallowest water depth of 90 m. flank of this southward propagating channel (‘Channel Bank’ – Fig. 2).
The Meandering Channel defining the GoC is ~3.2 km long, with The northern Sound of Jura is bounded to the east by narrow
water depths reaching a maximum of 220 m. The Meandering Channel arrowhead ridges, oriented north-northeast and south-southwest (‘Ar­
generally consists of bounding bedrock slopes with very little sediment rowheads’ – Fig. 2). These ridges are presumably also composed of the
deposition, except in the deepest regions and more locally within joints dominant Dalradian-aged metamorphic bedrock (Howe et al., 2015).
and cracks in the bedrock. Significantly, the location of the infamous Extending east from the GoC is a 4 km long inclining sediment deposi­
main Corryvreckan whirlpool, is bathymetrically represented by a tion (‘Sediment Slope’ – Fig. 2). This narrow (85–550 m wide) deposi­
bedrock wall (interpreted as an intrusive igneous dyke) extending 250 m tion rises from the deepest section of the GoC (220 m water depth) to the
south from the Scarba shore, into the main GoC channel (‘Whirlpool shallower average depth of the Sound of Jura (50–90 m).
Location’ – Fig. 2). This presumed dyke has a minimum water depth of To the west of the GoC are more sediment banner banks (‘Great Race
28 m and an average southern slope of 67◦ descending to over 100 m Banner Banks’; Figs. 2 and 3). These initially follow the orientation of
water depth along 30 m horizontal distance. In addition, the GoC con­ the 47◦ oblique bedrock walls, as the walls recede following the islands’
tains numerous seabed faults oriented southwest to northeast. The coastline. The crest of the 6 km long northernmost banner bank is
largest of these faults (‘Scarba Fault’ – Fig. 2) may be traced north-south intermittently deformed, allowing it to be divided into a series of four
across the GoC’s Meandering Channel: north onto Scarba and south onto 200–400 m long substructures. The bank’s crest curves northward after
Jura (Howe et al., 2015). The Scarba Fault here is > 35 m deeper than 1.5 km, with the best-defined subsections of the banner bank series
surrounding seabed relief and in places 60 m wide. The eastern outflow being the initial 2.3 km. The total volume of sand in this structure is
of the GoC is not bounded by steep bedrock walls as seen on the western estimated as 4.31×106 m3. A similar bedform is located to the south of
outflow. Instead, shallower bedrock slopes occur here. the GoC western entrance. This is longer but notably less well defined
Within the GoC and ‘Corryvreckan Exchange’ (Fig. 2) many than the northern banner bank. The 6.5 km long southern banner bank
Palaeocene-aged igneous intrusions are visible in the exposed bedrock also arcs northward from the initial orientation of the bedrock walls,
(Howe et al., 2015). The largest intrusive dyke (10 m wide and >10 m after 2.4 km. To the west of the GoC occurs a 0.3 km2 dune field with 29
high in places) may be traced over 5 km west from the Jura shoreline individual dunes identified with amplitudes of up to 7 m, located at the
south of the GoC in the west, to the Craignish peninsula in the east southern flank of the western approach (‘Great Race Dune Field’ – Figs. 2
(‘Dyke’ – Fig. 2). Occurring in water depths ranging from 30 to 90 m, the and 4). The dunes are oriented to an east-west residual flow direction
dyke disappears under accumulated mobile sediment. The dyke cuts (discerned from morphological asymmetry). Wavelengths (crest to
through a 3.4 km2 exposed bedrock plateau (‘Bedrock Plateau’ – Fig. 2). crest) are between 40-130 m with a mean wavelength of 70 ± 24 m
The shallowest point of this bedrock plateau is 40 m, located at the (1SD). Wavelengths decrease with distance from the GoC entry at an
westernmost extreme of the dyke. A 1.4 km wide and up to 110 m deep average of 7% per subsequent dune.
bedrock channel occurs immediately west of the plateau (‘Bedrock At the eastern approach to the GoC, from the Sound of Jura, sediment
Channel’ – Fig. 2). The entry to this channel south from the GoC is deposition is more restricted to the deep bedrock channels. A 0.04 km2
~540 m across, but this then narrows along its 1.4 km length to <100 m. dune field occurs on the ‘Sediment Slope’ (Fig. 2), 600 m east-southeast
A 300 m long submarine banner bank structure occurs along the western from the deepest section of the GoC. The dunes are more periodically

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 6. The Trellis Dune (upper left); indexed by the black rectangle, the bathymetric slope of the Trellis Dune (bottom left) with the depth profiles (right) indicated
by the numbered white lines. Again, observed asymmetry in the cross section of the dunes suggests the bedform’s mobility.

