Acknowledgments

I
would like to thank Ginger Long, Antonio Turner, each chapter. When he discovered deficiencies, we
and Glenn Herringshaw, who have helped consid- worked together to figure out how to overcome them.
erably in the preparation of the second edition A number of procedures outlined in the text were a
of this book. They also have been a valuable part of result of his suggestions. Glenn helped in photography
both the operation of and education at the optical and also carefully examined each drawing and pointed
laboratory at Indiana University. out needed improvements. When something did
Ginger Long reviewed the manuscript while it was not seem right, Glenn was the first one I would call to
used in the course on lense finishing. She was helpful discuss the issue. He is optically knowledgeable and
in pointing out mistakes and ambiguities in the equally skilled in the practicalities of optical lens
questions at the back of each chapter. Students were finishing.
assigned problems and Ginger graded them. (They did Dan Torgersen, OLA (Optical Laboratories Associa-
not have the answers now found in the back of the tion) Technical Director, was a valuable resource for
book!) Ginger also helped with many of the photos and questions on safety and impact resistance issues. His
made suggestions on how to convey certain ideas. responses were always thorough and well thought out.
Thanks to Antonio Turner for the help he provided I also appreciate Joe Bruneni’s help in answering a
with the photographs in Chapter 13, Drilled, Slotted, spectrum of questions on a number of topics. Joe is a
and Notched Mountings. He supplied a number of valuable resource for the whole optical industry and
beneficial ideas and his hands are the hands seen in a much appreciated by all.
majority of the photos in that chapter. And again, as with the first edition, I would like
I am especially grateful to Glenn Herringshaw, to thank my wife, Vickie, and my children, Debbie,
Indiana University’s Optical Laboratory Manager, for Cliff, Abigail, and Kenneth, for their support and
the valuable help he has given. Glenn carefully reviewed encouragement.

vii
 To Him who by wisdom founded the earth;
And by understanding established the heavens.
Proverbs 3:19
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 An Overview of
1 the Fabrication
Process

The Optical Laboratory

When someone needs glasses, the first requirement is
an eye examination in the doctor’s office to determine
the correct lens prescription. The next step takes place
in the optical dispensary, where a frame is chosen. The
frame should be one that is cosmetically pleasing and
appropriate for the type and power of lenses needed. In
the dispensary, measurements are taken to ensure the
lens will be correctly placed for the location of the eyes,
the style of lens chosen, and occupation or avocation of
the wearer. Once these are completed, the frame and
lens requirements are sent to the optical laboratory.
The optical laboratory may be located in close
proximity to the dispensary or halfway across the
county. All operations of the optical laboratory may be
carried out in one facility, or they may be divided
among laboratories. Traditionally the optical laboratory
consists of two main areas, a surfacing laboratory and a
finishing laboratory.

SURFACING AND FINISHING

LABORATORIES
As stated previously, an optical laboratory may consist
of two separate areas. One area creates the needed lens
power, usually by a process called lens surfacing, which
is performed at a facility referred to as a surfacing
laboratory.
The second area takes the correctly powered lens
and finishes it. Finishing is accomplished through
optical positioning of the lens and grinding of the
edges so that the lens fits the shape of the chosen

1
2 C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S

frame. The area where this occurs is known as the second surface to the required power. A lens with only
finishing laboratory. A finishing laboratory is also one of the two surfaces finished is called a semifinished
referred to as an edging laboratory because here the lens because it is only half finished. The prefix semi-
lenses are “edged” to the proper shape to fit the means half (Figure 1-2, B).
spectacle frame. Finished uncut and semifinished lenses have not
A great deal more happens in the lens finishing been edged. Before a lens has been edged it is called a
process than just lens edging. This text focuses lens blank.
primarily on the finishing aspect of lens fabrication.
An edging laboratory does not require a surfacing
laboratory to function. Most facilities that have a
SEGMENTED MULTIFOCAL LENSES
surfacing laboratory also have a finishing laboratory. Segmented multifocal lenses have more than one power.
However, the finishing laboratory has versatility. It may Each power is located in a distinct area of the lens
be associated closely with a surfacing laboratory, or it bordered clearly by a visible demarcation line. When
may function independently. Figure 1-1 is an overview two different areas exist, the lens is called a bifocal
of how lenses are processed in the optical laboratory. (Figure 1-3, A). When three areas exist, the lens is
called a trifocal (Figure 1-3, B).
Multifocal lenses may be made ready for the
finishing laboratory in one of several ways:
Finished and Semifinished Lens
• Multifocals may be individually ground and polished
Terminology to power by a surfacing laboratory from a semi-
finished lens blank.
Ophthalmic lenses may be divided into the following
• Multifocals may be individually cast molded to the
three broad categories:
prescribed power, instead of being surfaced from a
• Single vision lenses semifinished lens blank. Cast molding creates the
• Segmented multifocal lenses lens from a liquid resin material. It is the same
• Progressive addition lenses process used to make both plastic semifinished lenses
and stock single vision plastic lenses. Cast molding
multifocal lenses to power skips the semifinished
SINGLE VISION LENSES lens stage. Cast molding to power may be done by a
larger wholesale facility or, if equipment is available,
Single vision lenses are the most basic type of lens. These
in conjunction with a finishing laboratory (Figure 1-4).
lenses have the same power over the entire surface of
• Multifocals may be made by laminating front and
the lens. Single vision lenses are used when the same
back lens halves together. In simple terms, the front
optical power is needed for both distance and near
half of the lens contains the multifocal segment and
vision. They also are used when a person requires no
the back half contains the power. The two are glued
prescription for distance but needs reading glasses.
together to make one complete lens. This lamina-
Whenever possible, single vision lenses are edged from
tion process also skips the semifinished lens stage. It
lenses kept in stock at the finishing laboratory. Because
does not require a lot of equipment and, like cast
these lenses are finished optically to the correct power
molding, may be carried out at the finishing
on both the front and back surfaces, they are called
laboratory (Figure 1-5).
finished lenses. Finished lenses are also referred to as
• Multifocals may be kept as stock, finished bifocals in
uncuts because they have not yet been “cut” to the
the finishing laboratory. This option is possible only
correct shape and size (Figure 1-2, A). When single
if the lens power is spherical. At present, stock,
vision lenses are in uncut form and do not require
finished bifocals are not often used.1
surfacing, they are called stock single vision lenses.
The finishing laboratory personnel would much
prefer to use a stock single vision uncut lens because it 1
Instead of being custom made, stock, finished bifocals may be mass
is less expensive than a custom surfaced lens. However, produced with both inside and outside surfaces already ground and
if the stock lens is too small for the frame, then a stock polished. Stock, finished bifocals are normally used only when both
left and right eyes are spherical in power. Attempting to match one
single vision lens will not work. Instead the lens must spherocylinder lens from a surfacing laboratory with a prefinished
be produced in the surfacing laboratory. The surfacing bifocal from another source may create unnecessary problems and
laboratory starts with a lens having only one surface mismatches. To prevent optical errors, the exact vertical position of
the optical center of the stock, finished bifocal in relationship to the
that is ready to use, or “finished.” This is usually the near segment must be known. This position must be duplicated
front surface. The laboratory must grind and polish the accurately in the custom-surfaced, paired spherocylinder lens.
C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S 3

LENS PROCESSING SEQUENCE

ORDER ENTRY
Tray up order

Determine required blank

size

Pull lens blanks from stock or

order lens blanks

Semifinished Finished Blanks

Blanks

SURFACING EDGING
Determine correct base curve Spot lenses

Determine needed center or Trace the frame for patternless

edge thickness edging, or, for patterned
edging, pull pattern from
Determine lap tools required pattern stock or make a
pattern
Lay out lenses for surfacing
Perform centration for blocking
Block for surfacing
Block the lenses
Crib lenses—i.e., reduce
blank diameter (optional) Edge the lens

Perform the following: Hand-edge (unless already

done in the edger)
Surface generating

Fining For CR-39,

Polycarbonate, or High-
Polishing For Glass Lenses Index Plastic Lenses
Hardening Edge grooving for nylon
Deblocking cord mounting, or
AR coating, color, or drilling for rimless
Inspection for correct power, mirror coating
surface quality, and other (optional) Tinting (optional)
imperfections
Impact-resistance AR coating, color, or
testing mirror coating (optional)

Engraving

Lens insertion

Standard alignment

Verification and inspection

Cleanup

FIGURE 1-1 The processes listed on the right-hand side in the main column sequence
may be performed in the finishing laboratory. The processes in the left-hand “loop” are
functions of the surfacing laboratory.
4 C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S

Finished Finished Not yet

surfaces surface finished

Finished lens Semifinished

A (an “uncut”) blank B
FIGURE 1-2 A, A finished lens is also referred to as an uncut. Most single vision lenses
are premanufactured to power as finished lenses and are also referred to as stock single
vision lenses. B, Most any type of lens of any material may be made beginning with a
semifinished lens. (From Brooks CW: Understanding lens surfacing, Boston, 1992, Butterworth-
Heinemann, p 17.)

A B
FIGURE 1-3 When a lens has a different power for near vision than distance vision, the
lens area is divided between distance and near powers. A, A segment area for near vision
is placed within the distance power lens. A lens with two different powers is a bifocal lens.
B, Two segment areas are included: one for intermediate viewing and one for near viewing.
This type of lens is a trifocal lens. Both lenses are flat-top–style multifocals.

PROGRESSIVE ADDITION LENSES Overview of the Lens Finishing

Progressive addition lenses are used as an alternative to a Process
segmented multifocal lens. They have distance power in
the upper half of the lens. Lens power gradually increases Edging often is used to denote the entire lens finishing
as the wearer looks down and inward to view near objects. process. In actuality, many steps come before and after
Progressive addition lenses are prepared for the the actual edging process. These are outlined in the
finishing laboratory in the same way as segmented following section and described in more detail in later
lenses. These are listed in the previous section. chapters.
C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S 5

FIGURE 1-4 Cast molding of lenses is done with a front and back mold placed in a
gasket to hold the surface molds. The front mold is shown on the left and the back mold
on the right. The gasket is at the top. For multifocal lenses, the back mold is rotated so that
the prescribed cylinder axis will be correct. Once assembled, liquid resin is poured into the
molds to form the lens. The front surface mold may contain a near add power area. This
area of different surface curvature turns the lens into a multifocal such as a bifocal or
progressive addition lens. The back surface includes cylinder power for astigmatism, when
needed.

SELECTION OF THE MOST APPROPRIATE

LENS BLANK
Within limitations set by the lens order, a laboratory has
the responsibility of choosing a lens blank that gives
the best cosmetic and optical results. This is especially
important for plus lenses. An inappropriately large plus
lens blank creates unneeded lens center and edge
thickness. This is explained in more detail in Chapter 2.

SPOTTING THE LENS

A lens-measuring device is needed to determine lens
power, optical center location, and other optical
characteristics of a lens. It may be referred to as a
lensometer, lensmeter, focimeter, vertometer, or lens analyzer,
depending upon the manufacturer. In this text the FIGURE 1-5 Another alternative to the lens surfacing
author uses the more generic term lensmeter. The process is to create the needed power using a front and a
lensmeter precisely determines lens power and exactly back half. The front half contains the near add power, when
locates optical points within the lens. The process of needed. The back half completes the distance power and
finding these optical points, orienting the lens properly contains any needed cylinder power. The two halves are glued
together to create the lens. (From Brooks CW: Understanding
to meet the needs of the prescription, and then placing
lens surfacing, Boston, 1992, Butterworth-Heinemann,
dots on the lens is referred to as spotting. It takes its
p 299.)
name from the three horizontally aligned ink “spots”
6 C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S

placed on the lens surface by the lensmeter. See the frame, several other possible procedures may be
Chapter 2 for a complete discussion of spotting. carried out. If the lens is ordered with a specific color
and is plastic, it may be tinted. Tinting may be
performed with hot dyes or by use of a vacuum coating
CENTRATION AND BLOCKING OF THE
process. Depending on ever-changing fashion, a lens
LENS
could be decorated with an engraving.
Because the pupil of the eye is seldom found to be If the lens is glass, it must be treated to increase
directly on line with the middle of the frame’s lens impact resistance. This hardening process may be done
opening, the lens must be moved to correspond to the by heat treating or chemical tempering the lens. Both glass
location of the eye. Because the lens is to be centered and plastic lenses may be antireflection (AR) coated to
in front of the eye, this next process is called centration. reduce surface reflections.
Centration is done by use of the three reference dots
that were placed on the lens during spotting. Once the
lens has been positioned, a small block is secured to
LENS INSERTION OR MOUNTING
the lens so that it may be edged. Securing the block
to the lens is called blocking. The edge of the lens may be angled to a point to allow
Taken together, spotting and centration make up insertion into a frame with a groove. Lens edges that are
lens layout. The instrument used to center and block the angled to a point are called beveled lenses. The process
lens is called a layout blocker or simply a blocker. of putting beveled lenses in a frame is lens insertion.
Alternatively a lens may be held in the frame with
a nylon cord, with screws, or by methods closely
DETERMINATION OF LENS SHAPE related to these. If a nylon cord is used, the edge of the
Before a lens may be cut to the proper shape for the lens must be grooved to accept the nylon cord. Some
frame, the needed shape must be quantified. Two types edgers groove the lens during the edging process. If
of edgers exist—one that uses an actual plastic pattern the lens is not grooved in the edger, the edge is made
to guide it in shaping the lens and another that uses an flat. Then a groove is cut into the edge on a separate
electronic method to supply lens shape. Following are lens groover.
more detailed explanations of both types: If a lens is to be held in place with screws, the edge
is made flat without a bevel. Holes then are drilled in
• The first is called a patterned edger. A patterned edger
the lens to accept the screws. When lenses are grooved
operates using a small, flat piece of plastic that
or drilled, the process of placing them in the frame is
matches the lens shape needed for the frame. This
called mounting. (Frames that secure the lenses in place
pattern itself is either supplied by the frame manu-
in this manner often are called mountings instead of
facturer or is made by the laboratory using a pattern
frames.)
maker.
• The second type of edger is called a patternless edger. It
does not use a physical pattern but uses an electronic
shape generated from the frame itself by way of a STANDARD ALIGNMENT
frame tracer. The tracer makes an electronic version
After the lenses have been placed in the frame, the
of the shape needed and downloads it to the edger.
glasses may not be aligned properly. The process by
Some edgers operate in both patterned and which the glasses are bent or readjusted to conform to
patternless modes. a proper alignment is known as standard alignment or
truing.
EDGING THE LENS
The blocked lens is now placed in the edger and the
VERIFICATION AND CLEANUP
lens is edged to shape.
Before a prescription is released to the dispensary, it
needs to be verified for accuracy. This is done using the
DEBLOCKING, TINTING, COATING, same instrument as was used during lens spotting—the
ENGRAVING, AND HARDENING lensmeter. The prescription must optically conform to
Once the lens is edged to the proper shape and size for accepted standards of tolerance. Once judged accept-
the frame, it is taken off the block. The process of block able, the frames and lenses are cleaned and passed on
removal is called deblocking. Before the lens is placed in to the dispensary.
C H A P T E R 1 A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E FA B R I C AT I O N P R O C E S S 7

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? Lenses are surfaced in a finishing 6. A “frame tracer” is often used in conjunction with
laboratory. which of the following?

2. Which of the following lens types has the same a. Lensmeter

power over the entire lens? b. Lens blocker
c. Lens edger
a. A single vision lens
b. A segmented multifocal lens 7. Of the following steps in lens fabrication, which
c. A progressive addition lens process occurs last?

3. Which of the following terms is a synonym for a a. Blocking

“finished lens”? b. Grooving
c. Edging
a. Single vision lens d. Spotting
b. Semifinished lens
c. Uncut lens 8. Arrange the steps in the edging process in their
d. Progressive addition lens correct order.
e. Multifocal lens
1. blocking
4. True or False? It is possible to individually cast mold 2. centration
both segmented multifocal lenses and progressive 3. edging
addition lenses to the prescribed power without 4. finding lens axis and MRP location
surfacing the lens.
a. 2, 3, 1, 4
5. True or False? Some edgers operate in both b. 2, 4, 1, 3
patterned and patternless modes. c. 1, 2, 3, 4
d. 4, 2, 1, 3
e. 4, 3, 2, 1
 Spotting of
2 Lenses

F or optical laboratory personnel, the simplest

type of lens to work with is the single vision
lens. A single vision lens has the same power over the
entire lens. Because it is a basic lens, it is usually
purchased from a lens manufacturer and kept in stock
until needed. Most single vision lenses do not have to
be surfaced before edging. As mentioned in Chapter 1,
this type of lens may be referred to as a stock lens. Stated
another way, a stock lens is a ready-made lens with both
surfaces already formed.
Once the needed lens is in hand, it must be spotted.
To spot a lens the practitioner takes a lens and uses a
lensmeter to position the lens optically and then places
reference dots on the lens for blocking. Following are
the steps leading up to and including the actual
spotting of the lens:
1. The practitioner decides whether a stock (ready-
made) lens is the most appropriate lens.
2. If a stock lens is appropriate, the lens is selected
from stock by material (including tint and coating, if
applicable), size, and power. If a stock lens is not
appropriate, the lens must be obtained from the
surfacing laboratory.
3. The lens is inspected visually to be certain it is free
from flaws.
4. A lensmeter is used to verify that the lens really is the
power needed.
5. The lens is oriented in the lensmeter so that it
matches the written prescription.
6. The lens is spotted so that it may be properly
blocked for edging.
Selecting the Most Appropriate
Lens Blank
A lens either is “pulled” from available stock or must be
obtained from a surfacing laboratory. A stock lens is
appropriate if it fits the following criteria:
1. Fulfills all the optical requirements of the written
prescription
2. Is big enough to cover the frame’s lens opening
3. Is appropriately thin for the lens material and frame
type1 and size selected

SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE

LENS FIGURE 2-1 A lens blank is too small if, when properly
decentered, it will not cover the lens opening of the frame.
In the decision as to whether a stock lens is the most
appropriate lens, the first question concerns avail-
ability. Is the lens in stock in the finishing laboratory? If (The exact use of this formula and the concept of
not, is it made as a stock lens? It may be appropriate to minimum blank size is explained in Chapter 4.)
order a stock lens instead of having one surfaced.
However, even if a stock lens is available in the right Minus Lens Center Thickness
material and power, it may or may not be used. Stock Lenses come in both plus and minus powers. Minus
lenses may or may not work if any of the following are lenses are thinnest in the center and get progressively
true: thicker toward the edge. Therefore the final size of a
minus lens does not affect center thickness of the lens.
• The prescription requires prescribed prism. Figure 2-2 shows that regardless of whether the lens
• The lens blank is too small for the frame. blank chosen was large or small, edged minus lenses
• A plus lens blank is larger than needed, resulting in have exactly the same center and edge thickness.
an unnecessarily thick center and edge. Even though center thickness for minus lenses
remains the same if the lens gets larger, edge thickness
Size of the Lens does increase with increasing lens sizes.
If a lens is too small and gets edged anyway, a gap will
exist between the lens and the edge of the frame, Effect of Blank Size in Plus Lenses
making the lens unsuitable (Figure 2-1). Several ways With minus lenses, edge thickness increases with lens
exist to determine whether the lens blank will be large size. With plus lenses, center thickness increases with
enough. lens size. The larger the plus lens, the greater the
A blank size determiner may be used in combination center thickness will be (Figure 2-3).
with the frame. Another method is to use the following Unnecessary use of large plus lens blanks results in
formula: thick centers, thick edges, glasses that magnify the
MBS = ED + 2(dec.) + 2
wearer’s eyes, and heavier lenses. Using a smaller lens
blank when the frame size is small is much better. Some-
where: times no stock lens is small enough, and the lens should
be ordered from the surfacing laboratory. By knowing
MBS = Minimum blank size
the size and shape of the frame and the distance
ED = Effective diameter of the frame
between the centers of the wearer’s pupils, the surfacing
(dec.) = Decentration per lens
laboratory personnel are able to grind the lens so that
1 the center and edge thicknesses are minimal.
For grooved mountings, the lens edge must not end up too thin for
grooving. For more information on this, see Chapter 14 on grooved- The worst-looking examples of inappropriately used
lens mountings. plus stock lenses are for small children’s frames. Using

9
10 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

B
FIGURE 2-2 Whether a large uncut minus lens blank (A) or a small uncut lens blank (B)
is used, the resulting edged lens is exactly the same (C). Dotted lines show the diameter
being cut to produce lens C.

a large stock lens results in extremely thick edges that

are entirely unnecessary. The lenses are much thicker
A than they need to be, and the size of the child’s eyes is
magnified. For plus lenses, magnification increases as
center thickness increases.

VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE LENS FOR

FLAWS
B
Before edging, the lens should be checked to ensure it
is free from flaws. A scratched lens may have the correct
power but still be unacceptable. Once a lens has been
edged, it is too late to return it to the manufacturer
because of a flaw, whether it is a stock or custom
C surfaced lens. During inspection of an uncut lens for
flaws, its front surface quality, back surface quality, and
internal lens characteristics are checked.
One method used to inspect surface quality is by use
of an unfrosted incandescent bulb. The lens is held as
if it were a mirror (Figures 2-4 and 2-5). It is tilted so
D that all areas of the lens surface are inspected. The
image of the light bulb filament must be sharp and
FIGURE 2-3 Lens blank A and lens blank C both have the
clear on all areas of the lens surface. The lens is then
same plus power. When a larger-than-necessary plus lens
blank is used (A), the result is a lens that is too thick in both turned over and the second surface is inspected in a
center and edge (B). When the smallest possible blank is similar manner.
chosen (C), a much better functional and cosmetic result is Internal lens properties may be checked by looking
obtained (D). Dotted lines indicate the diameter being cut at the lens with a dark background and a light such as
from the blank to produce the finished lens. a 40-watt, incandescent clear (unfrosted) bulb positioned
about 12 inches from the lens, striking it at an angle
from behind (Figures 2-6 and 2-7). Any foreign sub-
stance in or on the lens scatters the light and causes the
area of the foreign substance to be visible.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 11

FIGURE 2-4 When the lens is held such that its surface acts as a mirror, surface
irregularities cause the reflected unfrosted light bulb’s filament image to appear irregularly
distorted.

will appear to curve as the lens is moved (Figure 2-9). It

should curve evenly. Unevenness in the curve indicates
a power variation within the lens. Possible causes of
unevenness are a wavy surface or nonuniformity of
refractive index within the lens material. A wavy surface
usually results from a surfacing problem and is less
likely to occur in a quality stock lens.

Using the Lensmeter

The power of a lens may be measured using a lens-
meter. A lensmeter also may be called a lensometer, foci-
meter, vertometer, and vertexometer. For clarity, the author
of this book uses the word lensmeter when referring to
any of these instrument types. Lensmeters may be
manual or automated.
When the power of a lens is measured using a lens-
meter, many people refer to the process as neutralizing
FIGURE 2-5 To inspect the entire surface rapidly, the the lens because the instrument is adjusted until the
inspector looks at the bulb filament and tilts the lens slightly. lens system within the lensmeter cancels out, or neutral-
izes, the power of the lens. For manual lensmeters, this
brings the illuminated internal target in focus.
Assuming that the lens is free of surface deficiencies Lenses may be measured for power with the lensmeter
or internal foreign matter, it may be checked for before they are edged or after they have been mounted
irregular power variations at this point. This check in the frame. The following explanation begins with
involves observation of a straight line, such as the edge lenses already edged and mounted in the frame.
of a fluorescent tube through the lens. If the straight
edge is vertical, the lens is moved left and right along
one of its major meridians (Figure 2-8).2 If the lens has FOCUSING THE EYEPIECE
any refractive power, the line observed through the lens Before attempting to read the power of a lens using a
conventional manual lensmeter, the practitioner must
2
The major meridians of a lens are along the cylinder axis and 90 first focus the eyepiece. An eyepiece that is not focused
degrees from the axis. for the individual may cause an inaccurate reading.
12 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Dark background

Light source

FIGURE 2-7 A lens is inspected in oblique illumination

against a matte black background.

READING A LENS IN MINUS CYLINDER

FORM
Lenses with a cylinder component may be written with
that cylinder as a plus cylinder or as a minus cylinder.
When written with a plus cylinder, the prescription is
said to be written in plus cylinder form. When written with
a minus cylinder, the prescription is in minus cylinder
form.
FIGURE 2-6 A defect within the lens causes a scattering of
light. By positioning the light source off to the side and To read the power of a lens with a lensmeter such
viewing the lens against a matte black background, the main that the prescription may be written directly in minus
body of a clean, unblemished lens almost will disappear. Any cylinder form, the lens is placed in the instrument and
defect becomes easily visible. Inspectors wearing white the power wheel turned to high plus (Figure 2-11).
gloves for factory quality control use this method. Looking through the eyepiece, the practitioner turns
the power wheel slowly in the minus direction until the
target within the instrument begins to focus.
The target consists of two sets of lines that run at
right angles to each other, forming a cross. One set is
a narrowly spaced set of lines (Figure 2-12). (Older
The lensmeter is focused by first turning the instruments have a single line.) This set of lines is
eyepiece outward. The practitioner looks into the known as the sphere lines. The set at right angles is a
instrument and rotates the eyepiece slowly inward until broadly spaced triple set (Figure 2-13). These lines are
the crosshairs and rings within the instrument appear referred to as the cylinder lines.
to first focus. The eyepiece location should be noted for As the power wheel is being turned in the minus
future reference because it varies from individual to direction, one of the following two things will happen:
individual (Figure 2-10). When more than one person
uses the same lensmeter, it may be helpful to put a 1. Both sets of lines will focus simultaneously,
colored mark on the eyepiece. Each person has a indicating that the lens is spherical (Figure 2-14).
different color and will be able to quickly turn the 2. One set of lines will begin to focus before the other,
eyepiece back to this colored mark each time. meaning that a cylinder component is present.
FIGURE 2-8 Lenses free from waviness (caused by either poor surface
manufacture or an irregularity in the refractive index of the material) display a
uniformly curved image of the straight edge as the lens is moved to either side.
This is caused by the refractive characteristics of the lens. Defects discovered in
this manner also may be evident through the lensmeter. The lens is moved while
the focused target is viewed through the instrument. Defective areas in the lens
cause degradation in target clarity.

FIGURE 2-9 In this view, the

operator checks for waviness by
moving the lens left and right and
observing a vertical straight edge.
The distance between the straight
edge and lens must vary depending
on lens power.

FIGURE 2-10 The lensmeter eyepiece is set for zero. Turning

the eyepiece outward adds plus power to the eyepiece; turning
inward adds minus power. For practitioners who themselves
have only a small spherical eyeglass correction and wish to use
the instrument without their glasses, the instrument permits
this versatility. The eyepiece should, in any case, be adjusted for
the most plus power through which the mires can be seen
sharply.
14 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Eyepiece

Prism compensating device

Lens spotting device

Lens holder

Power wheel Axis

wheel

FIGURE 2-11 Available through a variety of sources, the basic lens measuring instrument
is a necessary part of every optically related profession. (Courtesy Marco, Jacksonville, Fla.)

Spherical Lens Spherocylinder Lens

In the event that the prescription is spherical, all For a lens with cylinder power the procedure begins the
lines—sphere line and cylinder line sets—come into same. The power wheel is turned into the high plus
focus at once. In this case the refractive power is read powers and slowly turned back in a minus direction.
directly from the power wheel. However, this time the sphere lines may not come
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 15

or or

FIGURE 2-12 The exact configuration of the sphere line(s) varies from instrument to
instrument. (Some instruments do not use lines at all, but rather a circle of dots that
elongate into a circle of short lines when cylinder power is present in the lens.)

FIGURE 2-13 Cylinder lines appear at right angles to the 1

sphere lines and are usually visible simultaneously, except in
the case of extremely high cylinder values. (Instruments 2
using a circle of dots will show elongation of the dots 90
3
degrees from the original direction of elongation. The
original direction of elongation was seen first when the 4
target was viewed for the correct sphere power.)
5

immediately into clear focus. Using the axis wheel of

the lensmeter is necessary when a cylinder component FIGURE 2-14 When both sphere and cylinder lines focus
is present (see Figure 2-11). As one set of lines at the same time, the lens has a uniform power in all
begins to clear, rotation of the axis wheel probably meridians and is spoken of as being spherical. (Instruments
using a circle of dots will show no elongation in any
will be necessary to increase clarity. As the axis wheel
direction. The focused target appears to be the same as
approaches one of two major meridians, one set of lines
when no lens is present in the instrument and the power
begins to clear. The sphere lines must be brought into wheel registers zero.) If the sphere and cylinder lines do not
focus first. If the cylinder lines clear up first instead of intersect at the center of the mires, the lens optical center is
the sphere lines, the axis wheel is rotated 90 degrees, not centered in front of the lensmeter aperture and prism is
which brings the sphere lines into focus. being manifested.
Once the sphere lines are clear, the sphere power and
cylinder axis of the prescription are correct. They may
be recorded directly from the power and axis wheels. Example 2-1
Next the power wheel is turned slowly once more in A lens is placed in the lensmeter and the power wheel
the minus direction until the cylinder lines clear. (The rotated to a high plus power—+10.00 or +12.00, for
axis wheel should not be rotated.) The power wheel example. (The plus power need only be high enough to
reading is noted. The cylinder value is the difference be certain that it is more plus than the power of the
between the first reading (sphere lines) and the second prescription lens.)
reading (cylinder lines). It is recorded as a minus value While the power wheel is rotated slowly back in the
(Box 2-1). minus direction, the cylinder lines begin to clear. The
16 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Direct plus cylinder power readings are carried out as

BOX 2-1
follows:
Finding Spherocylinder Lens Power with
a Standard, Crossed-Line-Target 1. The power wheel is turned into the high minus
numbers.
Lensmeter 2. The power wheel is advanced slowly in the plus
direction.
1. The eyepiece is focused. 3. The axis wheel is rotated to cause the sphere lines to
2. The power wheel is turned into the plus until the
come into focus first. (Note: The sphere lines must
illuminated target blurs out.
3. The power wheel is turned slowly in the minus
always come into focus first, regardless of whether the
direction until the sphere lines clear. lens is being read in plus or minus cylinder form.)
4. The axis wheel is adjusted for optimum sphere line 4. When the sphere lines are in focus, the sphere and
clarity. axis values are recorded.
5. Sphere power and cylinder axis are recorded. 5. The power wheel is moved a second time in the plus
6. The power wheel is turned farther in the minus direction, until the cylinder lines come into clear focus.
direction until the cylinder lines clear. 6. The difference between first and second power read-
7. The difference is taken between the two power wheel ings is the cylinder power. It is recorded as a plus value.
readings and recorded as a minus cylinder.
The plus cylinder procedure is identical to the minus
cylinder procedure, with the exception of the direction
of power wheel movement.

axis wheel reads 180. Because the cylinder lines are the
wrong lines to start with, the axis wheel is rotated from Spotting Lenses without Prism
180 degrees to 90 degrees. Rotating the axis wheel
90 degrees will blur the cylinder lines and cause the POWER VERIFICATION AND SPOTTING OF
sphere lines to clear. As the power wheel is turned SPHERES
slowly toward minus (away from plus) and the axis When the power of the lens to be verified is of known
wheel slightly adjusted, maximum clarity is obtained. At power, rather than the entire neutralization process
maximum clarity the power wheel reads +2.50 D and being performed, the power simply is checked as the
the axis wheel reads 87 degrees. Two parts of the lensmeter is set for the expected sphere value. If the
prescription can be recorded as follows: lens is a sphere, the target should be immediately clear,
which indicates a lens of the correct power. If the target
SPHERE CYLINDER AXIS is unclear, the lens power is incorrect. The actual power
may be found through adjustment of the lensmeter
+2.50 87
power wheel.
Occasionally the lensmeter target will not appear
Next the power wheel is rotated further in the minus clean and crisp even after being focused correctly. The
direction. Now the cylinder lines come into focus when best focus nevertheless may indicate a correct power
the power wheel reaches +1.00 D. The cylinder value reading. If this is the case, the lens is not well polished
is the difference between the two major meridians. The and should not be used.
difference between +2.50 D and +1.00 D is 1.50 D. This When the lens has been determined to be of
is the correct cylinder value. It is recorded as a minus acceptable quality, it is centered optically in the
number. The prescription now reads as follows: lensmeter as the lens is moved until the center of the
illuminated target crosses the center of the crosshairs in
SPHERE CYLINDER AXIS the lensmeter eyepiece or screen (see Figure 2-14). The
marking device is then swung into position and the
+2.50 –1.50 87
front surface of the lens spotted (Figure 2-15).

READING A LENS IN PLUS CYLINDER FORM POWER VERIFICATION AND SPOTTING OF

SPHEROCYLINDERS
If a prescription is to be written in plus cylinder form,
the lens can be read by the lensmeter in plus cylinder When verifying spherocylinder lenses, the practitioner
form. This way the power may be written directly from turns the lensmeter power wheel to the expected sphere
lensmeter values without having to convert or transpose power. In addition the cylinder axis wheel is turned
the prescription from minus to plus cylinder form. until the axis indicated for the prescription is correctly
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 17

FIGURE 2-15 The inking mechanism places three horizontally aligned dots on the lens.
All subsequent steps are based on these dots.

FIGURE 2-16 When a practitioner moves or rotates a lens, the lens holding mechanism
is pulled back to prevent possible scratching.

positioned. The lens is placed in the instrument. The lens also may be moved horizontally and vertically in
lens holding device is not allowed to touch the lens. an effort to begin centering the target lines over the
The lens is rotated (Figure 2-16) until the sphere lines central crosshairs of the eyepiece or screen).
of the lensmeter target are sharp and unbroken. When With the lens correctly rotated for axis position, the
these lines are clear, the cylinder axis is correct. (The lensmeter power wheel is turned in the appropriate
18 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

BOX 2-2
Spotting Single Vision Sphere or
Spherocylinder Lenses with a Standard,
Crossed-Line-Target Lensmeter

1. The lens sphere power and lens cylinder axis are

dialed into the lensmeter.
2. The lens is placed in the lensmeter.
3. The major reference point is located.
4. If the lens is spherical, the lens is spotted.
5. If the lens has a cylinder, the lens is rotated until the
sphere lines are clear.
6. If the lens has prescription prism, the illuminated
target is moved until it is located at the position at
which the prism equals that called for in the
prescription.
7. The lens is spotted.

FIGURE 2-17 The lens designation (R or L) is always Lenses are commonly marked on the back surface with
marked on the upper half of the lens so that the lens will not a wax pencil. The letter R or L in uppercase letters is
be blocked upside down. Although not as critical for non- written in the upper half of the lens, above the three
prismatic single vision lenses, an inverted prism lens or spots. Figure 2-17 shows that the letters are written
multifocal would be useless when inverted. (The lens is normally (not in mirror image as is commonly done in
pictured from the back side.) surfacing procedures).
The lens is then returned to its tray with the back
(concave) side down. Placing the lens front side down
direction to check the cylinder power. (When minus risks scratching the front lens surface as the lens slides
cylinder notation is used, this is always in the minus in the tray. Traditionally the right lens always is placed
direction.) The power wheel should read them as the in the right side of the tray and the left lens in the left
sum of the sphere and cylinder powers. For example, if side (Figure 2-18). In the production process, everyone
the lens power is +5.00 –1.00 × 180, the power wheel expects the right lens to be on the right side. If it is not
should read as +4.00 because plus 5.00 minus 1.00 placed correctly in the tray, lenses easily can be marked
equals +4.00. or edged for the wrong eye.
Next the lens is moved carefully left, right, upward,
or downward until the target is accurately centered.
(The lens holding device must be pulled away from the A Lens Prescription that Includes
lens surface so that the lens will not get scratched.) If
the lens has an especially high cylinder power, it may be Prism
necessary to rock the power wheel between sphere and
cylinder readings to achieve a correct centration. This OPTICAL CENTER OF A LENS
is because only one set of target lines may be visible at Up to this point the procedure described has been
a time. The lens should not rotate during this process. limited to single vision lenses with no prism power
Rotating the lens causes the axis to be off. When the indicated in the prescription. The procedure detailed
target is accurately centered, the lens may be spotted here includes centering of the illuminated lensmeter
(Figure 2-17). target in the middle of the crosshairs. By centering the
The power verification in a spotting procedure for a target in the crosshairs, the optical center (OC) can be
spherocylinder lenses is summarized in Box 2-2. found. Locating the OC and spotting it ensures that
after the lens is edged, the OC will be positioned before
Marking the Lens Right or Left the pupil of the eye. No prism exists at the OC of a lens.
As soon as the lens is spotted, it should be removed When no prescribed prism is in the prescription, the
from the lensmeter and marked for the right or left eye. needed point of reference is the OC. The OC becomes
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 19

by the prismatic effect of the lens. When the eye looks

through the OC of a lens, no apparent displacement
exists. However, when the eye looks through an off-
center point on the lens, the object does appear
displaced.
Most spectacle lens prescriptions have no prescribed
prismatic effect. This means that the OC of the lens
needs to be in front of the eye. Unwanted prism re-
quires one eye to turn away from the normal direction
of gaze to keep from seeing double. This can be very
uncomfortable.
Sometimes a prescription includes prescribed prism.
The lens must be positioned so that the amount of
prism called for will be in front of the wearer’s pupil, in
the eye’s line of sight. When prism is called for in the
prescription, the point on the lens with the correct
amount of prism becomes the point of reference; it is
not the OC. This prismatic point is important in align-
ment of the lens, and now it becomes the MRP. So when
the prescription contains prescribed prism, the OC and
MRP are two separate points.
A synonym for the MRP that is perhaps even more
descriptive is prism reference point, or PRP. MRP and PRP
are the same.

Prentice’s Rule
A relationship exists between prism power and the
distance between the OC and the MRP. For a desired
prismatic effect the needed distance in centimeters
between the OC and the MRP depends upon the power
of the lens. It can be calculated using Prentice’s rule for
FIGURE 2-18 By convention the right lens is placed on
decentration. Prentice’s Rule states the following
the right-hand side of the tray and is always face up to
prevent scratches on the front surface. In spite of this
Δ = cF
convention the lenses should still be checked before each
step in the fabrication process to verify that the correct lens
is being used. where:
Δ = Prism diopters at the point of reference
c = Distance in centimeters
the reference point. It is of major importance in align-
F = Power of the lens
ing the lens. Therefore it is known as the major reference
point, or MRP. So when no prism is in the prescription, For spherical lenses the calculation is straightforward.4
the OC is the MRP.
Example 2-2
How far from each other will the OC and MRP be for a
OPTICAL CENTERS NOT WITHIN THE LINE -3.00 D lens when a 1.5Δ prismatic effect is desired?
OF SIGHT
Whenever the eye looks through a lens at a place other
4
than the OC, the object appears to be displaced from its For decentration of plano cylinder lenses along major meridians,
the power used is the power of the cylinder in the meridian of
actual location.3 This apparent displacement is caused decentration. If a cylinder is oriented at an oblique axis and the
direction of decentration is horizontal or vertical, prism will be
induced with its base oriented obliquely. (For more information on
3
In the case of a plano cylinder, no prismatic effect occurs anywhere the optical effects of decentration, the reader is encouraged to see
along the axis of the cylinder. It might be said that the “optical Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, Boston, 1996,
center” is really an “optical line.” Butterworth-Heinemann.)
20 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Solution sphere/cylinder target lines must be positioned to

In this example, correspond to the location of the desired prismatic effect.
F = -3.00 D
Example 2-3
and A right lens calls for 2.0Δ base out prism. How would it
be positioned for spotting?
Δ = 1.5Δ

Prentice’s Rule states that Solution

To correctly position this lens the following steps must
Δ = cF
be taken:
This may also be written as
• The sphere/cylinder target intersection must be on
c= Δ the circular mire marked 2.0.
F • Because the prism is horizontal, the illuminated
Therefore target must be on the 180-degree line.
• Base out for the right eye is to the left. Therefore the
c = 1.5 = 0.5 cm
3 center of the illuminated target must be on the 2Δ
prism circle where it crosses the 180-degree line to
So the OC is OC = 5 mm from MRP the left.

(Note: Before reading prism, the practitioner must be

Spotting Lenses with Prism sure that the internal horizontal and vertical lines that
are a part of the black lensmeter mires are really
SINGLE VISION LENSES horizontally and vertically aligned. If no internal or
The procedure of spotting single vision lenses with external degree references are available to use, the
prism is nearly identical to that of nonprism lenses. The cylinder axis is set at zero and the mires are lined
only difference is in how the illuminated target is cen- parallel to the illuminated target in the lensmeter.)
tered. Instead of placing the center of the illuminated When the lens is correctly positioned the lensmeter
target at the center of the crosshairs, the illuminated target appears as shown in Figure 2-19.

2 Location of
nose or
frame bridge
1

FIGURE 2-19 Prismatic effect can be created by decentering of the lens in the lensmeter
until the sphere/cylinder line intersection is positioned for the indicated amount.
(Achievement of desired prism by decentration is limited by lens size and refractive power.)
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 21

PRISM RESTRICTIONS WITH ASPHERIC

AND ATORIC LENSES
MRP OC When aspheric or atoric lenses are used, the lens design
changes power in a concentric-ring–like manner from
the center to the edges of the lens. The center of the
“ring” must be in front of the wearer’s eye. This means
X
that finished single vision aspheric or atoric lenses
cannot be decentered to create prescribed prism. When
prescribed prism is present in the prescription, it is
necessary to begin with a semifinished lens. The prism
must be ground onto the lens precisely at the center of
the aspheric “ring.” Once a semifinished aspheric or
atoric lens has been surfaced for the correct prism
amount, it may be spotted in the usual manner as
FIGURE 2-20 The major reference point (MRP) of a lens described, with no adverse effects.
ultimately will be positioned before the wearer’s pupil center. Decentering a finished (stock lens) aspheric or atoric
If prism is indicated in the prescription, the optical center places the concentric area in front of the eye. The
(OC) is displaced purposely. Therefore the point that will be center of aspheric design will be somewhere else. This
important in centration and that is consequently spotted is destroys the advantage of the aspheric design. It would
the major reference point—not the optical center. be optically better not to use an aspheric or atoric
design at all. A regular lens gives better optics than an
aspheric lens that has the central zone of the lens
moved away from where it should be.

Once this position is achieved and the cylinder axis

is correct, the lens may be spotted. Figure 2-20 shows Spotting with Autolensmeters
the lens spotted with the three lensmeter dots. The
center lensmeter ink spot is no longer at the center of Autolensmeters perform in much the same manner
the uncut lens, but the center dot still indicates the as the manual variety. Their chief advantages are
location of the MRP. speed of operation when lenses of unknown power
are measured and reduced training time for new
operators.
PRESCRIBED PRISM WITH BOTH Autolensmeters vary in the appearance of the screen
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL and in operation. An example of an autolensmeter is
COMPONENTS shown in Figure 2-22. This particular instrument
In a case in which both horizontal and vertical prisms includes a measuring mode and a layout mode. In
are called for simultaneously in the same lens, the target other words, for simple measurement of a lens power,
must be moved both laterally and vertically until it the screen appears as shown in Figure 2-23. In the
reaches the desired position. That position is one where layout mode the target on the screen is similar to the
the target center is directly above (or below) the re- view into a manual lensmeter (Figure 2-24). It is possible
quired horizontal prism reading. It is also exactly left or to spot the lens in the measuring mode but is more
right of the required vertical prism reading. convenient using the layout mode.
Use of an autolensmeter for spotting lenses requires
Example 2-4 no presetting of the instrument. Power readings may
A right eye requires 4.0 D base out and 2.0 D base up. display in normal quarter-diopter increments or in
1
How would the lens be positioned for spotting? smaller increments—in some cases down to 100th of a
diopter.
Solution How the spectacles are physically placed in the
To correctly position the lens, the target must be four autolensmeter varies by manufacturer. For example, if
full prism diopter units to the left of center and two the spectacles are placed in an autolensmeter with an
full prism diopter units above center. (The half diopter upright design such as the Humphrey autolensmeter,
prism ring should not be counted as a full prism the temples will hang downward and the top of the
diopter.) This is shown in Figure 2-21. spectacle frame will be closest to the operator.
 5

3
Location of
2 nose or
frame bridge
1

3
Location of
2 nose or
frame bridge
1

B
FIGURE 2-21 In positioning a prismatic lens, the only important reference is the center
of the illuminated target. This is the place where center sphere and cylinder lines cross each
other. Where other parts of those lines may cross the circular mires is of no importance. In
the example shown, the sphere/cylinder line crossing point must be directly above or
below the place where the 4.0 D circle crosses the horizontal line farthest from the “nose.”
The sphere/cylinder line crossing point must simultaneously also be exactly at the same
level as the top of the 2.0 D circle. A, This spot is easy to see because the sphere and
cylinder lines are aligned horizontally and vertically. However, if cylinder is present at any
axis other than 90 or 180, the lines will not look like this. Instead they may appear as shown
in B. The prismatic effect shown in B is exactly the same as in A. Both are 4 base out and
2 base up. It may be difficult to tell the exact position of the center of the illuminated target
for a spherocylinder lens with an oblique axis. Practitioners who experience difficulty may
try this procedure. The cylinder axis is turned temporarily to 90 or 180, causing the
illuminated target lines to be exactly horizontal and vertical. Although the lines will be a bit
blurred, they will duplicate the situation shown in A and make it easier to tell how much
vertical and horizontal prism is present.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 23

Solution
The lens is selected from inventory and held in position
in the autolensmeter. The axis appears as a number,
but the cross on the screen also turns to match the axis
of the cylinder. The lens is rotated until the axis shown
in the autolensmeter matches the axis called for in
the prescription. Next the lens circle is moved on the
screen to the central position (Figure 2-26).
The practitioner must verify that the cylinder axis is
still correct and check whether the horizontal and
vertical prism readings are at zero. If everything checks
out correctly, the lens may be spotted with the spotting
device (Figure 2-27). The spotting device places three
dots on the lens in exactly the same way that the
manual lensmeter does.

AUTOLENSMETER SPOTTING WITH

PRESCRIBED PRISM
Using the autolensmeter to spot a lens with Rx prism
is done much like with a conventional lensmeter. In
the layout mode an autolensmeter is likely to have both
a simulation of a conventional lensmeter target and a
numerical prism reading that tells exactly how much
vertical and horizontal prism is showing up in the lens
FIGURE 2-22 The Humphrey Lens Analyzer (Humphrey at the measured position. As the lens position changes,
Instruments [division of Carl Zeiss, Inc.], San Leandro, Calif.) the numerical prism readings also are changing.
is an example of an automated lensmeter.
Example 2-6
A right lens prescription calls for a power of –5.50 –0.50
× 121 with 2.50Δ of base out prism and 0.50Δ base up.
AUTOLENSMETER SPOTTING WITH NO
How would the lens be positioned and spotted using
PRESCRIBED PRISM
the example autolensmeter?
To lay out a single vision lens that has no prism in the
prescription (Rx), the lens is held over the lens stop Solution
(Figure 2-25). When the lens is held in the instrument, The lensmeter is set for layout mode and for a right
the sphere, cylinder, and axis readings on the screen lens. The lens is held in the lensmeter and is positioned
immediately show actual lens power. A gray circle for the correct 121-degree cylinder axis as in the
surrounds the cross and represents the lens. The circle previous example. Next the lens is moved laterally.
and cross move as the lens is moved. The target should move toward the base out and up
If the lens is a sphere, having no cylinder compo- side of the mires. The circles are used as a general
nent, it must now be centered in the lensmeter. The guideline, but the numerical readout is monitored
lens is positioned correctly when the gray lens circle until it shows 2.50Δ of base out horizontal prism and
surrounds the smallest of the concentric circles on 0.50Δ of base up vertical prism (Figure 2-28). The
the screen and the cross is exactly in the middle of the cylinder axis still must read correctly. The lens may now
simulated lensmeter mires. The screen also reads the be spotted.
amount of horizontal and vertical prism. Both of these
readings should be zero. Spherocylinder powers require Story Told by the Numerical Readout
that the lens be rotated until the correct axis appears. Reading prism with an autolensmeter relies on the
numerical readout for prism amount as the final word,
Example 2-5 not the way the target appears prismatically in the
A prescription calls for a lens with a power of –5.50 image of the simulated lensmeter target. The simulated
–0.50 × 121. How might this lens be spotted using an position of the target may not exactly replicate the
autolensmeter? accuracy of the manual lensmeter target, especially for
24 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

FIGURE 2-23 The Humphrey Lens Analyzer (Humphrey Instruments [division of Carl
Zeiss, Inc.], San Leandro, Calif.) has a measuring mode and a layout mode. This is the
screen for the measuring mode.

FIGURE 2-24 The layout screen on the Humphrey Lens Analyzer (Humphrey
Instruments [division of Carl Zeiss, Inc.], San Leandro, Calif.) looks more like a conventional
lensmeter screen.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 25

FIGURE 2-25 Positioning the lens for spotting in an automated lensmeter.

FIGURE 2-26 When the cylinder axis is correct and prism reads zero, the optical center
is correctly positioned.
FIGURE 2-27 The spotting mechanism on an autolensmeter is the same as that on the
manual lensmeter. (Note: This image is for illustration purposes only, as the spotting
mechanism is not currently configured to physically spot the lens.)

FIGURE 2-28 The mires in the layout mode aide in lens orientation for prism amount,
but the numerical readout should be used for exactness.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 27

combined horizontal and vertical prism. However, the

numerical readings on the screen are accurate.

Making the Most of a Blemished

Lens
Occasionally lenses become chipped or scratched in
handling, shipping, or surfacing. Taking full advantage
of lens optical properties potentially allows use of the
lens without compromise of the quality of the finished
product. The crucial factor is the location of the im-
perfect or damaged portion in relation to the final lens
shape and lens power. A

A BLEMISHED SPHERE
The most versatile lens type is the spherical lens. Because
a sphere is of uniform power in all meridians, it may
be rotated around its OC without changing its optical
characteristics.5 Therefore if a large chip were to be
broken from its edge as shown in Figure 2-29, A, the
lens must be turned only so that during the edging
process this chipped portion will be edged away (Figure
2-29, B).

A BLEMISHED SPHEROCYLINDER
A spherocylinder lens is less adaptable. It has only B
two possible orientations. The decision on how best to
orient a slightly damaged spherocylinder is made after FIGURE 2-29 A, The lens will be ruined if edged as
lens spotting but before it is marked at the top with an marked. By turning this spherical lens, the same optical
endpoint is achieved without a sacrifice in quality. B, The
L or R.
lens should be remarked so that in marking and blocking the
chipped portion will be positioned as shown.
Example 2-7
A prescription for the right eye has a of power +2.00
-1.00 × 10. The lens is verified and spotted as shown in
Figure 2-30, A. In recognition that the lens is scratched,
the frame shape is checked against the lens. If the
scratch appears within the frame shape, the lens is so that the scratch will be ground completely away. This
unacceptable (Figure 2-30, B). Can this lens be used? is shown in Figure 2-30, C. The lens may now be marked
with the appropriate R and used.
Solution
A cylinder axis goes from one side of the lens to the
A BLEMISHED PRISM LENS
other. Axis 180 is the same as axis zero. Axis 90 is
the same as axis 270. For this reason, cylinder axis is When prescribed prism is present, standard lens blanks
specified only up to 180 degrees. Turning a cylinder may be rotated only before the MRP is marked for the
lens upside down does not affect the optics. In this correct amount of prism. Once the lens is marked for
example, a 10-degree axis is the same as a 190-degree prism, the lens may no longer be rotated.
axis. In the example, turning the lens also repositions it Lenses that have been specifically surfaced to
obtain a prismatic effect that could not be achieved by
decentration of a standard lens blank cannot be rotated
5
This does not apply to a polarized lens. at all.
 28 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Cylinder axis

Scratch

A
FIGURE 2-31 Occasionally a stock lens will have a mis-
placed optical center. Before the lens is marked with R or L,
the lens should be turned so that the optical center is toward
the nose. If the lens is spherical, the two outer dots are not
needed and can be wiped off. They could be confusing if left
in place. If the lens is a spherocylinder, the three dots must
be left on the lens.
Axis

Scratch A STOCK LENS WITH AN OFF-CENTER

OPTICAL CENTER
Normally the OC of a stock lens is in the middle of the
lens. Occasionally this OC is slightly off center. This will
B not affect the overall quality of the lens. To ensure that
the lens will be large enough even with the misplaced
center, the lens is turned so that the OC is toward the
nasal side of the frame before writing an R or L on the
lens and placing it in the tray (Figure 2-31). Because
Scratch most lenses are decentered toward the nose for edging,
this leaves the larger lens area temporally.
Axis

Spotting of Polarizing Lenses

Polarizing lenses block horizontally polarized light
that reflects from glare surfaces and allow vertically
polarized light to pass through the lens. The lens does
this because it has a laminated layer sandwiched within
C the lens. This laminated layer must be oriented
correctly in the frame; otherwise the lens will not work
FIGURE 2-30 A scratch on a lens may not make the lens
unusable. Whether it can be used depends on scratch correctly.
location, frame size, and—in the case of cylinder lenses—axis To ensure that the lens is oriented correctly, notches
orientation. A, The lens is marked for edging (no prism). If are located in the laminated layer on either side of
used as oriented, the scratch will appear on the edged lens, the lens (Figure 2-32). These notches must fall on the
as shown in B. However, because a spherocylinder without 180-degree line.
prism can be rotated 180 degrees without any change in For sphere lenses, the OC of the lens is located and
optical effect, as C demonstrates, this lens is still useful. (Any spotted. Then the outer two lensmeter dots are
rotation of the lens must be done after spotting and before removed, leaving only the center dot. When the lens is
the lens is marked.)
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 29

means that for flat-top bifocals, the segment top should

be horizontal. The sphere power is dialed into the
lensmeter. If the lens has a cylinder component, the
axis of the cylinder should be dialed in as well.
Next the MRP of the lens is located. When the lens
is spherical, the lens may be spotted. With spherical
lenses, if the segment was not placed in the lensmeter
exactly straight, the lensmeter-spotted 180-degree line
will not be horizontal. It may need to be tilted during
the next step of centration so that the segment line will
be horizontally straight. This is explained in Chapter 6.
For multifocals with spherocylinder powers, the axis
of the cylinder has been custom ground for that parti-
cular lens. The lensmeter is set for the axis ordered and
the lens rotated to the correct axis. With MRP and
FIGURE 2-32 Polarizing lenses must be spotted so that cylinder axis correct, the lens is spotted, just like a
the two notches in the laminated layer of the lens are single vision lens. After the lens has been spotted, the
oriented on the 180-degree line. If this is not done, the lens three dots on the 180-degree line should be parallel to
will not cut out reflected glare. the upper edge of a flat-top segment (Figure 2-33, A). If
they are not parallel to the top of the bifocal segment,
the cylinder axis is off and the lens was surfaced impro-
ready to be blocked, the central spot indicating the OC perly. An example of this is shown in Figure 2-33, B.
and the two notches are used to position the lens. When this happens, mounting the lens in the frame
Because it is likely that a polarizing lens will have been with both its segment top straight and cylinder axis
custom surfaced from a semifinished lens, it is probable correct will be impossible. (Only in the case of an
that a number of these lenses will have their OCs extremely low-powered cylinder may an error like this
displaced nasally. After the lens is spotted, it is turned fall within acceptable quality standards.)
so that the displaced OC will indeed be nasal before To precheck the lenses as a pair, the lenses are held
marking an R or an L on the lens. (This is the same front-to-front with the segments overlapping (Figure
procedure described in the previous section.) 2-33, C). If two different MRP heights or two different
Spherocylinder lenses and most lenses with prescribed segment insets do not exist, the center spots of both
prism have to be surfaced so that the cylinder axis is lenses should be at the same place. If they are not, a
correctly placed in relationship to the lens’ direction of problem with unwanted horizontal or vertical prism is
polarization. likely after the lenses are edged.
Box 2-3 provides a summary of spotting flat-top
multifocals.

Prescription Verification and

HOW TO SPOT ROUND-SEGMENT
Spotting of Multifocal Lenses MULTIFOCALS
Multifocal lenses are checked for surface defects and For multifocals with round segments and a spherically
internal deficiencies in the same manner as are single powered distance portion, the MRP and 180-degree
vision lenses. They also should be spotted. This marks line are marked first by rotation of the lens to the
the MRP and the 180-degree line. This 180-degree line estimated segment position. Segments are rotated
indicates the horizontal plane of the lens. As with single inward toward where the nose would be. With a right
vision lenses, the 180-degree line is not the axis of the lens in the lensmeter, the lower part of the lens is
cylinder but rather the line from which the axis of the rotated inward so that the segment is slightly right of
cylinder is measured. center (Figure 2-34, A). The OC is located and the lens
spotted (Figure 2-34, B). The left lens segment will
be rotated likewise somewhat left of center. Even
METHOD FOR SPOTTING though these left and right inward lens rotations are
FLAT-TOP–SEGMENT MULTIFOCALS not likely to be exact, any inaccuracies can and will be
For multifocals, the bifocal should be placed in the corrected later when the lenses are being prepared for
lensmeter as it will be when mounted in the frame. This blocking.
30 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

B C
FIGURE 2-33 A, For spherocylinder lenses, the three dots should be parallel to the top
of the segment. If they are not, the cylinder axis will be wrong. B, For spherical lenses that
have neither a cylinder nor an axis, an angle between the three dots and the segment top
is not a problem, even though it looks off. With a sphere lens, the center dot is the only
important point. The lens may rotate around this point at any angle with no change in the
optics of the lens. However, if the lens has a cylinder component, the axis of the cylinder
will be wrong. C, Once flat-top bifocals have been spotted, they may be prechecked before
edging. The edged lenses are held front-to-front because the segments and spots are closer
to one another and will reduce the amount of parallax. The lenses are not pressed into
contact with each other to prevent scratching. The segments must overlap exactly. When
both lenses that have equal segment insets and drops, the spots should also overlap as
shown. If they do not overlap, a problem may exist with interpupillary distances (PDs)
being off or unwanted vertical prism.

For spherocylindrical round-segment multifocals the smoothed out or “blended” to make them unnotice-
lens is placed in the lensmeter. The correct sphere able. These blended round-segment lenses are spotted
power and cylinder axis are dialed into the lensmeter. in exactly the same manner as regular round-segment
The OC is found, and the lens is rotated to the correct lenses. (Blended bifocals should not be confused with
cylinder axis. Now the lens is spotted. Whether the progressive addition lenses. Progressive addition lenses
cylinder axis is within tolerance in reference to the near will be considered shortly.) Box 2-4 summarizes the
segment position can be judged only during the procedure used to spot round-segment lenses and
centration process that follows. blended bifocals.
Invisible segment or “blended bifocal” lenses have To conclude the spotting/verification process, all
round-segment areas with borders that have been segments are verified for accuracy of the near addition
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 31

BOX 2-3
Spotting Flat-Top Multifocals

1. The lens sphere power and lens cylinder axis are

dialed into the lensmeter.
2. The lens is placed in the lensmeter.
3. The major reference point is located.
4. If the lens is spherical, the lens is spotted.
5. If the lens has a cylinder, the lens is rotated until the
sphere lines are clear.
6. If the lens has prescribed prism, the illuminated
target is moved until it is located at the position
where the prism equals that called for in the
prescription.
A
7. The lens is spotted.
8. For spherocylinder lenses and lenses with prescribed
prism, the practitioner must verify that the segment
top and three lensmeter dots are parallel to one
another.
9. When both lenses have been spotted, the lenses are
lined up front-to-front to check for R-L spotting
accuracy. The central spots should overlap.

power after the lens is spotted. The lens is removed

from the lensmeter and marked with an L or R.

DISAPPEARANCE OF THE MAJOR

REFERENCE POINT INTO THE SEGMENT B
PORTION
FIGURE 2-34 A, To spot a round segment lens for
When bifocal and trifocal lenses are surfaced, the
edging, the segment for this right lens is rotated slightly in a
distance OC could be ground into the lens so that it will
direction toward the nose. B, The optical center is located,
be halfway between the top and bottom of the edged and the lens is spotted. With spheres, this estimated
lens shape (Figure 2-35). When the distance OC is nasalward segment rotation places the lens more as it should
placed here, edge thickness will be equal at the top and be and makes the centration and blocking process easier.
bottom of the edged lens.
Sometimes bifocal or trifocal lenses are ordered with
the bifocal or trifocal segment especially high. In fact,
the segment tops occasionally may be higher than the checked for the wearer’s interpupillary distance (PD)
middle of the edged lens. If the distance OC is placed accurately. Prismatic effects from the segment interfere
on the 180-degree midline and the segment is higher with distance lens optics and cause the location of the
than the 180-degree midline, the distance OC will be distance OC to appear displaced. For all except round
in the segment area (Figure 2-36, A). With use of the segments, though, lens centration can still be carried
lensmeter, the distance OC becomes “lost” in the out normally. When flat-top lenses are laid out for
segment. edging, the segment borders are used for reference
If the distance OC falls within the segment of the instead of the distance OC.
lens, distance power measurements cannot be made at Leaving the OC on the horizontal midline of a multi-
the OC. They must be made above the OC and above focal lens, even if the segment is at or above the center
the segment. For measuring power this is not serious. of the lens, is not standard procedure for all surfacing
The process of measuring power above the MRP laboratories. In cases in which equality of upper and
location is standard for progressive addition lenses. lower lens edge thicknesses is not a factor, the surfacing
Unfortunately when the distance OC or MRP cannot laboratory commonly places the OC slightly higher
be located easily, the lens cannot be spotted and than the top of the segment line (Figure 2-36, B).
32 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Distance optical
BOX 2-4 center
Spotting Round-Segment Lenses and
Blended Bifocals

Spherically Powered Round-Segment Lenses

1. The sphere power is set in the lensmeter.
2. The lens is placed in the lensmeter.
3. The segment is rotated inward so that it is somewhat
nasally located.
4. The lens is moved until the major reference point is A
located. Distance optical
5. The lens is spotted. center
6. Because these lenses are spheres, the two outside
lensmeter dots are wiped off to avoid confusion later.

Spherocylindrically Powered Round-Segment

Lenses
1. The sphere power and cylinder axis are set in the
lensmeter.
2. The lens is placed in the lensmeter.
3. The lens is moved until the major reference point is
located.
4. The lens is rotated until the cylinder axis is correct B
5. The lens is spotted.
FIGURE 2-36 A, A high bifocal segment combined with
conventional vertical placement of distance optical center
(OC) “loses” the OC in the segment. It cannot be accurately
found with a lensmeter. B, Some surfacing laboratories
routinely place the distance OC above a highly placed seg-
1/ ment top unless it will cause thickness differences between
2 OC upper and lower lens edges to be cosmetically objectionable.

1/ 2. Care should be taken to keep the cylinder axis

2
correct. The lens is moved laterally until no
horizontal prism exists. (If prism is prescribed, the
lens is adjusted until the correct prism amount
FIGURE 2-35 A common location for the distance optical appears.)
center (OC) of a lens is halfway between the top and bottom 3. The lens is spotted at this location. As long as the
of the edged lens. three dots on the lens are kept horizontal, the
cylinder axis will be right.
An Alternative Round-Segment Spotting
Unless a strong oblique cylinder is present, the OC
Method
should be located correctly.
When the distance OC is within the segment area of a
round-segment lens, the following process may be
used:6
Progressive Addition Lenses
1. Distance power is verified at a location just above the
segment. This distance should be the same for both Progressive addition lenses have certain “hidden”
left and right lenses. markings used in establishment of lens orientation.
Lenses coming from the surfacing laboratory also are
6
Several factors can prevent this process from being entirely accurate, marked with non–water-soluble ink. If the visible inked
such as the horizontal prism that may be induced by the presence of marks are applied correctly, the lenses do not need to
a strong oblique cylinder. Yet because the near add can, with higher
powers, affect the apparent cylinder axis as well as induce horizontal be spotted. However, they should be verified before
and vertical prism of its own, the method remains a viable compromise. edging.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 33

FIGURE 2-37 The power of a progressive add lens is checked above the major reference
point (MRP), at the location of the distance reference point (DRP). The DRP is found within
the premarked semicircle. The distance power is not checked at the MRP because the MRP
marks the beginning of the progressive zone or corridor leading down into the near
portion.

VERIFICATION OF PREMARKED power is measured. This point usually is marked with a

PROGRESSIVES non–water-soluble inked circle and is called the near
To check distance lens power, the lens is positioned reference point, or NRP. The near addition is verified in
in the lensmeter to view through the circled area this specified NRP area.
above the MRP (Figure 2-37). (The MRP usually comes To check for prism, the lens is centered in the
marked with a dot.) The center of this circled area lensmeter at the MRP. A synonym for MRP is prism
used to locate the point for verifying distance power is reference point (PRP). However, the lensmeter target may
called the distance reference point, or DRP (Figure 2-38). not be altogether clear at the MRP because the
Incidentally, some prism will almost always be at the progressive zone of the lens starts here. The lens power
DRP because the DRP of the lens is not the OC of in the lower half of the measuring area is increasing
the lens. and may blur the lower half of the target.
To check distance power, the power wheel is set to Progressive lenses often come with equal amounts of
the sphere power and the cylinder axis wheel to the vertical prism in both right and left lenses. This allows
ordered cylinder axis. The lens is rotated until the the lenses to be made thinner. Equal amounts of
target lines are clear and unbroken. The non–water- “yoked” vertical prism for “prism thinning” purposes
soluble horizontal reference marks on the lens should are both allowable and usually expected. For example,
be oriented horizontally and not tilted. If they are both right and left lenses may read 1.5Δ base down at
tilted, the axis of the cylinder is incorrect.7 the PRP. Because the prism thins the lens and the net
Near lens power is checked through a point well into binocular prismatic effect is zero, the lenses are
the near zone so that no intermediate progressive considered free of unwanted vertical prism.8

8
For more information on prism thinning and its workings, consult
7
It is possible that the cylinder axis is correct, but the visible lens Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
marking was applied incorrectly at an angle. 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann (Chapter 11).
34 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

Distance reference point

(DRP)
Prism reference point
(PRP)
same as
Major reference point
(MRP)

175 Logo

Fitting cross
Near reference point
(NRP)

FIGURE 2-38 Points of reference on a progressive addition lens. (From Brooks CW,
Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann,
p 311.)

As stated previously, if the lenses are correct and

have non–water-soluble progressive lens markings, the
lens does not need to be spotted. The existing markings
will be used in the blocking process. If the lenses do not
come with markings, or if it appears that the markings
were applied inaccurately, then the markings must be
reapplied.

PROGRESSIVE LENSES THAT ARE NOT

PREMARKED
If a progressive addition lens leaves the surfacing
laboratory without visible markings, the finishing
laboratory should reconstruct the manufacturer’s
recommended system of identifying marks. This is done
as follows:

1. The hidden marks are located on the lens surface.

This may be done in several ways.
• The lens is held under an incandescent bulb. For
maximum visibility, the background should be
matte black. Two small, etched marks usually are
FIGURE 2-39 When the engraved circles on the lens are found at about 17 mm from either side of the lens
located and dotted, the guide marks can be reconstructed center.
for use in layout and power verification.
or
• The practitioner holds the lens up to a light and
looks through the lens.
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 35

or

• A commercially available lens mark finder that

illuminates and magnifies is used.
2. With a marking pen, a dot is placed on the centers of
the small marks on the front surface of the lens.9
3. The lens is placed on a verification card and turned
so that the dots fall at the indicated “engraved circle”
points of the card. The lens manufacturer provides
verification cards.
4. The appropriate lines are drawn on the lens from
the master markings found on the verification card
(Figure 2-39). Some lens manufacturers may provide
easily removable decals that may be placed on the
lens using the hidden circles for reference (Figure
2-40). This saves drawing the marks on the lens.
Chapter 5 explains more on progressive addition FIGURE 2-40 A decal placed on the lens in accordance
lenses. with previously located hidden circles is quick and neat.

9
Marking the etchings on the back of the lens when the etchings are
actually found on the front can cause a significant amount of error
because of parallax.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? If a stock lens is available, it is 4. Apart from price considerations, in which of the
normally used instead of a custom surfaced lens. following instances is it critical that the smallest
possible lens blank be used?
2. For high plus lens powers, as center thickness
increases, which of the following is true? a. When the prescription is minus in power
b. When the prescription is plus in power
a. Magnification of the wearer’s eyes increases. c. Apart from economic considerations, neither
b. Minification of the wearer’s eyes increases. plus nor minus prescription power is a
c. No relationship exists between lens power, consideration.
center thickness, and either magnification or d. Using the smallest possible blank size is critical
minification. for both plus and minus prescriptions.

3. Given the generalized formula for minimum 5. Internal lens deficiencies are inspected for in
blank size, which of the following is the minimum which of the following ways?
blank size required for a frame having an effective
diameter of 53 and a decentration of 3 mm per a. Looking at the filament of an unfrosted light
lens when no allowance is made for chipping? bulb as it reflects from the surface of the lens
b. Observing a straight line through the lens as
a. 54 mm the lens is moved back and forth
b. 59 mm c. Looking through the lens at a black
c. 62 mm background under indirect illumination
d. 68 mm d. All the above
e. 71 mm e. Both b and c
36 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

6. A prescription is –2.00 –1.25 × 30. Which of the 10. When a single vision lens is spotted for edging, in
following two power wheel readings appear when reference to edged lens orientation, the lensmeter
first sphere, then cylinder lines, are brought into ink dots will be on which of the following?
focus?
a. The sphere meridian
a. –2.00 b. The cylinder meridian
b. –0.75 c. The 180-degree meridian
c. –3.25 d. The cylinder axis
d. –1.25
e. +0.75 11. True or False? When a lens is spotted by using
plus cylinder notation instead of minus cylinder
7. True or False? When the lensmeter is used to notation, the lens is turned 90 degrees from
neutralize a lens of unknown power and obtain where it would otherwise be located.
results directly in plus cylinder form, the power
wheel is turned into the high minus numbers and 12. By convention, lenses in the finishing laboratory
slowly moved in the plus direction until the normally are marked for right (R) or left (L) on
cylinder lines first are brought into sharp focus. which of the following?

8. The lensmeter power wheel is turned into the a. Outside surface, in mirror image, on the upper half
high plus power. The power wheel is then turned b. Inside surface, on the lower half
back slowly, reducing plus power until the sphere c. Inside surface, on the upper half
lines are clear. (The power wheel now reads d. Outside surface, on the lower half
+2.00 D; the axis wheel reads 12.) The power e. Outside surface, on the upper half
wheel is then turned further into the minus until
the cylinder lines become clear. (This causes the 13. True or False? Lenses should never be placed
power wheel to reads –1.00.) Which of the convex-side-down in the job tray.
following is the prescription?
14. True or False? Lenses are placed convex-side-up in
a. +2.00 –1.00 × 12 the laboratory tray. The wearer’s right lens will be
b. –1.00 +2.00 × 12 in the lower left half of the tray and the left lens
c. +2.00 –1.00 × 102 in the lower right half of the tray.
d. +2.00 –3.00 × 12
e. –1.00 +2.00 × 12 15. For high cylinders in which either the lensmeter
sphere or the cylinder lines are visible one group
9. The lensmeter power wheel is turned into the at a time, but not simultaneously, the MRP is
high plus power and slowly returned until the found by which of the following?
cylinder lines are clear. (The power wheel reads
+4.00 D; the axis wheel reads 180.) The power a. Centering on the sphere line
wheel is turned further into the minus until the b. Centering on the center cylinder line
sphere lines become clear. (The power wheel reads c. Alternately centering on first the sphere line,
+3.00 D.) Although this is not the correct then on the center cylinder line
procedure for lensmeter use, which of the d. Using a lens center locator
following is the prescription? e. Cannot be found by any of the above
methods
a. +4.00 –1.00 × 90
b. +4.00 –3.00 × 180 16. Which of the following points should always
c. +4.00 –1.00 × 180 appear either exactly in front of (or somewhat
d. +3.00 –1.00 × 90 below) the wearer’s pupil?
e. +3.00 –1.00 × 90
a. OC
b. DBC
c. Geometric center
d. MRP
e. IOP
CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES 37

17. If no prescribed prism is in the prescription, 24. True or False? If the MRP “disappears” into the
which one of the following points is not the segment, the lensmeter power wheel is refocused
same? so that the target lines come into view through the
segment. The MRP, which “vanished,” can now be
a. OC found and spotted.
b. MRP
c. PRP 25. True or False? Spotting a premarked progressive
d. NRP addition lens is done only for verification
purposes. The centration process that follows can
18. For which of the following prescriptions is there a be accomplished by use of the marks already on
difference in the physical location of the OC and the lens.
the MRP? (There may be more than one correct
response.) 26. True or False? “Invisible” markings are found on
progressive addition lenses. These markings allow
a. –4.00 D sphere the MRP and near portions of the lens to be
b. –4.00 –2.00 × 180 located exactly.
c. –4.00 D sphere with 0.5Δ base-in prism
d. –4.00 –2.00 × 180 with 0.5Δ base-up prism 27. The distance power for a progressive addition lens
e. The OC and MRP are synonymous terms and is verified at which of the following?
therefore are always at the same point on a
lens. a. OC
b. MRP
19. True or False? Use of an autolensmeter to c. NRP
spot lenses requires no presetting of the d. PRP
instrument. e. DRP

20. True or False? With use of most autolensmeters to 28. Horizontal and vertical prismatic effect for a
prepare a lens for edging, the lens is still spotted progressive addition lens is verified at which of the
with three dots, as with a manual lensmeter. following?

21. A flat-top bifocal is spotted for the MRP. It is a. NRP

immediately evident that the three lensmeter dots b. PRP
are not parallel to the segment line. In which c. DRP
prescription is this instance of no consequence?

a. It is always of consequence. Challenge Questions

b. –1.00 –1.00 × 180
c. pl –1.00 × 70 (pl denoting a “plano,” or zero 29. How far from the MRP must the OC be moved to
power) create the proper prismatic effect by decentration
d. –2.25 D sphere for the following lens?

22. True or False? The spotting of blended bifocals is +1.50 –1.50 × 90 0.5Δ base out
done in the same manner as the spotting of
round-segment bifocals. a. 3.33 mm
b. 30 mm
23. Which of the following is the standard vertical c. 0 mm
position of the lens MRP? d. There is no optical “center” for this lens.

a. 3 mm above the horizontal midline of the lens

(The horizontal midline is in the middle of the
frame B dimension.)
b. On the horizontal midline of the lens
c. 3 mm below the horizontal midline of the lens
d. No standard vertical position exists.
38 CHAPTER 2 SPOTTING OF LENSES

30. How far from the MRP must the OC be moved to The following lenses are clear, single vision lenses.
create the proper prismatic effect by decentration Which of the statements apply to each prescription?
for the following lens? (Note: More than one answer may be appropriate.)

+1.50 +1.50 × 90 0.5Δ base out 32. –4.25 –1.00 × 035

(Notice the plus cylinder form of the a. After this lens has been spotted, it will be
prescription.) unaffected by any lens rotation around the
center spot.
a. 1.67 mm b. After spotting, this lens will be unaffected if the
b. 3.33 mm lens is rotated exactly 180 degrees around the
c. 0 mm center spot.
d. The distance cannot be figured from the c. After spotting, this lens will be affected by any
measurements provided. lens rotation.

31. The prescription is R: –6.00 D sphere 1.0Δ base 33. –1.00 –2.00 × 018 2Δ base in
out. The lens is in the lensmeter (convex side
facing the operator) with the lensmeter target a. After this lens has been spotted, it will be
exactly centered. In which of the following unaffected by any lens rotation around the
directions must the lens be moved before it may center spot.
be correctly spotted? b. After spotting, this lens will be unaffected if the
lens is rotated exactly 180 degrees around the
a. It is correct as is and need not be moved. center spot.
b. Operator’s left c. After spotting, this lens will be affected by any
c. Operator’s right lens rotation.
d. Up
e. Down
 Lens Shapes,
3 Patterns, and
Frame Tracers

A t some point in the lens finishing process, all

details about the frame eyesize and shape must
be established. A few years ago when the number of
available frames was less extensive than it is today, each
edging laboratory had a selection of patterns that was
fairly inclusive of available frame shapes (Figure 3-1). A
pattern duplicates the shape of the frame area into
which the lens is to be placed.
With the large number of ever-changing frames
available, a correct pattern is unavailable more often.
To solve the problem the laboratory personnel need to
either have a pattern maker and make those missing
patterns in house or use a frame tracer with a pattern-
less edger. A frame tracer is like a pattern maker, except
that a physical pattern in not produced. The tracer
makes a digitized version of the pattern.
A patterned edger requires a pattern to edge a lens. A
patternless edger uses a digitized version of a frame shape
to guide the edger. In either case, understanding lens
shapes, patterns, and frame tracers relies on knowledge
of the basic terminology and standards of frame and
lens measurement.

The Boxing System of Lens

Measurement
The boxing system of lens and frame measurement deter-
mines horizontal and vertical lens shape measure-
ments. The smallest possible box is drawn around the
lens shape that will enclose the lens completely. The
lens shape touches the top, bottom, left, and right sides
of the lens or lens shape as shown in Figure 3-2.

39
40 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-1 With new frames coming onto the market at a rapid pace, keeping patterns
in stock can be challenging. Maintaining a stock of patterns can be tedious and time-
consuming and requires physical space.

correct placement of the lens optical center for edging,

the A dimension must be known. Using a marked eyesize
different from the A dimension results in edging errors.
Geometrical or
boxing center A common but inaccurate method for measurement
of the eyesize of a frame is to measure the width of the
frame’s lens shape across the center of the lens shape.
In certain cases, such as with round or oval frames, this
measurement may be equal to the A dimension of the
frame. But often this measurement is less than the
frame’s A dimension. This measurement of lens width
at the center of the frame has its own name. It is called
the C dimension.1 The C dimension is defined in the
boxing system but is not used for lens fabrication
purposes.
FIGURE 3-2 The boxing system bases horizontal and
vertical frame shape sizes on the smallest rectangle that
completely encloses the shape. The center of that rectangle VERTICAL LENS SIZE
is the geometrical or boxing center.
The vertical size as determined by the box is called the
B dimension. Vertical lens size is needed for correct
placement of the optical center for certain types of
HORIZONTAL LENS SIZE
single vision lenses, bifocal or trifocal height for
The horizontal size as determined by the box is called
the A dimension (Figure 3-3) or the eyesize. Unfortunately 1The C dimension should not be confused with the C size of a lens
not all frames are marked with an eyesize equal to the shape. The C size is the distance around the outside of the lens shape,
A dimension. When calculations are done to determine similar to the circumference of a circle.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 41

Boxing DBL or
bridge size
A
Boxing or Lens size
geometrical Eyesize
center

Xº 180 – Xº
180º

180º
0º

0º
B
C

ED

(Same as DBC)

Distance between center (DBC)

or
Geometrical center distance (GCD)
or
Frame PD

FIGURE 3-3 In the boxing system, ED is the abbreviation for effective diameter. ED is
twice the longest radius of the shape as measured from the boxing (geometrical) center.
The angle from the 0-degree side of the 180-degree line to the effective diameter axis is X
for the right lens. The ED is used in accurate calculation of the minimum lens blank size and
lens thickness required to fabricate the prescription.

segmented multifocals, and fitting cross height for

progressive addition lenses.

HORIZONTAL MIDLINE
The horizontal line passing through the middle of the
boxed lens shape halfway between the top and the
bottom is known variously as the 180 line, the datum line,
or the horizontal midline.

BOXING CENTER
The center of the boxed lens is called the boxing center.
It is at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical
FIGURE 3-4 The geometrical (boxing) center of a pattern
midlines of the lens. An easier “on paper” way to find or lens is always at the center of the enclosing box, regard-
the boxing center is to draw corner-to-corner diagonals less of where pattern holes are drilled or MRPs are placed.
across the box (Figure 3-4). Another name for the
boxing center is the geometrical center of the edged lens.
is called the effective diameter and is abbreviated ED. The
ED is found by location of the longest distance from the
EFFECTIVE DIAMETER boxing center to the edge of the lens shape (Figure
Determining the boxing center of the lens shape makes 3-5, A). Next this line is extended an equal amount
it possible to find the smallest unedged round lens that in the opposite direction (doubled; Figure 3-5, B). In
could be edged successfully to this shape if the center of other words, the ED is twice the longest radius of the
that round lens were at the boxing center. This diameter lens shape as measured from the boxing center.
42 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

Eff
ec
tive
dia
(E me
Longest D) ter
radius

A B
Angle of the ED

al
iagon
st d
ge
lon ED
The he
n ot t
is

C D
FIGURE 3-5 A, To determine the effective diameter (ED) of a lens shape, the practitioner
should begin by finding the longest radius from the boxing center to the edge of the lens
shape. B, Next, that radius is doubled. This is the effective diameter. The ED corresponds
to the smallest lens that will completely cover the lens shape before any decentration has
occurred. C, A common way, but a wrong way, of measuring ED is to measure the longest
diagonal of the lens shape. D, The angle of the ED is referenced to the right lens and is
measured from the horizontal in a counterclockwise manner.

The ED is not the longest diagonal of the frame process. Knowing the angle of the ED enables the
shape (Figure 3-5, C). This is the most common wrong laboratory to grind the lens as thin as possible.2
method of measuring the ED and gives an answer that
may be close or at times even equal to the ED but is not
DISTANCE BETWEEN LENSES
really the ED. In some cases it can be considerably
different from the true effective diameter. This wrong Each frame has a measurable distance between lenses
method is commonly used because no easy way exists to (DBL). In the boxing system, the DBL is basically the
directly measure the ED on a real frame. shortest distance between those lenses. It can be visual-
ized as the distance between the two boxes when those
boxes are drawn around each lens in the pair (see
ANGLE OF THE EFFECTIVE DIAMETER Figure 3-3). The DBL also is called the bridge size. Like
As stated previously, when finding the effective diameter eyesize, the bridge size marked on the frame may not
for a given lens shape, the practitioner may draw a line correspond to the bridge size needed in the fabrication
from the boxing center to the point on the lens edge of a pair of lenses.
farthest from the boxing center. That line is extended The most common mistake made in measurement of
equally in the exact opposite direction. The ED line the DBL is to measure the distance between the edges
crosses the horizontal midline at an angle. That angle is of the lenses along the horizontal midline of the lens
measured using the right lens. The angle measurement (Figure 3-6).
begins from the right side of the horizontal midline of
the lens and is called the angle of the ED (Figure 3-5, D). 2For additional information see Brooks CW: Understanding lens
The angle of the ED is important during the surfacing surfacing, Boston, 1992, Butterworth-Heinemann.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 43

Yes

No

FIGURE 3-6 The distance between lenses is the shortest distance between right and left
lenses. It is not the distance between the two lenses along the horizontal midline of the lens.

DBL

FIGURE 3-7 When the A dimension and distance between lenses (DBL) are measured on
a frame that has a groove for the lens bevel, measurements are taken from the deepest part
of the groove.

Measuring the A Dimension and Distance interpupillary distance. A PD technically refers only to a
between Lenses on a Grooved Frame person’s pupils. Frames do not have pupils and cannot
When a practitioner measures the A dimension and really have PDs. Yet the term frame PD is used exten-
DBL of a normal frame with a groove to hold the sively to mean the GCD. Unfortunately, adding still
lenses in place, the starting and ending points are more to the confusion, this measurement has two other
where the beveled lens edges are located. If the groove names. These synonyms are the frame center distance and
is a deep groove in a plastic frame, then where does boxing center distance. So the GCD also can be called the
the measurement begin? It does not begin at the inside distance between centers, the frame PD, the frame center
edge of the plastic lens rim. It begins at the deepest part distance, and the boxing center distance.
of the groove (Figure 3-7). The distance between centers may be found by
adding the A dimension to the DBL (Figure 3-8). It also
may be found by directly measuring the frame as shown
GEOMETRICAL CENTER DISTANCE in Figure 3-9.
For a frame or pair of lenses, the distance between
the two boxing centers commonly is known as the geo-
MAJOR REFERENCE POINT, FITTING
metrical center distance, or GCD. It is called the geometrical
CROSS, AND SEGMENT HEIGHTS
center distance because the boxing center is also the
geometrical center of the edged lens. The standard vertical position for the major reference
The GCD has several other names. One of the most point (MRP) of a spectacle lens is on the horizontal
common is distance between centers, or DBC. A third name midline of the frame. However, the practitioner may
is the frame PD. PD is short for pupil distance or request that the MRP be placed at a different vertical
44 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

Also equals
DBC

A DBL A

A A
DBL
2 2

DBC
Frame PD

FIGURE 3-8 It can be seen from the figure that the distance between the two centers
(DBC) is the same as the A dimension (eyesize) plus the distance between lenses (DBL;
bridge size). Because the DBC cannot be directly measured, it may be measured as shown
in the upper right-hand corner of the figure.

Accurate
DBC

Inaccurate
boxing
measures

FIGURE 3-9 Measure each of the illustrated dimensions in the figure. Large variations
occur between the accurately and inaccurately measured distances.

location. This request is based on the vertical location measured from the level of the lowest point on the
of the wearer’s eyes with reference to the frame. When lens or the deepest position of the inside bevel of
a practitioner asks for a specific MRP height, that the frame’s eyewire.
height will be equal to the distance from the lowest
point on the lens (the bottom line of the box) up to the
desired location of the MRP (Figure 3-10, A). MRP
height is not the distance from the lens edge directly Pattern Measurements and
below the MRP to the desired location. This is also Terminology
shown in Figure 3-10, A, and is the most common
mistake made when measuring MRP height. Patterns allow an edger to duplicate the desired lens
The vertical position of the fitting cross of a pro- shape for a specific frame. Their shape and size are
gressive addition lens (Figure 3-10, B) or the top of a critical for the correct duplication of lens shapes.
segmented multifocal (Figure 3-10, C) is measured in Therefore to maintain accuracy, a standard method of
the same way as the MRP is measured. Both are measuring patterns is essential.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 45

A
Correct MRP reference height Incorrect MRP
(Varies with pantoscopic tilt)

B
Correct fitting cross reference height Incorrect fitting cross height

C
Correct bifocal reference height Incorrect bifocal height

FIGURE 3-10 Reference heights for the major reference point (MRP), progressive
addition lens fitting cross, and segmented multifocal height are from the lowest point on
the lens. Reference heights are not from the point on the lens directly below the pupil. A,
The MRP height, when specified, is first measured from the level of the lowest portion of
the lens up to the center of the pupil, as shown in B. Then 1 mm of height is subtracted
for each 2 degrees of pantoscopic tilt, as illustrated in A (up to a maximum of 5 mm).
(For more information on measuring MRP heights, see Brooks CW, Borish IM: System
for ophthlamic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 62–69.) B, The
fitting cross height for progressives is measured from the level of the lowest portion of the
lens up to the center of the pupil. It is not measured from the lower edge of the lens directly
below the pupil, as this may not be the lowest point on the lens edge. C, Bifocal heights
are measured from the level of the lowest portion of the lens up to the lower limbus. The
limbus is the place where the cornea ends and the white sclera of the eye begins. It is often
at the same location as the lower lid. Again, it is not measured from the lower edge of the
lens directly below the pupil.
46 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

(A)
Pattern size Frame difference

Set –15 5.5

180-degree cutting line B

Mechanical center Indication of nasal side

FIGURE 3-11 The same system of measurement as is used for frames and lenses is also
used for patterns. Patterns do not come with A and B dimensions marked. But they do have
a pattern set number to help in finding the correct edger setting. The “frame difference”
helps in positioning MRP and multifocal heights when the laboratory does not have the
frame.

and lens size measurements. The Box-o-Graph is shown

PATTERN SIZE in Figure 3-13. A Box-o-Graph helps to be certain that
To determine pattern size, a pattern must be positioned no rotation has occurred. It does not give enough
exactly in the same orientation as the frame shape accuracy to ensure first-cut sizing when edging but is
when the frame is held horizontally; in other words, the considerably more accurate than a ruler.
pattern may not be rotated at an angle. The pattern
shape then is enclosed in a box by four tangent lines
according to the same boxing system as used for frames
MEASURING FRAME DIFFERENCE
and lenses. The perpendicular lines used for boxing in The difference between the horizontal and vertical
a pattern must be perfectly horizontal and vertical, and dimensions of the pattern is the pattern difference.
each side of the box must touch the pattern, as shown Pattern difference has the same numerical value as
in Figure 3-11. As with frames and lenses, the pattern frame difference. As would be expected, the frame
size for the boxing system is the distance between the difference is the difference between frame A and B
two vertical sides of the box. It is not the width of the dimensions (Figure 3-14). Therefore the term frame
pattern along the center 180 line. Boxing pattern size difference is used synonymously with pattern difference.
corresponds to the frame eyesize or A dimension. The Expressed as a simple equation, this takes the
vertical dimension of the pattern is measured vertically following form:
between the top and bottom of the box and corresponds
A – B = Frame difference
to the B dimension of the frame. A or B dimensions
may not be measured with the ruler held at an angle. The frame difference number is often printed on the
Neither may a pattern be measured if it is in a rotated pattern (see Figure 3-11) and does not change, even when
position. the pattern is used to cut out lenses of different sizes.
The use of some sort of eyesize gauge may result
in pattern measurements (Figure 3-12, A) if the sides of
the measuring portions are high enough to enclose the
EFFECT OF EYESIZE CHANGES ON LENS
outermost portions on left and right sides. This same
SHAPE
gauge can be used to measure lenses (Figure 3-12, B) Presumably when eyesize increases or decreases for a
and other objects. Even with such a handheld gauge, given frame style, frame difference should change
the possibility of a slight rotation of the pattern occurs. proportionally. If the lens shape were to stay exactly the
Many practitioners choose to use a Box-o-Graph (Kosh same, eyesize changes would result in a proportional
Manufacturing Co., Ft. Lauderdale, Fla.) for pattern change in frame difference.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 47

B
FIGURE 3-12 A pattern or a lens may be measured with a caliper. This particular caliper
has a digital readout. To get the correct A dimension, the pattern or lens must have its 180
line parallel to the caliper bar. Turning the lens or pattern will change the measurement
obtained. A, The caliper is measuring a pattern. The 180-degree line corresponding to the
holes is (and should be) parallel to the caliper line. B, The A dimension of a lens is being
measured with a caliper.

However, because of the way an edger works, Example 3-1: The Way the System Works
each time the lens size is set higher by 1 millimeter, A particular pattern is rectangular and has an A
0.5 millimeter is added to the original pattern shape. dimension of 36.5 mm and a B dimension of 26.5 mm.
This 0.5 mm is added not just left and right in the This pattern is put on an edger. If the edger is set to cut
horizontal direction but in every direction (Figure a lens having an eyesize of 46.5, what will be the vertical
3-15). dimension of the edged lens?
48 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

50

Frame difference
of 10 40

50

FIGURE 3-13 A pattern may be measured on the Box-o-

Graph (Kosh Manufacturing Co., Ft. Lauderdale, Fla.) by Frame difference
30
of 20
placing it over the centrally marked circles to assure
horizontal and vertical alignment. The A dimension is the
sum of the farthest left and right measures. If only A and B
dimensions are needed (and not a check on the accuracy of
central hole placement, as shown here), the measurements
may be taken in the same manner as with lenses, placing the
pattern in the upper left-hand corner of the Box-o-Graph.
The pattern holes must nevertheless be perfectly horizontal. FIGURE 3-14 The difference between the horizontal and
vertical measurements of a frame is known as the frame
difference.
Solution
The newly cut lens will be 10 mm larger in the A
dimension than the pattern. Five millimeters have been
added to each side of the lens. Because 5 mm also will
be added above and 5 mm below the top and bottom
edges of the pattern size, the new B1 lens dimension will
be 10 mm larger than the pattern B dimension was.
The new B1 lens dimension will be 36.5 mm. Although
this may look more nearly proportional when the two
are superimposed as shown in Figure 3-16, the two
rectangles are not the same shape.
The phenomenon of nonproportionality occurs with FIGURE 3-15 In the figure, as the horizontal eye (A
use of a pattern that is not the same size as the lens to dimension) increases by 2 mm; the lens increases in size by
1 mm in every direction.
be edged. The difference is more obvious the larger the
difference between pattern size and actual edged lens
size. Therefore use of a pattern that is as close in size to Calculations Based on Frame Difference
the desired finished lens as possible is advantageous. Any group of frames capable of having lenses edged
For this reason some manufacturers provide different from one pattern will, regardless of eyesize, all have the
patterns for frames of different eyesize ranges in the same frame difference. (Frame difference is equal to A
same frame design. Others may furnish one size pattern – B.) The frame difference number should be marked
only, but they overcome the problem by manufacturing on the pattern. This marking is for the convenience of
frames that differ slightly in proportionality from size the operator during the multifocal lens layout process.
to size. In this manner any sized lens that is edged with To calculate segment drop or raise, the B dimension
the pattern provided by the manufacturer still fits any of the frame must be known. If the B dimension of
eyesize frame. the frame to be used is not known, it must be either
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 49

46.5 48

36.5 Frame
difference
= 4.5 mm
? mm

26.5 36.5
18 mm

FIGURE 3-17 If segment height, eyesize (A dimension),

and frame difference are known, segment drop (or raise)
may be found. This is also true in the location of the major
reference point or progressive lens fitting cross raise.
FIGURE 3-16 In this drawing the outer square is created
from the inner “pattern.” It is not the same shape even though
the “frame difference” remains at 10 mm. However, this is the
way shapes change when lens sizes increase or decrease using B
a lens pattern. To be the same shape, both dimensions of the Segment drop = Segment height –
2
rectangles would have to increase by equal proportions.
43.5
= 18 –
2
measured using the frame itself (if available) or calcu-
= –3.75 mm
lated using the pattern as a basis. The B dimension of a
lens is found by subtracting the frame difference So the segment drop will be about 4 mm below the
stamped on the pattern, from the lens eyesize. horizontal midline of the lens shape.
(If the frame difference had not been marked on the
Example 3-2 pattern, it could still have been found by measuring
A “lenses only” order must be completed for a frame both A and B pattern dimensions with a ruler, a
having an eyesize of 48. The frame is not available at the measuring gauge, or a Box-o-Graph.)
laboratory. Bifocal height has been specified as 18 mm
(Figure 3-17). The frame difference measurement
on the pattern is stamped 䊐4.5. (This means that the
MECHANICAL CENTER OF THE PATTERN
pattern is made for the boxing system and, according No matter how carefully a lens is marked, unless the
to that system, the difference of A – B is 4.5 mm.) How pattern is accurately made, the optical center of
much segment drop or raise is required? the edged lens will not end up where it should. For the
optical center to come out right, the mechanical center
Solution of the pattern must be placed correctly. The mechanical
Segment drop is the distance from the horizontal center of a pattern is the point on the pattern around
midline of the edged lens shape to the top of the bifo- which the pattern rotates. (Other names for the
cal line. To calculate segment drop, the B dimension of mechanical center are rotational center, cutting center, or
the lens must be known. The B dimension is calculated edging center.) The mechanical center is easy to find
as follows: because it is found in the middle of the large hole in
the pattern (see Figure 3-11). The large hole is used to
B = Eyesize – Frame difference
snap the pattern on the edger.
In this case frame difference will be as follows: The horizontal line that passes through the
mechanical center of the pattern is sometimes referred
B = 48 – 4.5
= 43.5 mm
to as the mounting line.3 When the mechanical center

The distance from the horizontal midline of the lens 3The mounting line of a pattern is not the same thing as the
shape to the bifocal line is a downward direction and mounting line of a frame. The mounting line for a rimless frame is
the line that passes through the points at which the pad arms are
is technically a negative number. Therefore it is attached. The frame’s mounting line serves as a line of reference for
calculated as follows: horizontal alignment during standard alignment of a frame.
50 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

and boxing center of a pattern are at the same location

on the pattern, then the pattern’s horizontal midline
and the pattern’s mounting line are also the same.

Positioning the Mechanical

Center in the Pattern
The mechanical center is positioned in the pattern in
the following two main ways: MRP

1. The pattern is made so that the boxing center and

mechanical center are at the same place on the
pattern. This is the most common pattern construc-
tion. Patterns supplied by the frame manufacturer
are made this way.
2. The pattern can be made so that the mechanical
FIGURE 3-18 The standard horizontal major reference
center (the large hole in the pattern) is moved
point (MRP) location of a single vision lens is on the
intentionally away from the boxing center of the lens horizontal midline. It should be in the same vertical plane as
shape. This usually happens if the pattern is made the wearer’s pupil.
for one specific person or one particular edging
situation and will never be used for anyone else.

the wearer’s eye is not, the position of the lens on the

WHEN THE MECHANICAL CENTER IS AT block was not correct. If the wearer’s eye is in the nasal
THE BOXING CENTER half of the frame’s lens opening, the prespotted lens
When a person wears a pair of glasses, the position of has to be moved away from the center of the block and
his or her eyes in relationship to the boxing center of toward the nose so that it will end up in front of the eye
the lens shape depends upon the distance between the (Figure 3-20).
person’s pupils compared with the size of the frame. If
the frame is large and the wearer’s PD is small, the eyes Centration and Decentration
are nasal to the boxing centers of the lens shape. No The process of moving a lens so that it will be in front
matter where the pupils are, the major reference point of the eye is called centration. To center the lens in front
of the lens should be in front of the pupil. of the eye, the lens must be moved away from a given
To be more exact, when the wearer is looking into reference point. When a lens is moved away from a
the distance, the pupil usually is slightly above the given point it is said to be decentered from that point. In
major reference point. In other words, the major refer- this case, the lens is moved away from or decentered from
ence point of the lens should be in the same vertical the location of the mechanical and boxing centers.
plane as the wearer’s pupil (Figure 3-18). If no Taking great care during this process is important
prescribed prism is in the prescription, the optical because the slightest error results in an inaccurate
center and MRP are exactly the same. finished product.

Centration Process
CALCULATION OF HORIZONTAL
In the edging process, a lens is first spotted to mark the
DECENTRATION WITH THE BOXING
MRP. The three dots on the lens are reference points to
SYSTEM
help position the lens in the frame.
The lens must be attached to a block for edging The first part of the centration process involves figuring
(Figure 3-19, A). The block holds the lens in place out exactly where the eye will be in relationship to the
while it is being edged. If the center dot (MRP) on the boxing center of the edged lens. If the boxing center
dotted lens is placed at the center of the lens block, and the eye are not in the same location, the lens will
after the lens is edged the MRP will correspond to the have to be decentered. The distance and direction of
boxing center of the edged lens (Figure 3-19, B). this decentration must be calculated to ensure that the
If MRP is at the boxing center of the edged lens, but lens optics will be positioned properly before the eye.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 51

Block center
and MRP

Nasal Nasal

Block center, MRP,

and boxing center

A B
FIGURE 3-19 A, A finishing lens block is attached to the lens so that it will be held
securely in place during edging. In this case, there is no decentration. The major reference
point (MRP) of the lens is right at the center of the lens block. B, When edged, the normal
position of the block is at the boxing center of the edged lens. In this instance no decentra-
tion occurred. The MRP is also at the boxing center. If the A + DBL of the frame equals the
wearer’s interpupillary distance (PD), the edged lens would be positioned correctly.

Block center

MRP

Nasal Nasal

Block center
and boxing center

A B
FIGURE 3-20 A, Here the lens has been decentered from the location of the block
center so that the major reference point (MRP) will be centered in front of the pupil. B,
Once the lens is edged, the MRP is located in the nasal half of the edged lens and should
correspond to the location of the pupil.

Two measurements are required in the calculation of openings. This is called the distance between centers
decentration. The first measurement is how far apart (DBC), or frame PD.
the person’s pupil centers are from each other. This
is called the binocular4 interpupillary distance (PD). Determinating the Distance between Centers
The second measurement is the distance between the For frames that conform to the boxing system of
geometrical (boxing) centers of the frame’s two lens measurement, the DBC is equal to the eyesize
(abbreviated A) plus the DBL. This is true because the
4Decentration may be based on how far the eyes are from one geometrical center is located halfway across each lens
another (the binocular PD), or the distance may be figured for each opening.
eye separately. The distance of each eye from the center of the bridge
measured separately is called the monocular PD. Monocular PDs will Because the A dimensions of right and left lenses are
be covered later. equal the following equation is used:
52 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

Right lens A dimension and

DBC = + DBL +
2
DBL = 17 mm
Left lens A dimension
2 then
=DBC = A + DBL DBC = 53 + 17
This concept was shown in Figure 3-8. = 70 mm
If the frame is available, the DBC can be measured The following equation is true:
on the frame. The practitioner starts at the most nasal
point on the right lens opening and measures on a DBC – PD
Decentration per lens =
straight horizontal to the vertical plane of the most 2
temporal point on the left lens opening. This was
shown in Figure 3-9. Because one of these two edge In this instance the following applies:
points may be higher or lower than the other, simply 70 – 64 6
measuring in the middle of the frame may not be = = 3 mm per lens
2 2
accurate.
(In the unusual case where the wearer’s PD was greater
than the DBC, a negative decentration would result
DECENTRATION PER LENS USING from the calculations. A negative number indicates that
BINOCULAR DISTANCE PDS decentration outward is required and the MRP of the
Most commonly the wearer’s PD will be less than the lens would be decentered temporally.)
frame PD (DBC). This requires that the lenses be
decentered inward (nasally) toward the center of the
REASONS THE MECHANICAL CENTER OF
frame. The amount of decentration per lens can be
THE PATTERN AND THE BOXING CENTER
determined by subtracting the wearer’s PD from the
MAY DIFFER
DBC (frame PD) and dividing by two.
As stated previously, pattern boxing and mechanical
DBC – Wearer PD
Decentration per lens = centers normally coincide so that the pattern hole is in
2
the middle of the pattern. The following list states the
Decentration (or decentration per lens) refers to the four main reasons why the pattern hole (mechanical
amount one lens is moved. Total decentration refers to center) may not be in the center of the pattern:
the sum of both left and right decentrations. Therefore
1. The pattern was intended to be made with the mech-
the following equation is used:
anical center at the boxing center, but it was made
Total decentration = DBC – Wearer PD incorrectly. The hole is simply not where it should be.
2. The pattern is of the old “raised center” type.
3. The pattern was made using some other system
Example 3-3
besides the boxing system.
The order form indicates that the wearer’s PD is
4. The pattern is made so decentration does not have
64 mm. The frame size is 53 䊐 17. In other words, the
to be calculated and is useful for one specific person
eyesize is 53 mm and the DBL 17 mm. The 䊐 symbol
and one specific frame. (This idea will be discussed
indicates that the dimensions are listed according to
later in this chapter.)
the boxing system. If the frame is known to conform to
boxing measure standards, what is the decentration per
lens required?
Pattern Making
Solution
To determine initially the difference between the DBC Because of the vast number of available frame styles,
and wearer’s PD, the practitioner must know the DBC. having a complete library of patterns so that the correct
By definition, the following is true: pattern is available for every frame presented for lens
fabrication is impossible. Ordering a pattern for every
DBC = A + DBL single frame that passes through the laboratory is
impractical. The delays caused would not be acceptable
Because
to the wearer, not to mention the volume of paperwork
A = 53 mm that would be generated. For this reason, when running
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 53

FIGURE 3-21 When a frame is centered on a pattern maker, the grid assists in alignment.

an edger that uses patterns, a system for making

patterns is a necessity.
Systems for pattern making vary in methodology and
cost, from a system that consists of a marking pen and
pair of shears, up to models having automatic tracing
systems. In spite of the variety of available products,
certain commonalities exist for all systems.

FRAME SETUP FOR PATTERN MAKING

To make a pattern, either the frame must be on hand
or, at the minimum, a labeled tracing from that frame.
To make a pattern directly from a frame, all pattern
makers require that the frame be positioned properly
for tracing. The more advanced type of a pattern maker
requires only that the frame be horizontally level. After
the frame is traced, the pattern maker digitally deter-
mines the boxing center and places the mechanical
FIGURE 3-22 When a frame’s lens opening is centered for
center of the pattern there.
pattern making according to the boxing system, the left
The more traditional pattern maker models require
extremity must be equal to the right; and the upper and
that one eye of the frame shape be centered carefully lower extremities must also be equal.
for tracing according to the boxing center. This is done
so that the mechanical center of the pattern will end up
corresponding to the boxing center of the lens shape. shape is precisely at the middle of the grid origin. This
The centering grid on a pattern maker may vary in is done, as in Figure 3-22, by making sure the outermost
its construction but basically consists of measured points to the left and right fall at the same distance
distances left, right, up, and down from an origin. This from the origin. The uppermost and lowermost points
central origin represents the position that the mechan- also must be the same distance from the origin.
ical (rotational) center of the pattern will occupy, as To actually carry out this procedure, the frame must
Figure 3-21 shows. The lens opening of the frame must be oriented initially with its frame front face down on a
then be centered so that the geometrical center of its centering grid. To ensure that the horizontal midline of
54 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-23 The horizontal bar on a pattern maker gives stability to the frame during
the tracing process while simultaneously keeping it level. If tilted, a correct axis is not
possible.

the pattern will correspond to the frame’s horizontal should file only as much as necessary to remove rough-
midline and not be tilted, the top of the frame is ness so that the basic shape or size is not changed.
pressed against a horizontal bar (Figure 3-23). This
horizontal bar slides up and down but does not tilt.
MAKING A PATTERN FROM A LENS
Tilting the frame causes an off-axis pattern, which
TRACING
makes it impossible to cut a cylinder lens for the correct
axis. When centering is achieved, the frame is clamped Occasionally a special order lists no frame name but
securely into place and is ready for tracing. only a handmade tracing of the lens that is presently
Tracing may be accomplished by rotation of the being worn in the frame. Such a request is difficult to
mounted frame on the pattern maker while a stylus fill properly. If the tracing is for a metal frame a bad fit
rests inside the frame groove. The stylus is linked is almost certain. With a plastic frame filling the request
mechanically to a cutting mechanism that uses a panto- is possible but difficult. Even for a plastic frame such a
graphic system to cut the pattern from a pattern blank. request cannot be filled adequately unless certain
The pattern blank is marked with an N, indicating the specifications are given. These are the following:
nasal side. This blank should be placed in the pattern
maker so that it indeed corresponds to the nasal side of • The size of the lens (The tracing is the same size
the frame when cut. as the lens. When a lens is traced, the tracing is
Most “homemade” patterns are cut precisely for the naturally larger than the lens, or if the frame eyewire
size of the frame. This prevents shape distortion caused were traced, it is smaller.)
by large differences in pattern and finished lens sizes, as • The distance between lenses (DBL) to allow
was described previously. Maintaining a one-to-one calculation for decentration
eyesize/pattern size ratio understandably may require • The 180-degree line (If the lens is traced in an even
the use of larger pattern blanks for certain frames. slightly rotated position, the cylinder axis will be
(Pattern blanks are shown in Figure 3-24.) Once the incorrect.)
pattern is cut, it may require some smoothing of the
edges, depending on the sophistication of the cutting Using a Similar Pattern
mechanism. When smoothing is necessary, it may be One possibility for filling such a request is to find a
accomplished with a medium-fine file. The practitioner pattern that most closely approximates the shape and
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 55

FIGURE 3-24 Pattern blanks come in a variety of shapes and sizes. When cutting
patterns on a 1-to-1 ratio, the blank must be large enough to completely cover the frame’s
lens opening.

will not cut any corners from the required shape. If the
pattern is an extra or will be unneeded in the future, it
may be reshaped to match the tracing. If not, the lens
is edged using the pattern that is close in shape to the
drawing, then both edged lenses are reshaped by hand
until correct. Each lens is held up to the tracing for
comparison.