spaced with a mean wavelength of 10± 2 m (1SD) and amplitude of numerous smaller subordinate dunes are visible oriented parallel to the
1.5 ± 0.3 m (1SD). Surrounding this region are numerous scour pits and northwest and southwest boundaries. The dunes have asymmetric cross
isolated linear bedforms also interpreted as banner banks indicating the sections and are oriented to a northwest and northeast residual flow. The
local fluid dynamics. The deepest of the scour pits is 6 m (‘Scour Pit’ – total sediment volume of this deposition is estimated at approximately
Fig. 2), with the longest banner bank being 140 m long and 1 m high 440,000 m3.
(‘Exchange Bank’ – Fig. 2). East of the Corryvreckan Exchange are the islands of Rèisa Mhic
The most notable bedform morphologies east of the GoC occur in the Phaidean and Rèosa an t-Sruith. Located east of both islands in water
northern Sound of Jura as the Scarba shore turns north into the Sound of depths of 20–24 m and 30–50 m are two morphologically similar sedi­
Luing. As the water depths shallow towards the northeast of the GoC, ment banner banks (Fig. 8). The banner bank (‘Rèisa Bank’ – Fig. 2)
from a general depth of ~140 m in a bedrock basin up a sediment attached to the northern island (Rèisa Mhic Phaidean) features a dune
deposition slope to ~70 m, the deposited sediment forms a curving field with a mean height of 0.6 ± 0.2 m (1SD) and a mean wavelength of
banner bank (‘Convoluted Bank’ - Figs. 2 and 5). This banner bank is 21 ± 11.8 m (1SD). Minimum and maximum wavelengths discerned are
1 km long with a crest that rises 10 m higher than the surrounding 4.5 m and 49 m, respectively. Wavelengths of nineteen individually
50–60 m deep seabed. The bank is oriented north-northwest to south- distinguishable dunes along Rèisa Bank’s eastern flank decrease south­
southeast curving west-northwest to east-southeast, producing an ward on average by 1.3 ± 0.8 m (1SD) per successive dune. The dunes
obtuse internal angle of 125◦ . Whereas the west-northwest to east- superimposed on the banner bank (‘Rèosa Bank’ – Fig. 2) east of Rèosa
southeast component forms a relatively linear and morphologically an t-Sruith are similar. Here twenty-four individual dunes were dis­
symmetrical bank, the north-northwest to south-southeast section ap­ cerned along Rèosa bank’s eastern flank. These dunes have a mean
pears as separate components that each curve southwards. Subordinate height of 0.5 ± 0.2 m (1SD) and mean wavelength 9.3 ± 4 m (1SD). The
dunes are superimposed on the banner bank’s slopes. The total sediment minimum and maximum wavelengths discerned are 4.0 and 16.0 m
volume of this structure is approximately 1.4×106 m3. respectively. Whereas the wavelengths of the dunes attached to Rèisa
The second more complex bedform (‘Trellis Dune’ – Figs. 2 and 6) Mhic Phaidean decrease relatively uniformly south, the wavelengths of
occurs 0.6 km northeast of the Convoluted Bank. The Trellis Dune is dunes attached to Rèosa an t-Sruith increase first by an average of
approximately 0.5 km2 and triangular with the apex pointing north. It 1.1 ± 0.6 m (1SD) as the seabed shallows from water depths of
exists in a bedrock channel that extends from the mouth of Loch Melfort, 37 m–28 m before decreasing by an average of 0.7 ± 0.2 m (1SD) as the
positioned at the centre of the Corryvreckan Exchange. The bedform is seabed deepens to >30 m.
bounded: to the south by a 15 m high dune crest, 330 m long oriented
west-northwest to east-southeast; to the east by a 5 m high dune crest,
3.2. Flow measurements – drifter data
376 m long dune oriented north-northwest to south-southeast; and to
the northwest by a subtler 13 m high and 290 m long dune crest, ori­
The highest overall velocity recorded was 4.75m/s to the east, within
ented northeast to southwest. Within the confines of the bedform,
the GoC during the ebb tide (Fig. 10). For comparison, the maximum

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 7. The western approach to the GoC (upper left); indexed by the black rectangle, the bathymetric slope of the western approach to the GoC (bottom left) with the
depth profiles (right) indicated by the numbered white lines. The across-flow asymmetry of the submarine walls is evident especially in transect 5–6.