Making a Pattern to Match

Another method is first to mark carefully the horizontal
midline on the tracing. Next a vertical line is drawn
through the boxing center. Some pattern blanks
already are marked with horizontal and vertical lines as
was seen in Figure 3-24.
The tracing is cut out and placed on the pattern
blank so that horizontal and vertical markings align,
then it is traced with a marking pen. The marked shape
is cut from the blank in the manner shown in Figure
3-25 and then smoothed on the edges as shown in FIGURE 3-25 If a pattern is being cut by hand, curved
Figure 3-26. Such a pattern should be checked for cutting shears help to cut around corners.
56 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

center displacement to ensure accuracy of the PD and Recommended Laboratory Requirements for a
segment height. A method of checking for unwanted By-Hand Lens Tracing
pattern center displacement is described later in the If a dispenser sends in a drawing of a wearer’s lens
chapter in the section Checking for Pattern Errors. traced around the actual lens, then the laboratory
has a better chance of success by requesting the
following:

• The A and B dimensions of the lens measured on the

lens and not on the drawing
• The DBL, also measured using the frame
• A 180-degree line marked on the drawing
• An indication of the type of frame being used. Is the
frame metal, plastic, grooved, other?
• An indication of whether the lens is a left or a right
lens
• Preferably a circumference measure of the distance
around the edged lens

The circumference of a lens is a much more sensitive

measure of size than an A dimension. Lens circum-
ference is sometimes called C-size. C-size is measured
most easily with a circumference gauge (Figure 3-27). If
both the dispenser and the laboratory use a circum-
ference gauge, then size errors will be reduced. For
those dispensers who send drawings of lenses, using
millimeter graph paper will help considerably. A grid,
with a form as shown in Figure 3-28, may be helpful to
FIGURE 3-26 Smoothing pattern roughness with a file ensure all information is present.
gives better size and shape. This is true not only for hand-cut For an electronically equipped laboratory, a much
patterns but also for some patterns made by a pattern cutter. better alternative to lens drawings being sent is to have

FIGURE 3-27 To measure the circumference of a lens, the lens is placed in the gauge
front side up. The tape is closed around the lens and the circumference is read directly from
the tape. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 57

Frame Name ______________________________________

Frame Manufacturer ________________________________
Men’s/Women’s (circle one)

A = ___________ Measured DBL _____________

(or measured frame PD ______________)
B = ___________

Len circumference = ______________

Frame Material (check one)

Plastic ____________ Metal ___________
Rimless ___________ (Grooved? Y/N)
Other ___________

Lens traced is a (right/left) lens (circle one)

It is customary to trace the right lens

Right cylinder axis = _______________ Measured pattern A dimension = ________________

Left cylinder axis = ________________ (Ordered lens size) – (pattern size) = _____________
Right monocular PD = _____________ Calculated edger setting size = _________________
Left monocular PD = ______________

FIGURE 3-28 An example of one type of form that may be used to trace a lens of
unknown shape for a “lenses only” order. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.)

the dispenser use a remote site frame tracer. This A pattern blank is mounted on a special “lens” block,
option prevents many potential problems and saves placed in the grinding chamber of the edger, and
time. It is explained with the discussion of frame tracers edged as if it were a lens.
found later in this chapter. The head pressure of the edger must be set at its
lightest so as not to chip a lens or bend or break a
coquille being used as a pattern.
EDGERS THAT MAKE PATTERNS
One type of frame for which traditional pattern makers
are usually not capable of making a pattern is a rimless
frame. Examples of frames without eyewires include Consequences of Using a
rimless, semirimless, and nylon cord frames. A rimless Noncentered Pattern
frame does not have an eyewire that may be traced.
However, if a frame tracer is available, then most tracers Any calculations for decentering a lens are made on the
can be adapted to trace an old lens or the sample lens assumption that the mechanical center of the pattern is
that comes with the new frame. at the boxing center of the pattern shape. So if the
If a frame tracer that also can trace lenses is not center of the pattern is off horizontally, the finished PD
available, some edgers are capable of making a pattern. in the glasses will be off and will not match the wearer’s
To make a pattern with an edger, first the right lens is PD. This can cause unwanted prismatic effect and
spotted with the lensmeter while it is still in the frame. difficulty in comfortably wearing the prescription.
This preserves the correct horizontal “180-line” In the same way, when the mechanical center of a
orientation after the lens is out of the frame. Next, the pattern is above its geometrical or boxing center, the
coquille or old lens is centered on a grid to find the MRP of the edged lens will be above its boxing center.
boxing center. Using an adapter kit, the lens is clamped If the pattern is off, the difference must either be
and then mounted on the edger as if it were a pattern. compensated for, or the pattern should not be used.
58 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

USING A NONCENTERED PATTERN is centered 3 mm above the horizontal midline. Conse-

Note: Some readers may wish to skip this section on non- quently, instead of having bifocals placed at 18 mm, the
centered patterns and return to it after familiarizing them- top of the bifocal line is at 21 mm.
selves with the centration of lenses presented in Chapters 4
through 6. Compensating for Vertically Displaced Pattern
Centers
Mechanical Center Compensation for either MRP positioning or multi-
If the pattern’s mechanical center is 3 mm above its focal height must be made at the time of lens centra-
boxing center, then the MRP of the edged lens will be tion and blocking. Once the lens is blocked, no more
3 mm above the boxing center. Normally both lenses compensation is possible.
will be edged using the same pattern. Because both To compensate, the practitioner needs to know how
MRPs are high by the same amount, for most low- much higher or lower the pattern’s mechanical center
powered prescriptions this will not make much is than it should be. In other words, the distance
difference. Because both MRPs are elevated to the same between the pattern boxing and mechanical centers
level, no unwanted vertical prism will occur. Problems must be known. The following four steps may be used
can occur if the MRP is specified, if the lenses are to calculate this distance:
multifocals, or if just one lens is being edged.
1. The pattern’s B dimension is measured and divided
by 2.
Problems Resulting from the Replacement of
2. The vertical height of the pattern’s mechanical
Just One Lens
center is measured. This is the distance from the
Having both lenses edged with a pattern in which the
lowest part of the pattern (bottom of the enclosing
mechanical center is too high may result in future
rectangle) to the mounting line crossing the pattern
problems. For example, the wearer may return for an
hole.
eye examination and needs only one lens replaced, or
3. The result in step 1 is subtracted from the result in
someone comes in with one lens badly scratched and
step 2. This gives the difference between geometrical
needs a replacement. If the person who replaces the
and mechanical centers in millimeters.
lens does not have the original pattern, a new one will
4. If the mechanical center is high, the MRP or
be made according to standard centering methods.
segment height is lowered by the amount found in
Unless a careful check is made, the replacement
step 3.
lens will be made with the MRP at the normal position.
Now a difference exists in vertical height between To summarize, if a pattern is made with the
left and right MRPs. This induces an unwanted central hole too high, the whole lens will be positioned
vertical prismatic effect, which makes the prescription higher in the frame than it should be. To compensate
unacceptable. the lens is lowered during layout. If the central hole
This is why the MRP height of the nonreplaced lens is too low, the practitioner must raise the lens to
always should be measured during the replacement compensate.
process. By always checking vertical MRP height, the
practitioner prevents any potential problem. If a Example 3-4
difference does exist, the MRP of the new lens may be During layout the pattern is checked. The central hole
placed at the appropriate matching height. is found to be 3 mm above the boxing center. Pertinent
If this careful check is not done and only the infor- prescription data are as follows:
mation given on the order is used, a discrepancy will
exist in the vertical heights of the two lenses. Segment height = 20 mm
Segment style = Flat top 28
Immediate Multifocal Difficulties Frame B = 42 mm
When a pattern with the mechanical center vertically
What is the correct amount of segment raise or drop
displaced is used to edge multifocals, failure to
and how would the correctly positioned lens appear
compensate can be disastrous. For instance, a pattern
before marking?
has a central hole (mechanical center) that is 3 mm
higher than the boxing center. For bifocals whose
desired height is specified as 18 mm, all calculations for Solution
segment drop are made on the assumption that this First the practitioner calculates the segment raise or
drop is occurring from the horizontal midline passing drop in the conventional manner and then compensates
through the boxing center. Yet the blocked lens actually for the pattern.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 59

B hole (mechanical center). Unfortunately, the amount

Segment raise or drop = Height –
2 of lateral displacement that occurs in the pattern will
42 produce double the amount of error in the resulting
= 20 –
2 PD. This occurs because the two lenses will be displaced
= 20 – 21 in opposite directions. However, if the error is dis-
= –1 (a minus direction covered before the lenses are blocked, an appropriate
denoting segment drop) compensation may be made. This compensation is
carried out in the same manner as in compensation for
Without compensation the segment would be a vertically displaced pattern center.
dropped 1 mm. However, because of the pattern the
segment ends up being raised an additional 3 mm. Checking for Pattern Errors
Therefore the segment must be decentered 3 mm lower To make any kind of compensation for central pattern
than it otherwise would be during layout. (A downward hole displacement, the practitioner must first deter-
direction is minus. So this means an additional –3 mm mine if a displacement has occurred. If a displacement
of vertical segment decentration is required.) has occurred, it is next determined how much that
error is.
Segment drop = –1 + –3
A simple system can even be made from a piece of
= –4
centimeter/millimeter graph paper. A cross is drawn
Thus the segment is positioned 4 mm below the on the paper on the centimeter lines. Numbers may be
horizontal reference line and is ready for marking, as added for ease of reference. Next a pattern is placed on
shown in Figure 3-29. the paper so that the central hole is in the middle of the
cross. The other pattern holes should be lined up on
Compensating for Horizontally Displaced the horizontal part of the cross (Figure 3-30). A pen or
Pattern Centers pencil is used to trace the circles on the paper. These
Despite careful setup for cutting patterns, errors can circles must not be displaced and should be checked to
occur that cause a displacement of the pattern’s central ensure that they are absolutely centered.

10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 3-29 For patterns with a vertically displaced mechanical center, compensation
in centration must occur. In the example shown, a segment drop of –1 mm is calculated,
but the pattern’s mechanical center is 3 mm above its boxing center. Therefore a –4 mm
drop is required to achieve the expected segment height.
60 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-30 A grid to check pattern size and central hole placement can be ordinary
millimeter graph paper.

To check a homemade pattern, the pattern is placed the two measures divided by two is the amount the
on the completed sheet so that the holes in the pattern central hole is off and equals the needed compensa-
line up exactly with the drawn circles on the page. The tion. Expressed as a formula this would be written as
outerside edges of the pattern in each direction should follows:
be noted. For the pattern to pass as acceptable, top and
Top – Bottom
bottom numbers must be identical. The numbers in the = Vertical compensation required
2
horizontal meridian to the far left and right also must
match each other. If the results are positive the lens must be raised to
As may be remembered from an earlier section in compensate for the pattern error; if negative, lowered.
this chapter, a homemade graph paper system is not the The same system applies to finding any needed
only available method for checking of pattern accuracy. horizontal compensation.
A better system that uses identical methods is available
Temporal – Nasal
on a Box-o-Graph. The Box-o-Graph was seen in Figure = Horizontal compensation
2
3-13. The figure shows how to check a pattern for
accuracy. Suppose the pattern is oriented as if it were a right lens.
If the result is a positive number the mechanical center is
Determining Direction and Amount of Error displaced too far nasalward. This requires that the lens
Once an error has been discovered, the amount of be decentered outward. However, if a negative number
error and its direction must be determined. The easiest results, the mechanical center is too far temporalward.
way to determine a horizontal error is to center the This requires that the lens be decentered inward. Box
pattern’s central hole on a grid. 3-1 provides a summary of compensation procedures,
In the vertical dimension, the distance above the and Box 3-2 summarizes compensation direction.
central hole, plus the distance below the central hole is
equal to the B dimension of the pattern. If the pattern Example 3-5
is correct, the distances from the central hole to the top The pattern shown in Figure 3-31 is in error both
and to the bottom will be equal. The distance to the top vertically and horizontally. If this pattern is going to be
minus the distance to the bottom should equal zero. If used, what compensations would be necessary to ensure
these distances are not equal, the difference between the accuracy of segment height and PD?
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 61

Solution
BOX 3-1
Horizontal and vertical components are considered
Determining the Amount of Compensation separately. To determine the vertical displacement of
for Pattern Center Displacement the mechanical center, the practitioner must note that
it is 21 mm to the top of the pattern and 23 mm to the
Vertical Pattern Dimension bottom. The hole is too high in the pattern. To figure
1. The pattern is placed on grid or Box-o-Graph and the how much the MRP or segment height must be
pattern’s central hole is centered. lowered, the following equation is used:
2. The grid is used to measure first the distance from
the horizontal line to the highest part of the pattern Top – Bottom
= Vertical compensation required
and then the distance from the horizontal line to the 2
lowest part of the pattern.
3. The difference is taken between these two numbers
which in this case is as follows:
and divided by 2. This is the amount of 21 – 23
compensation needed. = –1
2
4. If the top is the largest measure, the compensating
decentration must be upward. If the bottom is the This means that the lens MRP or segment height must
largest measure, the compensation must be downward. be lowered 1 mm more than otherwise calculated.
For horizontal compensation, the temporal
Horizontal Pattern Dimension measurement is 25.5 mm and the nasal 26.5 mm.
1. The pattern is placed on the grid or Box-o-Graph and Therefore to find how far the pattern is off and how
the pattern’s central hole is centered.
much compensation must be made for each lens, the
2. The grid is used to measure first the distance from
following equation may be used:
the vertical line to the most temporal part of the
pattern and then the distance from the vertical line 25.5 – 26.5
to the most nasal part of the pattern. = –0.5 mm
2
3. The difference is taken between these two numbers
and divided by 2. This is the amount of This means that the MRP must be decentered in by
compensation needed. 0.5 mm. This is in addition to the amount of decen-
4. If the temporal side is the largest measure, the tration normally required.
compensating decentration must be outward or
temporally. If the nasal side is the largest measure,
the compensation must be inward or nasally.

BOX 3-2
Pattern Center Displacement Compensation

IF THE LONGEST VERTICAL DISTANCE THEN THE DIRECTION OF DECENTRATION NOTE THAT THE CENTRAL PATTERN
FROM THE CENTRAL PATTERN HOLE TO COMPENSATE FOR THE ERROR MUST HOLE IS DISPLACED…
TO THE EDGE OF THE PATTERN IS… ALSO BE…

Downward Downward (Lower the MRP or Upward

segment height.)
Upward Upward (Raise the MRP or segment Downward
height.)

IF THE LONGEST HORIZONTAL THEN THE DIRECTION OF DECENTRATION NOTE THAT THE CENTRAL PATTERN
DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRAL TO COMPENSATE FOR THE ERROR MUST HOLE IS DISPLACED…
PATTERN HOLE TO THE EDGE OF ALSO BE…
THE PATTERN IS…

Nasalward Nasalward (The lens must be decentered Temporally

inward more.)
Temporalward Temporalward (The lens must be Nasally
decentered inward less.)
62 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

calculation for decentration.5 If this type of pattern is

25.5 26.5
used for anyone other than this particular wearer, the
lenses will come out incorrectly. (Note: If a frame has an
especially small eyesize, decentering the pattern may
displace the block too far nasally and cause it to strike
21 the edger wheel.)
Pattern makers serving as frame tracers should have
the capability of tracing a lens for rimless, semirimless,
and nylon cord frames.

23
N
Placing the Pattern on the
Edger
By convention most people begin the edging process
with the right eye. When the pattern is snapped into
FIGURE 3-31 Were this pattern to be used for a placed on the edger, it will fit on the edger with either
multifocal prescription, the distance and near interpupillary the front or the back of the pattern going on first.
distances (PDs) would both be 1 mm too wide. The segment Going on one way will edge a right lens shape, whereas
height would also be a millimeter higher than anticipated. the other way will produce a left lens shape.
For most edgers, if the pattern is right-side up and
has the nasal edge pointing toward the practitioner, the
edger will cut a right lens shape. However, this is not
Pattern Makers that Can Find always true. Therefore looking at the way the lens is
the Center and Decenter positioned in the edger first is important, and the
pattern is placed accordingly. For example, if the
Pattern makers are similar to the frame tracers used convex side of the upright lens faces left, then a right
with patternless edgers. (Frame tracers will be discussed lens will require that the nasal side of the upright
shortly.) Much of frame tracing technology is based on pattern be nearest the operator (Figure 3-34). If the
principles used in previously existing pattern-making convex side faces right, however, the pattern must be
systems. Pattern makers can have some of the same positioned in the opposite direction.
smart features that frame tracers have. In fact, some The pattern orientation for the left lens is exactly
pattern makers also double as frame tracers. These opposite from what it was for the right.
pattern makers may be hooked to a patternless edger
and serve as a tracer or be used by themselves as a
pattern maker.
A smart pattern maker can find the boxing center of Using a Frame Tracer for
the lens shape (Figure 3-32, A). If a pattern maker is Patternless Systems of Edging
able to determine the boxing center of a lens shape, it
can just as easily determine the decentered point on Patternless edgers that do not use a physical pattern still
the lens shape where the wearer’s eye will be need a shape to go by. This shape is given to the edger
positioned. All that is needed is an A, a DBL, and the in digital form. Still, in order to get a digital version of
wearer’s PD (see Figure 3-32, A). The A may be the shape, that shape must sooner or later be physically
determined from the scan. So can the DBL if both traced and transferred to the edger digitally.
lenses are scanned. (If only one lens is scanned, the The most common method for generating a pattern
DBL is entered manually.) The wearer’s PD is, of shape is by using a frame tracer. A frame tracer is an
course, entered manually (Figure 3-32, B). apparatus that traces the shape of the frame’s lens area
In choosing the decentered pattern option, the and converts it into digital form.
resulting pattern will be made with the central hole
displaced by the needed decentration (Figure 3-33). If 5Incidentally, this also allows high plus aspheric lenticular lenses to be

the pattern is made this way, the spotted lens does not blocked on the optical center, where the block has better adherence,
instead of on the side of the aperture portion of the lens. It also holds
have to be decentered. The lens block may be placed at the lens at a better angle in the edger when the lens is edged so that
the spotted major reference point of the lens without the bevel will not “drop off” the side of the lens.
 A

B
FIGURE 3-32 A, When the pattern maker can determine the boxing center of the lens,
it is no longer necessary to tediously search for the boxing center as was shown in Figures
3-22 and 3-23. The frame must simply be straight. If it is tilted, the lens shape will be tilted
and the cylinder axis will be incorrect. B, The wearer’s interpupillary distance (PD) is being
set for the pattern maker. When the PD is used instead of A + DBL the pattern will be
decentered. If this is done, no decentration is required during layout. (This type of
decentered pattern works well with lenticular lenses. The pad adheres better when in the
center of the highly curved lenticular portion of the lens.) DBL, Distance between lenses.
64 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

are also present with pattern makers. However, with a

pattern maker, the physical pattern shape is immediately
visible and it is easier to detect a potential problem ahead
of time. Following are some of the potential pitfalls:
• Frame tracers tell it like they trace it. A plastic frame
may not retain the same shape it had with the
demonstration lenses in place. If it flexes to a
different shape, the tracer will trace the shape the
frame has at that moment, not the shape it may have
A been designed with originally.
• Frame tracers may change the shape of the eyewire
as they trace. If a frame has an especially thin plastic
or metal eyewire, the tracer pin may exert enough
outward force on the frame groove to cause the
eyewire to give slightly. The tracer records this
distortion as part of the intended lens shape.
• When a frame is traced from a remote site on one
lens only, the new lens may not exactly match the old
lens.
• Some frames have such narrow B dimensions that
certain frame tracers are not able to trace the frame
at all.

Tracing Both Eyes

B
Frame tracers usually trace both right and left sides of a
FIGURE 3-33 If a pattern is made in the standard way, frame. Some trace it with a single stylus doing first the
the mechanical center is at the boxing center as shown in A. right, then the left eye. (The stylus is the small pin that
If the pattern is custom made to avoid decentering the lens, rides in the groove of the frame.) Other tracers, to
it may appear more as shown in B. increase speed, trace both eyes simultaneously.
The following list includes several reasons that both
eyes are traced:
ADVANTAGES OR DISADVANTAGES OF A
FRAME TRACER • The two sides of the frame may have slightly
different sizes. Usually the lens is made for the larger
At first it would appear that a frame tracer is really no
eye so that the lens is not inadvertently small.
different from a pattern maker. It does everything that
• If the tracer picks up a difference in shape between
a pattern maker does, except for making a physical
the two eyes, the differences may be averaged for
pattern. However, frame tracers are more than just
consistency.
digital pattern makers. Although not all frame tracers
• By tracing both lenses the tracer is determining the
can do all of these extra functions, following are some of
size and shape of the lens and measuring the
the things that frame tracers may be capable of doing:
distance between lenses. Thus the tracer is capable
• Trace both right and left lenses to determine size of determining A, B, ED, angle of the ED, and DBL.
and shape consistency • In knowing all of the lens and bridge size measure-
• Trace the frame shape in three, instead of two, ments, with only the addition of the wearer’s PD, the
dimensions tracer has furnished all the data to automatically
• Work together with an edger to demonstrate what calculate lens decentration. This can be used to
the placement of the bevel will look like ahead of simplify further lens layout.
time at any given point on the lens edge
• Trace a shape from an old lens or a coquille
Tracing the Frame Shape in Three Dimensions
• Transfer data to a surfacing laboratory to help
The type of pattern used in the optical laboratory is a
determine how thin a lens may be surfaced
flat piece of plastic. It tells exactly what the shape of the
In spite of the many things frame tracers can do well, frame’s eyewire looks like in two dimensions: up and
certain pitfalls with frame tracers exist. These pitfalls down (the y axis) and left and right (the x axis), as it
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 65

Nasal side
of lens

matches

Nasal side
of pattern

FIGURE 3-34 A pattern should be placed on the edger so that the nasal side of the
pattern matches the nasal side of the lens to be edged.

would appear drawn on a piece of paper. A lens is not

flat. It is arched as the result of a front surface that is
usually convex and a concave back surface. Frame
manufacturers make their frames to fit the average
lens. This adds the third “in and out,” or z-axis,
dimension. The frame front is not just flat. The
eyewires are curved to accept the curve of the lens.
Unfortunately, because lenses come in a wide variety
of lens powers, not all lenses are curved the same
(Figure 3-35). When the curve of the lens does not
match the curve of the frame, either the frame has to
be reshaped or the bevel on the lens must be custom
cut (Figure 3-36).
When a tracer traces the frame, the stylus does not
move in a flat plane as it travels around the groove. If FIGURE 3-35 Because not all lenses are curved the same,
the frame is arched, the stylus moves up and down to a lens bevel that follows the front surface of a minus lens will
keep from slipping out of the groove. Some tracers do not fit into a frame in the same way that the bevel on a plus
not record up-and-down movement but instead report lens will.
66 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-36 When the curve of the lens does not match the curve of the frame, either
the frame has to be reshaped or the bevel on the lens must be custom cut.

FIGURE 3-37 Before tracing a wearer’s old lens or the demo lens in a new frame, the
180-degree line must be spotted on the lens. Otherwise, after the lens is out of the frame,
the practitioner will have no way of knowing whether it is tilted improperly. An improperly
tilted lens results in cylinder off axis once the prescription lens is made and mounted in the
frame.

the flat shape of the eyewire. These are called 2-axis in three dimensions helps get a tighter, more con-
frame tracers. Others record and use the third axis move- sistent lens fit and prevents possible gaps at outside
ment. These are called 3-axis frame tracers. If the edger corners.
is unable to use the third (z) axis information, the
3-axis tracer loses its advantage. Tracing a Shape from a Pattern, an Old Lens, or
Recording the third dimension permits the follow- a Coquille
ing two things: When a frame is rimless or of nylon cord, no rim exists
to guide the stylus. A frame tracer may be adapted so
1. If the tracer or edger has a screen, it allows the that the stylus will trace the outer shape of an old lens
operator to view what the bevel will look like in the or coquille.
frame. Some edgers even make suggestions as to how To trace a lens from the old prescription, or to trace
the bevel should be positioned as it tracks around a dummy lens from a new frame, the frame is placed in
the shape to make the glasses look the best. a lensmeter. The lens is spotted with three dots along
2. It decreases the possibility of making a shape the 180-degree line (Figure 3-37). These three dots are
error on frames with a lot of face form. Measuring necessary to be certain that the shape of the lens will
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 67

Adjacent to the Edger

When a tracer is situated right next to the edger, the
person doing the edging has the frame in front of them
(Figure 3-41). The advantage to this set up is ease in
visualizing what bevel placement will look best. This
works best if the tracer is interactive with the edger. If
the tracer is not interactive, it simply feeds the shape
into the edger. Any further adjustments are dependent
upon the edger’s stand-alone capabilities. Feeding
information to more than one edger from the same
tracer still may be possible.

Part of the Edger

A tracer that is part of the edger has the advantage
of requiring less working space (Figure 3-42). When
laboratory space is limited, this may be very helpful.
The amount of interactivity and capabilities of the com-
bination of tracer and edger depends solely upon the
number of functions built into the system. It can be very
basic or quite advanced. The disadvantage is that such
FIGURE 3-38 The lens is mounted on a lens block in an a tracing system is possible to use only with that one
adapter. The tracer needs to know if the lens being traced is edger.
a right or a left lens.
In the Order Entry Area of a Laboratory
When the tracer is placed in the order entry area of
not be rotated off axis, causing the cylinder axis to be the laboratory, information is entered only once. The
wrong. Once the lens is spotted, it is blocked on an laboratory that has a tracer at “order entry” will be wired
adhesive padded block that has been placed in an with a central laboratory computer. That computer tracks
adapter in preparation for tracing (Figure 3-38). The the job and is capable of downloading needed informa-
lens and adapter is placed in the tracer (Figure 3-39) tion into any piece of surfacing or edging equipment
and traced. that is hooked into the system when the tray number of
Most patternless edgers cannot directly use a pattern. the job is keyed in. The information on shape and eye
Therefore being able to trace an existing pattern and bridge sizes are used to calculate lens thickness for
becomes an important frame tracer feature. The same surfacing and decentration for edging.
mechanism used to trace lens shape from an existing
lens is also used to trace a lens pattern (Figure 3-40). Placing a Tracer in a Remote-Site Dispensary
One of the biggest headaches for dispensers is the
Transferring Data to a Surfacing Laboratory situation in which a wearer wants to keep his or her old
For the surfacing laboratory to grind a lens to the frame but cannot or will not give it up long enough to
optimum thickness, the laboratory needs accurate data. send it to the laboratory. This is especially troublesome
This is especially true for plus lenses. The size and if the frame is a metal frame and/or a frame that cannot
shape the lens will have when edged are essential for be identified. If a frame tracer is on site, the dispenser
calculating plus lens thickness. The more exact the data, can remove one or both lenses, trace the shape, re-
the more precisely the thickness may be controlled. If insert the lens or lenses, and give the spectacles back to
the lens is traced, those tracing values may be sent to the wearer (Figure 3-43).
more places than just the edger. Values can be sent to a The information is then sent to the laboratory
surfacing program that calculates lens curves and electronically. It enters the computer system just as if it
thickness then controls the lens generator. had been entered in the laboratory order entry area.
Once the lenses are completed, just the lenses are
sent to the dispensary. There, with the wearer present,
USING A FRAME TRACER IN A VARIETY OF
the dispenser removes the old lenses from the wearer’s
LOCATIONS
frame and replaces them with the new ones.
A frame tracer can be used in a variety of locations and Such a system is capable of speeding up the process
situations. Each has certain advantages and disadvantages. for all prescriptions. Because most dispensaries acquire
68 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-39 The lens and adapter are placed in the frame tracer, and the lens shape is
traced.

frames directly from frame manufacturers and start on the prescription before the new frame arrives.
distributors, they will be using the frame selected from To save time, dispensary personnel may choose to not
the display board. In a dispensary without an in-house send the new frame but insert the lenses themselves.
optical laboratory, the frame must be sent to the The disadvantages of a frame tracer are also present
laboratory, fabricated, and sent back. In cases in which in a remote setting. The frame may be distorted before
the shape of the frame is unknown, the laboratory will tracing, or flex during tracing and not retain the same
be reluctant to start the job until all information is shape it had with the old lens or demonstration lens in
present. When the dispensary uses a frame tracer to place. This can be a problem when ordering either one
send that information, the laboratory can get a head or both lenses.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 69

FIGURE 3-40 Most patternless edgers cannot use patterns. When a frame is not
available, but a pattern is, the pattern can be mounted on an adapter. It is the placed in
the frame tracer and traced for shape.

FIGURE 3-41 A tracer is next to the edger. It is linked electronically to the edger and has
a screen to allow the traced shape to be viewed before edging.
70 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

FIGURE 3-42 Both a frame tracer and a layout blocker can be integrated into the edger
and save space in the laboratory.

FIGURE 3-43 A frame tracer may be used at a remote, off-site location. This ensures that
the frame dimensions as read at the dispensary are exactly what will be input into the
edger.
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 71

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. According to the boxing system, which of the 4. To measure the DBL on a metal or plastic grooved
following is the measurement for the horizontal frame made to hold beveled lenses in place,
size of the edged lens? measurements are made in which of the following
ways?
a. ED
b. GCD a. From the deepest part of the groove on one nasal
c. A dimension eyewire to the deepest part of the other nasal
d. B dimension eyewire on the horizontal midline of the frame
e. C dimension b. From the two nasal-most edges of the eyewire
rims along the horizontal midline of the frame
2. Which of the following describes the effective c. From the deepest part of the groove on one
diameter of a lens shape? nasal eyewire to the deepest part of the other
nasal eyewire at the location where the distance
a. The longest horizontal dimension of a lens between those lenses is smallest
shape that passes through the boxing center d. From the two nasalmost edges of the eyewire
b. The longest vertical dimension of a lens shape rims at the place where the distance between
that passes through the boxing center those lenses is smallest
c. The longest diagonal of the lens shape that
passes through the boxing center 5. Which of the following is not a synonym for
d. Twice the longest radius of a lens shape as geometrical center distance?
measured from the boxing center
e. The smallest lens size that will be possible to a. Distance between centers
use after allowing for lens decentration b. Frame PD
c. Frame center distance
3. The angle of the effective diameter is measured as d. Boxing center distance
which of the following? e. All the above are synonyms.

a. The angle from the 90-degree line to the 6. When using a metal or plastic frame, the
effective diameter line, measured clockwise for practitioner makes the correct measures for MRP
the right eye height, segment height, and fitting cross height
b. The angle from the 90-degree line to the beginning at which of the following?
effective diameter line, measured
counterclockwise for the left eye a. The point on the inside of the eyewire groove
c. The angle from the 180-degree line to the directly below the center of the pupil
effective diameter line, measured clockwise for b. The level of the lowest point on the inside of
the right eye the eyewire groove. This will not necessarily be
d. The angle from the 180-degree line to the at the same level as the point on the eyewire
effective diameter line, measured groove directly below the pupil
counterclockwise for the right eye
e. The angle from the 180-degree line to the 7. True or False? Horizontal pattern size is measured
effective diameter line, measured horizontally through the central hole in the
counterclockwise for the left eye pattern.

8. If a pattern is made for use with the boxing

system, at which of the following will it have its
central hole?

a. Boxing center
b. Datum center
c. Optical center
d. Major reference point
72 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

9. Which of the following is the point on a pattern 15. A pattern has an A dimension of 46 and a pattern
around which it always rotates? difference of 5. If the A dimension of the lens to
be cut is 50, which of the following will be the B
a. Boxing center dimension of the lens?
b. Datum center
c. Mechanical center a. 45
d. Optical center b. 55
c. 46
10. Which of the following terms does not mean the d. 54
same thing as the other three terms? e. 41

a. Cutting center 16. A frame has a B dimension of 40 mm. If the

b. Mechanical center segment height of the lens is 17 mm, what is the
c. Boxing center segment drop? (Segment drop will be listed as a
d. Edging center negative number because it is below the midline
of the lens.)
11. Frame difference is calculated by which of the
following equations? a. –2
b. –3
a. A + DBL c. –4
b. A – DBL d. –17
c. A–C e. –23
d. B–C
e. A–B 17. A pattern is marked with a frame difference of
7 mm. If the lens eyesize is 50 mm and the
12. True or False? Using the same pattern for frames segment height is to be 19 mm, which of the
having two different sizes means that the frame following indicates the segment drop?
size and the frame’s lens shape may be altered
somewhat. a. –2.5 mm
b. –6 mm
13. True or False? One frame style is available in c. –9.5 mm
several different eyesizes. All those eyesizes are d. –1 mm
able to have lenses edged from the same e. None of the above
pattern. Therefore all of these frames,
regardless of eyesize, will have the same “frame 18. A pattern has a pattern difference of 7. Which of
difference.” the following indicates the amount of segment
drop for a frame with an A dimension of 52 and a
14. A pattern has a frame difference of 10. A 50-mm segment height of 17 mm?
eyesize frame of the same shape has a B
dimension of 40. Which of the following B a. –12.5 mm
dimensions does an identically shaped frame with b. –9 mm
a 55-mm eyesize have? c. –7.5 mm
d. –5.5 mm
a. 44 mm e. None of the above
b. 45 mm
c. 46 mm
d. 40 mm
e. None of the above
C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S 73

19. A lens is to be edged for a frame with an A 23. If a lens is to be made from a tracing that was
dimension equal to 48 mm and a DBL of done from an old lens, which of the following
18 mm. If the wearer has a PD of 60 mm, which need not be measured?
of the following indicates the decentration per
lens? a. Eyesize
b. 180-degree line
a. 6 mm c. DBL
b. 5 mm d. C-size
c. 4 mm e. ED
d. 3 mm
e. 2 mm 24. If a pattern center is displaced too far nasally, in
which of the following directions must the lens be
20. A lens is to be edged for a frame with an A decentered to compensate for the error?
dimension of 47 mm and a DBL of 19 mm. If the
wearer has a PD of 60 mm, which of the following a. Nasally
is the total decentration? b. Temporally
c. Decentration dependent on lens power
a. 6 mm
b. 5 mm 25. A homemade pattern is placed on a Box-o-Graph
c. 4 mm to check it for accuracy. From the mechanical
d. 3 mm center, the outermost tangents in each direction
e. 2 mm are as follows:

21. A pattern is made with the hole intentionally Top: 23 mm

displaced nasally in order to avoid having to Bottom: 23 mm
decenter the lens. If the pattern is made for a Nasal: 26 mm
frame having an eyesize of 46 mm and a DBL of Temporal: 24 mm
18 mm—and the wearer’s PD is 60 mm—which of
the following distances from the boxing center of Which of the following choices indicates how far the
the pattern would you expect the hole to be placed? mechanical center of the pattern is located from
the boxing center of the pattern? (Remember, the
a. 4 mm nasally mechanical center is where the hole is located.)
b. 3 mm nasally
c. 2 mm nasally a. The mechanical center is displaced 1 mm
d. 0 mm (because the pattern should never be nasally from the location of the boxing center
made this way) of the pattern.
b. The mechanical center is displaced 1 mm
22. A pattern with its mechanical center 3 mm above temporally from the location of the boxing
the geometrical center of the pattern is used. To center of the pattern.
make sure that the optical center of the lens ends c. The mechanical center is displaced 2 mm
up as ordered, how much horizontal and vertical nasally from the location of the boxing center
decentration per lens is needed? of the pattern.
d. The mechanical center is displaced 2 mm
+4.75D sphere temporally from the location of the boxing
+4.50D sphere center of the pattern.
Height of OCs = 25 mm
A = 49
B = 47
ED = 54
DBL = 18
PD = 63
74 C H A P T E R 3 L E N S S H A P E S , PAT T E R N S , A N D F R A M E T R A C E R S

26. For the pattern described in the question above, 29. True or False? Although pattern makers
which of the following decentration sometimes make a pattern with the center
compensations must be made during layout so displaced too far nasally or temporally through
that the PD comes out correctly? human error, pattern makers cannot and should
not make a pattern with the center hole laterally
a. Decenter each lens in an additional 1 mm. displaced on purpose.
b. Decenter each lens 1 mm less in than would be
otherwise indicated. 30. Which of the following is not a valid function for a
c. Decenter each lens in an additional 2 mm. frame tracer?
d. Decenter each lens 2 mm less in than would
otherwise be indicated. a. To gather shape data to transfer to a patternless
edger directly wired to that edger
27. A frame has the following dimensions: b. To gather shape data to transfer to a patternless
edger to a remote location using phone lines
A = 46 c. To allow the collection of three-dimensional
B = 42 frame information to better locate the bevel on
DBL = 18 the edge of the lens
d. To determine the DBL of the frame
The pattern to be used has its mechanical center e. All the above are possible functions.
2.5 mm above the boxing center. The ordered
MRP height for the prescription is 25 mm. Which 31. True or False? Frame tracers are capable of
of the following choices indicates how much the tracing a shape from a pattern, an old lens, or a
MRP should be raised to be sure it ends up in the frame’s demonstration lens.
frame where it belongs?
Challenge Question
a. 5.5 mm
b. 3.0 mm 32. Which choice indicates how far away from the
c. 2.5 mm boxing center of the edged lens the optical center
d. 1.5 mm would be for the following lens? (Because the
e. None of the above prismatic effect was achieved by surfacing the
lenses, rather than by decentering a standard,
28. A pattern made on a pattern maker has the uncut lens blank, the distance between these two
central hole displaced 1 mm too high and 1 mm points may not be directly measurable.)
too far nasally. For a single vision lens, which of
the following choices indicates how much vertical –0.50 D sphere 3.5Δ base out
and horizontal decentration is required to obtain A = 48
a properly centered lens when the lens with the B = 43
following dimensions is placed in a frame? ED = 53
DBL = 18
A = 46 PD = 62
B = 43
C = 45 a. 1.75 mm
ED = 48 b. 17.5 mm
DBL = 18 c. 14.3 mm
Wearer’s PD = 60 d. 72 mm
e. None of the above
a. 2 in, 1 up
b. 3 in, 1 up
c. 3 in, 1 down
d. 1 in, 1 down
e. None of the above
 Centration of
4 Single Vision
Lenses

Purpose of Centering
During the edging process the lens rotates around a
central point while being ground to a specific shape to
fit the frame. This central point of rotation corresponds
to a hole in the pattern. This hole always should be in
the middle of the pattern used on the edger to
generate the shape. This middle point, the geometrical
or boxing center of the lens, is defined as being the center
of the smallest rectangle that encloses the lens shape
using horizontal and vertical lines.
For the major reference point (MRP) of the lens to
be centered before the wearer’s pupil, the lens must be
moved, or decentered, from the boxing center of
the lens.

Mechanics of Lens Centration

The first part of the centration process involves the
calculation of exactly where the major reference point
of the lens will be in relationship to the boxing center of
the edged lens. If these two points are not coincident,
the lens is decentered. The distance and direction of this
decentration must be calculated to ensure that the lens
optics will be positioned properly before the eye.

Calculating Horizontal Decentration

Using the Boxing System
Two measurements are required in the calculation of
decentration. One depends on the wearer, the second

75
76 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

DETERMINING DECENTRATION FROM

on the frame being worn. The first measurement is
MONOCULAR INTERPUPILLARY
how far apart the person’s pupil centers are from each
DISTANCES
other. This is known as the interpupillary distance (PD). The
second measurement is the distance between the geo- When a prescription specifies the wearer’s PD in
metrical (boxing) centers of the frame’s two lens open- reference to each eye individually, PDs were taken one
ings. This is known as the distance between centers (DBC). eye at a time. This measurement is referred to as the
monocular PD. For a monocular PD the reference is
basically from the center of the bridge of the nose to
DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE BETWEEN the center of the pupil. A more conventionally measured
CENTERS binocular PD of 64, for example, may result in a right
For frames that conform to the boxing system of mea- monocular PD of 31 and a left monocular PD of 33.
surement, the DBC is equal to the eyesize (abbreviated This difference between left and right PDs is not
A) plus the distance between lenses (DBL). unusual considering the asymmetry of facial features of
many healthy individuals.
DBC = A + DBL For a monocular PD, decentration is determined
first by dividing the DBC of the frame by 2, then
subtracting the monocular PD; thus the following
DECENTRATION PER LENS equation is true:
Most commonly the wearer’s PD will be less than the
DBC
distance between centers. This will require that the lenses Decentration = – Monocular PD
2
be decentered inward (nasally) toward the center of
the frame. The amount of decentration per lens can be or
determined by subtracting the wearer’s PD from the
DBC (frame PD) and dividing by 2. A + DBL
Decentration = – Monocular PD
2
DBC – Wearer PD
= Decentration per lens
2
DECENTRATION FOR READING GLASSES
Example 4-1
A wearer’s PD is 62 mm. The frame size has an A Laboratory personnel may not know whether the
dimension of 48 mm and a DBL of 20 mm. What is the prescription is being fabricated is for distance vision or
decentration per lens required? near vision. A single number given for PD could be
either the distance PD or the “near PD.” Near PD
Solution designates a smaller separation of the MRPs of the
The following formula is used to find decentration per finished lenses to allow for convergence. Convergence is
lens: the inward turning of people’s eyes that occurs when
they do close work.
DBC – PD
Decentration per lens = Occasionally an order for single vision lenses is
2
received that lists distance and near PDs. This would be
and because written as 65/62, for example. Unless otherwise noted,
it must be assumed that the distance PD (65) is desired,
DBC = A + DBL
even if the prescription is for low plus lenses. When the
(A + DBL) – PD
Decentration per lens = order form also contains the instructions “for reading
2
glasses,” the smaller measure is chosen (62). This is
then the near PD.
(48 + 20) – 62 When in doubt as to which measurement to use, the
Decentration per lens = practitioner should check with whomever ordered the
2
68 – 62 glasses.
=
2
6
=
2 Historical Background
= 3 mm
Most lens centration is done using an instrument
So for the example, the decentration needed per lens is specially designed for this purpose. However, in the
3 mm inward. past the centration of lenses was carried out with only
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 77

The intersection of the cross in the center of the pro-

tractor corresponds to the boxing center of the edged
lens.

LENS CENTRATION USING A LENS

PROTRACTOR
Step 1
The lens is spotted in the manner that is described in
Chapter 2 for correct MRP orientation and correct
cylinder orientation.

Step 2
The amount of decentration per lens required is
calculated using the following formula:
(A + DBL) – PD
Decentration per lens =
2
The practitioner then determines if the lens must be
decentered to the right or to the left. If the lens is a
right lens and is facing down, decentration “in” is to the
FIGURE 4-1 A lens protractor may be used in lens layout left (Figure 4-2, A). A left lens facing down would be
for edging but has been used more traditionally in the lens decentered to the right.
layout for surfacing process. The inner degree scale is used Note: If the right lens were facing up, the lens would
when the lens is placed convex side up (as when glasses are be decentered to the right (Figure 4-2, B). A left lens
being worn). The outer scale is appropriate when the convex would be decentered left (Box 4-1).
side is facing down.
Step 3
The right lens is placed face down (front surface down)
on the protractor.2 The three spots on the lens are
a minimal amount of equipment. Centration may be aligned with the main horizontal line on the protractor.
done accurately this way, but it requires a steady hand. The central dot is placed at the intersection of the cross
Historically this was done by hand with a lens protractor. (Figure 4-3). Horizontally the lens is decentered the
A lens protractor is shown in Figure 4-1. Centration number of millimeters calculated.
really could be done with only a sheet of millimeter- In the example previously given, the required decen-
ruled graph paper. tration was 3 mm per eye nasally—that is, 3 mm in. If
this right lens is to be decentered in, it must be moved
to the left 3 mm. The three dots remain on the horizon-
THE LENS PROTRACTOR tal line and the central MRP dot is 3 mm to the left of
A few lens protractors have three raised pegs that hold center (Figure 4-4).
the surface of the lens without allowing it to come
directly in contact with the face of the protractor. These
pegs hold the lens steady, which keeps it from rocking,
and prevent the ink spots on the lens from smearing or
rubbing off.
2By placing the lens face down, the spot on the front surface of the
The degree scales on a lens protractor are used
lens is closer to the protractor grid surface. This helps to prevent
mainly for marking the lens axis for surfacing and are parallax error. Parallax is the phenomenon that occurs when
not used in the edging process.1 someone attempts to align visually an object with a scale when the
object is not directly in contact with the scale. If the viewer’s eye is not
on a line directly perpendicular to the correct reading on the scale
1A lens protractor has two or three degree scales. The lens degree above or below the object, an error results. The most common
scale that increases in value in a counterclockwise direction is the example of a parallax error occurs when the front seat passenger
scale of reference when the front surface of the lens faces up. The attempts to read the speedometer of a car. Parallax error also can be
clockwise numbered axis scale is the reference scale when the front prevented by using a centration device. A centration device such as a
surface of the lens faces down. A third scale, normally 90 degrees away marker/blocker allows the lens to be positioned face up and then
from the other two, would be used if the lens were turned sideways. blocked while still in the instrument.
78 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

L R
Lenses facing
downward

A Left to the right Right to the left

R L
Lenses facing
upward

B Right to the right Left to the left

FIGURE 4-2 A, If the lenses are facing down for lens layout, the direction of inward
decentration is opposite to the named lens; that is, left decentration for a right lens and
right decentration for a left lens. If the lens is facing up, inward decentration is the same
direction as the named lens, as shown in B; that is, right decentration for a right lens and
left decentration for a left lens.

Step 4 should only be about 10 mm long. The difference in

The lens is decentered vertically if an MRP height length between the two lines gives an immediate visual
is ordered. Exactly how this decentering is done is cue as to the orientation of the lens. The intersection of
explained later in this chapter. In the example given the two crossed lines shows exactly where the lens will
here, no vertical decentration is required. be blocked. The center of the marked cross indicates
the future boxing center of the edged lens. These steps
Step 5 are summarized in Box 4-2.
Using the horizontal protractor line as a guide, a long
horizontal line is hand drawn through the central part
of the lens. (Alternatively a flexible ruler may be used
to help in drawing a line if the lens has been reference Calculating Vertical Centration of
dotted ahead of time as seen in Figure 4-4. Figure 4-5 Lenses Using the Boxing System
shows a lens being marked with a ruler.)
A shorter, vertical line is drawn at the center of the When no preference is expressed on the order form
protractor. Figure 4-6 shows the vertical line. This line about MRP height, the height is presumed to be in the
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 79

SPECIFICATION OF VERTICAL
standard position. In most cases this standard height
PLACEMENT
will be at the level of the boxing center of the edged
lens. This means that the three dots on the lens remain For edging a lens, the MRP location must be given in
on the 180-degree line of the lens centration device terms of how far it is above or below the horizontal
throughout centration. midline of the lens. However, when the order arrives
from the dispensary, MRP height is not specified this
way. Instead MRP height is the distance from the lower
line of the box enclosing the shape of the lens up to the
BOX 4-1
MRP location. The laboratory must convert from MRP
Lens Decentration Direction height to MRP raise (or drop).
To make this conversion from MRP height to MRP
WHEN DECENTERING A WHEN DECENTERING A raise (or drop), the vertical dimension of the frame
FACE-DOWN LENS INWARD FACE-UP LENS INWARD must be known. Then half the vertical dimension of the
frame (the B dimension) is subtracted from MRP height
For a right lens, decenter For a right lens, decenter
to find MRP raise or drop. (Note: MRP height almost
the lens to the left. the lens to the right.
Right/Left Right/Right always results in “raise.” An MRP drop may indicate a
For a left lens, decenter For a left lens, decenter the mismeasurement.)
the lens to the right. lens to the left.
Left/Right Left/Left Example 4-2
An order specifies an MRP height of 25 mm. The frame
The direction of decentration depends on whether the has a vertical dimension (B) of 46 mm. What will the
lenses are facing up or down. With a centration device, MRP raise be?
most of the time the lens will be facing up. It is facing up
so that it can be blocked in the centration device. So if the Solution
lens is a right lens, inward decentration is to the right:
Vertical decentration is calculated as follows:
“right/right.” The left lens decentration direction will be
“left/left.” By-hand decentration with the lens face down B
Vertical decentration = MRP height –
is just the opposite. 2

FIGURE 4-3 The lens is seen positioned on a lens protractor before any decentration
occurs. All three dots are on the 180-degree line with the center dot at the center of the
grid.
80 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

FIGURE 4-4 For a right lens with its concave side (back surface) up, the direction of
decentration is inward (left) toward the nose. The place where the boxing center of the
lens will be once the lens has been edged must be marked. (The boxing center is the point
around which the lens rotates during edging.) In preparation for hand-marking a lens (the
old-fashioned way), the lens is dotted near the edges on the x,y coordinates of the grid.
(See the four dots at the top, bottom, and sides of the lens.)

Because the MRP height is greater than half the B

dimension, the vertical decentration is positive and the
lens is moved up by 2 mm. The height above (or below)
the horizontal midline of the lens may be visualized
from Figure 4-7.

VERTICAL COMPENSATION FOR PATTERN

ERRORS
As discussed in the previous chapter, some patterns may
not have the center of rotation of the pattern at the
boxing center. This may happen because the pattern
is old and uses a different standard or because it is a
homemade pattern and was made incorrectly.
When the rotational center of patterns are above the
boxing center, the difference between these two loca-
FIGURE 4-5 Before centration instruments were used, tions must be compensated for. If the rotational center
lenses were centered on a lens protractor, then marked by
is above the boxing center, the distance between these
hand, sometimes using a ruler, sometimes freehand.
two centers must be subtracted from the calculated
MRP raise. (If the rotational center is below the boxing
In the example, because MRP height is 25 mm and the center, the difference is added to the MRP raise.)
frame B is 46 mm, then the following is true:
Example 4-3
46 In this example, vertical decentration is 2 mm above
Vertical decentration = 25 –
2 the boxing center. A pattern has its mechanical center
= 25 – 23 (center of rotation) 3 mm above the boxing center.
= 2 mm How will the MRP raise have to be compensated?
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 81

BOX 4-2
Centration Steps Using a Protractor

1. The lens is spotted.

2. Decentration per lens is calculated, and direction of
decentration is determined.
3. The lens is placed face down on the protractor. The
three lens dots are aligned on the 180-degree line
with the center dot at the correct decentration.
4. If vertical decentration is required, the vertical
decentration is calculated and the lens is decentered
up (or down) as required.
5. Mark the newly found boxing center of the lens with
a cross.

FIGURE 4-6 A marked cross on a lens has a short vertical 180-degree reference line to make the lens center
and long horizontal component. This provides an immediate properly.
visual cue on where the 180-degree midline is located and
where the boxing center of the edged lens will be. However,
it is at the future location of the boxing center of the lens
once the lens has been edged. Because of decentration, the
LENS CENTRATION INSTRUMENTS
cross is no longer at the geometrical center of the uncut lens A centration instrument has many advantages over a
blank. Is the lens concave side up or convex side up?* lens protractor, even though the process is basically the
same. These advantages are as follows:
*Answer: The lens is convex side up.
1. The optical system of the instrument eliminates most
parallax problems.
Solution 2. Internal illumination makes viewing of marks on the
A pattern with its center of rotation 3 mm above its lens and lens segments easier.
boxing center will cause the MRP to be 3 mm above the 3. The instrument contains a movable vertical reference
boxing center of the edged lens. Therefore 3 mm are line. This reference line may be moved left or right and
subtracted from the normally calculated vertical makes horizontal alignment for decentration easier.
decentration. 4. If the instrument just marks the lens, the system
contains a lens-marking stamp that always strikes at
+2 mm – 3 mm = –1 mm
the location of the boxing center. It gives a con-
In other words, when this particular pattern is used, the sistent, straight set of marks. This type of centration
MRP must be positioned 1 mm below the horizontal device is called a lens marker.

46 mm B

B
23 mm 25 mm
2

FIGURE 4-7 If the position of the major reference point (MRP) is given in terms of height
from the lowermost portion of the shape, drop or raise can be calculated by subtracting
one half of the B dimension from MRP height.
82 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

Instruments that only mark a lens are now rare. Most Step 8
lens centration devices also include a lens-blocking When the MRP height is specified, the lens is de-
mechanism. Instead of stamping the lens and having to centered up (or in rare instances, down). The amount
carry out an additional step of blocking the lens at the of decentration is according to the correct number of
location of the stamp, the lens is blocked directly. This millimeters of MRP raise (or drop).
type of device is called a marker/blocker.
Step 9
The handle is grasped and swung into place, or the
LENS CENTRATION WITH A CENTRATION
button or footswitch is pressed. This blocks (or marks)
INSTRUMENT
the lens4 (Figure 4-8).
The following are the steps for use of a centration
instrument for single vision lenses. Example 4-4
A frame has an eyesize (A) of 54 mm and a DBL of
Step 1 20 mm. The wearer’s PD is 66 mm. The lenses are
The lens is spotted (as described in Chapter 2). already spotted. How must the instrument be set,
and how must the lens placed in order to properly
Step 2 block the lens? The reader should assume that the lens
If the instrument has blocking capabilities, a double- is a left lens.
sided adhesive blocking pad is stuck on a lens block and
the block is mounted on the instrument. Then the Solution
paper is peeled off the pad to expose the adhesive. Lens decentration is calculated as follows:
(A + DBL) – PD
Step 3 Decentration per lens =
2
The amount of horizontal decentration per lens
(54 + 20) – 66
required is calculated using the following formula: =
2
(A + DBL) – PD 8
Decentration per lens = =
2 2
= 4 mm
Step 4
The practitioner must determine whether the lens To preset the movable vertical line in the instrument
must be decentered to the right or to the left. In most for the left lens, the practitioner should first recall in
centering devices the lens is face up. If the lens is a right which direction the MRP should be moved. Because
lens and is facing up, decentration “in” is to the right. the wearer’s PD is smaller than the frame’s geometrical
(see Figure 4-2, B). A left lens facing up would be center distance or “frame PD,”5 the lenses will decenter
decentered to the left (see Box 4-1). nasally or inward. The lens is placed convex side up.
Therefore the left lens is moved to the left. As Figure
Step 5 4-9 shows, the movable vertical line is positioned 4 mm
The position of the movable vertical reference line3 to the left of the central reference line.
in the instrument is adjusted to the right or left by the Now the lens is placed face up in the instrument. It
amount of decentration calculated. is aligned so that the central dot is at the intersection of
the horizontal line and the movable vertical line. Figure
Step 6 4-10 indicates that the other two dots must fall directly
The right lens is placed face up (front surface up) on on the horizontal reference line.
the screen. The three spots on the lens are aligned with The lens is blocked. The lens block is positioned at
the horizontal line on the instrument screen. what will become the boxing center of the edged lens
(Figure 4-11).
Step 7
The center lens dot is placed on the movable vertical
reference line. (The position of this line corresponds to
horizontal decentration.)
4To check for calibration, the practitioner views a marked or blocked
3For single vision lenses, the movable vertical line is basically used as lens through the instrument before it leaves the grid. This shows
a place marker. When laying out single vision lenses, some people whether the mark or block is really at the origin of the instrument
prefer not to use the movable vertical line at all. Instead they move grid and is straight.
the dot on the lens directly to the desired amount of decentration. 5“Frame PD” is equal to A + DBL.
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 83

FIGURE 4-8 The lens is being blocked for edging.

INCREASING ACCURACY centering devices use a system that visually compares

The dots that are applied by the lensmeter can be the blank to the required size. Two main systems exist.
small, as they should be. However, sometimes these dots
tend to “disappear” into the black horizontal line of the
centration device. One “cure” is to make the center dot
CENTRATION UNITS THAT USE EFFECTIVE
larger than it might otherwise be by remarking with a
DIAMETER CIRCLES
marking pen. The first system is a series of circles of known diameter
Instead of increasing the size of the dots, an easy way that appear on the screen of the instrument (Figure
to eliminate the problem of disappearing dots while 4-12). These show possible effective diameters (ED). The
simultaneously increasing accuracy is to position the effective diameter of a frame is on the frame package or
dots 0.5 mm above the 180 line until all decentration package insert, is listed in a frame reference catalog, or
positioning is completed. As a last step, when every- can be measured. (See Chapter 3 for how to measure
thing is completed, lower the lens back down 0.5 mm so the ED.)
that the dots disappear into the line.6 When properly positioned, the decentered lens blank
must enclose completely the circle of the same diameter
as the effective diameter of the frame (Figure 4-13).

Ensuring Proper Size of the Lens

CENTRATION UNITS THAT USE
Blank SUPERIMPOSED PATTERNS
Nobody wants to intentionally waste a lens. To help A second system used in centration devices to ensure
avoid edging a lens that is not quite large enough, some that a lens is large enough superimposes the shadow
of the pattern on the screen of the centering device.
6Thanks to Glenn Herringshaw of Bloomington, Ind., for contributing The scale used in decentration, the lens blank, and
this hint. the shadow of the pattern are seen at the same time.
84 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

Movable vertical

Fixed vertical
10 10
Horizontal reference
5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 4-9 In the case of single vision lenses, the movable line indicates the positioning
of the major reference point and the fixed vertical line the position of the geometrical
center of the lens after edging. In this illustration, the movable line is set for 4 mm of
decentration. The vertical position of the major reference point is not always specified by
the practitioner. When it is, the procedure is carried out through a simple raising or
lowering of the central lensmeter dot, exercising care to maintain parallelism between the
three dots and the x axis of the grid.

This system works best when the pattern is exactly the Example 4-5
same size as the frame. If the pattern size is the same The eyesize of a particular frame is 50 mm and the
size as the frame, the shadow of the pattern must be pattern size is 46 mm. How much larger in every
enclosed completely by the decentered lens blank. If direction will the edged lens be?
it is not, any part of the pattern found outside of the
lens blank will end up as “air space” (Figure 4-14). (This Solution
is the system used on many patternless edgers. The The eyesize minus the pattern size is 50 minus 47, or
edged lens shape is drawn over the unedged lens on 3 mm. This means that the lens will be larger by half
the screen.) that amount in every direction. The lens will be three
This pattern shadow system still can be used with halves or 1.5 mm larger than the pattern in every
patterns somewhat larger or smaller than the finished direction.
lens, but compensation must be made. To compensate, Knowing this, the practitioner can make a visual
the size of the pattern must be known. This can be estimate with the use of the pattern shadow system,
measured directly.7 even if the pattern is smaller than the frame’s eyesize.
For the lens to be large enough, the edge of the lens
7Patternsize can be calculated by adding the absolute value of the blank must clear the pattern shadow by half the
“set number” printed on the pattern to 36.5 mm. difference between pattern size and eyesize—in this
 Movable line

Vertical reference
10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

Left
lens

FIGURE 4-10 The movable line is preset to the correct decentration. The movable line
helps to prevent the dot on the lens from getting “lost” on the grid. With the movable line
pointing out the desired major reference point (MRP) location, the lens is positioned as shown.

Movable line

Future lens
boxing center
MRP

10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

Left
lens

FIGURE 4-11 On the centration device, the block is placed at the origin. The block
center corresponds to the future geometrical or boxing center of the edged lens. MRP, Major
reference point.
86 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

80
10

71
10

65
5 5

52
0 0

5 5

10 10

FIGURE 4-12 When a centration device contains a series of concentric circles, the
correctly centered uncut lens must enclose completely the circle equal to the effective
diameter (ED) of the frame. (It cannot be assumed that because the circle equal to the frame
eyesize is enclosed, the uncut lens will be large enough.)

case, 1.5 mm. If this amount of clearance is not present, The practitioner must add 3 to the superimposed
the lens will not cut out. pattern shadow in every direction to simulate edged
lens size. Applying this to Figure 4-15, it is evident that
Example 4-6 less than 3 mm is between the pattern edge and lens
A lens has an eyesize of 58 mm. The pattern is mea- edge. This means that the lens will not cut out.
sured and found to be 52 mm. The wearer’s PD is 68
and the frame DBL is 18, giving a 4 mm decentration
MINIMUM BLANK SIZE
per lens. When the lens is prepared for edging and
viewed through the instrument, it appears as shown in The smallest lens blank that can be used for a given
Figure 4-15. Will the lens be large enough to cut out? prescription lens and frame combination is called the
minimum blank size (MBS). The MBS depends on the
Solution following:
Answering the question requires finding the minimum
• The effective diameter of the frame
distance from the edge of the pattern to the edge of the
• The amount of decentration of the optical center
lens. To do this, the pattern size is subtracted from the
away from the boxing center
eyesize and divided by 2:
Eyesize – Pattern size If no decentration occurred and the lens optical
2 center was positioned exactly at the boxing center, the
minimum blank size would be equal to the effective
or
diameter (Figure 4-16).
58 – 52 Minimum blank size also must allow for extra size
= 3 mm
2 required because of lens decentration. When 1 mm of
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 87

80
71
10 10

65
5

52
5

0 0

5 5

10 10

FIGURE 4-13 If the frame to be used has an effective diameter greater than 52 mm, the
63 mm lens blank shown in this illustration will not be large enough when decentered for
the wearer’s interpupillary distance (PD), as it has been in this drawing.

B
FIGURE 4-14 A, The pattern is not covered by the lens
blank. This means that the uncovered part will end up as a
gap once the lens is edged, as shown in B.

A
88 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

decentration inward occurs, the minimum-sized lens

Vertical reference line must be 1 mm larger temporally. However, because
Movable line
MRP uncut lens blanks are made round—with the optical
center in the middle of the blank—they must increase
equally in all directions. Therefore for every millimeter
of decentration, the MBS also must increase 2 mm
(Figure 4-17).
In addition, allowing an extra 2 mm is advisable
for the possibility of lens chipping or other error. The
extra 2 mm is only 1 mm on each side, so really only
1 mm of leeway exists.
Written mathematically and not including the extra
2 mm, the MBS is the following:
MBS = ED + 2(decentration)

Written to include the extra 2 millimeters, the formula

is as follows:

MBS = ED + 2(decentration) + 2

FIGURE 4-15 Centration devices using a shadow projec-

Blank size charts and devices are available that allow the
tion of the pattern work best when the pattern size equals frame to be used in the determination of lens blank
the frame eyesize. When a pattern is smaller than the frame’s size. One such chart, and the explanation of how to use
eyesize, compensation must be made by visualizing whether it, is shown in Figure 4-18.
the lens will cut out. In this figure, the dotted line represents
the “visualized” increase in pattern size that must be esti-
mated to determine whether the lens blank size is sufficient.
LENSES OF INSUFFICIENT SIZE
As shown, the lens blank will be too small. MRP, Major Sometimes a lens blank is only slightly too small. A temp-
reference point. tation exists to use the lens blank anyway by moving it

Boxing
center
ED

OC

Minimum blank size

FIGURE 4-16 When there is no decentration, minimum blank size equals effective
diameter (ED). (No allowance for lens chippage is shown.) OC, Optical center.
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 89

Boxing
center
ED Approximately 2´ decentration

OC

Minimum blank size

FIGURE 4-17 For each millimeter of decentration, 2 mm of additional blank size must
be added to the effective diameter (ED) to determine the minimum blank size. (No
allowance for lens chippage is shown.) OC, Optical center.

outward slightly. This causes the distance between Example 4-7

optical centers to be larger than ordered and is called A –5.00 D lens blank is not large enough to cut out. If
“pushing” the PD. By pushing the PD, the small lens the PD is “pushed” 2 mm out for this lens, how much
blank may be used. But because the lens optical center unwanted prism is induced?
will be decentered from its intended position before
the eye, unwanted prism may result. Solution
The amount of prism that will be induced by altering The amount of unwanted prism can be calculated with
the ordered PD varies considerably with the power of the following equation:
the lens being used. The amount of prism that results is
Δ = cF
predictable using Prentice’s Rule.
The absolute value for F is used, so 5.00 is substituted
for F in the equation. The decentration amount per
INCORRECT INTERPUPILLARY DISTANCE
lens is 2 mm. Because c is measured in centimeters and
As mentioned in Chapter 2, Prentice’s Rule states the 2 mm = 0.2 cm, the equation becomes the following:
amount of prism (Δ) induced by decentration of a lens.
Δ = (0.2) (5.00)
Prism amount is equal to the number of centimeters
= 1.00
(c) the lens is moved times the power of the lens (F). In
equation form this appears as follows: A prism has both an amount and a base direction.
For this eye the base direction will be base in. This is
Δ = cF
evident when the lens is seen in cross-section. This
The stronger the power of the spectacle lens (F), the cross-section is shown schematically in Figure 4-19.
more unwanted prism will be induced for the same Base-in prism forces the eyes of the wearer to turn
amount of lens decentration (c). Once this relationship outward to keep from seeing double. For example, a
is understood, it is relatively easy to estimate the pair of glasses with great amounts of unwanted prism is
amount of prism induced by a given amount of lens dispensed. If this happened, it would be better if the
decentration. lenses were uncomfortable and rejected. The worst
90 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

80 70 60 50 40

70
60 75
65

10
15
20
25
30

80 70 60 50 40

FIGURE 4-18 Single vision minimum blank size chart. The blank size chart shown is used
as follows:
1. The frame is placed front face down in the chart with the right lens opening over the
simulated lens circles.
2. The frame bridge is centered over the correct binocular distance PD as indicated by the
scale on the left.
3. The practitioner ensures that vertical centration is right. This is done by positioning the
lowest point on the inside groove of the lower eyewire on the lower chart scale. The
correct lower chart scale level is one half the B dimension of the frame. (If a vertical
positioning for the major reference point [MRP] of the lens is specified, use this height
instead.)
4. The diameter lens circle that will just enclose the lens opening of the frame, including
the eyewire groove, is noted. This is the minimum blank size required for a single vision
lens without prescribed prism.

result would be for the wearer to gradually become Example 4-8

accustomed to the prism. This would contribute to A lens blank with a power of –0.25 D is too small and
either an outward deviation of the eyes or suppression won’t cut out. What would the consequences be of
of one eye with a resultant drop in its visual acuity. “pushing” the PD by 2 mm?
Although it is unlikely that the small prismatic amount
in the previous example would cause such problems, Solution
the degree of difficulty encountered depends on the Calculations are done in the same manner as before,
amount of prism induced and the visual condition of but this time the power substituted in the equation is
the wearer. 0.25 instead of 5.00.
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 91

FIGURE 4-19 Errors in optical center (OC) placement cause objects to appear displaced
from their actual location. To compensate for an error in horizontal OC placement, the eyes
must turn inward or outward; otherwise the wearer will experience double vision. A minus
lens decentered outward results in base in prism.

cylinder axis in relation to the direction of decentration

+5.00 0.00 +5.00 of the lens is important. In this case the lens is being
decentered in the horizontal meridian. The practi-
+5.00 –1.00 +4.00 tioner needs to know the power of the lens in the
+ = horizontal meridian to calculate prism amount.8
Because the cylinder power is at right angles to the
axis of the cylinder, the power (F) used in Prentice’s
Sphere Cylinder Spherocylinder Rule is +4.00 D (Figure 4-20).
+5.00 Sphere pl –1.00 x 90 +5.00 –1.00 x 90 The prism induced by pushing the PD for this lens
blank will be as follows:
FIGURE 4-20 The value of a lens in a given meridian
Δ = cF
often can be better visualized through the use of a power
= (0.2) (4)
cross system.
= 0.80

The amount of prism induced is 0.80Δ of prism base out.

Δ = cF
= (0.2) (0.25)
= 0.05 Warning: Combining Oblique Cylinder and
Incorrect Interpupillary Distances
The total prism produced per eye is only 0.05 prism Whenever a cylinder or spherocylinder lens having an
diopters. This amount is hardly measurable. The oblique axis direction is decentered horizontally, a
consequences of pushing the PD outward by 2 mm for certain amount of vertical prism always is induced. The
a lens of this power are negligible. amount of vertical prism induced increases as the
following occur:
Example 4-9
1. The cylinder power increases
A lens blank is marked for the following prescription:
2. The cylinder axis approaches the 45- or 135-degree
+5.00 –1.00 × 90 position
How much prism is induced by pushing the PD 2 mm In other words, moving an oblique spherocylinder
outward? horizontally would require a compensating vertical
movement to counteract the vertical prismatic effect
Solution
8To find the power of a lens in a given meridian, it is helpful to use a
When a lens contains a cylinder, the amount of prism
power cross. For more on power crosses, see Chapter 16 in Brooks
induced depends upon total power in the meridian of CW, Borish I: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
decentration. This means that the orientation of the Butterworth-Heinemann.
92 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

being induced. The amount of vertical compensation undesirable. However, as in Prentice’s Rule, as the
depends upon the cylinder power and axis direction. power of the lens increases, the amount of prism that is
In short, when oblique cylinder is present, pushing induced with a small movement of the lens center loca-
the PD horizontally will result in some degree of tion also increases. The ANSI committee determined
vertical prism. This prism will not show up at the optical that for prescriptions of above plus or minus 2.75 D,
centers of the incorrectly placed lenses but will it was realistically possible to require that the PD be
show up if the lens is checked at the location of the within 2.5 mm of what was ordered. Unfortunately for
wearer’s PD. high prescriptions this will induce more than two thirds
of a prism diopter.
For unwanted vertical prism the ANSI Z80.1
AMOUNT OF REQUIRED ACCURACY
standards state that no more than one-third prism
Accuracy required for the location of the OC may be diopter should be induced by any differences between
specified either as millimeters of deviation from the left and right MRP heights. However, if the prescription
ordered PD, or as the amount of prism induced by the is above plus or minus 3.375 D, the MRPs should be
incorrectly located OC, or both. kept to within 1 mm of vertical difference for lens pairs
Low-powered lenses can have their OC off location or 1 mm of what was ordered for one lens only. This
by a relatively large amount before the prismatic effect means that more than one-third prism diopter of
becomes significant. However, as lens power increases, vertical prism may result, even though the lens centers
even small errors can cause a major prismatic effect. are vertically within 1 mm of each other. For these
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has lenses, ANSI standards for vertical prism are still met.
published agreed-upon Recommendations for Prescrip-
tion Ophthalmic Lenses. These include prismatic effect
and PD accuracy. (ANSI Z80.1 Prescription Ophthalmic
ETHICAL FACTORS IN PRESCRIPTION
Lens Recommendations may be found in Appendix B
ACCURACY
at the back of this book.) Because published prescription eyewear standards are
Published standards are recommendations only; the recommendations only, in some instances a laboratory
practitioner may demand higher or accept lower may be tempted to supply an account with prescription
standards. The supplying laboratory may remind an materials that fall outside the normally accepted
account of the generally accepted standards but should standards when no one raises an objection. The labora-
not attempt to hide behind them, as more precision in tory supplying prescribed materials has an ethical
certain specified parameters is not an impossible task. If responsibility to supply materials according to
the practitioner and supplying laboratory cannot come standard. Failure on the part of the account to check
to an acceptable agreement, then other sources of adequately for accuracy does not release the supplier
supply should be sought. Wearers of low refractive from this responsibility. If anything, it places the ethical
powers are often more sensitive to deviations from the responsibility for the welfare of the wearer more
absolutes required than wearers of high prescriptions, directly on the laboratory.
making higher standards well within reason in certain Ophthalmic frames and lenses cannot be regarded
circumstances. as a commodity for which the consumer is the ultimate
judge of acceptability. The laboratory that accepts
Standards for Interpupillary Distance and materials that fall outside of normally accepted stan-
Unwanted Prism dards does not suffer from incorrect power or prism
The ANSI Recommendations for Prescription Ophthal- that was not prescribed. Wearers, who must trust in the
mic Lenses (Z80.1) tries to balance unwanted prism judiciousness of those supplying their needs, are the
amounts with what is realistically feasible. More than ones who bear the consequences of dispenser and/or
two thirds of a prism diopter of horizontal prism is laboratory negligence.
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 93

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
Horizontal Decentration 5. How much decentration per lens is required for a
prescription with the following specifications?
1. What is the distance between centers (DBC) for a
frame with the following dimensions? A = 48
B = 38
A = 47 ED = 48
B = 39 DBL = 18
DBL = 20 R monocular PD = 31.5
ED = 48 L monocular PD = 31.0

2. How much decentration, and in which direction, 6. How much decentration per lens is required for
is required for each of the following? the following prescription if it is to be used for
(Note: 50 䊐 20 means the 50 mm eyesize and 20 reading glasses only?
mm bridge size is measured according to the
boxing system.) R: +3.25 –0.50 × 90
L: +3.00 –0.25 × 90
a. PD 66, 50 䊐 20 A = 52
b. PD 60, 50 䊐 18 B = 47
c. PD 59, 44 䊐 16 ED = 57
DBL = 20
3. How much decentration per lens is required to PD = 65/61
correctly position the following lenses for
edging? a. 6 mm
b. 4 mm
R: +1.00 –1.00 × 70 c. 4.5 mm
L: +1.00 –1.00 × 100 d. 3.5 mm
A = 52 e. 5.5 mm
B = 49
DBL = 16 7. How much decentration per lens is required if the
PD = 70 person wearing these glasses will be wearing them
for reading only?
a. 1 mm in
b. 1 mm out R: +3.25 –0.50 × 90 1Δ base down
c. 1.5 mm in L: +3.00 –0.25 × 90 1Δ base up
d. 2.0 mm in A = 52
e. None of the above B = 47
ED = 57
4. How much decentration per lens is required for a DBL = 20
prescription having the following specifications? PD = 65/61

A = 52 a. 6 mm
B = 43 b. 4 mm
ED = 54 c. 4.5 mm
DBL = 18 d. 3.5 mm
R monocular PD = 32 e. 5.5 mm
L monocular PD = 33.5
94 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

Vertical Decentration 12. What would the finished, single vision, minimum
blank size be for a frame with an A dimension of
8. The optical laboratory receives an order for a 53 mm, a DBL of 18 mm, and an ED of 56 mm if
frame and lenses. The wearer’s PD is the same size the person who will be wearing these frames has a
as the (A) + (DBL) of the spectacle frame. The PD of 68 mm? (Note: Allow 2 mm for lens
order specifies an MRP height of 23 mm for both chipping.)
lenses. If the frame has a vertical (B) dimension of
40 mm, how much vertical decentration is a. 58 mm
needed? b. 61 mm
c. 65 mm
9. How much vertical and horizontal decentration d. 69 mm
per lens is required for the following single vision e. 73 mm
prescription?
13. An order for the same frame as in the question
R: –1.25 –0.75 × 15 above is received, but it is for someone with a PD
L: –1.00 –1.00 × 162 of 60. Which of the following lists the minimum
Height of MRPs: 26 mm blank size for this order if a finished, single vision
PD = 66 lens blank is to be used? (Note: Allow 2 mm for
A = 53 lens chipping.)
B = 48
ED = 57 a. 58 mm
DBL = 17 b. 61 mm
c. 65 mm
10. How much vertical and horizontal decentration of d. 69 mm
the major reference points (MRPs) of the lenses e. 73 mm
are required for the lenses that are to be placed in
the following frame? Z80 Standards

R: +3.00 sphere with 2Δ base in American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards
L: +3.00 sphere with 2Δ base in for prescription ophthalmic lenses have several different
MRP height = 21 mm aspects. One of those is for the amount of unwanted
Wearer’s PD = 61 mm horizontal prism that may be considered acceptable.
A = 47 Because lenses positioned for a wrong PD will induce
B = 33 horizontal prism, this is part of the standard as well.
DBL = 17
14. A lens pair has a power of –5.25 D sphere for both
Minimum Blank Size right and left lenses. The wearer’s distance PD is
64 mm, but the glasses are made with a
11. For the following frame and the wearer’s PD, which geometrical center distance of 62 mm. This will
of the choices describes the minimum blank size cause a total unwanted prismatic effect of 1.05Δ
required if 2 mm is allowed for lens chipping? for both right and left eyes combined. Is this
prescription acceptable according to ANSI
A = 49 standards in regards to PD/horizontal prism?
B = 40
ED = 54 a. Yes
DBL = 20 b. No
PD = 61 c. Not enough information given

a. 57
b. 66
c. 59
d. 64
e. None of the above
C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S 95

15. A lens pair has a power of –0.75 D sphere for both General Questions
right and left lenses. The wearer’s distance PD is
60 mm, but the glasses are made with a distance of 18. A right lens has a power of +5.00 –2.00 × 30. The
66 mm between the optical centers. This will frame chosen has dimensions of 52 ⵧ 20. The
cause a total unwanted prismatic effect of 0.45Δ patient’s PD is 66. Assume that the uncut lens
for both right and left eyes combined. Is this blank is facing up (convex side up). The OC is at
prescription acceptable according to ANSI the geometrical center of the blank. Which of the
standards in regard to PD/horizontal prism? following represents where on the lens the center
of the lens block would be located?
a. Yes
b. No a. 6 mm to the right of the geometrical center of
c. Not enough information given the lens blank
b. 6 mm to the left of the geometrical center of
16. A lens pair has a power of –7.25 D sphere for both the lens blank
right and left lenses. The right lens optical center c. 3 mm to the right of the geometrical center of
is higher than the left lens optical center, but the the lens blank
vertical difference between the two optical center d. 3 mm to the left of the geometrical center of
heights is just less than 1 mm. However, there is the lens blank
0.5Δ of vertical prism that results. Is this e. None of the above
prescription acceptable according to ANSI
standards in regards to vertical prism/vertical 19. Tony and Julie work at the same place. Both verify
MRP placement? prescriptions. When a question exists about
whether the prescription is acceptable, they both
a. Yes check the same one and compare notes. Tony
b. No checked the following prescription:
c. Not enough information given
R: -2.00 – 3.50 × 45
Pushing the Interpupillary Distances L: -2.00 – 3.50 × 45

17. If the PD were “pushed” outward 1.5 mm per lens, The PD was supposed to be 58 mm. He found the
what would be the total horizontal prismatic effect PD to be 66 mm and also found unwanted
(right and left lenses combined) for each of the horizontal prism, but no vertical prism. He told
following prescriptions? Julie to check it as well. Julie found the same
thing for PD and horizontal prism but said that
a. R: +2.00 D sphere she found unwanted vertical prism, too. Julie was
L: +2.00 D sphere right. Why?
b. R: –4.00 –1.00 × 90
L: –4.00 –1.00 × 90 a. Julie checked for vertical prism at the 66 mm
c. +5.25 –1.00 × 180 location, and Tony checked at the 58 mm
+6.25 –1.00 × 180 location. Because of the oblique cylinder, this
made a difference.
b. Julie checked for vertical prism at the 58 mm
location, and Tony checked at the 66 mm
location. Because of the oblique cylinder, this
made a difference.
c. Julie checked at both locations and averaged
the difference.
d. It is impossible to tell why Julie found the
unwanted vertical prism from the information
given. Julie was obviously just better.
96 C H A P T E R 4 C E N T R AT I O N O F S I N G L E V I S I O N L E N S E S

20. Off-Center Optical Dispensers sent a prescription Challenge Questions

to Futile Vision Optical Laboratory. When the
prescription was completed Randy from Futile 21. For the following prescription lens, how far from
Vision Optical verified their work and found that the center of the lens block on the uncut lens
the PD was outside of standards and caused 1.5 Δ (i.e., the location of the geometrical center of the
of unwanted base in horizontal prism. A small edged lens) will the optical center be located?
amount of unwanted vertical prism also existed.
Randy asked his manager what to do and +4.00 D sphere 2Δ base out
mentioned that the prescription was for Off- A = 50
Center Optical, to which his manager replied: B = 48
“They never verify the work we send ’em. Send it ED = 56
out like it is.” Sure enough, the job is sent out and DBL = 18
never comes back. The wearer has difficulty in PD = 60
keeping her place when reading and has frequent
headaches when doing extended near work. She 22. A left lens has a power of –4.00 –1.00 × 180. The
attributes the headaches to stress. Which or who frame chosen has dimensions of 50 ⵧ 18. The
of the following is responsible? patient’s PD is 60 mm. The prescription calls for
1.0Δ base down prism for the left eye. The OC is
a. Off-Center Optical and its employees and at the geometrical center of the lens blank. The
owners uncut lens blank is convex side up (facing up). How
b. Futile Vision Optical and its employees and far horizontally and vertically is the lens block
owners center from the OC of the lens?
c. Both Off-Center Optical and Futile Vision and
their owners and employees
d. The wearer, who did not follow up
 Centration of
5 Progressive
Addition Lenses

S ingle vision lenses are lenses that have the same

prescription power over the whole lens. That
power can be a sphere power, a cylinder power, or a
spherocylinder power. The prescription also may call
for prism. A single vision lens works well as long as the
wearer still has a sufficiently full range of accommodation.
Accommodation is the ability to change the power of
the eye’s inner crystalline lens. Changing this power
enables a person to see objects clearly at a near viewing
distance. Presbyopia is the loss of this ability to focus well
enough to see clearly and comfortably at near viewing
distances.
To correct for presbyopia, a person must have either
more than one pair of single vision lenses or a pair of
glasses with lenses having more than one power. Lenses
with more than one power are called multifocal lenses or
multifocals.

Two Major Categories

Multifocal lenses are divided into the following two
major categories:
1. Segmented multifocal lenses
2. Progressive addition lenses
Segmented multifocal lenses are lenses that have two or
more distinctly divided areas of power. These areas of
different powers are demarcated clearly by a visible
bordering line1 (see Figure 1-3).
1The exception here is the blended bifocal that has two areas of
different powers, with a blended, nearly invisible border between the
two.

97
98 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

REFERENCE POINTS ON THE

PROGRESSIVE LENS
Certain key reference points are found on the progressive
Fitting cross
addition lens. None are seen on first glance. There are
Prism reference point
only a few permanently marked references, and these
Distance portion are visible only under optimal viewing conditions. Because
of their importance, this discussion begins with the lightly
marked, nearly invisible reference points.
Progressive zone
The upper areas of the lens are for distance vision.
Like other lenses, a progressive addition lens has a
major reference point (MRP). When no prism is
prescribed, the optical center (OC) and the MRP are
Near portion
one and the same.
The power of the lens begins changing at the major
reference point of the lens. It increases in plus power
FIGURE 5-1 Progressive addition lenses leave the upper within a progressive corridor below the MRP until the
distance portion of the lens relatively undisturbed. The full near addition power is reached (see Figure 5-1).
power begins to change at the prism reference point (which This corridor varies in length from approximately 12 to
is also the major reference point of the lens) and increases in 17 mm,2 depending on design.
plus along a central corridor. The spin-off of a gradually The MRP may be found on a progressive lens in
increasing power in combination with the invisible near the same manner as the MRP on a single vision lens is
section is a peripheral area with varying cylinder power. This found. When no prescribed (Rx) prism is present, the
area varies in optical clarity to the wearer, depending upon MRP is the OC. With use of the lensmeter, this is the
the width of the progressive corridor and the power the near
location where the prismatic effect is zero. Refractive
addition.
power begins changing at the MRP of a progressive
lens, which makes it hard to measure distance power
at the MRP. Therefore the distance power is measured
far enough above the MRP to eliminate the possibility
Progressive addition lenses also have different viewing of measuring part of the progressive corridor by
areas—a distance viewing area and a near viewing area. mistake.
In between those two areas is a progressive zone where
the power of the lens gradually changes. Power increases PRP, DRP, and NRP
in a plus direction from the distance viewing area to the To differentiate the two places where the prism and the
near viewing area (Figure 5-1). distance powers are measured, with progressive lenses
Because the progressive addition lens is processed the MRP is referred to as the prism reference point or PRP.
more like a single vision lens it will be considered in this The place where distance power is measured is called
chapter; segmented multifocals will be addressed in the distance reference point (DRP). The lens manufacturer
Chapter 6. However, the order in which these two types chooses the location of the DRP. When the semifinished
of lenses are presented is not critical. Readers who lens comes from the manufacturer, an incomplete circle
would prefer to begin with multifocal lenses may skip to has been stamped on the lens. This circle surrounds the
the next chapter and return later to consider the location of the DRP (Figure 5-2).
progressive lens. The lens manufacturer also chooses the point in the
near viewing area where the full near power of the lens
should be measured. On the semifinished lens this area
Progressive Addition Lens sometimes comes surrounded by a full circle. It is called
the near reference point (NRP).
The progressive addition lens attempts a gradual increase
in power from distance to near portions of the lens so Fitting Cross
that the wearer may see an object clearly at any distance Because of gradual power change and the lack of any
with only a slight repositioning of the head. As stated distinct viewing area lines on the lens, a segment height
previously, although the progressive addition lens looks
more like a complicated lens than a segmented or
multifocal, it is treated much the same as a single vision 2Itshould be noted that corridor length and minimum fitting height
lens in preparation for edging. are not the same thing.
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 99

Distance reference point

(DRP)
Prism reference point
(DRP)
same as
Major reference point
(MRP)

175 Logo

Fitting cross Near reference point

(NRP)

FIGURE 5-2 In verifying a progressive addition lens, the practitioner verifies the distance
power higher up on the lens than it would be on any other type of lens. The manufacturer
determines where distance power should be verified, calls this location the distance
reference point, and marks its location with a semicircle. Prism is verified at the MRP, which,
for progressive addition lenses is sometimes called the prism reference point. (Note: the
fitting cross where the pupil center is located is not the same as the MRP. Nevertheless,
many dispensers erroneously use the terms fitting cross height and MRP height
interchangeably.) The add power is verified at the location set by the manufacturer, calling
it the near reference point. No power or prismatic verification is done at the fitting cross.
(Modified from Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
Butterworth-Heinemann.)

with a progressive addition lens does not exist. Instead, the primary reference point for both horizontal and
the dispenser fitting the lenses denotes vertical placement vertical lens positioning for the edging laboratory.3
with a fitting cross. The fitting cross is a reference point In simplest terms, centration of a progressive add
on the lens usually 2 to 4 mm above the MRP, depending lens is done as if the lens were a single vision lens. For
upon lens design. single vision lenses, the MRP is placed at the correct
When progressive addition lenses first entered the monocular or binocular PD, depending upon how it is
market, fitting crosses did not exist. Instead the lens was ordered. For a progressive lens, the fitting cross is placed
to be positioned vertically so that the MRP was a certain at the correct monocular PD.
number of millimeters below the center of the pupil. For a single vision lens, the MRP is placed on the
However, many dispensers were fitting the lenses too horizontal midline of the lens or at the specified MRP
low. Too many unsuccessful cases resulted. Out of self- height, if one is ordered. For a progressive lens the
defense the lens manufacturers developed a way fitting cross is placed at the specified fitting cross height.
around the problem. Knowing where the MRP should
be relative to the pupil center, they measured up from Example 5-1
the MRP and named that point the fitting cross. From A progressive addition lens is ordered as follows:
then on the fitting cross always was positioned exactly at
R: +3.00 –1.00 × 70
pupil center and the progressive zone ended up where
L: +3.00 –1.00 × 110
it needed to be.
Add: +1.50
Monocular PDs—R: 33; L: 31
CONVENTIONAL CENTRATION OF THE Vertical fitting cross heights are as follows:
PROGRESSIVE LENS
R: 25
The fitting cross is to be positioned exactly in front of
L: 23
the wearer’s pupil and comes visibly marked on the
lens. It is the only reference point for both horizontal 3The fitting cross is not the most important reference point for the sur-
and vertical lens positioning for the dispenser. It is also facing lab. For the surfacing laboratory the MRP remains paramount.
100 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

Frame dimensions are as follows:

A = 50
B = 40
DBL = 20
The reader should answer the following questions:
• How much horizontal decentration is required per
lens?
• How much fitting cross raise or drop is needed per
lens?
• How will the right lens appear on a centration device
when correctly centered for blocking?

Solution
First the lens is verified to make sure it has the power
needed. Distance power is checked at the DRP (Figure
5-3). Near add is measured as the difference between
distance and near powers. Near power is measured at FIGURE 5-4 When distance and near powers are low, the
the NRP (Figure 5-4). If distance or add powers are high, near power may be verified with the use of the back vertex
the glasses are turned around in the lensmeter and the power as shown in the figure. In any case, the near power
add power is measured as the difference between front must be read through the near circle. (The more correct
vertex distance and near powers. method, however, is to find the near add using front vertex
It should be noted that the add power appears as a powers.) (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
hidden marking on the front surface of the lens and is dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
generally reliable. (For additional information see
Chapters 6 and 11 in Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
Ophthalmic Dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth- Vertical prism in progressives. The accuracy of Rx prism
Heinemann.) or freedom from unwanted prism is measured at the
PRP as shown in Figure 5-5. Key words here are unwanted
prism. Up to this point, any unprescribed prism at the
MRP (vis-à-vis, PRP) has been considered unwanted
prism. With progressives, this is an exception.
Progressive lenses that are plus in power, or even low
minus in power, are thicker than single vision lenses in
those same powers. This is because the progressive
surface cuts into the front of the lens to achieve the
needed plus power change (Figure 5-6, A). The lens must
have more center thickness to keep the bottom of the
lens from getting too thin.
To overcome this problem, the surfacing laboratory
can grind base down4 prism into right and left lenses.
This allows the lenses to be made thinner (Figure 5-6, B
through E). If both lenses have “small” (less the 4Δ5)
and equal amounts of base down prism, the wearer’s
vision and comfort is undisturbed.
Equal amounts of base down prism (called yoked base
down prism) found at the PRPs are not considered
FIGURE 5-3 To verify distance power on a progressive
addition lens, the lens must be positioned with the
unwanted vertical prism. This applies only to vertical
incomplete circle around the lensmeter aperture as shown.
4In some instances equal amounts of base up prism may be
This ensures that the power reading will not be affected by
appropriate. (See Meister D: Understanding prism-thinning, Lens
the changing power in the progressive zone. (From Brooks Talk 26(35), 1998.)
CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, 5Sheedy JE, Parsons SD: Vertical yoked prism—patient acceptance
Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.) and postural adjustment, Ophthal Physiol Optics 7:255, 1987.
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 101

A B C

FIGURE 5-5 To verify prismatic effect, the lens is verified

at the prism reference point (PRP) located by the central dot
directly below the fitting cross. (For other lenses, the PRP is
referred to as the major reference point, or MRP.) (From
Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2,
Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.) D E
FIGURE 5-6 This figure shows how base down prism may
prism and is acceptable only when right and left lenses be used to thin plus- and low-minus-powered lenses. A, A
have the same amount of vertical prism in the same progressive lens with no power in the distance portion in
base direction. cross-section. The dotted line shows where the lens would
have been without the progressive zone of the lens cutting
into the lower thickness of the lens. The lens must be made
Calculating horizontal decentration. Horizontal de-
thicker overall to allow for thinning in the lower half by the
centration per lens must be calculated using monocular
progressive section. B, By adding base down prism to the
PDs. PDs are specified monocularly because the pro- lens, the bottom gains thickness, but not the top. C, The lens
gressive corridor must begin directly below the eye. If the with base down prism added. The whole lens is thicker than
corridor is not centered exactly, the eye will be too far it needs to be. D, Now the lens can be thinned without
to one side of the corridor. This means the wearer will not changing the power of the lens. The hatched area is the lens
be able to use the intermediate viewing area contained thickness that may be removed without affecting lens optics
within the progressive corridor. or without over-thinning the lens. E, The lens when finished.
For a progressive lens, the horizontal decentration It is significantly thinner that it was as seen in A. (From
for a monocular PD is calculated in the same way as it is Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2,
for a single vision lens. Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.)

A + DBL
Decentration = – Monocular PD Even through progressive lenses have a near area of
2
viewing, the near PD is not specified. Most progressive
50 + 20
= – 33 addition lenses have a standard inset for the near zone.
2
The amount of inset may be constant or may increase
= 2 mm
slightly with higher add powers.6 Either way it will not
Therefore horizontal decentration for the right lens is affect centration for edging when monocular distance
2 mm. Horizontal decentration for the left lens is PDs are used.
calculated as follows:
6Practitioners normally do not specify an inset for the near zone of a
A + DBL progressive addition lens. When inset is specified it may be achieved
Decentration = – Monocular PD
2 by rotation of the semifinished lens blank. This is normally done in
50 + 20 the surfacing process. Spherocylinder lenses must be rotated before
= – 31 surfacing. However, if a sphere lens already has been surfaced, it may
2 be rotated in a manner similar to the method used to rotate round-
= 4 mm segment lenses to increase or decrease segment inset.
102 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

Calculating the vertical position of the lens. After hori-

zontal lens positioning has been determined, the verti-
cal position of the lens must be calculated. For the right
lens the fitting cross raise or drop above or below the
horizontal midline is calculated as follows:
10 10
B
Raise or drop = Fitting cross height – 5 5
2
40 0 0
= 25 –
2
5 5
= 25 – 20
= +5 mm
10 10
Therefore the fitting cross raise for the right lens is 5 mm.
For the left lens the fitting cross height is as follows: 35
B 28
Raise or drop = Fitting cross height – 25
2
22
40
= 23 –
2
= 23 – 20
= +3 mm FIGURE 5-7 Progressive lenses using a fitting cross system
require that the fitting cross be used for reference in
Therefore the fitting cross raise for the left lens is 3 mm. centration for edging instead of the prism reference point
(PRP). In the right-eye example shown, a 5-mm raise and a
Positioning the lens in the centration device. The right 2-mm inset are required. The near portion should
lens is placed face up in the centration device. Because automatically fall into place.
decentration is inward, this right lens is moved to the
right. On the centration device the movable line is shifted
2 mm to the right. The fitting cross is placed on the of markings, depending upon manufacturer. This author
movable line. It is then raised 5 mm above the horizontal refers to them simply as circles. These circles may be
line. Care should be taken to make certain that the 180 found by viewing the front surface carefully. Once located,
line marked on the lens is still exactly horizontal. the centers of these circles should be dotted with a
Figure 5-7 shows the right lens correctly positioned on marking pen.
the centration device. Each manufacturer provides a lens blank chart that
For a summary of how progressive addition lenses are is drawn to scale and shows the location of each of the
positioned for edging, see Box 5-1. points on the progressive lens (Figure 5-8). Using that
chart, the lens is placed on the chart with the dotted
hidden circles on the hidden circles shown in the drawing.
CENTRATION OF THE PROGRESSIVE LENS The accuracy of the lens markings is verified, especially
USING HIDDEN ‘CIRCLES’ the location of the fitting cross. If they are wrong, the old
Progressive addition lenses come from the surfacing markings are removed and the marks redrawn on the lens.
laboratory with brightly colored, non–water-soluble marks The lens is verified as the following are checked:
that are stamped on the front surface of the lens. These distance power at the DRP, prism power at the PRP, and
marks are used to indicate locations of the fitting cross, near power at the NRP.
distance reference point, prism reference point, and
near reference point. These marks may have been on Positioning the Progressive Lens for Blocking
the semifinished lens blank when the surfacing Using Hidden Circles
laboratory received the lens. Or they may have worn off Because the fitting cross location is based on the location
during surfacing and been re-marked by the surfacing of the hidden circles, a more accurate way to position a
laboratory. In either case, because of human error lens for blocking is to use the hidden circles instead.
these marks may not be exact. Most of the procedure using hidden circles is the same
So that the accuracy of these marks may be verified, as the conventional method using the fitting cross.
the lens comes with two hidden circles on the front However, two main differences exist.
surface of the lens. These marks are usually circles, The first difference is that the two circles are used to
although they may be triangles, squares, or other forms horizontally center the lens. To do this, the movable
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 103

BOX 5-1 BOX 5-2

Conventional Steps in the Centration of Steps in the Use of Hidden Circles in the
Progressive Addition Lenses Centration of Progressive Addition
Lenses
1. Locate the hidden circles found on the front surface of
the lens, and dot the centers of the two hidden circles. 1. Find the location of the hidden circles on the front
2. Place the lens on the manufacturer’s lens blank surface of the lens and dot the centers of the two
chart. The dots must be on the indicated hidden hidden circles.
circle locations. Verify the accuracy of the lens 2. Calculate distance decentration per lens using
markings, especially the location of the fitting cross. monocular PDs.
If they are wrong, remove the old markings and 3. Calculate the fitting cross raise.
redraw the marks on the lens. 4. If the manufacturer’s vertical distance from the level
3. Verify the lens by checking distance power at the DRP, of the two hidden circles up to the fitting cross is
prism power at the PRP, and near power at the NRP. not known, measure the distance from the PRP up
4. Calculate distance decentration per lens using to the fitting cross on the manufacturer’s lens blank
monocular PDs. chart to find it.
5. Calculate fitting cross raise or drop. 5. Subtract the manufacturer’s PRP/fitting cross
6. Preset the movable line in the centration device for distance from the fitting cross raise. This is the
the distance decentration. hidden circle raise or drop.
7. Place the lens face up in the centration device and 6. Preset the movable line in the centration device for
position the fitting cross on the movable line. the distance decentration.
8. Move the lens up until the fitting cross is at the 7. Place the lens in the centration device. Pretend that
fitting cross height. the dotted hidden circles are the outer edge of a
9. Verify that the 180 markings on the lens are parallel bifocal segment. Position these two circles so that
to the horizontal lines in the centration device. they are on the bifocal border lines on either side of
10. Block the lens for edging. the movable vertical line. (If no set of lines has the
same width as these hidden circles, space them
evenly from each line.)
8. Move the lens up or down until the hidden circles
line is first set for the distance decentration. Then the are at the hidden circle raise or drop.
practitioner pretends that the dotted hidden circles are 9. Verify that the hidden circles on the lens are both
the outer edge of a bifocal segment. These hidden circles on the same horizontal line in the centration device.
are generally about 34 mm apart. Knowing this, it is 10. Block the lens for edging.
possible to position these two circles so that they are
centered using the 35-mm bifocal segment bordering
lines to the left and right of the movable vertical line. If
Add: +2.25
no set of lines has the same width as these hidden circles,
Monocular PDs—R:32; L: 32
then they are spaced evenly from each line.
The second difference is in the vertical positioning Vertical fitting cross heights are as follows:
of the lens. The hidden circle is used for raise or drop
R: 24
instead of the fitting cross.
L: 24
To find the hidden circle raise or drop, the practitioner
determines the distance from the PRP up to the fitting The frame dimensions are as follows:
cross. This may be done by measuring the distance from
A = 48
the PRP up to the fitting cross on the manufacturer’s
B = 38
lens blank chart. This distance is subtracted from the
DBL = 20
fitting cross raise. This is the hidden circle raise or
drop. The two hidden circles are positioned at this level The progressive addition lens to be used has a 4 mm
(Box 5-2). distance from the PRP to the fitting cross. Using the
hidden circles instead of the fitting cross, the right lens
Example 5-2 is positioned for blocking.
The following is an order for a lens and frame:
Solution
R: -1.00 –0.50 × 5 The hidden circles are located and the prescription
L: -1.00 –0.50 × 175 verified as accurate.
FIGURE 5-8 The manufacturer’s centration chart is used for several different purposes. A
laboratory may use it to mark the location of the fitting cross, prism reference point,
distance reference point and near reference point with ink or by using a decal. It also may
be used to find out if the lens blank is large enough for the frame chosen.
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 105

The distance decentration for the right lens is as

follows:
A + DBL
Decentration = – Monocular PD
2
48 + 20 10 10
= – 32
2
68 5 5
= – 32
2
0 0
= 34 – 32
= 2 mm 5 5
The fitting cross raise for the right lens is as follows: 10 10
B
Raise or drop = Fitting cross height –
2
35
38 28
= 24 –
2 25
= 24 – 19 22
= +5 mm

Next the raise or drop of the hidden circles is found by

subtraction of the PRP/fitting cross distance from the FIGURE 5-9 Progressive addition lenses can be centered
for blocking by using the hidden circles instead of the fitting
fitting cross raise, calculated as follows:
cross. The fitting cross may be mismarked accidentally and
Hidden circle raise = Fitting cross raise might introduce error. The hidden circles are molded onto
PRP the lens surface. Their location never changes. To use the
–
Fitting cross distance hidden circles, the practitioner finds them and puts a dot in
or the center of each. These dots are used for reference. The
dots are aligned in the centration device using the 35-mm
Hidden circle raise = 5 – 4 = +1 mm segment reference lines.
The movable line is set for 2 mm and the hidden
circles are centered between the appropriate bifocal
border line. Then the dotted hidden circles are moved The +2.50 add gives good vision at near (40 cm
up 1 mm from the horizontal line (Figure 5-9). working distance). A bifocal lens would provide good
vision at distance and at near. If sharp vision at an
intermediate viewing distance were required, a trifocal
Specialty Progressive Addition lens could be chosen. For this prescription, a trifocal
lens with a 50% intermediate would have a +1.25 D
Lenses power through the intermediate portion. (Of a +2.50
PROGRESSIVES FOR IMMEDIATE AND add power, 50% is +1.25 D.) Some people want clear
NEAR WORKING DISTANCES working vision at intermediate and near but would wear
other glasses or no glasses for distance viewing. In this
People who work for extended periods of time at inter-
case, the intermediate lens power of +1.25 is placed in
mediate and near distances appreciate having a larger
the upper portion of a bifocal lens and a +1.25 D add is
viewing area in their eyeglasses than is afforded with
used.
standard progressive add lenses. Progressives designed
Because
with a longer progressive zone and lower “add” also can
be made with less unwanted peripheral astigmatism (+1.25 “Distance” power) + (+1.25 Add power) = +2.50 Total
and a resulting wider field of view. Some refer to these near power
lenses as “variable focus lenses” to distinguish them from
the net power at near still ends up being +2.50 D.
other progressive addition lenses. The following is how
these lenses work.
Advantages of an Intermediate/Near
For example, a person needs the following
Progressive over a Regular Progressive
prescription:
Should not the practitioner just use a regular pro-
R: plano gressive lens instead of specialty lens? In the above
L: plano example, why not just put +1.25 D of power in the distance
Add: +2.50 portion of a regular progressive and give a +1.25 add
106 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

power? The total power at near will still end up being

+2.50 D for either lens.
The answer is no. A regular progressive should not
have the prescription changed for intermediate and near
use. A regular progressive lens designed for general +1.25
purpose wear has a different corridor position and length
of corridor between distance and near viewing areas
than does an intermediate/near design (Figure 5-10,
Corridor length
A). An intermediate/near design increases the length (1.25 D change)
of the corridor so that it covers more of the lens (Figure
5-10, B).
Because the practitioner wants +1.25 D of power in
+2.50
the straight-ahead position for intermediate viewing,
the long progressive corridor allows the progressive zone A
to be made much wider. This results in more usable
lens area for intermediate and near, which is desirable. Standard progressive
Therefore the specialty lens is great for an office
environment but inappropriate for walking around or
driving. Although the general purpose progressive is
great for walking around or driving, it is not optimized
for many close- and intermediate-environment working
situations. +1.25
Now a large variety of these types of “occupational”
progressives are available for intermediate and near
use. Each brand of lens varies somewhat to avoid patent
infringements and meet different design philosophy Corridor length
goals. Table 5-1 shows a number of designs. All lenses (1.25 D change)
are intended to result in a near viewing power equivalent
to the near viewing power the wearer’s normal presbyopia-
correcting prescription would have. +2.50

Originally Marketed as ‘Reader Replacements’

B
Originally these designs were thought of as “reader
replacements.” The intention was to find a product that
would be an attractive alternative for individuals who Intermediate/near specialty progressive
wore single-vision reading glasses and no distance pre-
FIGURE 5-10 This is a simplified comparison of a
scription at all. Although this is still a prime target market
standard progressive (A) and an intermediate/near specialty
for the lens, it fills an important need for anyone who progressive (B), both with a 1.25 D power change along the
wants a wider and higher intermediate viewing area and length of the progressive corridor. By lengthening the
a wider near portion. progressive corridor and/or maintaining a low add power,
the manufacturer can design the corridor considerably
Ordering these Lenses larger. This increases the area of clear, useable vision for
Lens manufacturers recommend ordering the inter- intermediate and near viewing. (These lenses are not a
mediate/near style progressive lens in a variety of ways. representation of any particular existing lens design.)
Some recommend using monocular PDs; others say that
binocular PDs are sufficient. Some ask for near power
(meaning the sum of the distance power plus the add
power); others ask for the standard distance power/ Layout for Intermediate/Near Progressives
near add prescription. Some request a fitting height; Layout for edging of intermediate/near-style progressives
others require none at all. varies between that of a single vision lens and a pro-
In reality, no matter what the recommendation, the gressive lens.
laboratory will be expected to take whatever information If the brand of lenses ordered requires only distance
it is given and change it into the format required for PDs and no fitting height, the lens is treated as if it were
the brand of lens ordered. a single vision lens. The only difference is that instead
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 107

TABLE 5-1
Variations in Intermediate/Near Specialty Progressives*
LENS POWERS USED TO REQUIRED PDs POWER CHANGE(S) FROM RECOMMENDED FITTING
ORDER LENS TOP TO BOTTOM OF LENS REFERENCE POINT

Sola Accessa Near Binocular near 0.75 D for adds of +1.50 On midline
and below
1.25 D for adds of +1.75
and above
Rodenstock Distance and add powers Monocular distance 1.00 D for adds of +1.75 Pupil center
Officeb and below
1.75 D for adds of +2.00
and above
Zeiss RDc Distance and add powers Monocular distance 0.50 D less power change Pupil center
than the normal add
Essilor Interviewd Near Monocular near 0.80 for all add powers Lower lid
Hoya Desktope Distance and add powers Monocular distance 0.75 D for adds of +1.50 Pupil center
and below 1.25 D for adds of +1.75
and +2.00
1.75 D for adds of +2.25
and above
AO Technicaf Distance and add powers Monocular distance Full add power Pupil center or 2-3 mm
below

*These are examples of specialty progressives available at the time of writing. They are intended as examples only. New lens designs will continue to appear and
availability will change rapidly.
aSola Access, AOSola, Petaluma, Calif.
bRodenstock Office, Rodenstock North America, Inc., Lockbourne, Ohio.
cZeiss RD, Carl Zeiss Optical, Inc., Chester, Va.
dEssilor Interview, Essilor of America, St. Petersburg, Fla.
eHoya Desktop, Hoya Lens of America, Bethel, Conn.
fAO Technica, American Optical, Southbridge, Mass.

of spotting the optical centers and using these to lay out Example 5-3
the lens, fitting crosses are used. Fitting crosses will be A Sola Access lens is ordered. The order comes to the
present already on the lens when it arrives from the laboratory with the following information:
surfacing laboratory. If the fitting cross is not on the
R: +0.75 –0.50 × 180
lens, its position may be located by using the hidden
L: +0.75 –0.50 × 180
circles on the lens surface and the manufacturer’s lens
Add: +2.25
blank chart, just as with ordinary progressive lenses.
PD = 66/62
Other designs may ask for monocular PDs and fitting
Frame:
heights. The fitting height may be based on the location
A = 48 mm
of the lower lid, as with bifocals, or the pupil center, as
B = 36 mm
with progressives. In both cases, fitting height is changed
DBL = 20
to raise or drop because centration for edging requires
raise or drop. The Sola Access lens comes with two possible
Some lens designs come in only one power range power ranges; +0.75 D and +1.25 D. With the help of
between upper and lower portions: +1.00 D, for example. Table 5-1, the reader should answer the following
Others may have two, such as the Sola Access lens questions:
(AOSola, Petaluma, Calif.) with +0.75 and 1.25. The
higher range is for higher adds. Still others have a • What power should be used for the Sola Access lens?
variable range that changes based on add power. • Power range has not been specified by the prescriber.
The following text provides some examples of how Which power range is appropriate?
some intermediate/near-style specialty progressives are • How would the lens be laid out for edging?
ordered. • What power will there be in the top part of the lens?
108 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

Solution
1. The Sola Access lens is ordered using the near power,
just like reading glasses. The near power for this
prescription is found as follows:
+0.75 –0.50 x 180
+0.75 –0.50 × 180 (Distance)
+2.25 D sphere +(Add)

= +3.00 –0.50 × 180 =(Near power) (2.25 D change)

2. According to the manufacturer recommendations,

people with add powers of +1.75 D or more should
use the +1.25 D power range. This means that for a +3.00 –0.50 x 180
prescription with a +2.25 add, the +1.25 D power
range lens is chosen. A
3. The lens does not need a fitting height and the near
PD is used. The lenses are spotted with the lensmeter Standard progressive
after finding the MRPs. The lens is decentered using
the following equation:
A + DBL – Near PD
Decentration =
2
48 + 20 – 62
=
2 +1.75 –0.50 x 180
= 3 mm
Because the lenses were not ordered with an MRP
height, nor were they required to be, no vertical
(1.25 D change)
decentration exists.
4. Because the power range of the lens is 1.25 D, the
power in the upper part of the lens is 1.25 D less than
the near power. The near power is +3.00 –0.50 × 180.
+3.00 –0.50 x 180
Therefore the power in the upper portion is as
follows:
+3.00 –0.50 × 180 (Near power) B
–1.25 D – (Power range)
Intermediate/near specialty progressive
= +1.75 –0.50 × 180 = (Power in the upper portion
of the lens) FIGURE 5-11 This schematically compares a standard
This is shown and further explained in Figure 5-11. progressive (A) and the Sola Access intermediate/near
specialty progressive (B; AOSola, Petaluma, Calif.) in the text
example. Both lenses are for the same individual, and both
Example 5-4
are derived from the same lens prescription. A, General-
A Rodenstock Cosmolit Office lens (Rodenstock North
purpose-wear lens. B, Lens for intermediate and near use
America, Inc., Lockbourne, Ohio) is ordered for the only.
following prescription and frame:
+1.25 -0.75 × 90
+1.25 -0.75 × 90 • Because the power range has not been specified by
Add: +1.00 the prescriber, what power range is chosen?
Monocular distance PDs—R: 33 L: 34 • What will the powers in the lower and upper portions
Fitting heights to pupil center—R: 24 L: 24 of the lens be?
Frame: • How will the right lens be laid out for edging?
A = 50
B = 38 Solution
DBL = 19 1. (Which power range is chosen?) The Rodenstock
With the help of Table 5-1, the reader should answer Office lens comes in two power ranges: 1.00 D and
the following questions about this order: 1.75 D. The add power prescribed is +1.00 D.
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 109

power of the prescription. This is as follows:

+1.25 –0.75 × 90 (Distance power)
+1.00 +(Add power)
+1.25 –0.75 x 90 +2.25 –0.75 × 90 =(Near power)
Now, which power is expected in the upper portion
of the lens? To find the expected power in the upper
(1.00 D change) portion of the lens, knowing near power is +2.50
–0.75 × 90, and a range of 1.00 D, the practitioner
can work backward from the near power.
+2.25 –0.75 × 90 (Near power)
+2.25 –0.75 x 90 –1.00 –(Power range)
+1.25 –0.75 × 90 =(Power in the upper portion
A of the lens)
Standard progressive This concept is demonstrated and further explained
in Figure 5-12.
3. (How will the right lens be laid out for edging?) The
Office lens is fit like a regular progressive. The lens
uses a fitting cross that is above the MRP7 and based
on the distance PD. The near position of the lens is
+1.25 –0.75 x 90 inset from the fitting cross so that the near optics are
properly positioned for near viewing even when using
the distance PD. This fitting procedure is the same as
Intermediate
power (1.00 D change)
is used for regular progressive lenses.
The lens comes from the surfacing laboratory
with the fitting cross marked. (If the lens is not
marked, the hidden circles are found on the front
+2.25 –0.75 x 90
surface of the lens and the fitting cross and 180 line
are re-marked using the manufacturer’s centration
chart, which will be similar to the centration chart
that is shown in Figure 5-8.) For the right lens, the
B practitioner must find the distance decentration and
Intermediate/near specialty progressive fitting cross raise.

FIGURE 5-12 This simplified diagram shows the example Distance decentration is calculated as follows:
problem that compares a standard progressive (A) to a A + DBL
Rodenstock Office intermediate/near design specialty progres- Distance decentration = – Monocular PD
2
sive lens (B; Rodenstock North America, Inc., Lockbourne, Ohio)
50 + 19
with a 1.00 D power range. The specialty lens is inappro- = – 33
priate for all-purpose use such as driving, even though the 2
power in the upper area is identical to the distance power. In 69
= – 33
too many situations the overplussed straight-ahead gaze 2
through lens B hinders normal distance vision. Distance = 34.5 – 33
viewing is overplussed because straight-ahead gaze, with the = 1.5 mm inset
head erect, will be through the progressive zone, where
power is more than called for in the distance prescription. Fitting cross raise is as follows:
Straight-ahead viewing in lens A will not be overplussed. B
Raise or drop = Fitting cross height –
2
38
= 24 –
2
According to Rodenstock, adds of +1.50 and below = 24 – 19
normally use a power range of +1.00 D. Therefore = +5 mm raise
the power range chosen is +1.00 D.
2. (Identify upper and lower lens powers.) The power 7Major reference point (MRP) and prism reference point (PRP) are
in the lower portion of the lens is equal to the near identical.
110 C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S

Using the Full Range of Available

Intermediate/Near Lenses Distance
Not every wearer’s intermediate and near working
situations are identical. Some people may work only
with a computer in an enclosed environment. Others
may work at a control panel with longer intermediate I n t e r m e diate
distances than the computer user would require. Intermediate
For this reason a specialty progressive lens may be
ordered with a power range that does not correspond Near
to the add power normally recommended for that pre-
scription. A skilled practitioner who knows the variations
in power ranges available from different manufacturers
can tailor the selected lens to the needs of the wearer FIGURE 5-13 The Technica lens (American Optical,
and choose the brand according to the needed power Southbridge, Mass.) is designed for computer use while a
range. small distance viewing area is preserved in the upper part of
the lens. The frame must have a large enough vertical size or
much of the distance portion may be cut away during
SPECIALTY COMPUTER LENSES edging. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
Intermediate/near-type specialty lenses often are re-
commended for computer users. But if the computer
user still has a need to see distant objects clearly, the AO facturer also recommends a minimum of 19 mm between
Technica lens is an option. This lens has an extended the fitting cross and the top of the frame. Reducing this
(lengthened) progressive corridor to allow an inter- 19 mm distance results in an unintended reduction in
mediate viewing area that is deeper and wider than the distance viewing area. If the laboratory notes a
standard progressives. This moves the distance portion significant reduction in these recommended minimums,
into the very top of the lens (Figure 5-13). the account should be contacted with appropriate
Layout for edging is done in exactly the same manner recommendations for solving the problem.8
as for conventional progressive lenses. Prescription infor-
mation is also the same: distance power, add power,
fitting cross heights, and monocular PDs. Because this 8For more information on specialty progressives related to fitting and
lens has a long progressive corridor, the manufacturer dispensing, see Chapter 11 of Brooks CW, Borish I: System for
recommends a 23-mm fitting cross height. The manu- ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following points on a progressive 3. Which of the following reference points is used
addition lens is a synonym for the MRP (major for lens layout of progressive addition lenses
reference point)? during centration?

a. Fitting cross a. The fitting cross

b. DRP b. The major reference point
c. NRP c. The center of the near progressive zone
d. PRP
e. None of the above 4. True or False? In the simplest terms, the
centration of progressive add lenses is done as if
2. True or False? Binocular PDs always work fine for the lens were a single vision lens.
progressive addition lenses.
C H A P T E R 5 C E N T R AT I O N O F P R O G R E S S I V E A D D I T I O N L E N S E S 111

5. A progressive lens is to be marked for edging. The 9. True or False? An intermediate/near specialty
frame and PD dimensions are as follows: progressive can be worn for general purposes if
these conditions are met: The power in the upper
Frame: A = 51 half of the specialty lens must be made equal to
B = 42 the distance power of the general-purpose
DBL = 17 progressive without changing the total near power
Monocular PDs—R: 31; L: 33 of the lens.
Fitting cross heights—R: 27; L: 26
10. True or False? All intermediate/near specialty
How much raise and decentration are required progressives have close to the same
for each lens? intermediate/near power range options.