flood flow velocity recorded was 4.58m/s to the west (Fig. 9). Using the 4. Discussion
drifter measurements of the flood tide, the Great Race can be seen to
develop recirculation eddies on its flanks (illustrated by the drifter The energetic tidal flows in the GoC are the result of a tidally induced
tracks’ loops – Fig. 9b). The ebb tidal flow by comparison expresses barotropic pressure gradient. Differences in tidal phase and amplitude
fewer recirculation loops relative to the Great Race as indicated by more promote a sea surface height gradient between the Sound of Jura to the
linear drifter trajectories (Fig. 10). east, and the Firth of Lorn to the west of the GoC (Benjamins et al.,
Comparing the drifter tracks with the bathymetric data (Fig. 9) re­ 2016). The slope in sea surface height either side of the GoC results in
veals that most of the drifters released from within the GoC were steered water being energetically accelerated through the channel to equilibrate
into a region north of the centreline of the submarine walls (on a bearing the barotropic pressure gradient (Dale et al., 2011).
of 276◦ ). The origins of the northern recirculation loops expressed by the West of the GoC, the trajectory of the Great Race curls predominantly
drifters occur <5◦ from the projection of the northern submarine wall northward. This is reflected by the trajectory of the banner banks that
west of the GoC, aligning them with the corresponding northern sedi­ extend west of the GoC. A clockwise recirculation is observed on the
ment banner bank. Similar recirculation loops are identified in the northern flank of the Great Race and a counterclockwise recirculation on
drifters on the southern flank of the main flow following the southern the southern flank. However, the southern recirculation is not as pro­
bedrock wall. The southern recirculation is notably less pronounced nounced as that on the northern flank. The northward momentum as the
than that of the Great Race’s northern flank. flood tidal flow turns from the Sound of Jura into the GoC may be forcing
Relatively dense drifter data enables analysis of the horizontal sur­ water against the southern coastline of Scarba (the northern boundary of
face velocity across the northern banner bank at the GoC’s western the GoC), similar to a river flowing around a bend (Núñez-González
approach (Fig. 11). Recorded speed is greater south of the banner bank, et al., 2018). Greater current speed and thus bed shear stress along this
within the Great Race. With distance from the GoC, the recorded speed coastline are then suspected to enhance clockwise vorticity on the
above the banner bank crest and the northbound distance travelled northern flank of the flow, promoting the northward curl of the Great
beyond the bank by the drifters increases. Towards the GoC, the accel­ Race and the asymmetry of the flow recirculation. In addition to the
eration and deceleration gradients are steeper with the lowest minimum asymmetric current speed, the submarine walls at the GoC west
speeds registered at loops closest to the GoC (loops 1 & 2). During the approach are also asymmetric. The northern submarine wall is charac­
drifter loops, acceleration and deceleration become more asymmetric terised by a plateau at ~40 m depth extending ~500 m from Scarba’s
with distance from the GoC (see Figs. 12 and 13). southern coast (Fig. 7), before descending steeply south towards the
centre of the GoC. By comparison, the southern submarine wall descends
north more uniformly. The northern wall plateau reduces the across flow
area of the GoC’s water body. As the flow speed is reportedly increased

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 9. Top: drifter data from the flood tide at the GoC’s western approach,
Fig. 8. The east approach to the GoC; indexed by the black rectangle, the overlaying the bathymetry data. Bottom: enlarged section indicated by black
bathymetric slope of bedforms east of the Gulf of Corryvreckan attached to the rectangle (above), emphasising the drifters of the flood flow in proximity to the
islands Rèisa Mhic Phaidean and Rèosa an t-Sruith. northern banner bank. More in-depth flow analysis of this region is afforded by
the elevated drifter density here.
on the GoC’s comparatively shallower northern side during the flood
tide, the resulting elevated bed shear stress is suspected to also generate
greater relative vorticity on this flank. When Scarba’s coastline recedes,
this vorticity is expressed as the Great Race’s northward curl.
The elevated shear associated with northern flank of the Great Race
generates sediment transport pathways that produce the northern ban­
ner bank of the GoC’s western approach. The north-south asymmetry in
the slope profile may be explained by the increased flow speeds recorded
south of the crest (Fig. 11). As the quantity of sediment transported
scales with the flow speed, the greater bottom flow speeds (reflected in
the surface flow speeds) south of the northern bank result in a steepened
southern slope.
A sediment channel occurs to the immediate north of the Bedrock
Feature in the central GoC, located between the exposed bedrock and the
northern banner bank. To the immediate south, between the Bedrock
Feature and exposed bedrock outcrops, there is a large subaqueous dune
field. Submarine dunes accrete and migrate in turbulent flow regimes
due to an initial bed instability, with an abundant sediment supply of
fine to coarse grained sand (Doré et al., 2016). This agrees with the GoC
sediment samples from the van Veen grabs included in this study.
Notable in the western GoC, the occurrence of the dune field indicates
sediment transport influenced by the local residual tidal velocity. The
Fig. 10. Drifter data from the ebb tide at the GoC’s eastern approach, over­
distinct slope asymmetry of the dunes indicates that these structures are
laying the bathymetry data.
highly mobile and migrate towards the southwest, towards the less
distinct southern banner bank. While individual dunes may migrate
(Nnadi and Wilson, 1995). The lack of dune fields in the north of the
towards the banner bank, it is suspected that the boundaries and extent
GoC’s western approach is likely due to the Great Race’s relatively
of the dune field is much more spatially fixed. Subaqueous dunes in
elevated flow speed at its northern flank. The Great Race is predomi­
subcritical flow are produced by a bidirectional current regime. An
nantly steered north upon exiting the GoC. This is suspected to promote
imbalance in the tidal flow produces asymmetric slope gradients and a
relatively reduced bottom flow velocities in the southern sector of the
net migration of the dunes. Too great an imbalance in the tidal flow
GoC’s western approach, during the Great Race. This may result in a
results in the dunes becoming symmetric again before being eroded