6. A progressive lens is ordered with the following 11. A Zeiss RD lens (Carl Zeiss Optical, Inc., Chester,
parameters: Va.) is ordered. Following is the regular lens
prescription:
Frame: A = 47
B = 39 R: –050 –0.50 × 170
DBL = 20 L: –0.25 –0.75 × 5
Monocular PDs—R: 29.5; L: 31.0 Add: +2.50
Fitting cross heights—R: 24 mm; L: 24 mm
Identify the powers in the lower and upper
How much raise and decentration are required portions of the Zeiss RD lens.
for each lens?
12. The prescription in question 11 is now ordered
7. Use the hidden circles on this progressive for a Sola Access lens. Identify the powers in the
addition lens to lay the lens out for edging. lower and upper portions of the Sola Access lens.

Frame: A = 48 13. An order for an AO Technica lens (American

B = 38 Optical, Southbridge, Mass.) has right and left
DBL = 19 fitting cross heights of 23 mm. The B dimension
Monocular PDs—R: 31.5 mm; L: 32.0 mm of the frame is 35 mm. Which of the following
Fitting cross heights—R: 22 mm; L: 23 mm statements is true?

If the lens fitting cross is 4 mm above the lens PRP, a. There will not be enough reading area, but the
what hidden circle raise or drop is required for each distance viewing portion will be fine.
lens? What distance decentration is needed? b. There will not be enough area for distance
viewing, but reading will be fine.
8. Use the hidden circles on this progressive c. There will not be enough area for either reading
addition lens to lay the following lens out for or distance viewing.
edging: d. There will be sufficient viewing area for both
distance and near viewing.
Frame: A = 46
B = 33
DBL= 18
Monocular PDs—R: 29.5 mm; L: 28.5 mm
Fitting cross heights—R: 20 mm; L: 21 mm

If the lens fitting cross is 2.5 mm above the lens

PRP, what hidden circle raise or drop is required for
each lens? What distance decentration is needed?
 Centration of
6 Segmented
Multifocal
Lenses

Segmented Multifocals
The near viewing segment area in conventional multi-
focal lenses has a clearly demarcated line that borders
it. This can be used as a stable, convenient reference
when positioning the lens for blocking.
The vertical location of the segment is measured for
each wearer. The dispenser gives this vertical location
in terms of segment height. The optical laboratory
must convert segment height to segment raise or drop.
The dispenser gives the horizontal location of the
segment in terms of the wearer’s distance and near PDs.
The laboratory must convert to segment inset relative
to the boxing center of the edged lens.

SEGMENT HEIGHT
The dispenser specifies vertical segment location as
segment height. Segment height is the vertical distance
from the lowest position on the boxed lens shape to the
level of the top of the bifocal or trifocal (Figure 6-1).
This is the most logical method for measuring in the
dispensary. It is not the measurement the laboratory
personnel must use in making the lens.

SEGMENT DROP OR RAISE

In the laboratory, segment height must be specified as
segment drop or segment raise. The two definitions of
segment drop or raise are as follows:
Definition 1: The vertical distance from the major
reference point (MRP) to the level of the segment
top.
 Segment drop
(2 mm)

B (40 mm)

B
2

Segment height
(18 mm)

FIGURE 6-1 The vertical position of the segment top can be expressed either as segment
drop or segment height.

Definition 2: The vertical distance from the horizontal this measurement is then subtracted from the segment
midline of the edged lens shape to the level of the height. If the direction from the midline to the segment
segment top. This is the definition commonly top is down, the resulting number will be negative. This
used in U.S. optical laboratory practice. is segment drop. If the number is positive, the segment
top is above the horizontal midline. This is called
Normally these measurements end up being at the
segment raise and is expressed in the following formula:
same location because the MRP usually falls on
the horizontal midline of the edged lens anyway. In the B
Segment drop (or raise) = Segment height –
following two instances these two measurements would 2
not be the same:
Example 6-1
1. When a specific MRP height is specified on the A frame has the following dimensions:
order
2. When the segment top is above the middle of the A (eyesize) = 52 mm
edged lens and the surfacing laboratory personnel B = 40 mm
place the MRP above the line so that it may be found DBL = 20 mm
when the lenses are verified The segment height specified on the order is 18 mm.
For this discussion, the author assumes that the MRP is What is the segment drop or raise?
positioned on the horizontal midline. Therefore it does
not matter which definition is used because both Solution
answers will be the same. Only the vertical frame measure is important for
segment drop. In this example the following
calculation is applied:
CONVERTING FROM SEGMENT HEIGHT
TO SEGMENT DROP (OR RAISE) Segment drop = Segment height –
B
2
To convert from segment height to segment drop, the 40
same procedure is used as described for calculation of = 18 –
2
vertical positioning of the major reference point for
= 18 – 20
single vision lenses, and for fitting cross height for = –2 mm
progressive addition lenses.
First the vertical dimension of the frame’s lens Because the number is negative the answer is 2 mm of
opening is determined. This is the B dimension. Half segment drop (Figure 6-1).

113
114 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

SEGMENT INSET
(A + DBL) – Distance PD
Decentration =
The near segment is moved nasally or inset from the 2
position of the major reference point to allow for
But segmented multifocals are positioned in terms of
convergence of the eyes while a person is reading or
the near segment (Figure 6-2). Segment decentration is
working up close. (Convergence is the inward turning
calculated using near PD. This segment decentration
of the eyes that occurs when viewing objects close up.)
per lens is called total segment inset or simply total inset.
The amount that the segment is nasally inset from the
MRP is known as segment inset. Written as an equation, Total inset =
(A + DBL) – Near PD
segment inset is defined as half the distance between 2
distance and near PDs. (Note: The amount of near segment displacement
also can be thought of as distance decentration plus
Distance PD – Near PD segment inset. This probably is why the name is total
Segment inset =
2 inset.)

Example 6-3
Example 6-2 A frame has the following dimensions:
How much would segment inset be for a bifocal lens
worn by a person with a distance PD of 69 and a near A = 52 mm
PD of 66? B = 40 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Solution The wearer’s PD equals 66/62. What is the total inset?
Because segment inset is the difference between
distance PD and near PD, divided by 2, the segment Solution
inset would be equal to the following:
(A + DBL) – Near PD
Total inset =
69 – 66 2
Segment inset =
2 (50 + 20) – 62
=
3 2
= 10
2 =
= 1.5 mm 2
= 5 mm
making segment inset equal to 1.5 mm. Therefore the total segment inset per lens is 5 mm.

TOTAL INSET Flat-Top Multifocals

When a single vision lens is laid out for blocking, the
reference point on the lens used for decentration is HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: CENTRATION
the MRP. When laying out a segmented multifocal lens USING A LENS PROTRACTOR
for blocking, the practitioner uses the center of the lens To help in understanding the mechanics of multifocal
segment as a reference for decentration. lens positioning, the process can be described initially
The distance between the centers of the left and for hand marking with the aid of a lens protractor.
right multifocal segments is equal to the wearer’s This process is seldom used, but an understanding of it
near PD. So when the multifocal order is written, the can be helpful in visualization of the different points
dispenser specifies the desired distance between on the lens.
segment centers as the wearer’s near PD. For the The intersection of the main horizontal and vertical
dispenser, near PD is the most convenient and logical lines on the protractor denotes the location of the
measure to use. boxing center of the edged lens. The lens is positioned
The optical laboratory uses the near PD to find with use of the center of the multifocal segment as a
needed measurements. To specify horizontal segment reference. The midpoint on the top of the widest part
placement for edging purposes, the correct position for of the segment is found and dotted. With practice this
the segment is the horizontal distance from the boxing can be done visually. Until then, the protractor has a
center of the lens. grid upon which the segment may be centered.
Decentration of the MRP for single vision was Now the lens is placed face down on the lens
figured in terms of distance PD. protractor. It is moved laterally until the centrally
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 115

Total inset

Decentration
(distance)
Segment inset

MRP

Segment drop

Segment
width
Segment
height
Segment depth

FIGURE 6-2 Decentration is sometimes referred to as inset. This must not be confused
with segment inset or total inset. These are difference measures.

placed segment dot is displaced from the intersection

by an amount equal to the total inset. With the segment
center at the correct total inset, the segment top may be
moved up or down to the correct distance above or L
below the horizontal reference line.1 The amount
above or below corresponds to the segment raise or 2 mm
MRP
drop. When this positioning is complete, the segment
will be at the correct height and inset. As a result the
previously spotted MRP also should be properly inset 3 mm
and will be on the horizontal reference line.
A long horizontal line and a short vertical line are
drawn on the lens corresponding to the location of the
center of the lens protractor. This denotes the location
of the boxing center of the edged lens (Box 6-1).

Example 6-4
An order has the following specifications: FIGURE 6-3 The back view of the left lens shows the
relationship between major reference point (MRP) and
R: +1.00 –0.75 × 175 segment positions. The MRP will not necessarily fall in the
L: +1.00 –0.75 × 5 center of the lens.
Add: +2.00
PD: 67/63
Flat-top 28 bifocal, segment height 18 mm
Frame: A = 55
Solution
B = 42
The surfacing process already has positioned the major
DBL = 18
reference point and the cylinder axis orientation
How would the left lens be marked for blocking with use relative to the segment. The MRP and the 180-degree
of a lens protractor? reference dots have been marked on the lens during
the “spotting” process. As in Figure 6-3, these three dots
1This should be parallel to the top of the segment.
horizontal reference line indicates the position of the
horizontal midline on the edged lens if the pattern is made according The lens is placed face down on the lens protractor.
to accepted practices. The segment center must be inset. To find out how
116 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

much, the practitioner must find the amount of total B

Segment drop = Segment height –
segment inset: 2
42
(A + DBL) – Near PD = 18 –
Total inset = 2
2
= 18 – 21
Therefore when the calculation is applied to this = –3 mm
example, the following equation results:
The negative number indicates a segment drop. There-
(55 + 18) – 63
Total inset = fore the segment drop is 3 mm below the horizontal
2
midline.
73 – 63
= Figure 6-4 demonstrates the way in which the lens
2
would be positioned for marking. Because the lens is
10
= face down on the protractor and is a left lens, the segment
5
center is moved 5 mm to the right. The segment top is
= 5 mm
moved 3 mm down. (Because of exactness in surfacing,
The vertical position of the segment line can be the MRP is exactly where it should be. It is 3 mm
simultaneously positioned and is calculated as follows: inward. This is right where it should be when
decentered for the distance PD. It is also exactly on the
180-degree line, where it belongs.2)
To mark the lens by hand, a longer horizontal line
would be drawn along the main horizontal reference
BOX 6-1
line of the protractor and a short vertical line where the
Using a Lens Protractor in the main vertical protractor line crosses the horizontal.
Centration of Flat-Top Multifocals (This was shown previously in the marking of single
vision lenses in Figure 4-6.)
1. Verify the lens for power accuracy and spot it in the
same manner described in Chapter 2 for a single vision
lens.
2. Calculate the total segment inset per lens, as follows:
(A + DBL) – Near PD
Total segment inset per lens = 1
2
3. Calculate the segment drop or raise as follows: L
B
Segment drop (or raise) = Segment height –
2 3 mm

4. Locate and dot the segment center, or dot the center 3 4

of the segment top.
5. Determine whether the lens must be decentered to
–3 mm
the right or to the left. If the lens is facing downward,
a right lens will be decentered to the left and a left
5 mm
lens will be decentered to the right. Normally, a lens
is placed face down (front surface down) on the
protractor. 2
6. Place the lens face down on the lens protractor and
move it laterally until the centrally placed segment dot
is displaced from the intersection by an amount equal
to the total inset.
FIGURE 6-4 The center of the segment may be used for
7. With the segment center at the correct total inset,
horizontal reference and the segment top for vertical
move the segment top up or down to the correct
reference. The four marks at the edge of the lens become
distance above or below the horizontal reference line
reference points for placing the standard cross mark on the
to the correct segment drop or raise.
lens surface when the lens is being marked by hand.
8. Draw a long horizontal line and a short vertical line
on the lens corresponding to the location of the
2Although not the recommended procedure, in this case centration
center of the lens protractor.
could have been accomplished using only the three dots marked by
the lensmeter.
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 117

Step 5. The vertical reference line in the instrument is

USING A CENTRATION INSTRUMENT
moved to the right or left by the amount of decentra-
WITH FLAT-TOP MULTIFOCALS
tion calculated. In this example the vertical reference
The process for centration of flat-top multifocals is done line would be moved 4 mm to the left.
in about the same way with a centration instrument as
it was done with a lens protractor, but it is easier. An Step 6. The amount of segment drop or raise required
example problem may help explain the process. is calculated. In this case, the following calculation
applies:
Example 6-5
B
A prescription for a flat-top lens reads as follows: Segment drop = Segment height –
2
R: –2.50 –1.75 × 10 38
= 15 –
L: –2.75 –1.50 × 171 2
Add: +1.25 = 15 – 19
PD: 63/60 = –4 mm
Segment height = 15 mm
Because the number is negative, the vertical movement
Frame: A = 50
of the segment top is downward, indicating a segment
B = 38
drop.
DBL = 18
How would the left lens be centered and marked for Step 7. The lens is placed face up in the instrument and
edging? the segment is aligned between the segment border
lines. Centration instruments have a variety of methods
Solution for bordering the outer edges of the segment so that
Step 1. The practitioner verifies the lens for power and the segment center will not have to be located by hand.
MRP location. The location of the MRP is spotted with In this example, the left lens has been placed face up
the lensmeter. (Even though the lens has been spotted, for blocking. The nasal, segment side will be to the left.
these dots are ignored until the lens has been centered The movable vertical line has been positioned 4 mm to
with reference to the segment. After this has been the left of center. Marking the center of the segment is
completed, the location of the dots is checked for not necessary because boundary lines spaced equally to
accuracy.) the left and right of the movable vertical line border
the segment. The segment is centered horizontally
Step 2. If the instrument has blocking capabilities, a when symmetrically enclosed by bordering lines. This is
double-sided adhesive blocking pad is placed on a lens shown in Figure 6-5.
block and the block is mounted on the instrument. The
paper is peeled away from the pad on the block to Step 8. The lens is moved up or down so that the
expose the adhesive. segment top is at the appropriate segment drop or
raise. In the example this is 4 mm below the main
Step 3. The total segment inset required is determined. horizontal reference line.
In the example, total inset is as follows:
Step 9. The handle of the instrument is grasped and
(A + DBL) – Near PD
Total inset = swung into place, or the button or footswitch is pressed.
2
(50 + 18) – 60
This blocks the lens.
= These steps are summarized in Box 6-2.
2
68 – 60
=
2
8
=
2
Catching Errors before the Lens is
= 4 mm Edged
Step 4. The practitioner determines whether the lens Laying out a segmented multifocal is possible using
must be decentered to the right or to the left. Because only the segment for reference. If everything in lens
the lens is to be placed in the centering device face up centration has been done correctly, the near PD and
and is a left lens, the lens must be decentered to the left the segment height should come out exactly right when
(see Figure 4-3, B, and Box 4-1). the lens is edged and placed in the frame. However, the
118 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

BOX 6-2
Using a Centration Device for Flat-Top
Multifocals
10 10
1. Verify the lens for power and MRP location. Spot the
5 5
location of the MRP with the lensmeter.
2. Place the lens block in the instrument.
0 0 3. Determine the total segment inset required:
(A + DBL) – Near PD
5 5 Total inset =
2
10 10 4. Determine whether the lens must be decentered to
the right or to the left. If the lens is convex side up, for
a right lens decenter to the right; for a left lens, to the
35
left.
28
25 5. Position the movable vertical line in the instrument
22 to the right or left by the amount of decentration
calculated.
6. Calculate the amount of segment drop or raise
required:
FIGURE 6-5 This left lens, placed convex side up, has a
2.5-mm distance decentration, a 1.5-mm segment inset, a B
Segment drop = Segment height –
4-mm total inset, and a segment drop of 4 mm. 2
7. Place the lens face up in the instrument and align the
segment between the segment border lines.
completed spectacles may still be unacceptable. There 8. Move the lens up or down so that the segment top is
are several reasons why they might be rejected. The at the indicated segment drop or raise.
following are a few: 9. Grasp the handle of the instrument and swing into
place, or press the button or footswitch. This blocks
• The MRPs of the distance portion of the lenses may the lens.
be either too high or too low.
• The MRPs of the distance portion of the lenses may MRP, Major reference point; DBL, distance between lenses; PD, interpupillary
not be at the same height. This most likely will cause distance.
unwanted vertical prism.
• The distance PD may be too wide or too narrow and
During the centration process the vertical location of
cause unwanted horizontal prism. This happens
the MRP is checked. When the segment drop or raise is
because the segment inset has not been surfaced
correct in the centration instrument, the MRP should
correctly.
be on the main horizontal line. If it is, the MRP height
• The cylinder may be at the wrong axis.
has been placed correctly. This assumes that no specific
If the lens has not been properly surfaced, any or all MRP height has been ordered. If the segment height is
of these errors can occur. They may occur even if the especially high or low, an MRP that is not on the main
lens segment is positioned properly during centration. horizontal line may also be correct. The box on p. 119
The primary reason errors occur is the relationship MRP Placement provides an explanation of this idea.
between the distance MRP and the segment have not If after centering a lens with a flat-top bifocal
been proofed. The following section outlines how these segment, the practitioner discovers that the MRP is
errors happen and how they may be prevented. 2 mm above the horizontal midline as shown in Figure
6-6, is this a problem? In some cases this may be
inconsequential, even normal. But in other instances
CHECKING MAJOR REFERENCE POINT the lens will almost certainly cause the prescription to be
HEIGHT IN THE DISTANCE PORTION unsuitable and should be rejected or returned before
Before edging a lens, the practitioner checks the distance more time is wasted. These two factors are critical in the
power. Sphere and cylinder powers should be correct. decision whether to accept or reject the lens:
With the segment line horizontally straight in the lens-
meter, the cylinder axis should be as ordered. Now the FACTOR 1: Is the second lens in the pair identically surfaced?
lens is spotted. If the second lens in the pair also has its
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 119

MRP Placement

In theory, the dispensary should specify the location of

the major reference point for all single vision and
multifocal lenses. In practice they do not. Therefore some
10 10
choices that perhaps would better be made in the
dispensary must be made in the optical laboratory.
5 5
When a specific MRP height is not given, the surfacing
laboratory must make the decision on where to place it.
0 0
The software program used by the surfacing laboratory
provides the following two options: 5 5
1. The MRP always is placed on the 180-degree line,
regardless of where the top of the segment happens to 10 10
be.
2. The MRP is placed on the 180-degree line unless the
segment is either high and will approach or cross the 35
180-degree line or especially low. 28
25
With the second option the surfacing laboratory sets 22
maximum and minimum distances the MRP can be from
the top of the segment.

Following are some typical maximum and minimum FIGURE 6-6 This figure has one potential problem: The
distances: inset is correct; the axis should also be correct because the
180-degree line marked by the lensmeter is parallel to the
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MINIMUM horizontal; but the major reference point will fall above the
DISTANCE OF MRP ALLOWABLE 180 line if fabricated. This may or may not be a problem,
FROM SEGMENT LINE DISTANCE OF MRP depending on the other lens.
FROM SEGMENT LINE

Bifocals 5 mm 2 mm
Trifocals 1.5 mm 3 mm
FACTOR 2: Are the left and right MRPs at different vertical
heights? The practitioner should note how
Example much farther the MRP is from the segment
A frame has a B dimension of 38 mm, and the lens has line in one lens than it is in the other lens. If
a bifocal segment height of 20 mm. Where would the the difference in heights is more than 1 mm
distance MRP end up being for option 1 and option 2? when the power of the weaker lens is greater
than or equal to ±3.375 D, the lens pair will
Solution not pass ANSI standards.
For option 1, the MRP would be directly on the horizontal
midline of the lens, halfway between the top and bottom. This should emphasize the importance of care in
Half of 38 mm is 19 mm, so the MRP is at 19 mm. This is measuring lens parameters for the duplication or
found in the segment, 1 mm below the segment line. replacement of a single lens in a pair of lenses.
For option 2, the typical measurements shown above If the power of the weaker lens is less than ±3.375 D
will be used. The minimum allowable distance from the and the two MRP locations are more than 1 mm apart
MRP down to the top of the segment is 2 mm. This means vertically, a problem may still exist. To find out whether
that if the bifocal segment is 20 mm high, then the MRP a problem still exists, the two spotted lenses are placed
must be 20 mm plus 2 mm, or 22 mm, high.
front-to-front so that the segments are superimposed.
(The practitioner should not actually touch the front
MRP, Major reference point.
surfaces of the lenses against each other, or the surfaces
may get scratched.) The strongest lens should be facing
MRP 2 mm above the horizontal midline, outward. The center spot of the stronger lens is viewed
then no differential vertical prism will result through the weaker lens and the weaker lens is dotted
between the two eyes. In fact, if no vertical at that location.
MRP height was specified, then with both Now the newly spotted point is placed on the weaker
MRPs at the same vertical height (within lens in the center of the lensmeter aperture. Read the
reasonable limits) no error has occurred. prismatic effect. If it is greater than or equal to one-
120 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

third prism diopter, the lens will not pass ANSI Z80.1 Will the lens pair prove suitable after edging? (In
standards. (Without actually using a lensmeter, this thinking through the question, the reader should look
prismatic effect can be predicted using Prentice’s Rule. carefully at the prescription when considering which
This is done by multiplying the difference in vertical lens is stronger in the vertical meridian.)
MRP heights in centimeters by the power of the weaker
lens in the 90-degree meridian.) Solution
The reader should look at the powers of both lenses in
Example 6-6 their 90-degree meridians (Figure 6-7). As can be seen,
The following prescription is fabricated: two different results will be obtained depending upon
whether point A on the right lens or point B on the
R: –7.00 D sphere
left is considered. So which lens is used to evaluate
L: –5.00 D sphere
prismatic effect?
Add: +1.50
(Hint: When evaluating a lens pair for unwanted
The two lenses are spotted. The right MRP is 2 mm vertical prism, the practitioner uses the lens with the
higher than it should be. The left MRP is exactly on the weakest power. It would not be “fair” to use the lens
horizontal midline. Is this acceptable? with the stronger power. What would happen if one
lens has no power and the other lens has –7.00 D of
Solution power? If the zero-powered lens is spotted first, no
Because both lenses are greater than ±3.375 D and the prismatic effect will be detected, no matter where on
two MRP locations more than 1 mm apart vertically, the the lens a measurement is taken. Sliding the lens pair
lens pair will be unacceptable. Unwanted vertical prism over to the –7.00 D lens could show a great deal of
will be beyond what is tolerable. The right lens should vertical prism at any distance above or below the center
be remade. of the lens.)
The power of the left lens is +1.50 –1.25 × 180. To
Example 6-7 make it easier to visualize, the lens powers are placed
Following is another example that is a bit more on a power cross. This is shown in Figure 6-7 and tells
complex: us that the lens with the least power in the 90-degree
meridian is the left lens. This is the lens used to
R: +1.00
determine how much vertical prismatic effect is caused
L: +1.50 –1.25 × 180
by the lens pair.
Add: +2.00
What is the prismatic effect for the left lens?
In checking for correct vertical MRP placement Prentice’s Rule is used to evaluate the prismatic effect
during the centration process, the practitioner sees that on the decentered point of the weaker lens. The
the right lens is 3 mm above the horizontal midline. formula for Prentice’s Rule is Δ = cF. The values for c
However, the MRP of the left lens is right on the line. and F must be determined.

+1.00
R L +0.25

B
+1.00
3 mm +1.50

+1.00 D Sphere
+1.50 –1.25 x 180

FIGURE 6-7 Evaluated in terms of point A, the vertical prism would be 0.30Δ base up.
In terms of point B, however, the prismatic effect is only 0.075Δ base down.
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 121

INCORRECT SEGMENT INSET

The reference point on that lens is 3 mm (or 0.3 cm)
away from its center. Therefore the following is true: If the MRP is found to be horizontally off compared to
the segment, the practitioner needs to know whether
c = 0.3 cm
the problem is bad enough to reject the lens. Some-
The power manifested in the vertical (90-degree) times the way the lens is centered for edging
meridian is +0.25 D. Therefore the following is true: determines whether it is usable.
If the MRP is horizontally off, the lenses can be
Δ = cF
= (.3)(0.25)
edged so that either the distance PD or the near PD will
= 0.075Δ be correct, but not both. However, producing a
perfectly acceptable pair of lenses still may be possible.
In this case the unwanted vertical prism is 0.075Δ. So if it is determined that the segment inset is wrong
What is the allowable amount of vertical prism? before the lenses are edged, the practitioner may
According to ANSI Z80.1 standards, the allowable choose one of the following four options:
amount of prism is a maximum of one-third prism
1. To reject the lens and have it remade
diopter. The 0.075Δ prism amount is definitely less
2. To elect to have a correct near PD, but an incorrect
than the 0.33Δ allowable. This is sufficiently below the
distance PD
maximum allowable tolerance to make the lens pair
3. To elect to have a correct distance PD, but an
acceptable and not cause discomfort for the wearer.
incorrect near PD
4. To elect to position the lens midway between near
CHECKING FOR INCORRECT SEGMENT and distance, altering both PDs slightly. This may be
INSET done only if the prismatic effects resulting from this
choice are insignificant.
Naturally the practitioner wants the distance PD and
the near PD to be right once the lenses are edged. To This discussion is not about how to get by with an
predict whether this will happen or not, the practitioner unacceptable lens, which should not be tolerated. Any
needs to know whether the MRP is at the right position of these choices are possible only if the resulting pair
horizontally relative to the center of the segment. The of spectacles is comfortably within ANSI prescription
correct distance between the two is equal to the standards. Sometimes more than one option will allow
segment inset. The segment inset was defined as this. How does the practitioner decide which option is
follows: best?
Distance PD – Near PD
Segment inset = The Factor that Favors an Accurate Distance
2
Interpupillary Distance
Checking to see whether segment inset will be When the relationship between distance PD and near
correct is really done at the same time the lens is being PD is affected by a segment inset that is slightly off,
positioned in the centration instrument for blocking. the centration process allows the practitioner to favor
After the lens is positioned for blocking, the prac- either distance or near PD accuracy. The factor that
titioner looks for the previously spotted MRP. It should especially favors a high exactness in the distance PD is
be temporal to the movable vertical line by an amount the power is the distance lens. If the distance lens has a
equal to the segment inset.3 (The movable vertical line high refractive power, any slight variation in optical
marks the location of the center of the segment top.) center placement will cause unwanted horizontal
For example, if the distance PD is 65 and the near prism.
PD 62, then the MRP should be 1.5 mm outward from
the movable vertical line that goes through the center Factors that Favor an Accurate Near
of the segment. Interpupillary Distance
Just as a high-powered distance prescription favors an
accurate distance PD, so does a high near addition
favor an accurate near PD. Even though it is easier for
3Another way of checking correct MRP location is to see whether it is the eyes to tolerate horizontal prism at near power
at the correct distance decentration. The MRP should be nasal from
the stationary vertical line in the centration instrument by an amount
because the eyes already are converging and diverging
equal to the distance decentration. This is the case because of the with changes in viewing distances, high addition powers
following equation: do cause unintended horizontal prism when not
Total segment inset = Distance decentration + Segment inset properly positioned.
122 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

BOX 6-3
Compensating for Small MRP Placement
Errors
10 10
Factors Favoring Maintenance of Distance PD,
Alteration of Near PD 5 5
1. A high-powered distance prescription (in 180-degree)
meridian 0 0
2. A low near addition power
3. A very wide segment 5 5

10 10
Factors Favoring Alteration of Distance PD,
Maintenance of Near PD
1. A low-powered distance prescription (in 180-degree 35
meridian) 28
2. An especially high near addition power 25
3. An especially small segment 22

MRP, Major reference point; PD, interpupillary distance.

FIGURE 6-8 After the near segment is centered as
indicated by the prescription, the position of the major
With segmented multifocals a limited viewing area reference point (MRP) should be checked to assume
exists for near vision. If the segment is small, the viewing accuracy of the finished interpupillary distance (PD). In this
area is small. Moving the segment away from its instance, the required total inset is 4 mm, which is correct.
intended location takes off viewing space from one side Yet the MRP is incorrect because a 2 mm decentration per
lens is indicated and only 1 mm appears. Correcting the
or the other. If the near PD is off it will cut down that
position of the MRP to achieve the correct distance PD will
viewing area either temporally or nasally. So, if the throw off the near PD.
segment is small, it should be accurately placed with a
correct near PD. Box 6-3 summarizes factors that favor
either the distance or the near PD.

Favoring Distance or Near Interpupillary Solution

Distance? To answer the question, the practitioner must know
The following examples help the reader understand how far off the MRP is from where it should be in
the logic used to decide whether to favor the distance relation to the segment. In the example, the distance
PD or the near PD, or whether to split the difference. decentration should be as follows:
(A + DBL) – PD
Example 6-8 Distance decentration =
2
The following is prescribed:
(53 + 20) – 69
=
R: +5.50 sphere 2
L: +5.50 sphere 73 – 69
=
PD: 69/65 2
Add: +1.00 4
=
Flat-top 28 segment: segment height 19 mm 2
Frame: A = 53 = 2 mm per lens
B = 42
For the distance PD to equal 69 mm, the center
DBL = 20
dot of the right lens should have a 2-mm distance
The right lens is positioned for blocking as shown in decentration. Unfortunately this lens shows only 1 mm.
Figure 6-8. Although the segment height and total So even if the left lens is accurate, the distance PD will
segment inset is correctly positioned so that the lens be off 1 mm. It will end up being 70 mm instead of
will cut out with the near PD correct, the MRP is 69 mm. Left this way, the near PD will be a correct
incorrectly positioned. Is the lens usable? If so, should 65 mm. Which is more important in this prescription,
distance or near PD be favored? distance or near PD accuracy?
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 123

The distance power in this prescription is high. If the

distance PD is wrong, unwanted horizontal prism
occurs at distance. The amount of unwanted prism will
be as follows:
Δ = cF 10 10
= (0.1)(5.5)
= 0.55Δ base out 5 5

Now what would happen if the practitioner decided 0 0

to make the distance PD correct at the expense of 5 5
throwing off the near PD? To do this the near PD would
have to be decreased by 1 mm. If the near PD is 10 10
intentionally decreased to 1 mm less than it should be,
this will decrease the distance PD back to the required
35
69 mm. Doing this will eliminate unwanted horizontal 28
prism in the distance portion. But what will happen if 25
the near PD is 64 mm instead of 65 mm? 22
If the near PD is off by 1 mm, two optical effects will
be produced at near, as follows:
1. The prismatic effect will change. But because of the FIGURE 6-9 This high near addition lens was supposed
to be made for a 70/64 interpupillary distance. But after
low add power, that amount of change is small. The
positioning the segment, the spotted major reference point
exact amount is found with Prentice’s Rule (Δ = cF), location is checked for accuracy. Distance decentration should
where c is the distance the segment has been moved have been 1.5 mm per lens. Instead it is 4 mm per lens.
from its proper location and F is the power of the
add. Therefore the prism produced by intentionally
making the near PD too small is only as follows:
R: +0.75 –0.50 × 90
Δ = (0.1)(1)
= 0.10 base in
L: +0.75 –0.50 × 90
PD: 70/64
2. The other effect from allowing the near PD to be Add: +4.00
wrong is that the temporal field of view through Flat-top 28: segment height 19 mm
the near segment will be slightly reduced at near. Frame: A = 53 mm
However, this point becomes less significant with B = 42 mm
sufficiently large segment sizes because still plenty of DBL = 20 mm
room exists for near viewing through the segment.
The practitioner lays out the right lens for edging.
Therefore which option should the practitioner The total segment inset is 4.5 mm. However, checking
choose in this case: correct distance PD or correct near the position of the MRP for the distance unearths an
PD? In making the final choice, the practitioner should error. Instead of getting the needed distance decentra-
look at ANSI Standards for prescription lenses. The tion of 1.5 mm, the decentration is 4.0 mm (Figure 6-9).
ANSI tolerance for near PD for multifocals is ± 2.5 mm. This is 2.5 mm different from what was ordered. Is the
For an ordered near PD of 65 mm, anything between lens usable? If it is, either the distance or the near
62.5 mm and 67.5 mm is considered acceptable. PD (or both) will have to be slightly off. Which should
ANSI tolerances for the distance PD are also it be?
± 2.5 mm. But in this prescription, the unwanted pris-
matic effect produced by a wrong distance PD is more Solution
than that produced by a wrong near PD. Therefore the In evaluating what to do, the practitioner first should
best choice would be to modify the near PD so that the look at unwanted prism. Because the error occurs in
distance PD will come out right. the horizontal meridian alone, the power of the lens
in that meridian causes unwanted prism. What
Example 6-9 would the lens look like in front of the eye if it were
In another example, a pair of glasses is ordered using edged this way? See Figure 6-10. Because the distance
the same frame as before. This time the prescription is PD will be wrong, the eye looks through a point 2.5 mm
somewhat different: away from the MRP. But according to Prentice’s Rule
124 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

the amount of unwanted prism that occurs is only During the centration process, the practitioner takes
as follows: notice of the location of the spotted MRP. The two
previous examples were instances in which the prescrip-
Δ = cF
tion looked like it might fail, but because of giving
= (0.25 cm)(0.25 D)
= 0.0625Δ base in
attention to MRP location, failure was prevented.
However, when the MRP is not where it should be, the
This is a small prismatic effect. But displacing the near glasses are likely to fail ANSI standards. Edging a pair of
portion changes the prismatic effect at near by the lenses that were surfaced incorrectly wastes time and
following: may disqualify the finishing laboratory from credit for
the cost of the surfaced lenses.
Δ = (0.25 cm)(4.00 D)
= 1.00Δ base out
TILTED 180-DEGREE LINE
It also narrows the near field of view. Therefore the best
choice is to alter the distance PD so that the near PD After centration the segment may be positioned
will be correct. Even though the distance PD appears to properly, but the previously spotted 180-degree line is
be off considerably because distance power is small, un- tilted. Following are some factors that indicate how
wanted prism is very low. It is well within ANSI standards. serious a problem this might be.
In the previous examples, one example favored alter- If the lens is a sphere and the central MRP dot is
ing the near PD. The other favored the distance PD. Not located at the proper vertical height and inset, no
all examples are clear cut. Many times the answer lies in problem exists. An example of this is shown in Figure
between the two, with both being altered somewhat. 6-11. A spherical lens has the same power in all
In evaluating lens pairs like this, the practitioner is meridians. Because no cylinder exists, any rotation of
trying to make lenses work that will not in any way the lens has no effect on refractive power.
compromise vision for the wearer. The point is not to If the lens is a cylinder or spherocylinder, rotation is
try to sneak a reject lens through the system and use it. important. The cylinder axis will be correct only if the
180-degree line is at 180 degrees. For example, in
Preventing Expensive Mistakes
The accurate spotting of lenses is of extreme impor-
tance. When any doubt exists as to the correctness of
the original spotting, it should be double-checked.

+0.75 10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5
2.5 mm
10 10
+0.25
Nose

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 6-11 In the lens spotting process, the correct

+0.75 –0.50 × 90 axis is set in the lensmeter. Afterward, the lens is rotated
until it conforms to the specified axis, then spotted along the
FIGURE 6-10 Imagining or sketching out a power cross 180-degree line. While centering this lens, the practitioner
on an eye can help in understanding how prism is figured discovers that when centration is “complete,” the spotted
using Prentice’s Rule. The horizontal meridian of the lens 180-degree line is no longer on the 180. This indicates an
containing the +0.25 D lens power is used for calculations. axis error during surfacing.
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 125

s)
ee
gr
45 s
de
be xi
d er a
100 90 80
110 70

ho n d
(s C y l i
20 60

ul
1
0 50
13

40
14
0

30
15
160

20
10 10
170

10
line
5 5 180-degree
ed r e la tiv e to
(Tilt ent)
s eg m
1 80

0 0 flat-t op

0
5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 6-12 In the figure, the required cylinder axis is 45 degrees. The lens was
oriented in the lensmeter during spotting—it correctly reads 45 degrees. The 180-degree
line has been marked. If the 180-degree line is tilted in relationship to the segment top, the
cylinder was surfaced off axis. The amount in degrees that the lens is off axis equals the
degree of tilt of the 180-degree line.

Figure 6-12, a tilt of 5 degrees in the 180-degree line of the MRP will not be accurate, because of the
results in an error of the cylinder axis of 5 degrees. prismatic effect exerted by the segment add power.
The amount of error considered to be within tolerance If the lens has a segment raise and there is no
depends upon the power of the cylinder (see Appendix MRP height given by the practitioner, the surfacing
B for these tolerances). Because a flat-top bifocal laboratory automatically may raise the MRP above the
segment cannot be rotated to allow for correction of trifocal segment top (see MRP Placement box on
the cylinder axis, the 180-degree line must not be at an p. 119). If this is the case, the dot indicating MRP posi-
angle that exceeds accepted standards. tioning should still have the correct horizontal inset.
However, it will be vertically higher by an amount equal
to the segment raise plus this laboratory-determined
POSITIONING FLAT-TOP TRIFOCALS amount. Both lenses will have MRPs of equal vertical
No difference exists between the basic procedure for height.
centration of trifocals and that of bifocals. Remember-
ing the following points helps prevent confusion.
Only the top line of the trifocal is used in segment Curve-Top Segment Lenses
positioning. (The lower line can be ignored.) There-
Curve-top segments are positioned nearly identical to
fore if a segment height is 19 mm, the uppermost line
that of flat-top segments. Following are the differences:
will be at 19 mm.
The top of the trifocal is much more likely to be 1. Segment height is judged from the highest point of
above the horizontal midline than the top of a bifocal. the curved upper portion.
For a segment raise, the major reference point may fall 2. Horizontal orientation is gauged by aligning both
within the segment, depending on how the surfacing corners of the segment top with the same horizontal
laboratory ground the lens. If this is the case, spotting reference line.
126 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

The following problem illustrates this procedure. Therefore

Total inset = 2 mm + 1.5 mm
CURVED-TOP SEGMENT CENTRATION = 3.5 mm per lens

Example 6-10 Both methods yield the same results.

The reader should correctly center a left lens for the Now the movable vertical line in the marking device
following order: is moved 3.5 mm to the left. The line is moved to the
left because the lens is placed face up in the unit and
R: +1.00 +1.75 × 78 blocked on the front side. This is shown in Figure 6-13.
L: +0.75 +2.00 × 109 The grounds for acceptance or rejection of a curve-
PD: 62/59 top multifocal blank are the same as those for flat-tops.
Add: +2.25
Curve-top 25 segment; segment height 17 mm
Frame: A = 48
B = 39 Round-Segment Lenses
DBL = 18 Some bifocal lenses have segments that are perfectly
round. The segment diameters may vary from 22 to
Solution 38 mm. These lenses were popular many years ago
Before placing the lens in the marking device, the prac- but have steadily decreased in popularity. They are a
titioner should figure distance decentration, total inset, versatile segment style because they are not restricted in
and segment drop. (Distance decentration is used to orientation. They may be rotated without making the
check for accuracy of MRP placement in surfacing.) segment appear tilted like a flat-top segment would
Total inset will be used to preset the centration appear if it were rotated.
device and can be figured two ways: Round-segment lenses also are used less now because
(A + DBL) – Near PD
at first, they are harder to process. The person doing
(1) Total inset = centration for edging or surfacing must have more of
2
an understanding of the optical properties of the lens.
(48 + 18) – 59
=
2
66 – 59
=
2
5
=
2
= 3.5 mm per lens

(2) Total inset = Distance decentration per lens 10 10

+ Segment inset
5 5
(A + DBL) – Distance PD
Distance decentration =
2 0 0
(48 + 18) – 62
= 5 5
2
66 – 62
= 10 10
2
4
=
2 35
= 2 mm per lens 28
25
Distance PD – Near PD 22
Segment inset =
2
62 – 59
=
2 FIGURE 6-13 For a curved-top segment, the lateral
3 corners of the curved upper segment border are equidistant
=
2 from the horizontal reference line. They both must be at the
= 1.5 mm per lens same level.
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 127

With flat-top multifocals positioning the lens for Step 3

blocking is possible using only the segment area for The total segment inset required is determined. The
reference. However, for round-segment lenses, reliance total inset is as follows:
solely upon the segment for positioning is not possible.
(A + DBL) – Near PD
This is because a round-segment lens offers no visible Total inset =
2
horizontal reference. A flat-top lens is easier because
it has the top of the segment as a visible horizontal Step 4
reference. The location of the movable vertical line is changed to
the location of the total segment inset. The segment is
positioned so that it is bordered by the appropriate
CENTRATION OF ROUND-SEGMENT
segment guide lines. (These guide lines move con-
LENSES WITH A CENTRATION
currently with the movable vertical line in the
INSTRUMENT
centration instrument.)
The centration of round-segment lenses starts with
the MRP. After spotting the MRP, the lens blank is Step 5
positioned so that the centrally dotted MRP falls at The needed segment drop or raise is found, as follows:
the calculated distance decentration. This may be done B
with the aid of the movable vertical line. All three dots Segment drop = Segment height –
2
should be horizontal.
Once the MRP and 180-degree line are set correctly, Drop is negative; raise is positive.
the moveable vertical line is repositioned, this time to
Step 6
the total inset position. For spherocylinder lenses the
The lens is moved upward or downward until the
round-segment should now be positioned at its correct
segment drop or raise is positioned correctly.
height and inset.
For spherical lenses, however, aligning the three dots
Step 7
horizontally does not mean that the segment will be
The distance decentration is found, as follows:
located where it should be located. This is because only
the center dot of the three dots means anything. The (A + DBL) – Distance PD
Distance decentration per lens =
180-degree line indicated by the other two dots is merely 2
arbitrary. Therefore in the case of spherical lenses with
no prescribed prism, the only point of importance is the Step 8
dotted MRP.4 Once this MRP is positioned, the lens may Without moving the segment either up and down or
be rotated around the MRP until the correct segment sideways, the practitioner rotates the lens around the
inset and/or the correct segment height is achieved. segment center until the center lensmeter dot is at the
The following example outlines the procedure as correct distance decentration. The dot also should be
described, again step by step. on the 180-degree line. (If a specific MRP height is
specified, the center dot should be at that height.) The
Step 1 following points should be checked:
The lensmeter is set for the correct sphere power • If the lens has cylinder, all three dots are on or parallel
and cylinder axis. The practitioner rotates the lens to the 180 line. If the three dots are not parallel with
clockwise or counterclockwise to the correct cylinder the 180-degree line, the cylinder is off axis.
axis. The lens is verified for power, and the location of • Sometimes the center MRP dot may too high or too
the MRP is found with the lensmeter, then spotted. low. If the other lens has the MRP equally positioned
above or below the 180 line, no induced vertical
Step 2 prism occurred. (In addition, no vertical prism exists
If the distance portion of the lens is spherical and the without power in the vertical meridian of the
prescription contains neither cylinder nor prescribed distance lens prescription.)
prism, the outer two lensmeter dots are removed. They
are not needed. If they are left on the lens and are at an Step 9
angle during lens layout, they only cause confusion. When satisfied that the lens is ready, the practitioner
should block the lens.
As practitioners gain experience, some of the above
4Forlenses having no prescribed prism, the optical center and the steps may be combined. These steps on round-segment
major reference point are one and the same point. lens centration are summarized in Box 6-4.
128 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

BOX 6-4
Using a Centration Device for
Round-Segment Multifocals
10 10
1. Set the lensmeter power and cylinder axis for the
prescribed amount. Rotate the lens for the correct 5 5
cylinder axis and locate the MRP. Spot the MRP with
the lensmeter. 0 0
2. If the lens is a sphere, remove the outer two lensmeter
dots. 5 5
3. Determine the total segment inset required.
4. Change the movable vertical line to total segment 10 10
inset. Position the segment so that it is bordered by
the appropriate segment guidelines.
35
5. Locate the needed segment drop or raise.
28
6. Move the lens upward or downward until the segment 25
drop or raise is positioned correctly. 22
7. Locate the distance decentration.
8. Without moving the segment either up and down or
sideways, rotate the lens around the segment center
until the center lensmeter dot is at the correct distance FIGURE 6-14 For this right round-segment lens, the total
decentration. decentration of the segment is 3 mm. The process begins by
9. When satisfied that the lens is ready, block the lens. positioning the lens between the segment bordering lines.

MRP, Major reference point.

The movable vertical line is then positioned.
Because the calculated total inset is 3 mm, the movable
Example 6-11 vertical line is moved to the right 3 mm. The bifocal
How is the right lens in the following prescription segment is centered between these two lines (Figure
centered for edging? 6-14).
Next the segment drop is calculated as follows:
R: +3.00 sphere
L: +3.25 –0.50 × 175 Segment raise or drop = Segment height –
B
PD: 65/62 2
Add: +2.00 40
= 16 –
22 mm round-segment; segment height = 16 mm 2
Frame: A = 50 mm = 16 – 20
B = 40 mm = –4 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Because drop is a negative number, the segment
should be 4 mm below the 180-degree line. The segment
Solution
is moved to a 4-mm drop (Figure 6-15).
The right lens is verified for power and spotted. The
Now the distance decentration is calculated as
two outer spots on the lens are removed because this
follows:
is the right lens and is a sphere.
Next the total segment inset is calculated using the (A + DBL) – Distance PD
Distance decentration per lens =
following equation: 2
(50 + 18) – 65
(A + DBL) – Near PD =
Total segment inset = 2
2
68 – 65
(50 + 18) – 62 =
= 2
2
3
68 – 62 =
= 2
2
= 1.5 mm
6
=
2 Without the horizontal or vertical position of the
= 3 mm segment moving, the lens is rotated around the center
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 129

10 10 10 10

5 5 5 5

0 0 0 0

5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10

35 35
28 28
25 25
22 22

FIGURE 6-15 Next the segment is moved to the FIGURE 6-16 Finally, without moving the segment
calculated segment drop position of 4 mm below the 180 horizontally or vertically, the lens is rotated around the
line. The major reference point looks as if it is hopelessly center of the segment until the MRP dot is positioned for the
misplaced. correct distance decentration. In this case distance decen-
tration is 1.5 mm inward.

of the segment until the MRP dot is positioned for a As mentioned previously, some blended bifocal
1.5-mm distance decentration. If everything is in order, lenses come with the circumference of the segment
the MRP dot should also be on the 180-degree line dotted. When marking such a lens on a centering
(Figure 6-16). device, the segment may be positioned with the use of
the bordering dots for reference. These dots are most
generally in the middle or toward the outside edge of
Blended Bifocals this blurred out or blended zone. Centration of the lens
is done exactly like that of a normal round-segment.
Blended bifocals are invisible to the observer but are not The dots are taken to be the segment border.
progressive addition lenses. Blended bifocals are really If, by chance, all markings have been removed, they
just another form of a round-segment bifocal. They may be reapplied by holding the lens up in front of a
have two sections of refractive power: distance and textured, illuminated background. The blurred outline
near. However, to make the bifocal demarcation line of the segment immediately becomes visible, and the
invisible, the line is blurred out or blended. Because blended zone may be hand-dotted (Figure 6-18).
the demarcation line is blurred out, different methods
of lens centration must be used.
CENTRATION USING THE SEGMENT
CENTER
CENTRATION OF BLENDED BIFOCALS Many blended bifocals have an “invisible” small circle at
USING THE DOTTED SEGMENT BORDER the very center of the segment for finding the segment
Because all presently available blended bifocals are center. This circle is the same as the hidden markings
round, the procedure is basically the same as for on progressive addition lenses. It is possible to use this
conventional, round-segment bifocals. Some blended central segment dot in lens centration. Because the size
bifocals come with the center of the segment marked; of the blended segment is known, the central segment
some come with the border of the segment spotted dot will be exactly half the segment diameter from the
(Figure 6-17). These marks are usually not water soluble. segment top. Therefore the segment may be positioned
After edging they may be removed with acetone or left using only the center segment dot and the distance
in place for the dispenser’s convenience. MRP.
130 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 6-17 This factory-marked blended bifocal FIGURE 6-19 Blended bifocal centration is done the same
outlines the segment around the outermost borders of the way that round-segment centration is done. It is also
blended zone. The optically usable portion of the segment is possible to use the center of the segment for reference. The
of a smaller diameter than the circle shown. grid on the layout marker shown does not go down far
enough to allow segment height to be done using just the
segment center, although many devices do.

spherical in power, how would the lens be centered for

blocking?

Solution
If the border of the segment is not marked, the
practitioner finds the hidden segment center and dots
it with a marking pen.
The MRP is used to position the distance portion at
its 3-mm distance decentration. The dot in the center
of the segment is rotated until it reaches the total
segment inset. The lateral position of the dot is an
additional 2 mm in from the OC, as shown in Figure
6-19. (The total segment inset equals the distance
decentration plus the segment inset.)
The lens must also be positioned for segment drop.
If the lens were already marked with a circle of dots
that fall on the border of the circular blended zone, it
would be positioned for centration in a manner
FIGURE 6-18 To re-mark a blended bifocal border, it is
identical to that of a conventional round-segment. This
held against a background that will make distortion easy to
see. The circular area of distortion outlining the segment is is the situation illustrated in Figure 6-19. If no circle of
dotted. dots is present on the lens, the following text describes
how the lens can be set for a correct drop using the
segment center.
Example 6-12 Because the segment dot is in the center of the
A blended bifocal has a segment diameter of 25 mm. segment, it will be half the segment diameter below the
The order calls for a distance decentration of 3 mm and segment “line.” The vertical position of the segment
a segment inset of 2 mm. The segment drop required is center will be below the horizontal reference line by
2 mm. If the lens in question is a right lens and is the following amount:
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 131

Segment diameter R: +1.25 –0.50 × 70

Vertical segment center position = +
2 L: +1.25 – 0.50 × 115
|Segment drop| PD: 66/62
Add: +1.25
(Because segment drop is a negative number, the Segment height 16 mm
absolute value is taken.) So in this instance the vertical Frame: A = 48
position will be as follows: B = 38
25 DBL = 20
Vertical segment center position = + |–2|
2
= 12.5 + 2 How would the left lens be positioned for blocking
= 14.5 mm using a centration instrument?
(Note: In Figure 6-19, the vertical scale of the drawn
Solution
centration device screen does not go beyond 10 mm.
Lens power is verified and the MRP of the lens is
Most actual scales do, however.}
spotted. Distance decentration is calculated as follows:
(A + DBL) – Distance PD
Distance decentration =
Franklin-Style Multifocals 2
(48 + 20) – 66
=
The Franklin-style lens is made from one piece of lens 2
material. The entire lower half of the lens is devoted to 68 – 66
=
near vision. It is divided from the upper half by a 2
horizontal ledge running the entire width of the lens. 2
=
This lens design also is known commonly by the name 2
Executive, although this is a trade name. = 1 mm
Because no lateral border exists other than the Segment drop is calculated as follows:
edge of the lens for a Franklin-style segment, inset is
accomplished using the dotted MRP. The top border of B
Segment drop = Segment height –
the segment is used for segment height. But segment 2
inset, when specified, must be accomplished during the 38
= 16 –
surfacing process. Even then proper inset may not 2
= 16 – 19
always be possible, depending upon constraints
= –3 mm
produced by the size of the lens blank.5
The movable vertical line in the centration device is
positioned for distance decentration for the left lens.
CENTRATION OF FRANKLIN-STYLE This is 1 mm to the left. The MRP is placed on this line.
LENSES The segment line is moved to the segment drop
The step-by-step procedure for Franklin-style lens position 3 mm below the 180-degree line (Figure 6-20).
centration is as follows: The lens may now be blocked for edging.
The near PD was never used in the centration
1. The movable vertical reference line is set for the
process for Franklin-style multifocals.
distance decentration.
2. The marked MRP is placed on this reference line.
3. The lens is moved up or down until the segment line
is at the correct height. Double-Segment Lenses
4. The practitioner ensures that the segment line is
Most wearers who need a prescription with a near addi-
horizontal. (If the lens is spherocylindrical, the three
tion for close work need mainly to be able to see up close
lensmeter dots must be parallel to horizontal.)
for significant lengths of time when looking at objects
5. The lens is marked or blocked.
in the lower half of their viewing area. Some indivi-
duals, however, need regularly to see objects at close
Example 6-13
range in the upper area of the lens clearly. An example
A lens order for a Franklin-style lens is specified as
is an automobile mechanic who works under cars.
follows:
To overcome this problem some lenses are made
5For more information see Chapter 6 in Brooks CW: Understanding with two near viewing areas. These lenses have a near
lens surfacing, Boston, 1992, Butterworth-Heinemann. addition in the lower half of the lens and a second
132 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

10 10

5 5

0 0

5 5

10 10

35
28
25
22

FIGURE 6-20 Centration for Franklin-style lenses uses the major reference point for
horizontal alignment and the segment top for vertical alignment.

segment area in the upper half of the lens. These are 1. Superimposing the image of the lens pattern on the
called double-segment lenses. Such lenses allow freedom lens during centration will do this (Figure 6-21). The
for wearers to work comfortably and to clearly see near location of the upper segment is noted in reference
objects if they are looking upward. to the top of the edged lens. If there is less than
Styles of segments used for double-segment lenses 7 mm of upper segment showing below the upper
are the same as those used for conventional bifocal or rim of the frame, it is likely that an error was made
trifocal lenses. The most common types are flat-top, in fitting. The practitioner should verify accuracy.
small round, and Franklin-style segments. 2. A second way to check for adequate upper segment
viewing area is to hold the lens over the frame before
edging. The lower segment is placed at the appro-
CENTRATION OF DOUBLE-SEGMENT priate height. Is there still at least a full 7 mm of
LENSES usable space in the upper segment? If not, the lenses
A standard distance of 13 or 14 mm usually separates should not be edged before talking to the practitioner.
the upper and lower segment areas. Because segment 3. An adequate viewing area can be checked by use of
separation is known, both segments can and should be the segment height and B dimension of the frame.
positioned by specifying only the location of the lower This is done with the addition of the upper and
segment. lower segment separation distance to the segment
Lower-segment specifications are given in exactly the height, followed by subtraction of that number from
same manner as for the regular bifocal. Therefore lens the B dimension. This provides the viewing area
centration procedures are identical to those previously through the upper segment, as follows:
described. When the lower segment is correct, the
Upper segment viewing area = B – (Segment height + 13)
upper segment positions itself automatically.
The final location of the upper segment should be The distance from the lower to upper segment is taken
checked before edging. Following are three ways the to be 13. If this distance is 14 mm, the number 14
practitioner may check this location: should be used in place of 13.
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 133

Example 6-14
How much vertical viewing area will be present in the
upper segment of a double-segment lens that is to be
placed in a frame with a 35-mm B dimension? The
segment height is specified as 17 mm. Will this be
enough vertical viewing area?

Adequate Solution
Using the formula described previously, the following
equation is developed:
Vertical upper segment viewing area = 35 – (17 + 13)
= 35 – 30
= 5 mm

Only 5 mm of vertical viewing area will remain if this

prescription is filled. This distance is too small, and
there would be no point to edging the lenses.
Whenever the making of a prescription would pro-
vide unsatisfactory results, the dispensing practitioner
should be called. The best policy is to always provide
possible solutions for the problem. In Example 6-14,
for instance, a good suggestion would be to either
select a frame with a larger B dimension or keep the
frame that was originally chosen and lower the segment
Inadequate
height 2 mm. Lowering the lower segment from 17 mm
to 15 mm would also lower the upper segment,
providing the additional 2 mm needed in the upper
viewing area.

FIGURE 6-21 A double segment lens must have sufficient

vertical lens area to allow the upper segment to be useful.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. If the segment height is 20 mm, which of the 2. Which of the choices describes the segment
choices indicates the segment drop or raise with inset for the following frame and PD
reference to the horizontal midline for a frame measurements?
with the following dimensions?
Frame: A = 51
A = 42 B = 44
B = 38 DBL = 17
DBL = 16 PD: 64/61

a. 0 a. 1.5 mm
b. -1 mm (drop) b. 2 mm
c. +1 mm (raise) c. 3 mm
d. –2 mm (drop) d. 4 mm
e. +2 mm (raise) e. 8 mm
134 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

3. For the following prescription, how far in is the 7. If a lens were being marked using a lens
segment positioned for blocking the lens? How is protractor, in which of the following positions
the segment positioned vertically? would it be placed?

R: –1.75 –1.00 × 180 a. Convex side up

L: –1.50 –1.25 × 180 b. Convex side down
Frame: A = 46
B = 42 8. If a lens were being positioned for blocking using
DBL = 16 a centration device, in which of the following
PD: 59/56 positions would it be placed?
Segment height = 18
a. Convex side up
4. For a flat-top 28 lens, how far vertically and b. Convex side down
laterally will the MRP of each lens be from the
center of its segment top line? The lens and frame 9. A left lens calls for a total segment inset of 5 mm.
have the following parameters: If it were placed on a lens protractor for marking,
in which of the following directions would the
R: +2.00 –0.25 × 15 2Δ base out segment be moved?
L: +4.25 –0.25 × 165 2Δ base out
Add: +1.50 a. Right
Frame: A = 52 b. Left
B = 47
DBL = 17 10. A left lens calls for a total segment inset of 5 mm.
PD: 64/61 If it were placed on a centration device for layout
Segment height = 21 and blocking, in which of the following directions
would the segment be moved?
5. A frame has the following dimensions:
a. Right
A = 50 b. Left
B = 44
DBL = 20 A pair of lenses is supposed to have a 3 mm segment
drop for both right and left lenses. Instead, the right
Given a wearer with a PD of 66/62, for which of the lens has a 3 mm drop, but the left lens has a 5 mm drop.
following is “4 mm per lens” the correct measure? Indicate whether this is acceptable or unacceptable
for each of the following lens prescription situations
a. Segment drop according to ANSI Z80.1 standards.
b. Segment inset
c. Total segment inset 11. –6.50 sphere
d. Distance decentration –4.75 sphere

6. A bifocal for the right eye is placed convex side up a. Acceptable

on the centration device so that it may be blocked b. Unacceptable
directly. If A = 47, DBL = 16, and PD = 61/57,
which of the following denotes the location of the
12. +5.00 sphere
center of the segment in reference to the center
+3.00 sphere
(origin) of the grid?

a. To the left a. Acceptable

b. To the right b. Unacceptable
c. Exactly in the middle
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 135

13. +3.00 sphere 19. A prescription calls for a segment inset of 2 mm

+1.00 sphere (per lens). During centration it is noticed that the
lateral distance from the segment center to the
a. Acceptable distance OC is actually 4 mm for each lens. Which
b. Unacceptable choice describes the amount of lateral prism that
will be induced in the distance portion if the near
14. +1.00 sphere PD is set correctly? The distance prescription is as
+3.00 sphere follows:

a. Acceptable R: +5.00 –1.00 × 180

b. Unacceptable L: +5.00 –1.50 × 180

15. –1.00 –1.00 × 180 a. 1.4Δ

–1.00 –1.00 × 180 b. 1.5Δ
c. 1.6Δ
a. Acceptable d. 2.0Δ
b. Unacceptable e. None of the above

16. –1.00 –1.00 × 90 20. For the prescription described in the preceding
–1.00 –1.00 × 90 question, which of the following will be the base
direction of the induced prism?
a. Acceptable
b. Unacceptable a. Left
b. Right
17. A bifocal prescription is received from surfacing c. In
with the right MRP 4 mm above the segment line d. Out
and the left lens MRP 2.5 mm above the segment e. Down
line. For the following prescription, which choice
indicates the amount of vertical prism that could 21. When a segment inset is incorrect after surfacing
be manifested, assuming equal segment heights? and it is decided that the lens is nevertheless
within normal limits of quality, which factor(s)
R: +2.75 –1.00 × 180 would favor altering the near PD and maintaining
L: +0.50 sphere distance PD?

a. 0.26Δ a. An especially small segment

b. 0.08Δ b. A low near addition power
c. 0.19Δ c. A high-powered distance prescription in the
d. 0.41Δ 180 meridian

18. If a 2.5-mm variation in near PD is considered

within accepted standards for segmented
multifocals, which of the following indicates the
largest and smallest near PDs that fall within
these standards for a wearer with a PD equal to
59/56?

a. 61.5 – 56.5
b. 61.5 – 53.5
c. 58.5 – 53.5
d. The correct answer depends on the distance
power.
136 C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S

A pair of surfaced but unedged lenses should have a 28. A flat-top, 7 × 28 trifocal calls for a segment height
segment inset of 2 mm for the right lens and 2 mm for of 23 mm. If the frame B dimension was 46, which
the left lens. Instead, they both have segment insets of of the following describes the segment drop (or
4 mm each. These surfaced uncut lenses are edged raise) for correct centration?
using the near PD for reference. In other words after
edging, the near PD comes out right and the distance a. 0
PD ends up being wrong. Which of the following lens b. –7 mm (drop)
pairs would still pass ANSI standards for distance PD c. +7 mm (raise)
and horizontal prism? d. –2 mm (drop)
e. +2 mm (raise)
22. –6.00 sphere
–5.00 sphere 29. For a curve-top segment lens, the segment height
is based on which of the following?
a. Acceptable
b. Unacceptable a. The center of the segment top
b. The upper outer corners of the segment
23. +3.00 sphere c. The optical center of the segment
+3.00 sphere
30. True or False? A round-segment spherocylinder
a. Acceptable lens is spotted for edging. During layout it is
b. Unacceptable apparent that the segment inset is wrong. This is
of no consequence. Round-segments can be
24. +1.00 sphere rotated and the segment top will not look any
+1.00 sphere different after edging.

a. Acceptable 31. From a lens flexibility standpoint, round-segment

b. Unacceptable lenses are considered to be which of the following?

25. –1.00 –1.00 × 180 a. More versatile than flat-top segments

–1.00 –1.00 × 180 b. Less versatile than flat-top segments

a. Acceptable 32. In lens layout, a blended bifocal lens is centered in

b. Unacceptable a manner most similar to which of the following?

26. –1.00 –1.00 × 90 a. A progressive addition lens

–1.00 –1.00 × 90 b. A trifocal lens
c. A flat-top segment lens
a. Acceptable d. A round-segment lens
b. Unacceptable e. A curve-top segment lens

27. During centration of a flat-top bifocal, you notice 33. Which of the following lenses cannot be centered
that the spots made by the lensmeter are tilted 10 correctly using only the segment for reference?
degrees in reference to the segment line. The (Hint: More than one response may be correct.)
central dot is correctly placed. In which of the
following cases would this be of no consequence? a. Curve-top bifocals
b. Round-segment bifocals
a. It would always be of consequence. c. Flat-top bifocals
b. In the case of a plano cylinder d. Executive (Franklin-style) bifocals
c. When oblique prism is prescribed e. Progressive addition lenses
d. When the decentration is small
e. When the lens is spherical
C H A P T E R 6 C E N T R AT I O N O F S E G M E N T E D M U LT I F O C A L L E N S E S 137

34. Franklin-style bifocals are horizontally decentered 37. Which bifocal(s) can be marked for blocking
for edging using which of the following? without first spotting?

a. Distance decentration a. Executive bifocals

b. Segment inset b. Flat-top bifocals
c. Total segment inset c. Round-segment bifocals
d. Curve-top bifocals
35. To center an occupational double segment exactly
as indicated on the order during the layout process, 38. You would like to alter the segment inset of an
which of the following steps should be taken? already-surfaced lens before edging it. Which of
the following lenses listed can you slightly rotate
a. Center first the lower segment and mark the around the distance OC to alter the lens as
lens. Then center the upper segment and described?
re-mark. Block the lens exactly between the two
marks. a. A flat-top 25 segment with a power of –2.00 D
b. Center the upper segment first. Before sphere
marking, note whether the lower segment is in b. A 22-mm round segment with a power of –2.00
the prescribed location. –2.50 × 15
c. Center the lower segment as indicated. Ignore c. An executive or Franklin-style segment with a
the upper segment. power of +1.25 –0.25 × 30
d. An Ultex A segment (38-mm semicircular
36. A double-segment flat-top bifocal (double D) has segment) with a power of –7.25 D sphere
an ordered segment height of 18 mm. Which of
the following frames has a vertical depth that is
suitable for this segment style?
(Hint: More than one response may be correct.)

a. B = 30
b. B = 35
c. B = 40
d. B = 45
e. None of the above
 Blocking of
7 Lenses

F or a lens to be edged to its proper shape, it

must be clamped securely in the lens edger.
This positioning holds the axis, decentration, and
segment location as intended. A “block” is placed on
the lens as a handle so that the lens may be held in
place during edging.

Types of Blocking
Five basic methods have been used to block a lens, as
follows:
1. Pressure blocking: The lens is held in place between
felt pads.
2. Suction blocking: A small suction cup is pressed onto
the lens.
3. Metal alloy blocking: A low melting temperature metal
alloy is molded onto the protected surface of the
lens.
4. Precast FreeBlock blocking: A recyclable waxlike
material is molded onto the surface of the lens.
5. Adhesive pad blocking: A thin pad, which is adhesive
on both sides, is applied to a block. Then the block
is applied to the lens.
The blocking method most commonly used in the
United States is adhesive pad blocking.

Pressure Blocking
Those who used the early method for “blocking” a lens
held it in place by pressure alone. The lens was squeezed
between two felt pads in the edger. Because no block
was used, it was never really “blocked” in the true sense
of the word. Hand positioning the lens between the felt
pads is an impractical method for ensuring accuracy
of edged lens parameters. Instead the lens is pre-
positioned in a centering fork.
With the lens properly aligned in the centering fork,
the adapter is slipped into the accepting portion of the
edger. The second felt pad might then be pressed into
place and tightened. Then the centering fork may be
removed as the lens is clamped in at the correctly
centered cutting line orientation.
The pressure blocking system has fallen into disuse.
Besides the danger of lens slippage, such a system does
not allow for periodic removal of a lens from the edger
to check for size. Once the lens is removed, it is
practically impossible to put back in the edger in its
exact previous position.

Blocking with Suction

Another method of holding the lens in place is by
means of a small suction cup (Figure 7-1). This suction FIGURE 7-1 The adapter attached to the suction cup may
cup is constructed with an adapter on the back surface vary in its configuration, depending on the edger manufac-
that allows it to fit into the spindle assembly within the turer’s design.
lens edger.
The advantage of a section cup system is that it may
be used with no preparation. Although it is not often
used for mass production purposes, it lends itself to Metal alloy will not adhere directly to a lens surface
smaller facilities where lenses are edged on a more and withstand the edging process. The surface must
periodic basis. In Europe, where most of the edging is first be precoated. The coating was applied to the front
done on location at the dispensary, this system was surface of the lens in the form of a spray or with a brush
more widely used than in the United States. or dab-on applicator.
The holding surface of the suction cup must be Alloy blocking has the major disadvantage of using
kept free of oil or foreign substances. Suction cups heavy metals in the alloy such as lead and cadmium.
must be applied dry to a dry lens to prevent slippage The environmental problems associated with heavy
and a corkscrewing effect. These cups may be reused metals are a growing disincentive for working with a
often but must be inspected regularly for cracks in the metal alloy blocking system.
material caused by drying.

Precast FreeBlock Blocking

Metal Alloy Blocking
This system of blocking uses a precast waxlike lens
A metal alloy blocking system is another system that block that adheres to the surface of the lens when
enjoyed widespread usage in the past. It is practically heated. The adhesion of these blocks is excellent as
out of use now. In this system a metal alloy with a low they conform nicely to the lens surface and prevent
melting point is heated and molded to the lens. The slippage. FreeBlocks are used in Gerber-Coburn Step
metal cools and forms a small metal block that adheres Two blocking. The Step Two system incorporates
to the lens (Figure 7-2). centration and blocking in one “Step Two Finish

139
140 CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES

BLOCKS
Blocker” that heats and presses the block against the
lens. Reuse of the blocks is not recommended. Block designs vary according to shape of the chuck
used to hold the lens in the edger. In other words, the
back of the block may be available in a variety of shapes
Adhesive Pad Blocking to adapt to the chuck of the edger being used. This
could be a problem for laboratories with edgers from
Another method for blocking lenses utilizes adhesive different manufacturers. With only a few exceptions,
pads.1 A block made of metal or plastic is fastened most edger manufacturers are able to supply a variety of
to the lens by means of a double-sided adhesive pad chuck designs so that chucks may be interchanged.
(Figure 7-3). This way the same block design may be used through-
out the laboratory.
1
Adhesive pad blocking is sometimes referred to as LEAP blocking. 3M
was the first company to introduce this type of system, which is known Metal Blocks
as the 3M LEAP System.
When the block is metal, the side contacting the
adhesive pad must approximate the front curve of the
lens. Blocks can be classified as low, regular, and high
base, depending upon the steepness of curvature. They
are color coded. A common color is black for low base
blocks, gray for regular base blocks, and gold for high
base blocks (Figure 7-4). Low base blocks are for lenses
with base curves from approximately 0.00 to 4.25 D,
regular base from 4.50 to 8.00 D, and high base above
8.50 D. These numbers are front surface base curve
numbers. They are not lens refractive powers.
The front curve of a lens steepens as lenses increase
in plus power and flattens as the power moves toward
the minus direction. For lenses of equal refractive
powers, aspherics are generally flatter than regular
lenses. So aspheric plus lenses will not require a high
base lens block as quickly as a nonaspheric lens of equal
refractive power.

Plastic Blocks
Some blocks are made from either semirigid or flexible
plastic material. These types of blocks are designed to
conform to the front curvature of the lens because the
flange of the block is designed to take on the lens shape
(Figure 7-5). Plastic blocks sometimes require a larger
FIGURE 7-2 The shape of the metal block can be molded adhesive pad.
to any one of several different chucking systems.

Block

Adhesive pad

Lens

FIGURE 7-3 Adhesive pad blocking consists of a block applied to the lens by means of
double-sided tape.
CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES 141

FIGURE 7-4 Metal blocks come in three color-coded types: high base, regular base, and
low base.

FIGURE 7-5 Flexible plastic lens blocks offer the

advantage of conforming well to the front surface of the
lens, regardless of how steep or flat the surface is.

Plastic blocks continue to appear in new designs and

are rapidly replacing metal blocks.

BLOCKS FOR HALF-EYE LENSES AND FIGURE 7-6 These three half-eye blocks are regular lens
NARROW B FRAMES blocks with the top and bottom edges removed to allow for
a very narrow lens. If a smaller half-eye block is needed, it is
Frames that are small in their vertical dimension, such likely that a smaller chuck in the edger will also be required.
as some children’s frames and half-eye glasses, can be
troublesome during edging. An ordinary lens block is
larger than the edged lens will be. When this happens,
PREVENTING BLOCK SLIPPAGE
the edger begins grinding the block and the lens. To
prevent it, the lens block has to be cut off in the vertical If slippage occurs during edging, the first thing to
dimension and used just for these types of frames check for is an incorrect base block. If a high minus
(Figure 7-6). Switching the chucks being used in the lens is edged on a regular base block, the lens adheres
lens edger is also necessary because these are also too tightly only at the edges (Figure 7-7, A). If a high plus
large. lens is edged on a regular base block, the lens holds
142 CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES

Best adherence

Poor adherence

Poor adherence

B Best adherence

Best adherence
C
FIGURE 7-7 Metal blocks should be chosen to match the front base curve of the lens.
A, The front curve of this minus-powered lens is too flat for a regular-base block. The only
good area of adherence is around the periphery of the block. B, This high plus lens has a
base curve that is too steep for a regular base block. The only good adherence is in the
middle of the block. When the curve of the lens matches the curve of the block, as shown
in C, an even, tight adherence exists across the whole area of the block. When metal blocks
are used, the block must match the front lens curve.

well only in the center of the block (Figure 7-7, B). The Methods of cleaning vary. Some people find that
lens block should parallel the curve of the lens surface only minimal cleaning of the blocks is necessary; others
for maximum adhesion (Figure 7-7, C). soak recycled metal blocks in solvent or place blocks
If the lens is on the correct base block, the next most in an ultrasonic cleaner to remove all grease and oils
likely problem is incomplete cleaning. The lens and the before reusing.
block should be cleaned thoroughly before blocking If more thorough cleaning does not alleviate the
occurs. A dirty or oily surface prevents tight adhesion. situation, it may indicate that the roll of adhesive pads
Extreme torque is on the lens during edging. Without has been exposed to excess heat or humidity. Excess
maximum adhesion, the lens may twist or slip. Then, even humidity decreases the adhesion of the pads and also
if the shape is right, the prescription will be incorrect. can result in slippage (Box 7-1).
CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES 143

BOX 7-1
Possible Causes of Lenses Slippage on
the Block

If lenses slip on adhesive pad blocks, check the following:

1. Is the block correct for the base curve of the lens?
2. Are the lenses clean?
3. Is each block free from foreign material?
4. Have the pads been exposed to humidity or high
temperatures?
5. Are the edger wheels worn or in need of dressing?
6. If the edger is a dry edger, are the cutter blades dull?
7. Is the coolant flow sufficient? Insufficient coolant flow
will cause the lens to heat and the adhesive on the
blocking pad to soften.

FIGURE 7-9 Some efficiency may be gained by placing a

number of lens blocks on a strip of adhesive pads ahead of
time.

Alternatively the block may be mounted on a strip of

pads. The backing is peeled from the pad while it is still
on the roll. The block is placed on the pad. In this way
a whole strip of pads is neatly prepared and ready
(Figure 7-9). When removing the pad and block from
the roll, the practitioner should be careful to avoid
touching the exposed adhesive.
Next the block is placed in the centration device in
preparation for blocking. It is mounted on a movable
arm that may be manually or automatically swung into
place over the lens and pressed onto the lens surface.
The protective paper may be removed from the block.
The lens is now placed on the centration device and
decentered as required. This was previously described
in earlier chapters on centration of lenses. Once the
operator is assured that the alignment is correct, the
FIGURE 7-8 The lens block is placed on the adhesive pad. block is swung into place and pressed against the lens
(Figure 7-10).
The blocked lens is removed from the instrument
ADHESIVE PAD BLOCKING PROCESS and the block pressed against the lens to ensure
In preparation for blocking, a pad is peeled from maximum contact between the adhesive pad, lens, and
the roll and placed against the lens block (Figure 7-8). block (Figures 7-11 and 7-12).
The fingers should not touch the surface of the
adhesive. This introduces oil onto the surface and High Adds and Wide Segments
keeps the pad from sticking to the block as tightly as Plastic flat-top bifocal lenses have their segment area
it should. on the front surface of the lens. The segment gets its
Maintaining consistency in how the tab is placed on additional plus power because it has a steeper curvature
the block may be helpful. This way when picking up the than the rest of the lens (Figure 7-13). With regular
block to mount it in the blocking device, no uncertainty plus lenses, the larger the size of the lens, the thicker
exists regarding whether the block is right side up or the lens will be. And again, with regular plus lenses, the
upside-down. The protective paper is not peeled from the pad. higher the power of the lens, the thicker the lens will
The pad is pressed firmly against the block. be. The same is true for the segment area of a plastic
144 CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES

FIGURE 7-10 By centering the lens convex side up in the centration device, a pretaped
lens block can be lowered directly onto the lens. This eliminates one step in the production
process.

A B
FIGURE 7-11 A, The lens block should be pressed onto the lens to get good adherence.
B, It may also be pressed against a solid object instead of just squeezed between the
fingers.
CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES 145

FIGURE 7-12 The technician should check the way the pad looks against the lens
surface. The lighter area indicated by the arrows shows no contact between the lens and
the pad and thus no adherence toward the center of the pad.

bifocal lens. The wider the bifocal segment, the thicker

the ledge will be on the flat-top bifocal. Flat-top 35
segment ledges will stick out farther from the lens
surface than will flat-top 28s of the same power.
A flat-top 28 with a +1.25 add has a much thinner
ledge than a flat-top 28 with a +3.50 add.
If a thick bifocal ledge is left unprotected during
edging, the lens can be damaged because of the
pressure exerted when the lens is chucked for edging.
The following may happen:
• A thin lens can split along the bifocal line.
• The segment line can be slightly indented or can
chip.
To prevent such problems, an adhesive pad is cut
into two. The half pad is placed against the lens just
above the segment as shown in Figure 7-14. The half
Low add High add pad should be just far enough above the line to make
power power the segment line visible during lay out. The hole in the
pad should be placed so that it allows the center
FIGURE 7-13 Two flat-top bifocal lenses with the same
bifocal segment size. One has a low add power, the other a lensmeter dot to show clearly.
high add power. When the two lenses are edged, the higher Next the lens is blocked normally. (The back must
add power lens is more likely to crack along the segment line be peeled off the half-pad first.) The half pad com-
or have the segment line indented or chipped because of pletes the circle of the bifocal segment and allows the
chucking pressure unless precautions are taken. block to hold the lens along the segment line evenly.
146 CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES

Flat-top 35
segment line

FIGURE 7-14 Plastic flat-top lenses that have either a large segment or a high add
power are more susceptible to damage during the edging process. This flat-top 35
segment lens has a half pad above the segment to help even out the pressure during
chucking.

Protective Tape These tape discs protect the surface and are also said
All currently used blocking systems adhere well when to help in reducing excessive, localized pressure during
directly mounted on the surface of the lens. (A notable edging. That pressure may be the result of too many
exception is the seldom-used metal blocking system, pounds per square inch of chucking pressure. Reduc-
which requires that the lens be spray-coated ahead of ing the chuck pressure somewhat may help. But excess
time.) However, in some instances using protective tape localized pressure results from use of the wrong base
on the lens may be advisable. block for the lens being edged. Selection of the correct
Formerly the primary concern was to protect a base block is important.
plastic lens surface from scratching. With most plastic For extra protection from pressure on thin, anti-
lenses coming with scratch-resistant coatings, concern reflection coated lenses, it may be helpful to use the
about scratching the lens itself may be reduced. How- tape disc and an extra adhesive pad. First the tape disc
ever, concern remains for protection of the coating. is placed on the back side of the lens. Next an adhesive
A large variety of lens coatings are possible: scratch- blocking pad is placed on the back side of the lens on
resistant, antireflective, and mirror, for example. When top of the tape disc. The protective paper backing from
the edger holds the lens tightly in the chuck during the the adhesive pad should not be removed. When the
edging process, excess pressure on small areas of the lens is placed in the edger, the pad further cushions the
lens can damage the coating, which causes it to crack or lens against points of localized pressure.
peel. To reduce the likelihood of this happening, many
use a protective tape disc, such as the 3M Blue Chip
lens protector, on the back surface of the lens (Figure Lensmeter/Blockers
7-15). These discs come precut in 35-mm circles on a
large dispensing roll with nonadhesive tab areas for To increase efficiency, a natural evolution of any process
easy application and removal. is to combine steps. Blocking may be done as a step
CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES 147

FIGURE 7-15 These easy-peel lens protector discs often are applied to the back surface
of an antireflection coated lens to keep the coating from cracking when squeezed by the
lens chucking device in the edger. Chucking pressure should be kept as low as feasible
when edging such lenses.

totally independent of any other step in the edging different ways, one existing instrument recognizes the
process. However, that is now the exception, rather optical center of the lens and reads the location of the
than the norm. The most logical first combination of cylinder axis. By inputting frame and lens prescription
steps was to combine the blocking process with the information, the required location of the 180-degree
centration process, which already has been described. line and inset are calculated. The instrument rotates
Some blockers now include the centration device and the block to the correct orientation and moves it to the
the lensmeter. Although this may be accomplished in location needed for proper lens decentration.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following system(s) does/do not 2. Coating of the lens surface is required for which of
allow lenses to be removed from the edger to check the following blocking systems?
for correct size, and then put back in the edger
again? a. Molded resin blocking
b. Suction blocking
a. Pressure blocking c. Metal blocking
b. Suction blocking d. Adhesive pad blocking
c. Metal alloy blocking
d. Adhesive pad blocking
e. Molded resin blocking
148 CHAPTER 7 BLOCKING OF LENSES

3. Of the following blocking systems, which is 8. Which of the following is not a possible cause of a
considered to be the least environmentally friendly? lens slipping on the block during the edging
process when adhesive pad blocking is used?
a. Molded resin blocking
b. Suction blocking a. A lens that has not been thoroughly cleaned
c. Metal blocking b. An improperly chosen metal base block
d. Adhesive pad blocking c. Adhesive pads that have been exposed to high
humidity
4. When adhesive pad blocking is used with metal lens d. A lens block with an oily film or other foreign
blocks, a high minus lens is most likely to require material on the surface
which of the following? e. An edger that has insufficient coolant flow
during edging
f. All the above may cause a lens to slip during
a. A high-base block
edging.
b. A regular-base block
c. A low-base block
9. With some lenses it may be advisable to place
d. Lens power has nothing to do with which base
protective tape on the back surface of a lens before
blocks are used.
edging. In which of the following situations might
this be appropriate?
5. An aspheric lens generally has which of the
following characteristics? a. When the lens is a thin glass lens, to keep it from
breaking
a. A steeper base curve than a regular spherically b. When the lens is AR coated, to keep from
based lens of equal refractive power damaging the coating
b. The same base curve as a regular spherically- c. When the lens is thin and made from
based lens of equal refractive power polycarbonate, to keep from throwing the bevel
c. A flatter base curve than a regular spherically- placement off
based lens of equal refractive power d. When the lens is tinted, to keep the tint from
looking splotchy
6. True or False? Flexible plastic lens blocks used in e. None of the above are helpful.
adhesive pad blocking may be used with any
powered lens, regardless of base curve.

7. Which of the following kinds of frame can cause

problems during edging if the adhesive pad–type
lens block is not modified?

a. Metal
b. Plastic
c. Rimless
d. Nylon cord
e. Half-eye
 Edging
8

Patterned and Patternless Edging

For an edger to produce a lens of the right shape for
the frame, it has to have some sort of a template to
guide it. That template can be a visible template, usually
plastic, and the same shape as that of the desired lens.
This template is called a pattern. Edgers that require a
physical pattern to guide the edger often are referred
to as patterned edgers.
However, the template to produce a lens shape does
not have to be something tangible like a plastic pattern.
It can be a shape that is stored digitally. That electronic
version also can guide the lens edger. This type of an
edger works without a physical pattern and therefore is
referred to as a patternless edger.
The first part of this chapter addresses patterned
edgers; the next part, patternless. Much of what is
covered in the information about patterned edging is
needed for understanding patternless edging. Even if
the reader is using or will be using a patternless edger,
the material in the Edging with Patterns section of the
chapter should be read.

EDGING WITH PATTERNS

Historical Background
The process of lens edging involved more steps than
placement of an entire lens blank in an automatic
edger and cutting the lens to finished form in one
operation. In the past, a lot more of the process was
done by hand.

149
150 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

Cutting and Chipping

After lens cutting, the outermost areas of glass were
In the past the cutting and chipping process involved removed using chipping pliers that were, and still are,
the glass cutter outlining the desired lens shape on the available in a variety of designs (Figure 8-5). The outer
glass lens with an appropriate marking instrument. The lens areas may be removed by loosely grasping the lens
shape was then cut into the lens surface using a glass near the scored section, as Figure 8-6, A, shows, and
cutter (Figures 8-1 through 8-3). The glass cutter did breaking it away with a twist, as in Figure 8-6, B.
not cut through the glass but simply scored the surface Lenses also may be chipped to size without being
so that the outermost unwanted portions of the lens scored. Chipping pliers are used to “nibble” away the
would break away clean along the scored line. glass a little at a time from the edge, while the pliers are
Then a more refined system was developed that made slightly squeezed, combined with the twist of the hand
use of the lens pattern, as Figure 8-4 shows; this method via the forearm in a rotational movement away from the
allowed the lens to be scored in the exact outline of the
desired shape. In both freehand or guided scoring, the
lens was cut several millimeters larger than required to
allow room for some inaccuracy in chipping the lens
and for an even lens edge finish.

FIGURE 8-1 A “cutting spoon” has a small cutting wheel FIGURE 8-2 A premarked line is scored as the practitioner
that cuts and rolls across a surface to create a scored line. traces around the shape a single time.

FIGURE 8-3 Holding the cutting spoon for optimum control.

CHAPTER 8 EDGING 151

FIGURE 8-4 The same function as the cutting spoon was

later performed on a lens cutter with the help of a pattern.

B
FIGURE 8-6 A, The lens is grasped near the scored
section for support as sections are snapped off. B, Scored
lenses that are not excessively thick break off in fairly large
pieces even if very little force is exerted.

Automatic Edging with Ceramic

Wheels
The first automatic edgers were the automatic rimless
edgers with ceramic wheels. These edgers put a flat
edge on the lenses and were sufficient for the majority
FIGURE 8-5 Chipping pliers come in a variety of designs, of prescription work done at the time. If any other type
allowing for the preference of the individual and the of edge was needed, such as a beveled edge, it had to be
thickness of the lens being chipped or broken away. done by hand.
The ceramic wheel itself is composed of grit and a
individual. The other hand holds the lens near the bonding agent that is cast to shape, fired in a kiln, then
edge being chipped, as in Figure 8-7. After chipping to machined to proper specifications.1
shape, the lens can be hand edged to size using a
ceramic wheel. All scoring and chipping procedures 1
Hirschhorn H: Modern edging methods. Part I. The Optical Index
are applicable only to glass lenses. 55(4):93, 1980.
152 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

FIGURE 8-7 Lenses may be chipped without scoring as

the practitioner nibbles away at the edge with a turning
motion of the pliers.
FIGURE 8-8 When a lens is placed into the edger, the
pattern must be turned to cut a right eye shape for the right
lens. Fortunately most lens blocks are made to prohibit the
lens from being placed in the edger upside down. (The back
When the abrasive material wears and loses its cutting surface of the lens is toward the reader.)
ability, the bonding agent dissolves, which allows the
worn grit to fall away and exposes fresh, sharp material.
Ceramic wheels give an excellent, smooth finish and
are still used occasionally for hand edging. Ceramic
SETTING THE EDGER SIZE
wheels have a long life because, with the exception of If all lens patterns were exactly the same size as the
the central hub, they are composed entirely of abrasive required finished lens, then no size setting would be
grit and bonding material. required. The edger could duplicate the pattern exactly
in a one-to-one relationship. However, this would mean
that instead of one pattern for each frame shape, a
Edging Process separate pattern would be required for every available
size.
Since automatic ceramic edgers were first developed, This raises the question of pattern size. When
vast improvements in edger cutting technique, auto- patterns were first used with rimless edgers, far fewer
matic cycling, bevel style, and bevel placement have shapes were available. So that the operator would know
occurred. how to set the machine, all patterns had to have one
For a patterned edger, the edging process begins standard size. The “standard size” was set by the
when the operator places the pattern on the edger so manufacturer such that American Optical patterns, for
that it is properly oriented to cut either a left or right instance, were 37 mm in their A dimension, Shuron
lens. (By convention, most operators begin with the patterns were 36.5 mm, and some European types were
right lens.) As long as the front surface of the lens is standardized at 40 mm.
facing left, the pattern will, in most cases, be right side This meant that, if an instrument was calibrated for
up with the nasal half in the direction of the operator a 37-mm pattern, when a 42-mm eyesize lens was
(Figure 8-8). The lens must then also be oriented right required, the instrument dial could be set for 42 mm,
side up. Fortunately most blocking systems are now and the lens would cut out to have an A dimension of
constructed so that fitting the blocked lens into the exactly 42 mm. This assumes, of course, that the necessary
edger chuck is difficult if it is oriented upside down. 37-mm pattern was used. Eventually, within the United
For the left lens, the pattern must be removed and States, a standard pattern size of 36.5 mm evolved.
turned around so that the nasal side is away from the Any of these small standard pattern sizes was
operator. Then the edger must be set so that it will cut appropriate when most eyewear was being fit in very
the lens to the required size. conservative sizes. With the advent of major frame style
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 153

SET NUMBERS
changes, lenses began to be edged for sizes significantly
larger than the pattern, which created problems of To make it easier to know how to compensate for a
“pattern distortion.” pattern that is larger than the 36.5-mm standard
pattern size, frame manufacturers put a compensation
number on the pattern. This compensating number is
USING LARGER PATTERNS TO PREVENT called the set number. Because patterns are almost always
PATTERN DISTORTION larger than the standard this difference must be
When a lens is edged to a shape that is 2 mm larger subtracted from the eyesize. For this reason, set numbers
than the size of the pattern, the edger makes the lens a are seen as negative numbers.
millimeter larger in every direction: nasally, temporally, Patterns that accompany a manufacturer’s frame in
upward, and downward. But in adding an equal most cases have a set number stamped directly on the
amount of lens size to the original shape in every pattern. Knowing the eyesize and pattern set number
direction, the integrity of the original shape starts to be means the edger setting can be determined without
lost. (This is explained in Chapter 3 and can be seen in having to measure the pattern.
Figure 3-15.) To keep the shape from being distorted
the only feasible solution was to produce a pattern for
Example 8-3
larger style frames that was closer in size to the actual
A lens is to be edged for a frame having an A dimension
lens size being edged.
of 53 mm. The pattern is stamped set –15.
1. What is the proper edger setting?
LARGER-THAN-STANDARD PATTERNS 2. If measured, what would the expected A dimension
If the pattern is made larger than the standard 36.5 mm of the pattern be?
size, the lens will be too large. Without compensation,
the lens will be edged larger than the frame eyesize.
Solution
Example 8-1 1. Set –15 means that the edger must be set
A pattern is supplied for a certain frame. This pattern 15 mm less than the desired lens size. Therefore
measures 46.5 mm in its A dimension. For example, a to find the edger setting the following equation is
lens is to be edged for a 50-mm eyesize. If the edger is used:
calibrated for a pattern size standard of 36.5 mm, what
Edger setting = Eyesize + (Set number)
size lens will be edged if the edger-sizing dial is set for
50 mm? In this case that number equals the following:
Edger setting = 53 + (–15)
Solution = 38 mm
For this edger, a 36.5-mm pattern will produce the lens
size at which the dial is set. If a 50-mm lens is desired, Therefore the edger is set for 38 mm.
the dial is set at 50 mm. However, because the pattern 2. Now, what would be the size of the pattern? Set
is 10 mm too large, the lens produced also will be number is the difference between the standard sized
10 mm too large. Setting the edger at 50 mm in pattern and the actual sized pattern, as follows:
conjunction with this pattern will produce a lens with a
Set number = Standard pattern size – Actual pattern size
60-mm eyesize. = 36.5 – Actual pattern size

Example 8-2 In this case the set number is known but not the
In the previous example, what would the edger setting pattern size. Therefore changing the formula around
have to be to produce a 50-mm lens. algebraically results in the following equation:
Actual pattern size = 36.5 – (Set number)
Solution
That pattern is 46.5 mm. This is 10 mm larger than the In this example, the numbers are as follows:
standard and produces lenses 10 mm too big. Therefore
Actual pattern size = 36.5 – (–15)
10 mm must be subtracted from the required eyesize: = 36.5 + 15
50 mm – 10 mm = 40 mm = 51.5 mm

To arrive at a 50-mm lens, the edger must be set for The pattern in this example can be expected to have
40 mm. an A dimension of 51.5 mm.
154 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

2. To find the edger setting the edger is set less than

the actual eyesize by an amount equal to the set
number. In other words, the following equation is
true:
Edger setting = Eyesize + (Set number)

For this example the edger setting is as follows:

Edger setting = 55 – 18.5
= 36.5

Now it is evident why an edger is always set for

36.5 mm when the pattern size equals the eyesize.

A Second Dial Configuration: Zero, Plus-Minus

Scale
FIGURE 8-9 When an edger is set for 36.5 mm, the lens will
be the same size as the pattern after edging is completed.
Some edger dials are marked so that the difference
between eyesize and pattern size may be used to set the
edger. To introduce this second edger dial configuration
MARKING EDGER DIALS
is another example.
Generally, edger dials are marked in one of the
following three ways: Example 8-5
A 55-mm pattern like the one in the previous example
1. Mark the dial according to eyesize.
has been made. Now it must be used for a frame with a
2. Mark the dial with a zero, plus-minus scale.
53-mm eyesize.
3. Mark the dial with both options.
1. What would the normal edger setting be?
2. The zero, plus-minus scale uses zero instead of
Dials Marked According to Eyesize
36.5 mm. How far from the 36.5-mm (zero) setting
The first way is a direct eyesize reading as shown in
must the edger dial be moved in order to achieve the
Figure 8-9. The edger is set for lens size with pattern set
correct lens size for the 53 mm frame? Is this in a
numbers being subtracted from the frame’s eyesize to
plus or a minus direction?
obtain the correct edger setting. When such an edger is
3. Can this be found without calculating an eyesize
calibrated for a standard size pattern whose A dimension
edger setting?
is 36.5 mm, setting the edger at 36.5 mm always produces
a lens that is exactly the same size as the pattern. So if a
pattern is made directly from a frame and duplicates Solution
the frame’s eyesize, then a 36.5-mm setting will give the 1. To make a lens 2 mm smaller than the previous one,
correct lens size. set the edger 2 mm less than it was before, or at
34.5 mm. Calculating edger setting in the traditional
Example 8-4 manner gives these results:
A frame has a 55-mm eyesize. A pattern is made on a
Edger setting = 53 – 18.5
one-to-one ratio so that it is the same size as the frame = 34.5 mm
and measures 55 mm.
Therefore the edger would normally be set at 34.5 mm.
1. What is the set number for the pattern?
2. To find how far from 36.5 mm we would move the
2. What must the edger setting be?
edger setting, one setting is subtracted from the
Solution other. The first setting was 36.5. The second setting
1. Pattern set number is equal to the following: was 34.5 mm.
Set number = Standard pattern size – Actual pattern size Setting difference = 36.5 – 34.5
= 36.5 – Actual pattern size = 2 mm
In this example the equation is applied as follows:
Because the second setting is smaller than the first
Set number = 36.5 – 55 (34.5 is smaller than 36.5), the second setting is
= 18.5 mm minus compared to the first. In other words, if 36.5
Therefore the pattern set number is –18.5. were written as 0, then 34.5 would be a minus 2.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 155

3. This setting can be found more easily by noting that There are advantages to both systems. The eyesize
because 53 mm is 2 mm less than 55, the edger setting dial works best when premanufactured patterns
setting for a 53 mm eyesize is –2. with printed set numbers are used. However, when
patterns are made for every frame, many operators prefer
When patterns are made to fit exactly the size of the the second system.
frame, an edger can have a 0 where the 36.5 mm reading
would otherwise be. If the frame is larger than the Combination System
pattern, the edger is set that much larger. If the frame The third system is really a combination of the previous
is smaller than the pattern, the edger is set for the two. In a combination system, both types of scales are
difference in a minus direction. The dial is still marked printed on the dial. If the standard size chosen for the
off in millimeters, but it is numbered above and below pattern is 36.5 mm, the zero mark is printed adjacent to
the zero (Figure 8-10). that size number.
The operator simply dials in the difference in When an edger is equipped with more than two
millimeters between the pattern size and the desired lens grinding wheels, more than one complete set of scales
size. With this type of system the following equation may be on the edger dial, as Figure 8-9 illustrates. Each
applies: scale may be recalibrated independently for grinding
wheel wear, because groove depth in each wheel may
Edger setting = Lens size – Pattern size vary, influencing the final lens size.

Taking the previous example in this second system of

INCREASING ACCURACY IN EDGER
edger setting, a 55-mm pattern is used and a 53-mm
SETTINGS
edged lens is desired, as follows:
Unfortunately not all frames have the same A dimension
Edger setting = 53 mm – 55 mm as the eyesize that may be marked on the frame. This
= –2 mm may be because the marked eyesize is intentionally
different from the A dimension, or simply because
This means the dial is turned to a –2 reading. certain frames run somewhat larger or smaller than their
marked value. Relying totally on the marked frame size
to set the edger means that the lens may not fit the
frame.
The most accurate method is to use a frame tracer in
conjunction with a patternless edger. However, with
patterned edgers in most cases it means measurement
of the frame. With use of the boxing system the A
dimension is the distance between two parallel vertical
lines enclosing the lens or lens opening in the frame and
not necessarily the width of the lens across the middle.
When a millimeter rule is used, as shown in Figure
8-11, A, a high degree of accuracy cannot be expected.
The locations of the far left and right points on the
imaginary box surrounding the “lens” are only visually
estimated. An improvement is to use a device such as
the “T-seg” shown in Figure 8-11, B. The top of the T
part of the ruler allows a more accurate positioning of
the ruler.
For frames made from certain materials, the lenses
often are edged somewhat larger to ensure a secure fit.
The nature of the material dictates how much larger
the lenses are edged; the amounts given as guidelines
FIGURE 8-10 If a pattern is used having the same size as are shown in Table 8-1.
the lens to be ground, a plus-minus scale would require a Generally, conventional plastic frames made from
zero setting. If the pattern is not the same size as the lens, cellulose acetate material can be stretched somewhat.
then the size difference is added or subtracted by means of This assures a snug, secure-fitting lens. Depending upon
a dial. (Courtesy Essilor, Paris.) the individual frame, lenses for frames made from this
156 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

B
FIGURE 8-11 A, When the eyesize is measured according to the boxing system, the
ruler is held horizontally with the zero as far left as the most left-hand edge of the lens
groove. The reading corresponds to the farthest right-hand lens groove location. B, The
“T-seg” style ruler shown allows a better alignment of the outermost portion of the lens
area. The ruler-wide markings on the body of the ruler help in accurately locating the
outermost portion of the lens area on the opposite side.

material are edged approximately 0.5 mm larger than When the exact size is not known, it is better to error on
the actual frame size. the larger side, because lenses may be checked for size
Many of the newer plastic materials do not stretch after edging and before the block is removed. If the
when heated. In fact some materials actually shrink when lens is too large it may be re-edged to a slightly smaller
heated. As a result, lenses for these frames must be size. But if it were edged and found to be too small, it
made exactly to size, assuming the exact size is known. would be ruined.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 157

Circumference = /(Diameter)
TABLE 8-1 = /(36.5)
Size Compensation Used to Edge Frames = 114.7 mm
of Various Materials The circumference chart developed for edging
purposes actually uses 36.6 as the basic number because
FRAME MATERIAL USED SIZE AFTER EDGING
36.6 comes out with a circumference of almost exactly
Cellulose acetate 0.5 mm larger than the 115; an even number.
measured size The following procedure ensures accuracy when a
Nylon 0.2 mm larger than the pattern is not the same size as the frame to be used:
measured size
Optyl 0.6 to 1.0 mm larger than the 1. Using the circumference gauge, measure the size of
measured size the pattern to be used. This is pattern circumference
Metal On size (PC).
Carbon fiber 2. Measure the size of the wearer’s existing lens or the
Polyamide demonstration lens from the selected frame. This is
lens circumference (LC).
3. Subtract the pattern circumference from the lens
circumference, or (LC) – (PC).
4. If the difference is a plus number, add this amount
to 115. The lens is bigger than the pattern and the
Plastic frame materials requiring on-size edging are
edger setting must be increased. If the difference is
carbon fiber, polyamide, polycarbonate, and other similar
a minus number the lens is smaller, and it is
materials. Generally speaking, if a plastic frame is very
subtracted from 115.
thin, the material is probably not the more conventional,
5. Look up the new number on the circumference
acetate-type of frame material and falls into this
chart (or divide it by /) to find the required edger
category.
setting (Table 8-2).
Lenses are mounted into these frames, not by heating
6. Edge the lens and measure it for circumference. It
the material, but by “snapping” the lenses into the
should match the lens circumference of the wearer’s
frame while the frame is “cold.” In this instance, cold
lens or demonstration lens.
means normal room temperature. This technique is
referred to as “cold-snapping” the lenses in place. This chart works best when comparing pattern and
lens sizes that are not miles apart from each other.
Obviously the circumferences cited in the chart are for
INCREASING ACCURACY WITH A
circles. Edged lenses are seldom circles. Yet the relative
CIRCUMFERENCE GAUGE AND CHART
proportionality of two identical shapes is strong enough
One of the ways to increase edging size accuracy is to to make the chart effective for what it is intended.
use the circumference of the lens in addition to the
eyesize or A dimension. The circumference is both Example 8-6
longer and more accurately measured, giving a closer A “lenses only” order has been placed. It is for a metal
comparison between two identical shapes having frame. The pattern for the frame is given but not the
different sizes. frame. The account has sent an eyesize and has measured
The most obvious way to use circumference is to the circumference of the lens. The circumference of
measure the circumference of the wearer’s old lens and the lens is 141.5 mm. How would you set the edger?
carefully match the circumference of the new lens to it.
An accurate fit is then ensured. This is more of a trial- Solution
and-error process of starting large and slowly reducing These steps are used to find the needed edger setting
edger setting size, each time remeasuring the for this “lenses only” order using circumferences for
circumference of the edged lens until the exact match increased accuracy.
is reached. However, another way exists to use
circumference to help choose the correct edger setting 1. Measure the circumference of the pattern on hand.
and avoid the trial-and-error process. The pattern circumference is 138.5 mm.
The “standard” pattern size is 36.5 mm. The 2. The order states that the lens circumference is
circumference of a round pattern with a diameter of 141.5 mm.
36.5 mm may be found by multiplying the diameter 3. Subtract pattern circumference from lens circum-
by /. ference, as follows:
158 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

TABLE 8-2
Lens Edging Circumference Chart
1. Measure the circumference of the pattern to be used (PC).
2. Measure the circumference of the wearer’s existing lens or the demonstration lens from the selected frame (LC).
3. Perform the following calculation: (LC) – (PC)
4. Add this amount to 115. The result may be a positive or a negative number.
5. Look up the new number on the circumference chart (or divide it by /) to find the required edger setting.
6. Edge the lens and measure it for circumference. It should match the lens circumference of the wearer’s lens or demo lens.
CIRCUMFERENCE EDGER SETTING CIRCUMFERENCE EDGER SETTING CIRCUMFERENCE EDGER SETTING

90 28.6 117 37.2 144 45.8

91 29.0 118 37.6 145 46.2
92 29.3 119 37.9 146 46.5
93 29.6 120 38.2 147 46.8
94 29.9 121 38.5 148 47.1
95 30.2 122 38.8 149 47.4
96 30.6 123 39.2 150 47.7
97 30.9 124 39.5 151 48.1
98 31.2 125 39.8 152 48.4
99 31.5 126 40.1 153 48.7
100 31.8 127 40.4 154 49.0
101 32.1 128 40.7 155 49.3
102 32.5 129 41.1 156 49.7
103 32.8 130 41.4 157 50.0
104 33.1 131 41.7 158 50.3
105 33.4 132 42.0 159 50.6
106 33.7 133 42.3 160 50.9
107 34.1 134 42.7 161 51.2
108 34.4 135 43.0 162 51.6
109 34.7 136 43.3 163 51.9
110 35.0 137 43.6 164 52.5
111 35.3 138 43.9 165 52.5
112 35.7 139 44.2 166 52.8
113 36.0 140 44.6 167 53.2
114 36.3 141 44.9 168 53.5
115 36.6 142 45.2 169 53.8
116 36.9 143 45.5 170 54.1

141.5 – 138.5 = +3.0 measure the A dimension of both pattern and demon-
4. Add this difference to 115 to get the following: stration lens but finds it is too difficult and she cannot
be sure her measurements are correct. Using a circum-
115 + 3 = 118
ference gauge, she measures the pattern circumference
5. Looking up 118 (or dividing it by /) results in an as 157 mm. Then she measures the circumference of
edger setting of 37.6. the demo lens. This she measures as 157.8 mm. What
6. Edge the lens and measure the circumference of the would she set the edger for to get a correctly sized lens?
edged lens for accuracy.
Solution
Example 8-7 To find the answer, first the pattern circumference is
An order for a frame has been received. The frame subtracted from the lens circumference. This is 157.8 –
comes with well-fitting demonstration lenses. The prac- 157 = 0.8. Next 0.8 is added to 115 to get 115.8, the
titioner has a presumably on-size pattern for that frame. circumference needed to find the edger setting.
However, she would like to match the size of the new Looking up 115.8 on the chart, the practitioner finds
lens to that of the demonstration lens. She tries to that the closest edger setting would be close to 36.8 mm.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 159

FIGURE 8-12 Chucking a lens for edging.

LENS CHUCKING The material used for the pad that holds the lens in
After a final determination of correct edger setting is place is compressible but has resilience. Because of the
made, the lens block is slipped into the edger chuck nature of the pad, the lens may be squeezed in place
(Figure 8-12) and clamped in place. This process is regardless of variations in curvature that naturally occur
referred to as lens chucking and may be done manually, with different lens powers.
with compressed air, or electronically.
A general rule in chucking lenses is to use the largest Air Chucking
block feasible. This distributes pressure better and Although manual lens chucking is not difficult, when a
holds the lens more securely but may make it necessary large number of lenses are being run through the
to change the chuck size on some edgers. edger daily, air chucking or pneumatic chucking may be
Small finished lenses, as in the case of lenses for half- advisable. An air line is run from a compressor to the
eye frames, frames with small B dimensions, and some specially adapted edger so that when activated, the lens
children’s frames, may pose a problem. The edger holding assembly is pressed against the lens and held in
wheel grinds the block and sometimes the lens-holding place by the force of the compressed air.
assembly, which damages both assembly and wheel. For
small children’s frames or half-eyes a smaller device is Electric Chucking
required (Figure 8-13). With electric chucking a drive motor presses the lens
holding assembly together to hold the lens in place.
Manual Chucking This allows pressure to be individually controlled for
For manual chucking, the lens should be clamped different lens material needs, including AR-coated lenses.
firmly, but not with excessive pressure, and the
handle should be locked in place. Too little pressure
can cause lens slippage on the block, whereas too
BEVEL PLACEMENT
much pressure contributes to lens breakage during How the bevel is placed on the lens makes a great deal
edging. of difference in the appearance of the finished eyewear.
160 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

FIGURE 8-13 For most lenses the standard, larger pad holds the lens well. The larger the
pad, the larger the holding area will be. However, for small lenses a smaller pad is required,
as shown here.

1 1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 3 3
A B C

FIGURE 8-14 A, For thin lenses, the bevel apex is placed approximately in the middle
of the edge. B, When the lens is thick, a center bevel placement gives a poor cosmetic
result because the bevel shows too much. C, As the lens becomes thicker, and if the bevel
is to occupy the entire lens edge, it should be moved toward the front. When the bevel
occupies the entire lens edge, a one third:two thirds ratio is correct.

Placement of Apex for Hand-Beveled Lenses because of high-minus power, the center bevel position-
In the past, when lenses were hand-beveled, the main ing was not as cosmetically suitable (Figure 8-14, B).
requirement for achieving a good cosmetic effect Positioning the bevel apex right in the center of the
was the placement of the bevel apex. Figure 8-14, A, lens with a thick edge makes the lens “spill out” the
illustrates that for low-powered lenses with relatively front of the frame. The wearer knows the lenses are
thin edges, the apex was best positioned at the center of thick, and everybody else does too. Therefore, to correct
the lens edge. However, when lens edges become thicker this problem, the apex of the bevel was pushed forward
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 161

such that it was one third of the edge thickness from The complete blank either received from the
the front, as the right-hand lens in Figure 8-14, C, surfacing laboratory or pulled from stock is placed in
shows. When this was done, the major portion of the the edger. As the cycle begins, the lens blank is brought
lens was behind the frontal plane of the spectacles and into contact with a coarse diamond wheel called a
less of the lens bevel was seen from the front. Although roughing wheel, which cuts it down rapidly (Figure 8-16).
reflections from the larger beveled surface on the When the roughing cycle is complete, the lens will have
posterior lens edge still were seen as a concentric ring the correct shape as dictated by the pattern but will be
effect, the overall appearance was better. slightly large. The lens may then pass to the second
phase of edging, in which a finer finishing wheel puts the
Placement of Apex by Automatic Edger Wheels correct edge on the lens while cutting it to its final size.
The quality of edge design was vastly improved with the Two basic types of roughing wheels exist; those for
development of a grooved automatic edger wheel. This plastic and those for glass.
wheel allowed a bevel to be placed on a thick lens edge
• Electroplated roughing wheels for plastics and poly-
at any position while the remainder of the bevel was
carbonate are coated with larger, more coarsely spaced
edged flat, as in Figure 8-15.
diamond particles. This allows for cutting lens
American Optical Company referred to the resulting
material away without clogging the diamonds.
bevel as a Hide-a-Bevel. When the lens with this style
• Bonded roughing wheels are used primarily for glass
bevel is inserted into a spectacle frame, the finished
lenses. The bonding of the diamond to the wheel is tight
prescription appears considerably better cosmetically.
and withstands the relative hardness of a glass lens.
The bevel often completely disappears into the frame
groove. Because of forward placement, the front of the Although roughing wheels designed for glass may be
lens does not protrude, and the concentric ring effect, used intermittently for conventional plastic lenses,
although still present, is reduced by the more favorable roughing wheels designed for plastic should never be
edge angle. used for glass. (For more on roughing wheels, see
Chapter 17 on diamond wheels and cutter blades.)
OVERALL PROCESS Finishing Wheels
Roughing Wheels Once a lens is rough-edged to shape, it must be beveled
To replace the troublesome and risky process of on a finishing wheel. There are a large variety of finish-
chipping a lens down to a slightly larger preedging size, ing wheel designs available. Selection of the best wheel
edgers have a roughing cycle. for a particular laboratory depends on several factors.
Flat edges for rimless. The simplest design in bevels is
not a bevel but a flat edge. The flat edge is appropriate
for rimless style eyewear. Seldom is a flat edge produced
on a special flat wheel; they usually are ground on the
flat portion of a grooved wheel used for another style of
bevel as well. If the edger does not have a program that
Lens
places and keeps the lens on the flat portion
automatically, it may be necessary to prevent the lens
from slipping into the groove manually.
In the case of a manual operation for rimless lenses,
compensation for the lack of a bevel in setting the
eyesize is necessary. The eyesize should be set larger by
an amount equal to twice the wheel groove depth. If
the groove is 1 mm deep this will total 2 mm. Therefore
for a 48-mm lens size the edger is set for 50 mm.2
Edger wheel 2
Another method used is to change the set number on the pattern so
that the computation is automatically done with the initial edger
setting. For example, a rimless pattern is marked set –15. Normally for
a 54-mm eyesize, a 39-mm setting is selected and then increased by
twice the groove depth to approximately 41 mm. If, however, the
pattern were re-marked to a set –13, the operator simply could
subtract (54 – 13 = 41) to obtain the correct setting. With selection of
FIGURE 8-15 Much cosmetic advantage was gained with this option, every rimless pattern should be checked before adding it
the introduction of the so-called “hidden bevel.” to the pattern file to prevent costly mistakes.
162 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

All material All material Plastic and Glass

polishing finishing polycarbonate roughing
roughing

FIGURE 8-16 Diamond particles are more widely spaced on wheels used in the edging
of polycarbonate lenses. The wheel used in the roughing of polycarbonate lenses is the
second wheel from the right.