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 11. Recorded surface drifter speeds with respect to the location of the banner bank crest. The crestal position is located at 0 m on the x-axis with north being
positive. Loops are numbered 1–5 with northbound (exiting the Great Race) and southbound (re-entering the Great Race) components. Loop numbering increases
with distance from the GoC (Loop 1 being closest).

Fig. 12. Overlying the greyscale bathymetry for reference, a schematic of the ebb tidal streams approaching, transiting, and exiting the GoC.

more balanced ebb-flood flow to the south, compared to the north The drifters appear to be steered around the northern edge of this
sector, being more conducive to the formation of a dune field (Doré shallow bedrock back towards the Gulf of Corryvreckan through a nar­
et al., 2018). Horizontal flow speed scales with bed shear stress and thus row channel (<100 m wide; >20 m deeper than average seabed) be­
turbulent suspension force (Kleinhans, 2004). Therefore, as the flow tween the shallower bedrock outcrops and Scarba’s southern coastline.
decelerates with distance from the GoC, denser grains are expected to The Scour Pit (Fig. 2 - in a water depth of ~90 m; the surrounding
fall out of suspension closer to the GoC. Dune wavelength is dependent threshold reference level is 65–75 m) is located where the flow appears
on both sediment grain size and bed shear stress (Flemming, 2000), and redirected towards the bedrock channel to the northeast of the GoC
the decrease in the dune’s wavelength to the southwest away from the entry. Such scour pits are to be expected to be developed at locations
GoC is suspected to coincide with a reduction in both these factors. with elevated bed shear stress due to increased flow velocities – the
East of the GoC in the Sound of Jura, the east flank of the flood flow elevated bed shear stress increasing sediment suspension and therefore
path appears to overshoot the GoC. Whereas the west flank is steered seabed erosion (Burke and Stoltzenbach, 1983).
into the GoC, the east flank traverses an across-flow seabed channel, As the tidal flow transitions from flood to ebb, the flow paths
after which the seabed rises and plateaus where the Convoluted Bank is generally reverse through the GoC. Whereas on the flood tide the water
found. The shallower bathymetry of this plateau appears to correlate is drawn up against Scarba’s southern coast (the flow path’s northern
with the drifter decelerations observed here. This northward flood flow boundary), on the ebb tide the flow paths appear to be drawn up against
then appears to be largely redirected southwest towards the GoC. The Jura’s northeast coast (the southern boundary) upon entering the Cor­
drifter tracks documenting this northward redirection appear to corre­ ryvreckan Exchange.
late with an edge of shallower bedrock (with a minimum water depth of Less recirculation is observed at the ebb tidal flow’s flanks relative to
39 m) southeast of the island of Scarba, which runs parallel to the flow. the flanks of the Great Race. This is suspected to be due to the flow

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

Fig. 13. Overlying the greyscale bathymetry for reference, a schematic of the flood tidal streams approaching, transiting, and exiting the GoC.