V-bevels. The V-bevel wheel is the most elementary 8-18). The current general usage term for this edge
design and duplicates results that could be accomplished configuration is a mini-bevel. The meaning of the term
by hand. The wheel is shaped like a V and, as a general mini-bevel has varied. It has also been referred to as a
rule, standard V-bevel wheels are used with a free-floating special-V bevel.
carriage or head system. That is to say, the lens is
allowed to position itself in the groove and will “float,” Free-Float Bevel System
or gravitate to the middle of the groove itself. Because One method of guiding the bevel is simply to allow a
of the free-floating situation, a 50-50 bevel results with “free-float” situation for the lens on the edger wheel.
the groove apex in the middle of the lens. This system When V-bevels were the norm, free-float systems
is seldom used today. worked well. The lens dropped into the V-shaped wheel
edge and gravitated to the center.
Hide-a-Bevels. A finishing wheel capable of producing
a flat or slightly angled edge either in front of or Guided Bevel Systems
behind the bevel of the lens is referred to as a Hide-a- When the edge of the lens changed from only a V to a
Bevel (American Optical; Figure 8-17). Although many V with a ledge, it became necessary to guide the location
term this type of bevel a hidden bevel, the expression of the bevel on the edge on the lens. Two methods,
“hidden bevel” has become a more general term that mechanically controlled and electronically controlled, exist for
may refer to most any type of edge that has some type positioning a bevel on the edge of a lens without relying
of ledge instead of being a conventional V-bevel on a free-float system.
configuration. One method of mechanically guiding the location of
the bevel is to restrict how far across the wheel groove
Mini-bevels. Some hidden-bevel finishing wheels have the lens edge is permitted to float. One system uses a
an angled ledge. The wheel shape causes the lens edge small guide wheel that tracks along the front surface of
to angle out a bit both on the front and back (Figure the lens as the lens rotates in the edger (Figure 8-19).
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 163

A B C D

FIGURE 8-17 Hide-a-Bevels should not automatically be placed at the front edge of all
lenses, as shown in A. High-minus lenses are often better edged with the bevel slightly back
from the front surface, as seen in B. This keeps the back edge from touching the wearer’s
face, and with plastic frames may better hide thickness. Moderately thick-edged plus
lenses, as shown in C, are edged in a manner similar to that of moderately powered minus
lenses. Thick-edged plus lenses often do well with the bevel more toward the midline, as
in D. However, when edges are excessively thick on plus lenses, the thickness may be due
to having selected too large a lens blank for the eyesize.

The guide wheel rolls, which reduces the chance of so that the bevel does not travel off the lens edge because
marring the front surface of the lens. the frame shape has “long corners.” The second
If the front surface were always flat, the lens could variable positions the bevel closer to the front or back
just be locked in position and edged. Only vertical of the lens. This allows the bevel to be placed according
movement would happen as the pattern and lens to the optical or cosmetic needs of the frame and
rotates on the wheel. But few lenses are flat. Most lenses prescription.
are curved. If a curved lens does not move left and right Using a guided bevel system becomes especially
as it turns, its edge will completely leave the groove and important when the frame has stiff rims that are curved
not have a bevel. for a lens with a more commonly used base curve. The
The front curvature of a lens changes as its power most common base curves are found on low-powered
changes. This means that how much the lens must lenses. Unfortunately, a high-minus lens has a front
move left or right with a guided bevel system will surface that is practically flat. To overcome this
change with lens curvature (Figure 8-20). problem, the edger must not allow the lens to float
Any guided bevel system requires the control of two freely. Instead it must guide the lens as it turns in the
variables. The first allows for lens steepness (base curve) edger.
164 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

It is advantageous to make the bevel fit the frame

rather than the lens. This is shown in Figure 8-21. In
these cases only a nonfloating, guided bevel system
works. (Most patternless edgers have the capacity to
take all these factors into consideration and allow the
operator to choose the appropriate process.)

Dry Cut Edgers

Instead of using diamond wheels, some edgers use a
spinning blade to edge the lens (Figure 8-22). These
edgers use no coolants and cut the lens dry. They are
suitable for polycarbonate and plastic but not for glass.
They cut the lens to size using a small, rapidly rotating
blade similar to a router blade used in woodworking
(Figure 8-23).
When a lens is edged with a blade, no coolant is
required. Small chips of lens are removed with a slicing
action. Because no coolant is present, chips are sucked
out of the edging chamber with a vacuum system.
With a blade, speed of edging is increased considerably,
which reduces the actual cutting cycle to anywhere
from 13 to 35 seconds.
Special blades are available that, instead of beveling
the edge, groove it. These are for frames that hold the
FIGURE 8-18 Examples of how the mini-bevel may lens in place with a nylon cord.
produce edges on minus lenses are shown on the two left
lenses. The lens on the right is a high-plus lens showing how
one of the thicker edge locations on the lens might look.

FIGURE 8-19 The white guide wheel rolls against the front surface of the lens and allows
the bevel to be positioned at a given distance from the front of the lens edge. This same
edger allows the wheel to be easily switched to an assembly that positions the bevel by
desired base curve, then back again.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 165

B
FIGURE 8-21 These lenses are seen from the top and
have been edged using a guided bevel system. The frame to
be used was manufactured to accept a lens with an average
front curve (usually +6.00 D). The eyewires of the frame
front are made to fit this curve and are not easily bent to a
FIGURE 8-20 Lens base curves vary. The higher the curve new conformation. Because the front curve of the lens is
is and the larger the lens, the farther back from the chucked flatter than the curve of the frame, the bevel on lens A will
central portion the edge is placed. Dotted lines indicate not fit properly. However, if the lens is edged using a guided
where the front surface base curve would be for lenses with bevel system, the bevel can be made to fit the frame, rather
increasingly steeper base curves. Were the lens to be locked than simply follow the front curve of the lens. The bevel
in a stationary horizontal location and only allowed to move shown in B will conform to the curve of the frame.
up and down during edging, the bevel would move com-
pletely off the edge on long corners. Arrows demonstrate
how far the lens must move at this diameter to ensure that
the bevel will be placed properly.

FIGURE 8-22 This is example of a patterned bevel edger that uses rotating blades to
edge the lenses. This technology is also available in patternless edging systems.
166 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

Facet
A facet is an edge shape used with rimless, grooved, and
in some cases, thin metal frame eyewear. It resembles
the beveled edge on custom-ground mirrors.
A relatively steep bevel is ground onto the front
or back edge of the lens, then highly polished (Figure
8-24). Instead of making the lenses look awkward
because of thickness, such lenses look almost as if the
edge was designed thicker to accommodate the beveled
glass effect.
The beveling can be done by hand with patience and
skill, or in conjunction with an edger wheel or blade
designed especially for the purpose. In either case the
edges must afterward be polished. Frame and lens
fashion changes cause facets to go in and out of style.

FIGURE 8-23 Plastic and polycarbonate lenses can be Rolled Edges

edged using cutter blades and no coolant. Blades may be Another edge configuration that may be done either by
resharpened. hand or with a special edger wheel or blade is a rolled
edge. The rolled edge reduces minus lens edge thickness
by rounding out the back surface edge of the lens. This
is shown in Figure 8-25. Even plus lenses with nasal
thickness and high prism lenses are good candidates
for rolled edges. The rolled edge is polished to match
the high degree of polish present on the surface of the
lens.

Unfaceted (cross-section) Polished Edges

Some edgers polish the edges of the lens. This may
mean that the edge is truly polished or that the last
finishing wheel on the edger has a fine grit, which gives
the lens edge an especially smooth appearance. (For
more on polished edges, see Chapter 10.)

(or) Faceted (cross-section)

Faceted (front view)

Standard
FIGURE 8-24 A faceted edge is intended for a minus lens. "hidden" Rolled
Placing a faceted edge on a plus lens requires intentionally bevel edge
increasing lens thickness and is counterproductive. Faceted
edges can be made to feature a variety of different looks FIGURE 8-25 A rolled edge reduces edge thickness
when finished. without resulting in any visible demarcation line.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 167

FIGURE 8-26 A lens may be checked for size accuracy with a pair of closure pliers. With
the lens in place, the barrels are simply squeezed together, eliminating continuous insertion
and removal of the eyewire screw.

Emergency Stops the block is removed, it is extremely difficult to reblock

As with any type of equipment, occasionally stopping the lens accurately enough to allow an even removal of
the operation in midcycle becomes necessary. Edgers only a few tenths of a millimeter.
have some system to stop the cycle and lift the lens off Because plastic frames stretch upon lens insertion,
the wheel, resetting the machine to start. some variation in lens size is possible without serious
consequences. Such lens size variation is not possible
Checking Size Accuracy when using a metal frame because the frame will not
Once a lens has been edged, the block should not be expand or contract. It is best to have the frame in the
removed until it is certain that the lens fits into the laboratory when the lenses are edged, but if this is not
frame exactly. This is especially true for metal frames, in the case, a more accurate indication of size than a ruler or
which small size increments determine the difference a Box-o-Graph (Kosh Manufacturing Co., Ft. Lauderdale,
between ill- and well-fitting lenses. Fla.) can be obtained using a circumference gauge
To check lens size accuracy for a metal frame, the (Figures 8-28 and 8-29). By knowing the circumference
lens is placed in the eyewire with the block still on. necessary for each eyesize of a given metal frame,
Then, using eyewire closure pliers, the two sections of precision in duplication is possible. Therefore for metal
the eyewire are squeezed together, as in Figure 8-26. frames that are uniformly manufactured to precisely
This draws the eyewire around the lens. If the upper repeatable sizes, an exact fit can be obtained without
and lower halves of the barrel fail to come together, the the frame being in the laboratory. (Note: Patternless
lens is still too large. The eyewire should close fully and edging combined with a remote tracer placed on location
leave no gaps between the lens and the eyewire, yet at the dispensary ensure an accurate fit even without
without putting undue stress on a lens. having the frame in the laboratory, especially if used in
Undue stress from a metal eyewire causes a plastic conjunction with circumference measurements.)
lens to warp and a glass lens to exhibit stress when viewed
with the aid of a colmascope.3 Figure 8-27 shows how
the strain appears with a colmascope.
While the block remains on the lens, an operator Variations in Edging Lenses of
may make slight steps in size reduction by running the Different Materials
lens through the finishing cycle again. However, once
Although the edging process remains approximately
3
the same in spite of differences in lens materials, some
A colmascope consists of a light source behind two crossed
polaroids. When a lens is placed between two polaroids, internal lens aspects require special attention. These are discussed
stress becomes visually apparent. separately on the basis of the lens material used.
168 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

FIGURE 8-27 A lens may be checked for stress with back-lighted, crossed polaroids (a
colmascope). In this figure the adhesive pad block is still on the lens so that it may be re-
edged easily. The bright marks around the periphery of the lens will show up with a
rainbow effect and indicate entirely too much strain. Were such a lens to be dispensed, it
could chip or flake along the edge at one or more of these strain points, especially if the
lens is glass and the spectacles are dropped or knocked against an object.

an index of 1.523. Glass lenses are also referred to as

mineral lenses.

PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
Photochromic glass, which darkens as light intensity
increases, is treated almost the same as crown glass
during the edging process. Because of its composition
the photochromic lens generates more heat when being
edged and is harder on edger wheels. As a result, some
wheels have been designed for use in situations in which
a high percentage of photochromic lenses are used.
When a large proportion of photochromic lenses are
edged, the coolant must be of good quality and of
FIGURE 8-28 Knowing the desired circumference of the sufficient concentration to produce the desired effect.
lens and then edging the new lens size to match this desired Failure to maintain a clean, efficient coolant flow causes
circumference will provide more accurate results than unnecessarily rough lens edges and a reduced abrasive
edging using only eyesize measurements. wheel life.

CROWN GLASS HIGH-INDEX GLASS

Crown glass lenses are considered to be the standard Some clear glass lenses are made from materials that
for glass ophthalmic lenses. Lens fabrication equipment result in a higher refractive index than the standard
ordered for glass assumes crown glass lenses as the crown glass lens. Common refractive indices for these
standard glass lens. Crown glass for ophthalmic use has so-called high-index lenses are 1.60, 1.70, and 1.80.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 169

FIGURE 8-29 The lens is placed in the circumference gauge and the tape lightly
tightened around the circumference of the lens. The clear plastic cover may be swung into
position over the lens for more stability.

Because of basic property differences in the interspersed with glass because the wheel is cleaned by
material, high-index lenses should be edged with less the glass before plastic can build up to a glaze.
pressure than standard crown lenses. The solution to the problem of glazing can be handled
It is advisable to avoid large temperature shocks with in one of two ways. The first is to use two edgers—one
high-index glass, as when a hot lens is rinsed with cold for glass, the other for plastic. The second solution is an
water. A standard crown lens can generally withstand edger with three or more cutting wheels. Most three-
a 70° C difference in temperature, whereas a 50° C wheel edgers made to handle two different lens materials
maximum difference is average for high index.4 are designed with one finishing and two roughing wheels.
High-index lenses should not be notched or drilled One roughing wheel may then be used for glass, and the
because these processes reduce impact resistance. second for plastic. All lenses may use the same finishing
wheel because the same kind of finishing wheel is
often used for both plastic and glass. Glass lenses must
LENSES MADE FROM PLASTIC not inadvertently be allowed to rough on the wheel
Edging of plastic CR-395 lenses can be performed on designed for plastic because wheel damage will occur.
the same equipment and with the same edger wheels
as are used for glass if relatively few of the lenses are
HIGH-INDEX PLASTIC
plastic. Because most lenses are plastic and not glass,
this is impractical. When the percentage of plastic With the exception of polycarbonate, lenses made from
lenses increases, the plastic begins to glaze the wheel. high-index plastic material are edged in essentially the
Glaze means that the spaces between abrasive diamond same manner as are CR-39 plastic lenses. Some high-
cutting edges become clogged with plastic, preventing index lenses emit a sulfurous odor when edged.
good, clean cutting. Although not considered hazardous, ventilation should
A glazed wheel results in increased cutting time for be considered, especially if the laboratory is within
lenses being edged. An extremely glazed wheel can proximity to a retail dispensary.
even cause the edges of a glass lens to chip to a depth
of 4 to 5 mm into the lens surface, ruining the lens.
POLYCARBONATE LENSES
This does not occur when only a few plastic lenses are
Polycarbonate lenses are highly impact resistant and
4
are excellent for regular wear and as protective lenses
High-Lite, S-1005 High Index, Low Density, Schott Optical Glass,
Inc., Duryea, Pa., 1979. in industrial situations. Although of a higher refractive
5
Columbia Resin 39, a trademark of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. index (1.586) than CR-39 plastic, polycarbonate is a
170 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

softer material and easily scratched unless coated. A develop microcracks over the surface called crazing.
protective coating is standard. Heat, pressure, and lens flexing can cause the coating
Care should be taken to ensure that all surfaces or to craze. With these things in mind, reducing the
points that come into contact with the lens are free possibility of subjecting the lens to these factors also
from rough edges or burrs. Lensmeter marking points reduces the possibility of lens spoilage. The following
should not be overlooked. list provides some ways to reduce AR spoilage.6
Lens surfaces should be free of dirt and oils in order Although not all are directly involved with edging, they
to prevent slippage during edging. For this reason, it is are included together for convenience, as follows:
best to hold the lenses by their edges.
• Hold the lenses by the edges, not the surfaces.
• Edge AR lenses on an edger not used for glass. If
Wet or Dry?
glass lenses have been edged, or if the edger has not
Even though the edging process for polycarbonate
been cleaned recently, clean the edger so that debris
lenses can be performed either wet or dry, a combination
will not recirculate over the AR-coated lens.
of both processes yields a cosmetically better, more
• Use surface-saver tape or surface-saver discs on the
stress-free lens. In this combination process, the lens is
lens. This will protect it from scratching and will
rough edged with no coolant. Halfway through the
cushion the lens when it is chucked in the edger. If
finishing cycle the coolant pump is activated and the
more cushioning is needed, use an adhesive blocking
edging process completed with coolant.
pad on the back surface of the lens.
Polycarbonate lenses are also edged on dry-cut,
• Reduce the chuck pressure on the edger, especially if
rotating blade edgers. Although this system gives nicely
the lens is also a high-minus, high-index plastic lens.
configured edges, National Optronics (Charlottesville,
• Use the largest block and chuck possible to spread
Va.) makes an edger that first dry-cut edges the lens,
the pressure over a greater area.
then shifts the lens to a diamond polishing hub. During
• Do not use an edger with a bevel guide that touches
polishing this hub is misted with water to produce a
the front of the lens.7 (If this type of edger is used,
clear edge finish.
then surface-saver tape also should be used to protect
the surface.)
Stress in Polycarbonate Lenses Resulting from
• Many of today’s patternless edgers have self-adjusting
Edging
features that keep chucking pressure and other
If the speed of the diamond wheel or rotating blade is
stress forces to a minimum. They also are often able
too slow, stress develops in a lens. Although stressed,
to get the lens exact the first time and pin-bevel it
lenses may still edge rapidly and look acceptable from a
simultaneously so that the lens is handled less. For
cosmetic viewpoint. Stress also can develop when cutting
best results, use one of these.
with a dull cutter. Over a period of time, this lens stress
• Do not leave the lenses blocked for long periods of
is released in the form of cracking or surface crazing.
time before edging them.
• Deblock the lens carefully.
Completing the Polycarbonate Process
• Rinse the lens after edging to remove any debris.
Like other lenses, polycarbonate lenses should be safety
beveled. Variations in this process are discussed in
Chapter 10 on hand edging. LAMINATED LENSES
The lens must be edged and mounted stress-free to
When lenses are composed of two or more materials
prevent future cracking or surface crazing. Although
laminated together, the lens must be edged on a wheel
improper edging techniques can be the greatest source
that is compatible with both materials.
of stress in a polycarbonate lens, mounting the lenses
too tightly also yields significant stress.
Cleaning of polycarbonate lenses may not employ Special Edging Situations
harsh chemicals. Acetone damages the exposed edge of
a polycarbonate lens. A mild detergent should prove EDGING LENSES FOR WRAP-AROUND
sufficient. Alcohol is used to remove progressive lens FRAMES
manufacturer’s markings.
Some sunglass frames are made primarily for plano
sunglasses that are made with a high base curve to give
ANTIREFLECTION-COATED LENSES
6
Herrick T: The A-R upgrade: you’re ready to sell S-R coated lenses,
Antireflection (AR) coated lenses present some challenges but can you finish them? 20/20 January:54-56, 2000.
in edging. A number of factors cause the coating to 7
Edging instructions for Reflection Free Plus stock lenses, undated.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 171

a wrap-around effect, which adds to protection from

the sun and fashion appeal. One of the problems
encountered is that prescription lenses are made on a
variety of base curves, depending upon lens power.
When a lens with a low base curve (flatter front curve)
is edged for one of these frames, they do not always
want to fit in and stay in the frame. There are two ways
that may be tried to make the lens fit into the frame.

A Steeper Base Curve

The first method for making the lenses fit better in a
wrap-around frame is to use a lens with a steeper base
curve. This means ordering a lens with a base curve of
about 8.00 D. The average prescription has a base curve
of about 5 or 6 D. For lenses of low power this may not Bevel leaves
the lens
interfere significantly with the overall optical perfor-
mance of the lens. However, each lens power has a
specific base curve that is optically correct. Changing
the base curve will decrease the optical performance FIGURE 8-30 A bevel tracking around the lens a certain
when viewing objects in the periphery of the lens.8 distance from the front surface often leaves the lens when it
Therefore caution should be taken when changing base reaches the ledge of an Executive bifocal. This ruins the lens.
curves. The higher the lens power, the more significant
will be the effect optically.

An Edger with a Guided Bevel System

The best way to edge a lens for a wrap-around frame is especially the case for long corners of the lens farthest
to use an edger with a guided bevel system. It is possible from the center.
to use a lens with the correct base curve for the power The best answer is to go to an edger that allows for
of the prescription. To get the lens to fit properly, use manually guided bevel placement. Good results may be
an edger that allows any base curve configuration to be obtained on some lenses using a patternless edger that
placed on the lens. In other words, a lens with a +6.00 is auto-guided. These systems “feel” the thickness of the
D base curve can be edged with an 8.00 D bevel, which lens where the bevel will go and often show on-screen
will better fit the curvature of the wrap-around frame exactly where the bevel should appear on the lens after
(see Figure 8-21). The main drawback is that the edge it is edged. Best results are obtained when this infor-
of the lens must be thick enough to prevent the bevel mation may be actively used by the operator by allowing
from going off the lens edge completely. for manual adjustment for optimum bevel guidance all
the way around the lens.
WHEN THE BEVEL LEAVES THE LENS
MAKING A PATTERN FROM AN EXISTING
Some types of lenses are notorious for causing the bevel
LENS
to leave the edge of the lens, which makes it difficult to
get the lens to stay in the frame or requires that the lens Some edgers have a kit that will allow the edger to
be re-edged completely. This often occurs on Franklin- cut a pattern from an existing lens. The wearer’s lens
style (Executive) lenses (Figure 8-30) and on lenses or a coquille9 is blocked with an adhesive pad so that
with high base curves. The following discussion the special block is exactly in the middle of the lens.
presents some solutions. The blocked lens is mounted where the pattern would
normally be placed and a pattern blank is blocked and
A Guided Bevel System chucked in the edger as if it were a lens. The edger is
When edging “Executive” lenses or high base curve set as if it were edging a lens for a rimless frame with
lenses, the bevel may run off the lens edge. This is no bevel.

8
Changing the base curve of a lens successfully without affecting
9
peripheral lens optics is possible if the lens is redesigned in aspheric A coquille is the dummy lens that comes in the frame for frame
form for that particular base curve. display purposes.
172 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

PATTERNLESS EDGING Because each frame is traced individually, it is as if

the electronic pattern is the same size as the edged
Patternless edgers and patterned edgers work in lens will be.
basically the same way. There are two main differences.
1. The patternless edger does not use a physical pattern.
Instead it uses a digitized shape. Patternless Possibilities
2. The patternless edger is already electronically
What are some of the extras that can go along with a
sophisticated, so it builds in many more computer-
patternless edger? Not all of the options listed in this
controlled options. This makes it considerably easier
chapter’s section on patternless edging are on every
to get a more refined end result.
patternless edger. Each edger is unique in what it offers
and will vary in how effectively and skillfully it is able
Electronic Shape to carry out that option.

A patternless edger is like a regular edger, except that it

USING PATTERNS WITH SOME
accepts frame shape information electronically instead
PATTERNLESS EDGERS
of mechanically. This means that a patternless edger
must work together with a frame tracer. The frame Most patternless edgers cannot use patterns. Yet from
tracer creates a pattern shape electronically. (Frame time to time it is easier to use a pattern. For this reason,
tracers are explained in Chapter 3.) some patternless edgers are made to also run with a
Frame tracers can be a separate piece of equipment, pattern. They are more the exception than the rule.
hooked by cable to the patternless edger (Figure 8-31).
Or the frame tracer can be a part of the edger, built
‘FEELING’ THE LENS FOR EDGE THICKNESS
right in to save space (Figure 8-32). Some patternless
edgers are even more self-contained and have the One of the better options on a patternless edger is the
layout blocker built into the housing of the edger ability to “feel” the lens where the edge will be located
(Figures 8-33 through 8-36). after edging. Many edgers use two “measuring arms,”

FIGURE 8-31 A tracer and a patternless edger can be two separate units that are
electronically linked together.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 173

FIGURE 8-32 Frame tracers may be a part of the edger as shown here. In fact this
particular edger also includes a blocker, visible at the lower right, as part of the same piece
of equipment.

FIGURE 8-33 Information such as lens size, bridge size, segment or fitting cross height
and wearer’s PD is already input into many patternless edging systems. In this photograph
the blocker viewing screen has the decentered lens location already preset.
174 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

FIGURE 8-34 The lens is positioned for blocking. In this photograph the blocker and
edger are part of the same machine shown in Figure 8-32.

FIGURE 8-35 The block is either automatically or manually pressed against the lens.

one on the front of the lens and the other on the back. tells the edger how thick the lens is at each point on the
Before the lens is actually edged, the edger turns the edge. The edger uses this information to decide an
uncut lens in the edger. These two measuring arms optimum bevel position. How well the edger makes this
touch the front and back surfaces of the lens (Figure decision depends on the sophistication of the computer
8-37). As the lens turns, the arms trace the future shape software. (Other ways exist for measurement of lens
of the edged lens at the exact lens size dictated. This thickness besides use of measuring arms.)
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 175

FIGURE 8-36 The blocked lens is ready for edging.

FIGURE 8-37 To make the best judgment on where to place the bevel, an exact
measure of edged lens thickness all the way around the lens is needed. To find this
thickness, many edgers use measuring arms that touch the front and back of lens surfaces
at the exact place where the lens edge will be when edging is complete. In this image the
measuring arms are seen resting on front and back lens surfaces.
176 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

REQUIRED LENS AND FRAME MATERIALS glass is not the correct roughing wheel for plastic or
polycarbonate.
Patternless edgers often have a prompt that asks for the • If the lens is polycarbonate, the coolant flow will cycle
lens and frame material being used (Figure 8-38). The on and off at different times. Other materials have a
edger needs to know which lens material is used for the continuous coolant flow.
following reasons: • The edger presses the lens against the wheel with the
appropriate pressure.
• The edger will rough the lens on the correct Knowing the frame material/bevel style is important for
roughing wheel. The correct roughing wheel for the following reasons:

B
FIGURE 8-38 Patternless edgers commonly ask for not only the lens material, as shown
in screen A, but also the frame material being used, as seen in screen B. In this image the
screen shown in B indicates a metal frame. If the frame is not metal, the edger operator
will press a triangular button adjacent to the word METAL until the appropriate frame
material appears on the screen.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 177

• To determine the way the edge will be finished, as the operator may be able to pick it up by looking at
when rimless lenses are needed the traced shape.
• To help determine if the lens is to be edged exactly • The shape may not match the frame. Sometimes
on size, or will be edged slightly larger, as with someone else scans the shape. This could have been
certain plastic frames. Overriding the traced size and either at order entry or off-site with a remote tracer.
edging the lens slightly larger or smaller is possible. In either case the shape on the screen needs to be
Size difference may be set at the discretion of the compared with the frame. If the frame and the traced
operator. shape on the screen do not match, the error will be
caught and the lenses will not be ruined.
Newer edgers that receive information from previous
data entry points in the laboratory will not need to Screens that Show the Edge of the Lens
prompt for lens and frame material. They will already Edgers that show the edge thickness and shape will, of
have obtained that information. necessity, have the capacity to “feel” the front and back
surface of the lens as described above. However, what is
possible from this point on varies considerably.
PATTERNLESS EDGER VIEWING SCREENS If the edger can show the way the lens edge will look
The viewing screen shows what the lens will look like after edging, it usually allows some operator discretion
when finished. A viewing screen can allow a number on bevel placement, otherwise there would be no point
of options. The following are some of those options. in showing the edge.
Edgers should allow the operator to move the bevel
Viewing Screen that Shows the Lens Shape forward and backward. In other words, the bevel may
The most basic screen type shows the shape of the lens be moved closer to the front or closer to the back of the
as it appears when viewed from the front (Figure 8-39). lens edge. But, for maximum control, the bevel should
This is important for several reasons, as follow: be able to move forward or backward different distances
for different points around the rims of the frame.
• If the lens tracer has hit an irregularity in the frame This may be done on the screen first to see what it will
eyewire, this will show up on the screen. look like before being edged as shown in Figures 8-40
• If the frame has become deformed while being traced, and 8-41.

FIGURE 8-39 Being able to see the shape of a lens on the viewing screen of a patternless
edger allows a quick check to be certain that the correct lens shape is being edged.
178 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

FIGURE 8-40 The lower right quadrant of this screen shows the way in which the lens
edge will look in cross-section on the temporal side. The upper half of the screen shows
where the bevel apex is located relative to the front and back edges of the lens all the way
around the lens. (It is as if this thick minus lens edge were removed from the lens and
spread out flat on the screen.) The vertical line at II (lower-left area) shows where the
cross-section in the lower right hand quadrant of the screen is located.

FIGURE 8-41 The bevel on the same thick lens pictured in Figure 8-40 has been moved
back on the lens edge. It is possible to leave bevel placement to the preprogrammed
settings, or to override these settings with what the operator feels is most appropriate for
the prescription.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 179

Taking Advantage of the Third Dimension lens bevel modified. It can no longer simply follow the
Frame tracers will either trace in two dimensions or front edge of the lens.
three dimensions. If the tracer traces in two dimensions, Figure 8-44 shows a high-minus lens with a flat front
it only gives basic lens shape, exactly like a pattern curve. This flat-front lens will not fit into a curved-rim
would. If it traces in three dimensions, it tracks forward frame without modifying either the frame or the
and backward and finds how the frame is curved lens bevel position. If the lens is edged with bevel
(Figure 8-42). positioning based on the front edge of the lens (Figure
Figure 8-43 shows a frame front with an eyewire 8-45), then the frame must be reshaped.
curvature made for lenses with moderately curved front For example, what if this frame were traced with a
surfaces. If a lens has a very flat or a very steep front frame tracer capable of tracing in three dimensions?
surface, either the frame will have to be reshaped or the Knowing this information, the edger is set to follow the

y First dimension
Third dimension

x
z

Second dimension

FIGURE 8-42 This drawing shows the three dimensions referred to for tracing and
edging lenses. The first and second dimensions correspond to x and y coordinates in
mathematics and correspond to horizontal and vertical measurements on a flat piece of
paper. They resemble a flat screen television. The third dimension corresponds to the z
coordinate in mathematics. This dimension is the out and in direction, in front and in back
of the paper. If television were in three dimensions, the viewer would feel like the action
was happening in the room.

FIGURE 8-43 This frame is made for lenses that have a moderately curved front surface,
as do most lenses that are neither high-plus nor high-minus in power.
180 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

However, a frame tracer may trace in three dimensions

but the patternless edger may not be able to use that
information. The edger must be capable of interpreting
the information given to it by the tracer and capable of
edging in three dimensions.

LENS DRILLING AS AN OPTION

WECO makes an edger that has a drilling option (see
Figure 13-53). The edger will drill holes, blind holes,
and slots and blind slots. Blind holes and blind slots are
holes and slots that go only halfway into the lens. A part
of the rimless mounting presses into the blind hole or
slot to give the finished spectacles more stability.

OPTIONS AVAILABLE ON PATTERNLESS

AND PATTERNED EDGERS
Some options on patternless edgers are also options on
patterned edgers. These include, but are not limited to,
edge polishing, safety beveling, and edge grooving.

FIGURE 8-44 This lens is high minus in power. The front SELF-DIAGNOSTICS WITH EASY
surface has little curve. It is almost flat.
CALIBRATION
When a piece of equipment becomes computer
controlled, it should include some level of self-
frame (Figure 8-46). This moves the bevel to conform diagnostic ability. At start-up it should be able to run
to the curvature of the frame as shown in Figure 8-47. through a program of self-check that will set up needed
(This is not a good frame choice for this particular lens standards and check the various system components to
prescription, but it is used in this discussion for ensure that they are functioning as they should. If they
demonstration purposes only.) are not, the faulty system should be displayed.

FIGURE 8-45 A lens can be edged so that the bevel follows the front edge of the lens.
In this image the edger is set to follow the front of the lens, maintaining a constant distance
from the front edge.
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 181

FIGURE 8-46 A lens also can be edged so that the bevel follows the curvature of the
frame, instead of the lens. This edger is set to follow the frame curve. If this option is
chosen, the bevel will not always be an even distance from the front of the lens.

Patternless edgers should have some kind of system

for easy calibration. This would include things such as
wheel differential, eyesize, and axis. Some edgers dress
the grinding wheels when they become worn and are
not cutting as crisply as they should be. The extent of
the calibration and diagnostics for patternless edgers
varies considerably.

DECENTRATION CALCULATIONS
Patternless edgers may calculate decentration for the
edger operator, but require the operator to decenter
the lens in the layout/blocking process. Other edgers
do not require the operator to physically decenter the
lens. These edgers are made to work with the layout
blocker. If a direct interface exists between blocker
and edger, the lens does not have to be physically
decentered nasally by the operator. The operator just
positions the spotted lens so that the optical center (or
major reference point) is in the middle of the blocker
grid as if no decentration existed at all. Then one of the
following two things happens: FIGURE 8-47 The bevel’s appearance when the lens in
Figure 8-44 is edged for the frame in Figure 8-43. Notice
that the bevel is close to the front of the lens at the top but is
1. The blocker moves the lens block over to where it farther back from the edge on both temporal and nasal sides
would normally be positioned. of the lens. (Note: This lens/frame combination is not a good
2. The lens is blocked right in the middle and the one but is chosen only for the purpose of clearly illustrating
edger takes that factor into consideration when it is the way in which bevel location can be made to follow the
edging the lens. curve of the frame instead of the curve of the lens.)
182 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

ABILITY TO INTERFACE WITH THE REST

OF THE LABORATORY
A feature of growing importance for patternless edgers
is the ability to interface with the rest of the laboratory.
Patternless edgers are only one part of an optical
laboratory. Increasingly optical laboratory equipment is
being interconnected, tied together with laboratory
management software programs.
A patternless edger may be completely self-contained,
including frame tracing, blocking, edging, safety beveling,
and edge polishing. It will prompt for frame dimensions
and the wearer’s PD measurement. However, what if the
order has been sent to the laboratory electronically
with all of that information already entered? By having
the capacity to accept frame tracings, frame dimensions,
and PD from a laboratory software program it is no
longer necessary to reenter all of the information. This
saves time and eliminates one more source of human
error that can occur by reentering existing information.
Using a bar code reader, the operator may scan a job
tray (Figure 8-48). This tells the edger which job to call
up. Any missing information may be entered and the
job processed. It also tells the software program where
the job is located. If any questions about the job arise,
the tray may be located easily. FIGURE 8-48 Bar coding each job allows information to
be downloaded into the edger and at the same time keep
track of the exact location of the job in the laboratory.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Definite relationships exist between pattern size 3. A pattern measures 56 mm. If the frame to be
and edger setting. Assuming a “standard pattern used is a 58 䊐 20, which of the following edger
size” of 36.5 mm, fill in the missing information settings will result in a correctly edged lens,
for each of the following lens size/pattern size assuming a correctly calibrated edger?
combinations.
a. Set at 36.5 mm
EYESIZE PATTERN SIZE SET NUMBER EDGER SETTING
b. Set at 38.5 mm
50 50 a b c. Set at 54 mm
48 c –10 d d. Set at 56 mm
45 e f 37 e. Set at 58 mm
g 44.5 h 44
50 36.5 i j 4. A pattern has a B dimension of 47 and a pattern
k l –5 57 difference of 4. Which of the following is the
50 51.5 m n pattern set number?
52 50 o p
a. –14.5
2. If a pattern is marked, “set –5,” which of the b. –4
following is the pattern’s A dimension? c. –6.5
d. –40.5
a. 37.5 e. None of the above
b. 41
c. 45
d. 41.5
e. Cannot be determined from information given
CHAPTER 8 EDGING 183

5. Suppose a pattern has a size of 36.5 mm and has a 9. An order comes with the patient’s old glasses,
“pattern difference” of 6. If the edger is correctly including the lenses. You are to put new lenses in
calibrated and set for 52 mm, which of the the old frame. To be sure you get the right size,
following is the measurement for the B dimension you measure the circumference of the old lenses.
of the edged lens? The circumference is 157 mm. You have the
pattern and measure it. The pattern measures
a. 42.5 mm 161.8. Which of the following edger settings would
b. 30.5 mm you use?
c. 46 mm
d. 58 mm a. 35.1
e. None of the above b. 36.5
c. 38.1
6. An edger has a setting dial with a zero, plus-minus d. 41.3
scale. A pattern has an A dimension of 53. The e. Not enough information given
frame has an A dimension of 49. Which of the
following indicates the edger setting? 10. True or False? The groove for a nylon cord lens
retention system can be produced on some edgers.
a. –2 mm
b. –12.5 mm 11. Which of the following statements about faceted
c. –16.5 mm lenses is true?
d. –4 mm
e. None of the above a. When the facet is used, high-minus lens edge
thickness is reduced.
7. An edger has a setting dial with a zero, plus-minus b. When the facet is used, high-minus lens center
scale. The pattern is marked “set –10.” The frame thickness increases.
has an A dimension of 52. To which of the c. When the facet is used, plus lens center
following is the edger dial set? thickness decreases.
d. When the facet is used, plus lens edge thickness
a. –10 decreases.
b. +5.5
c. 62 12. True or False? The term polished edges always
d. –15.6 means the edge has the same high luster as is
e. None of the above found on the surface of the lens.

8. A “lenses only” order comes with the name of the 13. Which of the following pliers is helpful in the
frame, an A, a distance between lenses, and the process of determining whether a lens is the
lens circumference. The circumference correct size for a metal frame?
measurement is 151.4 mm. You have the pattern.
The pattern has a circumference of 146 mm. a. Fingerpiece plier
Which of the following would you use for an b. Endpiece plier
edger setting? c. Half-padded plier
d. Eyewire closure plier
a. 34.9 e. Lens rotation plier
b. 36.5
c. 38.3 14. “Mineral lens” is another name for which of the
d. 41.9 following?
e. Not enough information given
a. High-index plastic
b. Polycarbonate
c. Glass
d. CR-39
184 CHAPTER 8 EDGING

15. Which of the following lenses are said to emit a a. 1.425 e. 1.586
sulfurous odor when edged? b. 1.498 f. 1.621
c. 1.523 g. 1.70
a. Glass d. 1.530
b. High-index glass
c. CR-39 plastic 20. Which of the following is not a way that may
d. Polycarbonate reduce spoilage of antireflection-coated lenses?
e. High-index plastic (Note: Not every response may be necessary in
every instance but should at least be considered
16. Which of the following is/are some possible helpful in some instances.)
reason(s) for a bevel coming out incorrectly on a
thin, high-index lens? (Note: More than one a. Use surface-saver tape or discs on the lens.
answer may be correct.) b. Reduce chuck pressure on the edger.
c. Avoid heat on the lens when heating the frame
a. A flexible plastic lens block was used instead of and lenses together.
a stable, metal block. d. Leave the lenses blocked overnight before
b. A metal block was used instead of a flexible edging to allow initial stress to subside.
plastic block.
c. The wrong base block was chosen for the base 21. True or False? It is always best to increase the base
curve of the lens being edged. curve to approximately +8.00 D when using
d. The lens was edged on a patternless edger prescription lenses in a wrap-around frame.
equipped with measuring arms. As the thin,
flexible lens was cut down, the curvature of the 22. Which of the following is not a workable
lens changed and caused the bevel to be misplaced. suggestion for keeping the bevel on the edge of
an Executive lens?
17. Which of the following actions will not help prevent
a high-index plastic lens from cracking during edging? a. Instead of a free-float bevel placement system,
use a guided bevel system.
a. Using the edger’s reverse rotation option b. Use a patternless edger with measuring arms
b. Blocking the lens on a steeper base block that “feel” lens thickness at the proposed
c. Reducing edger clamping pressure location of the lens edge.
d. Reducing the head pressure the edger exerts c. Edge the lens a bit large. Bring the final lens
on the lens size down by hand to control bevel placement.
d. All of the above are workable suggestions.
18. Which of the following edging methods and/or a
similar variation to this method yields a more 23. True or False? Some patternless edgers are still
stress-free polycarbonate lens? capable of directly edging a lens from a pattern.

a. Edging the lens wet 24. True or False? A patternless edger may ask for the
b. Edging the lens dry frame material being used. Frame material will
c. Edging the lens wet until partway through the determine which roughing wheel should be used.
finishing cycle, after which the coolant is
turned off and the cycle finished dry 25. True or False? If a patternless edger viewing
d. Edging the lens dry until partway through the screen shows the proposed location of the bevel
finishing cycle, after which the coolant is on the lens, that bevel position can be moved
turned on and the cycle finished wet uniformly forward or backward on the lens edge.

19. Match the refractive indices to the correct lens 26. True or False? If a patternless edger viewing screen
material. shows the proposed location of the bevel on the lens,
crown glass it may be possible to move the bevel selectively
polycarbonate (e.g., moving the bevel back on the nasal and
CR-39 temporal sides while leaving the bevel toward the
high-lite glass front of the lens at the top and bottom).

27. True or False? All frame tracers trace in three

dimensions and send three-dimensional frame
information to the patternless edger.
 Deblocking
9

T he method used to deblock a lens depends on

the type of blocking. Each is explained by
blocking method used.

Deblocking Lenses Blocked by

Suction
The method used for deblocking a suction-blocked lens
is self-evident. When the suction cup seal is broken by
lifting the edge of the suction cup, the lens deblocks
easily. Grasping it with a plier and twisting it off also
removes the lens.

Deblocking Metal Alloy–Blocked

Lenses
As mentioned in Chapter 7 (“Blocking of Lenses”),
metal blocking of lenses is used rarely. It is not as
environmentally friendly and has disadvantages when
used with certain types of lenses.
Only two ways exist to deblock plastic lenses. The
first is to twist or torque the lens to pop off the block
(Figure 9-1). Unfortunately this is appropriate only for
uncoated lenses. Flexing coated lenses should be
avoided because this can damage the coating.
The second is to use a hot water system of deblocking.
The blocked lens is placed in hot water and the block
melts off and sinks to the bottom. If this method is
used, the water must then be processed before it can be

185
186 CHAPTER 9 DEBLOCKING

Deblocking ‘Wax’-Blocked Lenses

Deblocking the waxlike blocks used in the Gerber-
Coburn Step Two blocking system is done with
deblocking pliers. The block is grasped with the pliers
and twisted from the lens.

Deblocking Adhesive Pad–Blocked

Lenses
Lenses blocked with adhesive pads use either metal or
plastic blocks. Deblocking differences between metal
blocks and plastic blocks are slight.

DEBLOCKING ADHESIVE-PADDED METAL

FIGURE 9-1 If a plastic lens is twisted slightly, adhesion
BLOCKS
is broken and the alloy block drops off.
To deblock an adhesive pad–blocked lens, the lens is
held firmly with a tool and twisted off. The “classic” type
of deblocking tool is shown in Figure 9-3. It is shaped to
accept the block in the same manner the edger chuck
does.
The lens is held with a laboratory towel when twisting
it off. If the lens is held without a towel the technician

FIGURE 9-2 When pliers are used to deblock an alloy-

blocked lens, the long axis of the block is squeezed to
deblock, not pulled.

poured down the drain because it contains heavy metals.

This method works for glass lenses.
Metal blocks also may be removed from glass lenses
using a large-jawed plier. The jaws are oriented so that
they span the longest axis of the block, as in Figure 9-2.
Deblocking is not accomplished by pulling the block off
but rather by squeezing. As pressure is applied to the
longer axis, slight flexing of the metal occurs, which FIGURE 9-3 An adhesive pad deblocker is simply a hold-
breaks the seal between lens and alloy. The pliers never ing mechanism for the block. Deblocking occurs when the
touch the lens. This method does not work well on lens is twisted off the block. (This deblocker resembles the
plastic lenses because the plastic lens flexes with the “classic-type” deblocker but is an “in-house” constructed
block and does not release. model.)
CHAPTER 9 DEBLOCKING 187

can get small surface cuts on the hand when sharp edges
have not been removed by safety beveling the lens.
Most people think that turning force is most important
when removing a block, such as when a person tries to
remove the lid from a pickle jar. However, the technician
can remove the lens from the block easier by pressing
the block harder into the deblocker while twisting.
If the lens is small and hard to get off the block, the
towel being used to grasp the lens should be dampened
to increase the grip on the lens. Figure 9-4 shows a lens
being deblocked with a deblocking tool.
Many layout-blockers come with a deblocker fastened
to the side of the unit (Figures 9-5 and 9-6). These are

FIGURE 9-6 Twisting a lens off the lens block with the
deblocker on the side of a layout-blocker has the advantage
of having the deblocker mounted on a solid, heavy object.
Because it is sometimes necessary to deblock and reblock a
lens during layout before it has been edged, the location is
handy.

simply wide slots with rounded ends that are cut into
stainless steel. They work just as well as the classic-type
deblocking tool.

FIGURE 9-4 Although many practitioners deblock lenses DEBLOCKING ADHESIVE-PADDED

without the use of a laboratory towel, small cuts can be PLASTIC BLOCKS
prevented by padding the edges of the lenses.
Plastic blocks are usually deblocked using a plier shaped
to fit the block. The block is grasped with the plier and
removed by tilting the pliers, rather than twisting the
block (Figure 9-7).

Reminder
A lens should not be deblocked until the technician is
certain it will fit exactly into the frame. Once a lens is
deblocked, reblocking the lens exactly as it was blocked
before is almost impossible. Attempting to reblock the
lens and then re-edge it will probably result in a poor fit
with a slight gap or misshape to the lens. It is much easier
to take a lens down in size on an edger than to hand
edge it to size.
Table 9-1 summarizes the deblocking methods
discussed in this chapter.
FIGURE 9-5 A lens deblocker that comes mounted on the
side of a lens layout-blocker. The large slot fits nicely around
the raised section of a metal lens block.
188 CHAPTER 9 DEBLOCKING

FIGURE 9-7 Plastic blocks may be removed with a plier designed for that purpose. The
lens is held along the longest meridian and the pliers tilted away from the technician, who
pulls the block from the lens, rather than twists if off.

TABLE 9-1
Deblocking Methods
BLOCKING METHOD BLOCK REMOVAL TECHNIQUES

Pressure blocking Remove lens from edger.

Suction blocking Break seal by lifting edge of suction cup with fingernail.
Twist off.
Metal alloy blocking For glass lenses, use:
• Plier pressure
• Hot water
For plastic lenses, use:
• Lens torquing (uncoated lenses only)
• Hot water
Blocking with a waxlike material Twist off.
Adhesive-padded blocking Twist or tilt off.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following method(s) is/are 2. True or False? Deblocking of metal alloy–blocked
appropriate for deblocking of a lens that has been glass lenses is accomplished by grasping the block
blocked with a waxlike material? across the short dimension and pulling it off.

a. Just remove the lens from the edger. 3. True or False? Using a classic-type deblocking tool
b. Break the seal on the edge of the block. is unequivocally the best method for deblocking
c. Grasp the lens by the block with a plierlike lenses from a metal block with adhesive pads.
deblocking tool and twist it off.
d. Peel the pad off with the fingernail.
CHAPTER 9 DEBLOCKING 189

4. How may an adhesive-padded blocked lens be 5. True or False? Regardless of blocking methods,
deblocked? the safest way to deblock a plastic lens is with hot
water.
a. Just remove the lens from the edger.
b. Break the seal on the edge of the block. 6. True or False? It works out well to deblock a lens
c. Grasp the lens by the block with a plier or before checking lens size. The lens is easily
deblocking tool and twist it off. reblocked if the size needs to be slightly reduced.
d. Torque the lens.
e. Peel the pad off with the fingernail.
f. Use hot water.
 Hand Edging
10

Rationale for Hand Edging

In hand edging the lens is held in the hand and its edge
pressed against a rotating smoothing surface. Hand
edging is used for the following tasks:
1. Smoothing edge surfaces (edge smoothing)
2. Removing sharp edges from a lens after it has been
machine edged (safety or pin beveling)
3. Reducing a lens in size
4. Reshaping the lens

Types of Hand Edgers

Described in simplest terms, a hand edger is an abrasive
wheel mounted so that the edges may be ground by
hand.

CERAMIC WHEEL HAND EDGERS

The older style of hand edger was a large diameter
wheel with a wide edge as shown in Figure 10-1. The
wheel is ceramic and may be retrued often to remove
surface irregularities. Because the wheel is ceramic down
to the hub it has a long life.

DIAMOND WHEEL HAND EDGERS

A commonly occurring design for diamond hand
edgers is the face-type hand edger (Figure 10-2). This uses
the face rather than the edge of a rotating wheel for
grinding. Such a design does not allow use of the
corner of the wheel for hard-to-reach sections on the
FIGURE 10-1 Although it requires occasional retruing, a
ceramic hand-edging wheel has an exceptionally long life
because of its depth.

back bevel. In compensation, a central curved hub is

provided. Some manufacturers still maintain the basic
design of a ceramic wheel but have reduced either the
wheel diameter (Figure 10-3) or the edge width.
FIGURE 10-2 A face-type hand edger reduces the amount
Hand Edgers with V-Bevel Grooves
of diamond required by placing the abrasive on the side of
One option available in selection of a hand edger is the the wheel.
kind of V-grooved wheel shown in Figure 10-4. This
groove allows the size of an edged, hidden-bevel lens to

FIGURE 10-3 Smaller diamond wheels with a wide surface area offer versatility and
resemble the older ceramic wheel hand edgers.

191
192 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

TABLE 10-1
Hand-Edger Wheel Grit Types and Their
Purposes
TYPE PRIMARY PURPOSE(S)

Rough Removing edge stock rapidly

Medium Removing edge stock
Fine Pin beveling and edge smoothing; also,
removing edge stock moderately well
Extra-fine Pin beveling and edge smoothing

Edge smoothing once was used to improve the coarse,

frosted look of a lens after it had been edged. All lenses
had to have their edges smoothed to make the lens look
decent. This is no longer necessary. However, the
FIGURE 10-4 A grooved wheel is not primarily designed
technique used in edge smoothing is the same as that
to smooth both bevel surfaces of normal lenses simultan-
eously. It allows lenses with hidden bevel edge shapes to be
required to reshape a lens or to reduce a lens in size by
reduced in size without destroying the edge configuration. hand. Learning the basic technique of edge smoothing
is the first step in learning to resize or reshape a lens.
Pin or safety beveling is used to remove the sharp
be reduced. Unless this option is available, a size interface between the lens bevel and the front and back
reduction or shape modification by hand is possible surfaces of the lens. Another name for pin beveling is
only if the hidden bevel is changed to a standard V. chamfering. Pin beveling by hand is still used but will be
A V-bevel groove may be useful for dispensary situa- used less often as more edgers come equipped with a
tions in which inexperienced personnel are required pin-beveling option. This, too, still will be needed when
to change the size of a lens. Maintaining an attractive the size or shape of an existing lens is changed, such as
bevel during hand edging without practice is difficult. when someone breaks a frame and needs his or her
lenses put in another frame. If the lenses are not pin
beveled after reshaping, they are subject to chipping.
WHEEL GRITS
Using different types of diamond wheels allows
versatility. As would be expected, those wheels with Edge Smoothing
extra-fine grit are excellent for pin beveling, whereas
rough grit is used for rapid removal of lens edge Edge smoothing is done with the needed angle of the
substance. bevel on the lens edge in mind. At the same time the
Grit types and their purposes are listed in Table 10-1. smoothing process is being carried out, the quality of
If only one wheel must be chosen for all purposes, the bevel is checked for both angle and apex position.
fine-grit wheel is the most versatile. It allows smooth pin The angle of the bevel apex is greater than would be
beveling yet can still be used to reduce size. A super-fine expected. It is normally a 115-degree angle and should not
wheel is for pin beveling and edge smoothing only. In be larger than 130 degrees. This was shown in Chapter
contrast, rough wheels are excellent for rapid shape 8 (see Figure 8-14). The lens bevel angle is larger than the
reduction or alteration but cannot be expected to angle of groove in the frame. The most common mistake
adequately perform smoothing tasks. For maximum in beveling the lens is to make the bevel too pointed.
efficiency, two wheels of different grits are used next to The apex of the bevel should be placed centrally for
one another. thin lenses. For thicker-edged lenses the apex is placed
a third of the way from the front (see Figure 8-14).

Two Parts to Hand Edging

PREPARING THE WHEEL
Hand edging includes the following two parts:
With the exception of polycarbonate lenses, before the
1. Edge smoothing hand edger is used, the wheel must be wet. Some hand
2. Pin or safety beveling edgers have a coolant recycling system with a pump and
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 193

coolant tank below the unit. Others use tap water that
does not recirculate but simply drains out. In either
case, a steady drip on the wheel is required. Because of
the smoothness of most wheels, the thumb may be drawn
across the face of the spinning wheel to ensure that the
entire surface is wetted; this method is illustrated in
Figure 10-5.
Some wheels use a sponge to prevent splashing and
to spread the water evenly over the surface. The sponge
should be wetted and positioned before the unit is
turned on. It also must be removed whenever the unit
is turned off. If this is not done, ceramic wheels absorb
water from the sponge and swell, which creates a lump
on the wheel.

HOLDING THE LENS PROPERLY

Edge smoothing begins with the back surface of the
bevel. The left hand1 is rested on the hand rest and the
FIGURE 10-5 Drawing the thumb across the hand wheel
lens is grasped between thumb and forefinger with
ensures even wetting before grinding begins.
both hands. The right thumb and forefinger act as a
pivotal point, while the left thumb and forefinger guide
the lens. Assuming that the angle on the bevel is correct, the
lens is held with the back surface of the lens bevel flat
1
The sequence is explained from the right-handed point of view. against the cutting plane of the wheel. Figure 10-6
Those who are left-handed should substitute left for right and right shows this in cross-section from the side. When viewed
for left. Pictures visualized in mirror image give the left-handed
perspective. (Holding the book in front of a large mirror will show from this perspective, the lens makes about a 41-degree
correct left hand positioning.) angle with the cutting plane of the wheel.
ne
g pla
Cuttin

41º

FIGURE 10-6 During edge smoothing, the back bevel surface is smoothed first. This
helps to position the apex. The lens is held somewhere near a 41-degree angle with the
cutting plane. It is angled downward considerably more than it will be when the front bevel
surface is smoothed.
194 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

thumb guides it on around. This is shown in Figure

10-10.