propagating into a more constrained environment resulting in less op­ the southwest boundary of the Trellis Dune, located 1 km northeast of its
portunity for flow recirculation. Facilitating this, the across-flow track. It is speculated that ebb tidal flows propagate east across the
bathymetric gradient of the GoC’s eastern approach is notably more Corryvreckan Exchange and along the Trellis Dune’s southwestern
symmetric, descending more uniformly into the GoC, compared to the margin. The tidal flow reworks the morphology of the Trellis Dune’s
submarine walls of the western approach. Greater bathymetric sym­ southeast margin before being drawn south through the Sound of Jura.
metry may promote a more balanced horizontal velocity profile across The exact intricacies of the interaction between the complex bottom
the eastern approach during the ebb tide. currents and the sediment necessitate further study of the Corryvreckan
As the northern flank of the ebb flow tracks into the Sound of Jura, Exchange to decipher the exact formation mechanism of these uncom­
the flow must naturally separate around the obstacles of the small mon sediment morphologies. It is speculated however, that the Trellis
islands of Rèisa Mhic Phaidean and Rèosa an t-Sruith. Sparse drifter Dune is the result of complex tidal bottom flows producing multiple,
observations only covered the interaction between the tidal flows and relatively balanced, bidirectional currents interacting with local
the northern island, Rèisa Mhic Phaidean. However, the flow pathways bedrock. Under energetic tidal flows, such as those around the GoC, it is
may be inferred by the similar bedforms identified from both islands suspected that mobile dunes are produced that are oriented to northwest
(Fig. 8). The eastern coasts of these small islands feature sites of and northeast residual tidal currents. Oblique orientation of migrating
increased sediment deposition that are hydraulically reworked into the dune trajectories may result in a sediment wave interference pattern
dune fields described earlier (see Fig. 8). Drifter no. 31’s track spatially expressed in the bedform morphology.
correlated with the boundary of the 0.24 km2 Rèisa bank associated with
the northern small island (Fig. 10). Both sediment depositions associated 5. Conclusions
with the islands are identified as banner banks that are likely to have
formed due to hydrodynamical sheltering of the island, resulting in a Seabed bathymetric data has been examined with corresponding
non-uniform across-flow pressure field. Towards the flanks of these surface drifter tracks to infer the bathymetric-hydrodynamic in­
sediment deposits are well defined superimposed dunes indicating teractions in the highly energetic tidal flows of the Gulf of Corryvreckan
increased bed shear as the deposition extends into the flow, and rela­ (GoC) between the islands of Scarba and Jura, western Scotland, U.K.
tively balanced local tidal flows. The morphology of the two islands’ Tidal flows are physically constrained within the GoC due to complex
banner banks is superficially similar suggesting similar hydrodynamics bathymetry, which elevates the barotropic pressure gradient between
occur at both sites. There are however geometrical differences in both the two ends of the GoC. This results in flow being accelerated east to
the dune fields. Compared with the Rèisa bank, Rèosa bank to the south west during the flood tide, producing the Great Race, and west to east
displays an 11.1 m decrease in observed average dune wavelength. during the ebb tide. The northward tidal momentum of the flood tide in
Whilst minimum wavelengths recorded were similar between both dune the Sound of Jura, and the asymmetric bathymetry it encounters as it
fields (4–5 m), maximum dune wavelengths were 33 m greater at Rèisa turns into the GoC are theorised to elevate bed shear stress on Scarba’s
bank. Similar to the dune field at the GoC western outflow, there is a southern coast, promoting (1) the northward curve of the Great Race, (2)
correlation between recorded flow speeds and dune wavelength. the northward curve in the west approach banner banks and (3) the
Whereas decreasing surface flow speeds correlate with shorter dune north-south asymmetry in recirculation on the flanks of the Great Race.
wavelengths, shallower water depths and increasing flow speeds pro­ Insight into the interactions between these characteristics requires
duce greater bed shear stress which results in longer dune wavelengths further analysis which is beyond the scope of this study.
(Flemming, 2000). Bedform morphology is also correspondingly asymmetric across the
It is observed that drifter 31 also reveals the flow running parallel to Great Race. The banner bank of the northern GoC western approach is
the Convoluted Bank and Scour Pit northeast of the GoC. However here, more structurally defined than that of the southern banner bank. This is
some bedforms are oriented opposite to the drifter’s trajectory. This suspected to be the result of consistently increased local bed shear stress
observation suggests that there is a bidirectional flow path in this at the northern flank leading to greater hydraulic reworking of the
location; during the flood tide the water flows oppositely along the same sediment. Furthermore, mobile dunes are located to the south of the
path but with greater velocity producing a residual tidal velocity that the Great Race, indicating a decreased residual tidal velocity, more
bedforms are oriented to. The observed drifter track also runs parallel to favourable to dune formation.

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C. Armstrong et al. Continental Shelf Research 217 (2021) 104347

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