POSITIONING THE BEVEL APEX

As stated earlier, the edge-smoothing process begins
with the back surface of the bevel. During the process
of smoothing the back bevel surface, the apex of the
bevel can be repositioned toward the front of the lens.
Applying extra pressure to the back bevel surface
moves the bevel apex forward more.
Once the bevel apex is in its desired location, the
front bevel surface can be smoothed. (For thin-edged
lenses, the bevel apex is centered. As the lens edge
thickens, the bevel apex should be moved toward the
one-third/two-thirds position.)

FIGURE 10-7 By tilting the lens to approximately 60 EDGE SMOOTHING THE FRONT BEVEL
degrees and rotating it clockwise, the upward pull of the SURFACE
wheel can be used to advantage. (Those who are left-
handed tilt to the mirror image and rotate the lens When the bevel apex has been properly placed, the
counterclockwise.) front surface of the bevel is smoothed. Because of bevel
configuration, however, the angle between the cutting
plane of the wheel and the lens is considerably greater
If the lens is viewed from the front, the angle that than it was for the front surface. As Figure 10-11 shows,
the lens makes with the horizontal plane can vary con- the actual angle is approximately 74 degrees, but the
siderably. The personal preference of the practitioner lens appears to be almost at right angles to the wheel,
determines how the lens is held. An angle of approx- depending upon where the wheel is contacted. Compared
imately 60 degrees works well because it allows a good with back bevel smoothing, front bevel smoothing is
view of the lens without having to lean sideways. It also done lightly. It is done with less pressure to prevent
still takes advantage of the upward pull of the wheel for alteration of bevel positioning.
a smoother, steady lens rotation.
To start out, the lens is held on its 180-degree cutting
line, as shown in Figure 10-7. Lens rotation will be Basic Rules for Better Results
clockwise.2 The hand edger wheel surface is spinning
upward. When the lens is rotated in a clockwise The following sections describe some basic hints for
direction, the edge contacting the wheel will also move getting better results during the hand-edging process
upward. This way the lens is moving with the direction and some suggestions on how to practice.
of wheel rotation instead of against it. When the lens
turns with the wheel, it is easier to control the speed of
MONITORING PRESSURE AND LENS
stock removal3, angle, and movement of the lens.
ROTATION SPEED
As Figure 10-8 demonstrates, the best spot on the
lens to place the edge on the wheel is just past a lens The finer the grit of the hand-edger wheel is, the more
corner. pressure may be applied. However, several variables
The lens is held tightly between right thumb and affect just how much pressure is appropriate.
forefinger. This point on the lens becomes the pivotal The thicker the edge of the lens, the greater the
point. Figure 10-9 shows how the left thumb and pressure that may be applied. This is true primarily for
forefinger (primarily the thumb) guide the lens across the backside of the bevel. The backside of the bevel
the surface of the wheel. As the lens turns 180 degrees, contains more surface area than the front.
the left forefinger is removed from the lens and the Pressure on the lens against the wheel must be
slackened as the corners are smoothed. As lens/wheel
2
contact area reduces, if the overall force being applied
Left-hand practitioners rotate counterclockwise with the lens at 120
degrees instead of 60 degrees. is not reduced, pressure per square inch increases
3
Stock removal means removal of lens material. dramatically. Corners grind down faster.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 195

Right-handed

Left-handed

B
FIGURE 10-8 It is best to start edging a lens from a point just past a lens corner. These
places are indicated by the straight arrows; curved arrows indicate lens rotation direction.

An alternative to reducing pressure against the lens

LISTENING TO THE WHEEL
as corners are rounded is to increase the speed of
rotation. Because less time is spent in contact with the A great deal can be learned about the edge quality of
wheel, cutting is reduced. In practice, speed of rotation the finished lens by listening to the sound of the wheel
and force against the wheel are varied simultaneously during hand edging. The wheel should make a constant,
(Box 10-1). unbroken sound. For several reasons the wheel may emit
196 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

FIGURE 10-9 To begin hand edging hold the lens with FIGURE 10-10 The lens is not removed from the wheel
thumb and forefinger as shown. The right thumb and fore- surface often. In the figure, the lens has been rotated
finger serve as a pivotal point. The left thumb and forefinger clockwise a full 180 degrees. The right hand still functions as
guide the lens onto the wheel, controlling speed. The lens a pivotal point and the left as a guide. If the left finger is
will be rotated clockwise. moved out from under the lens, further uninterrupted
clockwise rotation may be accomplished, guiding the lens
with the thumb of the left hand.
ne
g pla
Cuttin

74º

FIGURE 10-11 A common mistake in hand edging is to make the lens bevel too sharp.
The near horizontal position of the lens shown in the figure is correct but invariably seems
wrong to the novice.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 197

2. Never reposition a grip on the lens while the lens is

BOX 10-1
against the wheel.
Factors Affecting Cutting Speed in Hand 3. Travel as far around the bevel as possible before
EdgingCutting Speed Will Increase… lifting the lens from the wheel.
4. Listen to the sound of the lens on the wheel.
• If pressure against the wheel increases
• If speed of rotation decreases
• If a rougher grit wheel is used PRACTICING EDGE SMOOTHING
• At a corner of the lens shape Practicing proper smoothing begins with choosing a
• As lens edge thickness decreases lens large enough to permit an easy grip. A low-minus
lens has an optimum edge configuration. Before advances
Cutting Speed Will Decrease…
• If pressure against the wheel decreases
were made in edger wheel quality, lenses would leave
• If speed of rotation increases the edger with a “frosted” appearance. That frosted
• If a finer grit wheel is used surface had to be removed by edge smoothing. A lens
• Along a straight side of the lens shape with an edge that is as “frosted looking” as possible
• As lens edge thickness increases should be used so that it is easier to see what has been
accomplished.
After each major “pass” around the lens, the lens
edge is wiped dry and the “frosted” area checked. If
translucent-like “frosted” area is being removed near
a wavy, irregular tone, all of which relate to faulty just the apex, for example, the lens is being held at the
technique: wrong angle and should be tilted so that the lens is
closer to the wheel. The hands are too unsteady if the
• A wavy sound. A wavy sound occurs if the angle of
translucence that remains is scattered here and there
lens tilt is being altered. This results in a wavy bevel
on the bevel. Resting the hands firmly on the hand rest
apex and an uneven, irregular appearance of the
and maintaining a consistent angle of tilt helps solves
face of the bevel.
this problem.
• Variations in sound volume. Changes in sound volume
indicate that pressure on the lens is uneven. An uneven,
wavy bevel results and the lens may not have the
same shape as before. Applying too much pressure Pin Beveling
on corners causes corner gaps that will show up after
Lenses need to be pin beveled. It does not matter if the
the lens is inserted into the frame.
lens has been just edged or edged then edge smoothed
• Short, choppy sounds. Short, choppy sounds indicate
by hand. The only reason not to pin bevel is if the edger
that the lens is being lifted from the wheel too often.
includes the pin beveling process.
This can cause the surface of the bevel to lose its
smoothness. Smooth, long motions result in smooth
bevel surfaces.
REASONS FOR PIN BEVELING
• A smooth sound interrupted by periodic wavy sounds. A
smooth sound interrupted by periodic wavy sounds Three primary reasons exist for pin beveling, as follows:
indicates an attempt to regrip the lens without first
1. Breakage prevention: If the intersection is allowed to
lifting it from the wheel. Each time the grip is
remain as a sharp corner, the risk of chipping or
changed, the lens must first be lifted from the wheel.
flaking at the interface between the two surfaces is
Maintaining a correct wheel/lens relationship is
considerably higher. Hence the alternative term,
impossible while simultaneously shifting the grip on
safety bevels.
the lens.
2. Cosmetic considerations: Pin beveling removes micro-
chips or “stars” left as the abrasive wheel grinds
SUMMARIZING A FEW BASIC away lens material. Microchips are seen by holding
HAND-EDGING RULES the lens up to a light source and turning it slightly.
Starlike reflections on the edge indicate their
The following rules apply generally, not just for edge
presence.
smoothing:
3. Wearer safety: Pin bevels may reduce the risk of injury
1. Maintain a constant angle between the wheel face to the wearer’s face if the glasses are struck and
and lens. then impact the wearer’s face. For this reason some
198 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

plane
tting
el cu
Whe
Front bevel

el vel
ev
a r b in be
Re nt p
l
ve

o
Fr
be
n
pi
ar
Re

FIGURE 10-12 A comparison of grinding angles in hand edging.

suggest that safety lenses should have a greater-than-

normal pin bevel.

PIN BEVELING A LENS

The basic procedure for pin beveling uses much the
same technique as is used for edge smoothing. For pin
beveling the front and rear surfaces, the lens is held in
basically the same manner as it was for edge smoothing.
The difference is in the angle the lens makes with the
cutting plane. This needed angle for pin beveling is
only half of what it was for edge smoothing. Figure
10-12 compares the angles used for edge smoothing
and pin beveling.
To pin bevel the apex, the lens is held vertically with
the right hand. The lens may be guided with the left
hand but should be held loosely enough to allow free
rotation (Figure 10-13). Some people safety bevel the FIGURE 10-13 Pin beveling the bevel apex is done with
apex with only one hand. very little pressure.
The following are some key points in the pin-
beveling process:
• When completed, the pin bevel should be noticed
• Little pressure should be applied in pin beveling.
only by the absence of edge sharpness and microchips.
The lens is permitted to rotate almost from the upward
It does not need to be visible.
pull of the wheel alone.
• Speed of rotation is much faster than for edge Table 10-2 summarizes the sequence of steps in the
smoothing. edge-smoothing and pin-beveling process.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 199

light. For glass, flat-beveled lenses the pin bevel may be

TABLE 10-2
a bit heavier (Figure 10-17). Rimless pin bevels are
Order of Steps in Hand Edging of a Lens more obvious than regular pin bevels and for plastic
AREA FOR HAND EDGING APPROXIMATE ANGLE-TO-WHEEL
lenses should be done very lightly (see Figure 10-17).
CUTTING PLANE

Rear face of bevel (and 41 degrees

rimless rear pin bevel) Reducing Lens Size by Hand
Front face of bevel (and 74 degrees
rimless front pin bevel)
Reducing the size of a lens by hand is easier when it is
Front pin bevel 37 degrees to go into a plastic frame. Metal frames are harder to
Rear pin bevel 21 degrees do. One of the most difficult tasks in hand edging is to
Apex pin bevel Held vertically at right angles reduce the size of an edged lens for a metal frame and
have it fit right. Much skill is required to maintain the
integrity of the lens shape during the process. The
following list outlines the steps used to reduce a lens
size by hand:
Pin Beveling the Rear Surface of a High-Minus
1. Apply pressure to the rear bevel surface and rotate
Lens
the lens exactly as was done during the edge-
Back-surface pin beveling may prove difficult if a lens
smoothing process.
has a high-minus back curve. It is made even more
2. Continue edge smoothing with more pressure than
difficult when the frame being used has a narrow B
usual until the apex of the bevel moves toward the
dimension. This happens because the center of the
front of the edge.
back bevel spans the surface of the wheel and cannot be
3. Next, edge smooth the front bevel until the apex of
reached (Figure 10-14). The only way to reach the center
the lens bevel returns to its proper position.
is by use of either the edge of the wheel or a curved
hub. Figure 10-15 demonstrates how to pin bevel the If only a slight size reduction is required, just repeating
rear surface of a high-minus lens using the rounded the edge-smoothing process without attempting to
edge of a traditionally shaped hand-edger wheel. move the bevel position may be sufficient.
Face-type hand edgers do not have an exposed edge,
but they usually have a curved central hub area. This
CHECKING METAL FRAME LENS SIZE
curved central hub portion is used for pin beveling the
back surface of the lens. Figure 10-16 shows how this is Even a small lens size reduction can make a large
done. difference in how well a lens fits. If the frame is
available, the lens should be checked often; it is placed
Pin Beveling for Rimless Lenses in the frame and the eyewire closed. The best way to
A pin bevel has an angle that is halfway between the two check eyesize is to remove the screw and squeeze the
surfaces it separates. For beveled lenses the pin bevel is eyewire barrels together with a pair of eyewire closure

FIGURE 10-14 For lenses with high-minus back curves, a flat hand edger surface will
not reach all the sections where the back pin bevel belongs. (The lens shows a top view in
cross-section.)
200 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

B
FIGURE 10-15 A, When pin beveling the back edge of the lens on the rounded corner
of the wheel, care must be taken to reduce pressure. The small lens/wheel contact area
quickly raises the pressure per unit area. B, Hand-edger wheels with flat surfaces may have
one rounded corner that allows the back pin bevel of a high-minus lens to be applied. (The
lens shows a top view in cross-section.)

pliers. This was shown in Chapter 8 (see Figure 8-26). lens curve, or the lens bevel must conform to the same
Backing the eyewire screw out just far enough to allow base curve for which the frame was designed.
the lens to be removed and reinserted may seem easier. The practitioner checks the lens for stress by placing
Unfortunately, the edge of the lens often flakes when it in a colmascope,4 as would be done to check for a
being shoved back into the eyewire. It is better to just heat-hardened glass lens. Viewing the lens in this
remove the screw. state shows a zigzag color-fringed pattern around the
Simply being able to screw the eyewire barrels flush lens edge wherever a stress buildup occurs. If this
together does not indicate a good fit. The eyewire may encompasses the lens completely, as was shown in
exert undue pressure on the lens. In plastic lenses this Figure 8-27, the lens is still too large. It should be taken
causes the lens to warp, and in glass lenses a stress down evenly all the way around the lens. If, however,
pattern is set up within the lens. If nothing is done to the stress pattern occurs only in one place, note that
relieve the stress, edge flaking will occur when the rims place. The edge should be made to better conform to
receive even a slight blow. (Edge flaking is surface the frame in that area.
chipping at the lens edge.)
Stress also may result when the curve of the lens
edge does not match the curve of the frame’s rim. In 4
A colmascope consists of two polarizing films, illuminated from
this case, either the rim must be shaped to match the below. The lens is placed between the two for viewing.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 201

A B
Glass

FIGURE 10-16 The spherical section of the face hand

edger is designed to pin bevel the hard-to-reach back edge
of high-minus lenses.

REDUCING LENS SIZE FOR HIDDEN-BEVEL

LENSES
To reduce lens size for a lens having a hidden bevel, a C Plastic D
hand-edger wheel with a V-groove is helpful. The lens is
held perpendicular to the wheel with its bevel in the FIGURE 10-17 Glass lenses have a pin bevel that is a bit
V-groove (Figure 10-18). heavier than the pin bevels on plastics lenses will be, since
glass lenses are more likely to chip along any sharp edge. A
and B show approximately what the size of glass pin bevels
HAND EDGING FOR FRANKLIN-STYLE are for regular and flat-beveled lenses. Plastic lenses with a
LENSES regular bevel (C) will have less of a safety bevel. The back
surface interface with the bevel will have more of a safety
The Franklin-style (Executive) lens is ruined easily in bevel than the front surface interface or the apex. Before pin
inexperienced hands. Because of lens design, a large beveling this is generally the sharpest edge, especially for
portion of the front bevel ends abruptly where it meets lenses with minus lens power. Plastic flat-beveled lenses (D)
with the segment ledge on both the temporal and nasal have sharper angles and have minimally more of a safety
sides of the lens. Ledge corners form small points. In bevel.
smoothing the front bevel surface near these corners,
little pressure should be used. Lens material is removed
extremely rapidly. This same precaution is necessary reduced by increasing edger head pressure.) The
during safety beveling. A poor job of safety beveling will polycarbonate lens should be pin beveled dry. Dry
look worse than if the lens had never been safety means the coolant to the hand edger is turned off. Pin
beveled. beveling must be done lightly because the wheel cuts
faster when it is dry.
Two exceptions exist. One is for rimless bevels and the
HAND EDGING OF POLYCARBONATE other is for antireflection (AR)-coated lenses. These are
After edging, sometimes a polycarbonate lens may pin beveled wet. Wet pin beveling of polycarbonate gives
have a residue of plastic material clinging to the lens a smaller, less noticeable pin bevel and a polished appear-
bevel. This buildup is known as flash or swarf and has ance. After pin beveling, any remaining swarf is removed
been described as looking like white shredded wheat. by scraping the lens edge with a razor or knife blade
(The amount of swarf remaining on the lens can be held perpendicular to the lens surface (Figure 10-19).
202 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

hand-edger wheel causes a plastic lens to flex. A wet

hand-edger wheel should always be used.

Re-edging a Lens for a Different

Frame
Most wearers just assume that putting their old lenses
into a new frame is a simple matter. It is not. Several
factors must be considered before deciding to try it.
The following are a few:
• The distance between optical centers needs to remain the
same. Even if old lenses do fit into the new frame
without re-edging, the new PD may not be correct. If
the distance between lenses (DBL) of the new frame
FIGURE 10-18 It is helpful to brace one hand on the tray differs from that of the old, the PD will no longer
while reducing size or reshaping a lens with a hidden bevel be correct. The lens major reference point (MRP)
edge configuration on a grooved wheel. must be located close enough to the wearer’s PD
to prevent prism that would exceed ANSI Z80
standards for prescription ophthalmic lenses.
• The lenses must be large enough. The old lenses have to
be large enough for the new frame. If the new frame
is metal, then the old lens must be big enough so
that the entire lens opening is covered.
• Rotating the old lens so it fits the new frame may not work.
Lenses that have a cylinder component to the pres-
cription may not be turned from their prescribed
axis, nor may most segmented multifocals and
progressive addition lenses.
• Glass lenses need to be rehardened. If the lens has been
heat-treated it must be dehardened5 before re-edging.
Fortunately heat treating of glass lenses is now rare.
Chemically hardened lenses may be re-edged as they
are. However, both types need to be rehardened
before dispensing.
If all these factors have been considered, the lens
may be reshaped.
FIGURE 10-19 After a lens has been hand edged, it will Lenses are not re-edged if the chosen frame is plastic
have curled threads of polycarbonate material clinging to and can be stretched to accept the old lenses. Stretching
the edges. This is removed by scraping it with a single-edged the frame’s eyewire usually eliminates unwanted air
razor blade held perpendicular to the edge. spaces between the lens and the eyewire.

HAND EDGING A LENS FOR A DIFFERENT

HAND EDGING ANTIREFLECTION-COATED FRAME
LENSES If possible, the lenses are blocked and re-edged with
an edger. If this is not possible, the following is one
Some AR coatings are more sensitive to heat, pressure,
method for hand edging the lenses for a new frame:
and flexing. Any of these may cause some coatings to
craze. 5
Dehardening is done by placing the lens in the heat-treating unit for
In hand edging of lenses with an AR coating, the the same length of time as is required for hardening. As the lens is
removed from the furnace area, instead of fast cooling with forced
practitioner should not press too hard or too long airto create internal stress, the air is turned off and the lens is allowed
against the wheel. Pressing the lens hard against the to cool slowly.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 203

1. Spot the lenses in the lensmeter according to the

wearer’s prescription.
2. Measure on the frame from the center of the frame
bridge to half the wearer’s prescribed PD.
3. Hold the lens over the frame with its dotted MRP at
the wearer’s PD. The lens opening must still be
completely covered by the lens. (If the lens does not
cover the opening, and moving it left or right slightly6
will not cover the gap, do not go any further.)
4. Note those places where the lens is too big and must
be edged away.
5. Reshape the lens on a hand edger.
6. Once the first lens has been satisfactorily shaped, use
it as a model for the second to ensure left-right
symmetry. 3-mm nasal cut

FIGURE 10-20 This lens will have lens material removed

to the point where the dotted line appears. The person
Changing a Frame’s Lens Shape wearing the lens has a nose that flares out at the bottom. If
the lens shape were not given this “nasal cut,” the lower
Sometimes practitioners request that a lens be made to nasal rim of the frame would rest on the wearer’s cheeks. If
a different shape than the shape of the chosen frame. the lens were for a rimless frame, the lens itself might
The purpose for substitution of a different lens shape otherwise touch the cheek.
may be simply cosmetic. Some frame shapes may com-
pliment a particular facial shape. Or a shape change
may be requested to obtain either a better bridge fit
or a slightly larger B dimension. Commonly requested
shape alterations are for nasal cuts, nasal adds, and
increases in the B dimension. These requested changes
work primarily for plastic or rimless frames.

NASAL CUT
A nasal cut is requested when the wearer’s nose
broadens more toward the nostril area than the frame
does. When this happens, the frame rests on the lower
nasal corners of the rims rather than on the bridge area
of the frame. The amount of nasal cut desired is
specified in millimeters or with a tracing or drawing, as
Figure 10-20 shows.
If the frame specified is rimless, the matter is simple.
Assuming an extra pattern is available, the pattern is FIGURE 10-21 A simple method used to achieve a sym-
marked for a nasal cut and the marked area filed away. metrical nasal cut on both lenses is to reshape the pattern.
Figure 10-21 is an example of this method. The lens is
edged normally on the modified pattern. Method 1
If the lens is for a plastic frame, this procedure will If the lens is plastic, the frame is heated and reshaped.
not work. Filing the pattern with no other compensation Then either the frame is traced to create an electronic
only causes an inferior nasal gap between lens and pattern or a new pattern is made for the shape.
frame groove. Following is a list of some alternative
possibilities. Method 2
The frame’s existing pattern is modified for a nasal cut
by filing. If the nasal cut is extreme, the lenses are
6
edged somewhat larger to take up slack in the rim. Any
The lens is moved only to the left or right from where it should be if
certain that the prismatic effect created will not exceed ANSI time a change in eyesize is made, decentration must be
standards. recalculated.
204 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

Example 10-1
The frame to be used has an A dimension of 50 and a
DBL of 18. The wearer has a 65-mm PD. If the lenses
are edged to a 51-mm eyesize, what is the change in the
amount of decentration required?

Solution
With a 50-mm eyesize, the decentration per eye is as
follows:
50 + 18 – 65
= 1.5 mm
2
However, if the lenses are edged to a 51-mm eyesize to
allow for a nasal cut, decentration per lens is as follows:
51 + 18 – 65
= 2 mm
2 3-mm nasal add

or 2 mm per lens. FIGURE 10-22 If a suitable alternative pattern cannot be

located, nasal add is more difficult to achieve by hand. The
Method 3 lens must be edged large, then reduced everywhere except
The lenses are edged slightly large using the normal in the nasal-add area.
pattern and the nasal cut is done on the hand edger.
The practitioner determines whether enough lens
stock has been removed by comparison of the lens to the hand edger on all sides, skipping only the area of
the frame and the paired lens. When results are the requested nasal add.
satisfactory, the other lens is hand edged to conform to
the new shape.
INCREASING THE B DIMENSION OF THE
FRAME
NASAL ADD When frame styles are large, seldom does a need exist
The nasal cut technique just described was used to for requesting an increase in the B dimension. Narrow
reshape the lens to better fit a wide nose. The reverse frame styles, though, may prevent effective use of
modification is to add more lens area to the inferior trifocals and progressive addition lenses. By far the best
nasal portion of the lens shape. The purpose is to solution is to select an appropriately shaped frame so
achieve a better fit for wearers who have less than the that modifications are not needed. However, a frame
normal amount of nasal flare. Figure 10-22 illustrates may be fine in every aspect but one: it is too narrow
how a lens is edged to create a nasal add. Results are vertically. In other words the B dimension of the frame
somewhat less predictable than with the nasal cut from is too small. If this is the case, the following method
both a cosmetic and fitting viewpoint. If a lens were to details how to increase vertical lens size.
be ordered with nasal add, the amount of nasal add also
is specified in millimeters. The following are some Method 1
different methods of producing a nasal add. The easiest way to increase the B dimension is to find a
pattern that is nearly the same as the chosen frame,
Method 1 except with a larger B dimension.
Best results are obtained by finding a pattern that
almost duplicates the desired shape. If an exact pattern Method 2
cannot be found, a closely related shape can be used To increase the B dimension of the shape, this method
and the lenses modified on the hand edger to conform is done best using the frame’s original pattern7 and
to the shape desired. graph paper to perform the following steps:

Method 2
When only a small amount of add is required, the 7
If no pattern is available, it is possible to use the coquille (dummy
lenses can be first edged large without compensating lens) that comes with the new frame or to trace the inside of the
the decentration. The lens is then reduced to size on frame’s lens opening.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 205

1. Place the pattern on the graph paper and trace the will work only for V-beveled lenses, not for lenses with
shape. The pattern must be correctly oriented along hidden bevels.
the 180-degree line and must not be tilted.
2. Slide the pattern downward by the amount the B
dimension is to be increased. Take care not to tilt the
SALVAGING AN OFF-AXIS LENS
pattern away from the 180-degree line. After a lens is mounted in a plastic frame it is deter-
3. Retrace the lower half of the pattern. This vertically mined that the axis of the cylinder is off. If the lens
increased shape represents the new shape needed. shape is rounded, it may be possible to twist the lens
4. Take a pair of scissors and cut out the new shape. slightly with lens rotating pliers without disturbing the
5. Make a new pattern from this cut-out shape. (See appearance of the frame.
Chapter 3 for instructions on how this is done.) Shapes having distinct corners do not allow a lens
that has actually been edged off axis to be twisted
This method permits the upper half of the lens to fit much. Rotated corners cause unusual humping. The
into the frame exactly as it should, even if a nylon best policy is to replace the lenses. Unless the lens
cord–style frame is used. pair is very expensive, replacement may be cheaper.
The method also may be used to decrease the B Spending the additional time may not yield results that
dimension of a frame. The only difference is that after the are successful anyway. However, an attempted
original pattern is traced, the pattern is moved upward correction should be conducted as follows:
—instead of downward—by the amount the B dimension
1. Trace the lens on a piece of paper as it would appear
is to be decreased. The lower half of the lens is retraced,
were the axis correct (Figure 10-23, A and B).
and this trace becomes the lower edge of the new shape.
2. Turn the lens on the tracing to the correct axis
Note: Whenever the B dimension of the frame is
(Figure 10-23, C).
altered, care must be taken to ensure that any ordered
3. Note the areas of the lens that are outside the tracing
multifocal segment or progressive addition fitting-cross
and mark them, taking into consideration the overall
heights have been measured with the new vertical
lens shape (Figure 10-23, D).
depth taken into account. The new vertical depth is
4. Remove the marked areas by hand edging them away.
used to determine segment or fitting-cross drop or raise.
If the integrity of the lens shape is restored and the
lens still fits snugly in the frame, it may be used. With
Correctional Modifications experience, it will no longer be necessary to trace the
lens out on a piece of paper.
After learning how to edge smooth and pin bevel, it is This practice is limited to plastic frames. Metal
easier to do other things on a hand edger. The following frames do not have the elasticity required.
are some possible corrections and lens modifications.
For most single vision lenses, it is more costly to modify
the lens than to simply replace it. These modifications
CORRECTING FOR UNWANTED VERTICAL
should be done only for lenses especially worth salvaging.
PRISM
When a high-powered pair of lenses is edged, a small
amount of error in vertical positioning can induce
REMOVING CHIPS
vertical prism. Assuming that the prescription is for a
A large chip should not be ground out at the lens plastic frame, it may be possible to hand edge the lenses
surface/lens bevel border with a heavy pin bevel. This as follows to reduce the unwanted vertical prism to zero:
creates a double-bevel appearance clearly visible to
1. Remove the lenses from the frame and respot on
both wearer and observer. If the lens can be salvaged,
their MRPs.
the procedure is to steepen the rear bevel angle in the
2. Hold the lenses front to front8 so that their shapes
area of the chip. In other words, without moving the
exactly overlap each other. Take care to keep the
bevel apex forward, the rear bevel surface is smoothed
lenses from touching each other so that they are not
in the chip area until it disappears. This area must be
scratched. With lenses so aligned, as in Figure 10-24,
approached gradually and the bevel angle changed
A, the spotted MRPs will be seen one above the other.
gradually from either side of the chip. This ensures that
(If both lens meter spots and lens shapes overlap
the bevel still looks normal. (In extreme cases, dupli-
cation of this bevel shape change on the other lens 8
Lenses are held front to front to prevent parallax. When lenses are
may be necessary to maintain prescription symmetry.) held back to back, it is more difficult to determine when the marks
Afterwards the lens can be pin beveled lightly. This are truly aligned.
206 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

A B

C D
FIGURE 10-23 A, The first step in salvaging an off-axis lens is to trace the original
shape. B, Once the shape has been traced, a better idea of where to modify the lens is
possible. C, The lens is placed on the tracing and the 180-degree cutting line oriented until
perfectly horizontal. The lens will be “trimmed” wherever the traced line shows through
the lens. The areas to be removed should be outlined with a non–water-soluble pen. D,
Once marked, the indicated areas of the lens can be removed by hand edging. The lens
then fits into the frame without causing the frame to hump up or be distorted.

exactly, then the measured imbalance was due to a The total B dimension reduction will equal the amount
frame irregularity. The lenses are not the problem.) that the two MRPs were separated initially. If edging
3. Slide one lens up or down until the two MRPs away the overhanging material reduces the overall B
overlap, as in Figure 10-24, B. dimension too much, then the lenses must be remade.
4. Remove extra lens material that extends above and
below9 the areas of overlap, as marked in Figure
10-24, C. Edge Polishing
9
Simply removing extra lens material from the top or bottom of one The term edge polishing can have different definitions,
lens eliminates the lensmeter-measured imbalance because the lower depending upon the material being described.
rim will shrink up around the lens and allow the frame to drop on that
side. However, if the glasses were turned upside-down and measured
for vertical imbalance, the distances from the often thicker upper rim EDGE POLISHING GLASS LENSES
will have remained unchanged. Part or all of the unwanted vertical
prism may still remain. Because the upper rim is more of a reference In relation to glass lenses, edge polishing refers to the
for frame straightness on the face, this measure is more definitive. edge-smoothing process carried out on a fine or extra-
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 207

Remove

Remove C

FIGURE 10-24 A, This lens pair has been edged, then respotted. When the lenses are
held “front-to-front,” the dots should exactly overlap one another. If they do not, vertical
prism will be manifested in the mounted prescription. B, To salvage a lens pair with
manifested vertical prism, the result must be an overlapping set of lensmeter dots. By
sliding one lens up until an overlap is achieved, it is now possible to visualize which lens
area must be “trimmed” away. The left lens is represented by dotted lines, the right by a
solid line. C, By removing the upper portion of the wearer’s right lens and the lower portion
of the left, the B dimension of each lens is reduced equally. The amount of material to be
removed from each lens equals the amount of separation between the two sets of dots, as
first noted in A.

fine grit wheel. This can be produced in an edger with indicate that the edges have truly been brought to a
an extra-fine grit wheel or by hand edging. The hand high degree of luster.
edging was described previously in this chapter (see
section on Edge Smoothing).This process is not edge Polishing on the Edger
polishing but is generally the highest degree of polish The easiest method for edge polishing of plastic lenses
that glass lens edgers will allow. This method permits is use of an edger with “polishing” capability. But as
further increase in edge gloss on glass lenses by buffing mentioned earlier, the amount of polish on the finished
the edges with a rotating drum tool while using the lens edge may vary. Newer edgers give excellent results
same type of polishing compound as for lens surfacing. for plastic lenses and yield a high luster edge.
This proves extremely time consuming and is currently
neither cost effective nor in demand. Polishing with a Rag Wheel
A second method does not require a grooved wheel.
Initially the edge is buffed on a rag wheel with a white
EDGE POLISHING PLASTIC LENSES buffing compound. Figure 10-25 illustrates this proce-
When speaking of plastic CR-39 lenses, people may use dure. (If the edges are especially rough or heavily frosted,
the term edge polishing to refer to edge smoothing or to hold the lens edge against the side surface of the rag
208 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

EDGE POLISHING HIGH-INDEX PLASTIC

LENSES
Like polycarbonate, high-index plastic lenses require
lighter pressure when being edge polished. Some high-
index plastic lenses are sensitive to heat buildup and
dull instead of polish when put under too much pressure
during edge polishing.

EDGE POLISHING ANTIREFLECTION-

COATED LENSES
Some lenses are edged first and then AR-coated. With
these, edge polishing should be done before the lens
has been AR-coated so that the edges will be coated,
too. Many finished single vision lenses come with an AR
coating already on the lens. If AR-coated lenses are not
FIGURE 10-25 Using buffing compound on a rag wheel edge polished in the edger but polished by hand, they
can help ensure a smooth luster on plastic lens edges. should be wet polished using a liquid lens-polishing
compound.

wheel for a preliminary first buff.) A hand buffing may Cleaning Lenses
tend to round the bevel apex. To restore a distinct bevel
apex the front bevel surface is smoothed on an extra- After the lenses have been deblocked and hand edged,
fine hand-edger wheel. they are almost ready for tinting, coating, drilling,
grooving, or hardening. Before further processing,
Polishing on a Drum Tool they must be cleaned well and inspected for visible
A third method works only for rimless. This method flaws.
makes use of a flat rotating drum tool. The felt surface
of the tool is prepared with a bar of white polishing
compound. The edge surface is then pressed against
GLASS LENS CLEANING
the rotating tool and a polished edge achieved in
approximately 2 minutes. The same unit that was used If any non–water-soluble markings are on the lens and
to facet lens edges also may be used for edge polishing. must be removed, a solvent such as acetone or alcohol
This unit works like a drum tool but uses liquid lens is used on the lens surface. The lens generally is cleaned
polishing compound. with use of a tissue or lint-free soft cloth. When no
non–water-soluble marks are present, a solution of
Automatic Polishing Machine detergent or a lens cleaner is effective.
Another edge polishing method uses an automatic Occasionally after cleaning, a small spot remains on
polishing machine. The lens is not deblocked after the lens. It can, at times, be difficult to tell whether this
edging but is mounted in the unit on its finishing block. spot is a surface imperfection or something sticking to
the lens. In such cases the best test device may prove to
be an ordinary pencil. The pencil point is hard enough
EDGE POLISHING POLYCARBONATE to give a good feel for whether the spot is external, yet
LENSES soft enough not to scratch a glass lens. If foreign
Some edge glazes for polycarbonate give a finished material is stuck to the surface, it may be removed
appearance. Hand or in-edger polishing may still be the simply by the action of the pencil lead. If the spot will
method of choice. not break free with the pencil point, the pencil is
A lighter pressure on the buffing wheel is used to turned around to attempt to erase the spot.
hand polish polycarbonate. Too much pressure results If none of the solutions or methods removes the
in heat buildup that causes the edge to have a dull spot, wet pumice rubbing compound (as is used on
appearance instead of a luster. Polycarbonates also can wood furniture) may be effective. It only should be
be wet polished like regular plastic lenses. used gently to prevent abrading the surface.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 209

PLASTIC LENS CLEANING dishwashing detergent is recommended. Most alcohols

Acetone or acetone replacers are used extensively for will work but should be considered only secondarily.
cleaning CR-39 lenses but should not be allowed to Under no circumstances should methylene chloride,
come in contact with plastic frame parts. Detergents methyl ethyl ketone, any of the ketone family, or ace-
also clean plastic lenses well. tone be used. Highly volatile chlorinated or aromatic
By far the most effective cleaning method for glass or hydrocarbons also must be avoided.10
plastic is an ultrasonic bath. Major manufacturers of
uncut lenses use a series of hot ultrasonic baths with
different cleaning agents to achieve an extremely clean
WARPAGE
surface. Ultrasonic cleaners should not be used for If a plastic lens is warped, it may fixed by placement of
AR-coated lenses. the lens in an oven11 at 200° F for a minimum of 20
minutes. When an oven is unavailable, the lens may be
placed in water near the boiling point for an equal
POLYCARBONATE LENS CLEANING
amount of time. However, unless the lens is expensive,
Polycarbonate lenses are coated to make them more replacement may be the best choice, especially because
scratch resistant. With conventional lenses, lens coatings lens coatings may be damaged with high heat.
are more subject to solvent damage than the actual
10
lenses; however, with polycarbonates, the opposite is Optical Laboratory Marketing Plan, Gentex, Section 4, Finishing
and Glazing, 1980.
true. The exposed bevel will show damage before the 11
These are small ovens made especially for lens laboratories.
coated surface. Because of this, a mild, non-citrus liquid However, regular ovens also work well.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. For a lens with fairly thick edge and a hand-edged 4. True or False? Traveling as far as possible around
bevel, which of the following indicates how far the periphery of the lens during hand edging
back from the front lens surface the bevel apex before the lens is lifted from the wheel is
should be located? advantageous.

1
a. /2 5. Which of the following is the accepted apical
1
b. /3 angle that should be produced during the hand-
2
c. /3 edging process?
1
d. /4
a. 85 degrees
2. An extra-fine grit hand edger would be least b. 90 degrees
suited for which of the following? c. 100 degrees
d. 110 degrees
a. Removing edge stock e. 115 degrees
b. Edge smoothing
c. Pin beveling 6. During the hand-edging process, the lens is held
at varying angles to the cutting plane of the wheel.
3. Which of the following is the correct sequence of Which two hand-edging operations require
steps in hand edging? holding the lens at nearly the same angle?

1. Front pin bevel 1. Front bevel edge smoothing

2. Smooth front face of bevel 2. Rear bevel edge smoothing
3. Smooth rear face of bevel 3. Front pin bevel
4. Rear pin bevel 4. Rear pin bevel
5. Apex pin bevel
a. 1+2
a. 2, 3, 4, 1,5 b. 2+3
b. 4, 1, 5, 2, 3 c. 3+4
c. 4, 1, 2, 3, 5 d. 1+4
d. 5, 4, 1, 2, 3 e. 2+4
e. 3, 2, 1, 4, 5
210 CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING

7. Which of the following factors causes hand-edging 12. When inserting a lens with an increased B
cutting speed to increase? dimension in a plastic frame, which of the
following is true?
a. Decreasing speed of rotation of lens
b. Using a finer grit wheel a. The whole eyewire should be heated evenly.
c. Approaching a thicker section of the lens b. The upper eyewire should be heated more than
d. Decreasing pressure against the wheel the lower, as it is generally thicker.
e. All of the above cause cutting speed to c. The lower portion of the eyewire is heated
decrease. more than the upper rim.

8. Which of the following is a true statement about 13. Salvaging a lens that is too far off axis using lens-
pin beveling? twisting pliers may be possible. When simply
twisting the lens will not work, correction of the
a. When pin beveling, slightly more pressure problem may be accomplished by hand edging
should be applied than when edge smoothing. certain parts of the lens. Which of the following
b. The speed of rotation for pin beveling is frame types would be feasible with this method?
quicker than for edge smoothing.
c. When pin beveling is completed, it should be a. Cellulose acetate frames (plastic frames that
visibly noticeable. stretch when heated)
b. Metal frames
9. True or False? During pin beveling of the back c. Any frame is possible to use in combination
surface of a high-minus lens on a face-type hand with this method.
edger, the central hub area of the wheel should be
used. 14. Assume that a lens has been found off axis and an
attempt to salvage it is made. If the lens reads as
10. True or False? The process used to reduce the size axis 5 and should be axis 180, at which of the
of a lens by hand is similar to the edge-smoothing following locations would lens stock commonly be
process. removed to correct the problem?

11. Which of the following describes a “nasal cut”? a. Top edge (left half) and bottom edge (right
half)
a. An injury caused by wearing an acetate nose b. Top edge (right half) and bottom edge (left
pad with an improper splay angle half)
b. Reshaping a lens so that more lens area is in c. Top edge (right half) and bottom edge (right
the inferior nasal part of the lens shape than half)
normal for the shape intended by the frame d. Top edge (left half) and right edge (top half)
designer
c. Reshaping a lens so that less lens area is in the 15. A lens pair manifests vertical prism. It is
inferior nasal part of the lens shape than determined that the right lens optical center
normal for the shape intended by the frame (OC) is 1 mm higher than the left lens OC. Which
designer of the following describes the way in which a
d. Reshaping a lens so that more lens area is in practitioner should correct the problem?
the superior nasal part of the lens shape than
normal for the shape intended by the frame a. Take 0.5 mm off the top of the right lens and
designer 0.5 mm off the bottom of the left lens.
e. Reshaping a lens so that less lens area is in the b. Take 0.5 mm off the top of the left lens and
superior nasal part of the lens shape than 0.5 mm off the bottom of the right lens.
normal for the shape intended by the frame c. Take 1 mm off the top of the right lens and
designer 1 mm off the bottom of the left lens.
d. Take 1 mm off the top of the left lens and
1 mm off the bottom of the right lens.
CHAPTER 10 HAND EDGING 211

16. Which statement(s) about AR-coated lenses is 18. If a plastic lens is warped, which of the following
(are) true? actions should be taken?

a. In some cases lenses are edge polished before a. Drop ball test it to see if it will be acceptable.
being AR-coated. b. Put it in an oven at 200° F for a minimum of
b. In some cases lenses are AR-coated before 20 minutes.
being edge polished. c. Send the lens on anyway, as warpage in plastic
c. Lenses should never be AR-coated until they lenses is unimportant.
have been edge polished.
d. Lenses should never be edge polished until 19. True or False? Acetone is a good choice for
they have been AR-coated. cleaning polycarbonate lenses.

17. True or False? If a small spot remains on a glass

lens after cleaning, an attempt may be made to
erase it with a pencil eraser.
 Lens Tinting
11

O phthalmic lenses may be tinted in the

following three main ways:
1. Introducing a coloring substance into the lens
material before it becomes a lens
2. Vacuum coating the color onto the surface of the
lens in much the same way that antireflection (AR)
coatings are applied to lenses
3. Immersing the lens in a liquid dye so that the dye is
absorbed into the lens or lens coating
Glass lenses may be tinted with use of only the first
two methods. Plastic lenses may be tinted by any of the
above methods, but the third method is by far the most
common. It is far more versatile and able to be applied
in most any optical laboratory setting. This chapter
addresses how plastic lenses are tinted by immersion
into liquid dye.

How the Process Works

Dyeing plastic lenses is much the same process as
dyeing Easter eggs. With eggs a dye tablet or a liquid
concentrate is placed in hot water and the eggs dipped
in the dye. Lenses are dyed in similar manner. Only
with lenses the dye is quality controlled, the tempe-
rature of the liquid is much hotter, and care is taken to
ensure the lenses are exceptionally clean.

TINT UNIT
In the early days of lens tinting, labs used a variety
of methods for heating the lens dye. One of the more
common methods was to use kitchen items such as Lens dyes work the same way. Theoretically it there-
Crock-Pots and deep fryers. Although perhaps still fore would be possible to have only three primary dye
used in some places, such methods have given way to colors. A plastic lens would be dipped in first one
commercially available tint units. These units, some- dye, then in another, to produce any desired color. In
time called base units, allow temperature to be practice this is unrealistic. Consequently commercially
regulated. They are made so that temperature will not available dyes come in a large variety of colors. This
change suddenly. A typical unit consists of stainless steel allows much better color consistency. The availability of
pans called tint tanks that are suspended in a bath of colors is ever changing with changing fashion demands.
heat transfer fluid. Each tank has a different dye and Dyes are made for different colors. Some dyes are
each tank has a lid (Figure 11-1). engineered specifically for certain lens materials.
Some tint units do not use heat transfer fluid but Some dyes are made to block certain wavelengths of
instead use dry heat or infrared heat. Certain units light; and some dyes are custom made for certain
reportedly are able to reach full operating tempera- sports. Almost innumerable possibilities exist.
tures within 10 minutes, reduce odors by eliminating Dyes come as a liquid concentrate in bottles, as a
heat transfer fluid, and use less electricity.1 Units that powder, or in tablet form. Many prefer to purchase dyes
do not use heat transfer fluid also may be able to main- in single-use bottles or as tablets with just enough
tain a stable dye temperature more easily, especially concentrate for one tank of dye.
when combined with an automatic stirring device.2
Preparing the Dye
Beginning with a clean tank is important when mixing
DYES a batch of dye. Any residue from a previous dye will con-
All colors may be produced by mixing primary colors. taminate the new dye. Any unwanted oil or detergent
Mixing blue and yellow makes green. Mixing yellow also will affect the dye.
and red makes orange. Mixing red and blue makes Distilled or deionized water is used. Tap water or
purple. even spring water can present problems. The mineral
content of the water binds with some of the dyes in the
1
mixture. Because the minerals do not bind with all of
Underwood W: What’s new in lens tinting, Eyecare Technology Jan/
Feb 1995, p 47. the elements within the dye evenly, the use of anything
2
BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, p 68. but distilled or deionized water may cause the color of

FIGURE 11-1 Tint units are available with a variable number of tint tanks.

213
214 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

the dyed lens to differ from what was intended. And, pigments in the dye settle to different levels. Failure
because water must be added continually to the tank to get all the tint residue from the bottle is not the
because of evaporation, minerals are introduced conti- same as failure to squeeze the toothpaste tube to get
nually over time, which bind more of the dye and cause out the last little bit. With tint, not getting all the
the color to continue to shift. residue results in obtaining a different color than
If tap water is going to be used anyway, it should be that anticipated.
drawn the night before and allowed to stand. This 5. Fill the tank with distilled water.
removes the chlorine and allows any sediment to settle
that may be in the water. 3 Maintaining the Dye
The following is the procedure used to start a new The dye should be stirred when first mixed and restirred
batch of dye. occasionally as it heats. The stirring rod should be
rinsed each time it is used (Figure 11-3). Once the dye
1. To start a new batch of dye, fill the tank about half is mixed and heated, it should be stirred periodically
full and bring the temperature to 140° F. Having to maintain consistency throughout. Some tint units
the water too hot when the concentrate is added come with magnetic stirrers, which reduce the human
prevents the new dye from completely dissolving. element of forgetfulness or neglect.
2. Shake the bottle well (at least 30 seconds) before Because the dye is kept close to the boiling point when
adding it to the water. dyeing lenses, continual evaporation occurs. Distilled
3. Pour the dye from the bottle into the tank (Figure water should be added regularly (Figure 11-4). Waiting
11-2). too long to add water causes the tank to boil down and
4. Pour a little water into the bottle, shake the bottle, leave hardened dye residue on the inner walls of the
and pour the rest into the tank. The bottle should be tank. This affects color and makes it necessary to spend
rinsed in this manner three times. The different time scrubbing them clean.

3
The practical guide to coloring all types of plastic lenses, Miami, 1996, BPI
Incorporated, pp 2-3.

FIGURE 11-2 If single-use bottles of liquid concentrate FIGURE 11-3 A stainless-steel stirring rod needs to be
are used, the dye is poured into a half-full tank of water that rinsed between uses for the sake of cleanliness and to
has only been heated to 140° F. prevent dye contamination.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 215

Tinting Temperatures
Lenses dye best if the dye is kept at the temperature
recommended for that particular material. Keeping
the tint temperature too low considerably increases
the needed time the lens must be in the tint bat. Lens
manufacturers are best able to recommend dye
temperatures for their own lens materials.
Before the tint unit is first turned on, the dye should
be stirred thoroughly. It should not be turned imme-
diately to the full-recommended temperature for the
lens material to be dyed. Instead it is better to heat the
dye gradually. This allows the individual components
within the dye to dissolve well and go into solution.
Turning the temperature to 140° F and allowing it to
stabilize at that temperature first is advisable. The lids
may be left on the tanks while the dye heats up to this
temperature and stabilizes.
Next the lids are either fully or partially removed from
the tint tanks and the temperature turned up in 10°
increments until it reaches 200° to 210° F. Removing or
partially removing the lids lessens the chance of boil-
over. A kitchen pot with the lid on boils over more easily
than one without the lid. Partially removing the lids,
instead of full removal, reduces evaporation. Tint
temperatures are not far below the boiling point for
water (212° F). Having dye tanks boil over gets dye
FIGURE 11-4 If distilled water is not added to the dye as from one dye tank in other dye tanks, down in the heat
it evaporates, the dye will boil down and leave a hardened transfer fluid, over the side of the unit, on the
residue on the walls of the tank. countertop, and maybe even on the floor.
Tint units have temperature dials that can be used to
set approximate dye temperature. However, the actual
When a batch of dye is used frequently, the lenses temperature of the dye should be measured directly
absorb color pigments and remove them from the bath. with a high-quality laboratory thermometer (Figure
Except for primary colors, not all pigments may be 11-5).
absorbed equally. After the dye has been used for a
while, this leads to a color shift in the lenses being dyed.
LENS-CURING FACTOR
Life Span of the Dye The first step in achieving a good, even tint takes place
The life of the dye4 depends upon three things, in the before the order begins its journey through the labora-
following order: tory. The way that a lens absorbs dye depends upon how
that plastic lens was molded and cured. Plastic lenses
1. How long has the dye been mixed with water?
are made from liquid resin and are cast molded to
2. How hot has the dye temperature been?
shape. The process of going from the liquid to the solid
3. How many lenses have been tinted?
state is called curing. If a lens is cured slowly, the so-
Even if a dye has never been used it may not be useful called “lattice structure” of the lens is more impervious
if it has been mixed and left in a hot tint unit for a long to the dye. Dye manufacturers refer to this type of lens
period of time. as a hard lens.5 Slowly cured, “hard” lenses take a longer
Dye life depends on dye color, too. The dyes that time to absorb the dye. Lenses that are cured rapidly
have the shortest life are the grays, browns, and greens. are said to have a more open lattice structure. These
Those that last the longest are the blues, pinks, and lenses take on the dye more rapidly.
yellows. Because of the differences in curing times, a lens
pair with one lens from one manufacturer and the
4
The practical guide to coloring all types of plastic lenses, Miami, 1996, BPI
5
Incorporated, p 2. BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, p 166.
216 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

PREPARING THE LENS FOR TINTING

To get a good quality, even tint, certain preparatory steps
must be carried out before actually tinting the lens.
Lenses must be thoroughly clean. To remove lensmeter
ink, progressive lens identification or layout marks, or
remains of grease pencil markings, the lens should be
cleaned with alcohol or acetone (or an acetone replacer).
(Acetone should not be used on polycarbonate lenses
because the acetone will attack the exposed, uncoated
edges of the polycarbonate material.) Any grease or oil
that remains on the lens will block the transfer of dye
and cause a splotchy appearance.

Lens Conditioner
Next, lens conditioner is used to clean the lens. Lens
conditioner—known variously as the trade products
Lens Prep (BPI, Inc., Miami) and Color Primer (Seegreen,
Bellingham, Wash.)—is a specially formulated solution
that “ionizes the lens positively with a special coating
that allows it to exhibit a charged interface opposite to
that of the tint. This potential difference attracts the
tint ions to the lens surface for fast color absorption.”6
The following reminders should be borne in mind
when lens conditioner is used:
FIGURE 11-5 Even though the dial on a tint unit is marked
• Using too much lens conditioner causes streaking
with temperature, the actual temperature of the bath should
because of unevenness of charge.
be measured with a high-quality laboratory thermometer.
• The lens should not be rinsed with water or wiped
dry after cleaning it with the lens conditioner or it
will not work as intended.
• The lens conditioner is changed every 3 or 4 days,
depending upon how often it is used. Lens condi-
tioner is not meant to last until it all evaporates.
second lens from another may look different from one
• Lens conditioner will work without being heated,
another once they are dyed. This may happen even
but it works better if placed in a tint tank and the
though both lenses were treated exactly the same and
tank placed in the tint unit.
left in the same dye for the same length of time. One
lens may be darker than the other. Or one lens may The lens is mounted in a lens holder that touches
take on certain pigments from the dye more rapidly only the edges of the lens (Figure 11-6). The lens
than another lens, which results in slightly different holder should not be forced down tight on the lens but
lens colors. Although it is possible to correct for these just enough to keep the lens from moving. Pressure on
differences by hand, it will be easier to begin with lenses the lens at tinting temperatures causes the lens to warp.
that are matched by manufacturer (and ideally by The holder also must be clean so as not to contaminate
purchase date). Using two lenses from two different the dyes.
manufacturers will not make as much difference with
light tints as it will for dark tints.
TINTING THE LENS
Surfaced Versus Stock Lenses The lens is lowered slowly into the appropriate lens tint
A lens that is custom surfaced to power is made from a tank. With the tint temperature just below the boiling
thicker semi-finished lens blank. This lens has been point, considerable surface tension is present. Breaking
cured differently than a stock lens cast to power. Lenses the surface tension too rapidly may cause the tint to
that are either both surfaced or both pulled from stock boil over.
produce a better match when tinted than a lens pair
where one was a surfaced lens and the other a stock
lens. 6
BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, p 164.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 217

Ensuring Accuracy of
Transmission and Color
After the lens has been dyed, it is checked to see if it is
absorbing the correct amount of light. It is also checked
to make sure the color of the finished lens matches the
color that was ordered.

MEASURING LENS TRANSMISSION

Transmission can be determined by either visually com-
paring how one lens looks against a standard sample
lens, or by using a photometer (transmission gauge) to
measure percent transmission. A full spectrophotometer
measures the transmission of each wavelength of light
across the spectrum. A scientific quality spectrophoto-
meter is considerably more than is needed for lens
tinting purposes and would be prohibitively expensive.
A basic photometer used for this purpose gives an
overall percent transmission for visible light and an
ultraviolet (UV) percent transmission (Figure 11-7).
The visible portion of the spectrum is averaged across
the visible color wavelengths. Unfortunately measured
percent transmission for equally dyed lenses varies,
depending upon the power of the lens. Because plus
and minus lenses converge and diverge light rays by
varying amounts, percent transmission is artificially
high or low compared with a plano lens having the
same dyed appearance.
Transmission gauges that read the lens and produce
a spectral transmission curve are also used in ophthalmic
practices. The Humphrey Lens Analyzer (an automated
lensmeter) (Zeiss Humphrey Systems, Dublin, Calif.)
has an option that reads lens transmission and projects
it on the screen of the instrument. Printing out the
FIGURE 11-6 Lenses should be placed in a lens holder
transmission curve is also possible (Figure 11-8).
without pressure. Some laboratory managers recommend
color coding lens holders so that the same holder is used for
For tinting purposes, the two readings that are most
the same tint color. This helps prevent the possibility of important are the percent transmission of the UV light
cross-contamination of colors. passing through the lens and the overall percent of
visible light transmitted. The UV portion is needed
to ensure that adequate protection from invisible
The time that it will take to achieve the darkness wavelengths below 400 nm is present.
required varies and depends on the lens itself and the
age and temperature of the dye. When dyes are appro-
CHECKING LENS COLOR ACCURACY
priately strong and heat sufficiently high, normal tinting
times range from 5 seconds to 8 minutes. However The best way to check color accuracy is to visually com-
certain lens material types or lens coatings may increase pare it to a sample lens. Having a sample lens on
some tint times considerably. Under less than ideal hand that may be held side-by-side with the newly tinted
conditions, times will be increased. lens shows how close the color and darkness is to what
After the lens is removed from the tint, it is rinsed was ordered. Tint samples will fade over time. In time
under a faucet in cool tap water. If a sink is not handy, the lens will become slightly lighter and, perhaps more
the lens is rinsed in a container of water. The lens is importantly, will change somewhat in color. If the lens
wiped dry with a soft cloth or tissue to prevent water is continually exposed to sunlight or fluorescent light
spotting. the lens will last from 12 to 18 months before it begins
218 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

FIGURE 11-7 A basic photometer gives a quantifiable transmission of tinted lenses. This
unit shows three areas of transmission. The dial on the left shows that the lens is trans-
mitting no ultraviolet (UV) light. The center dial shows 55% transmission of visible light.
This is the averaged percent transmission for visible light. (To see the actual transmission
across the visible spectrum for this brown lens, see Figure 11-8.) The dial on the right shows
that the lens is transmitting almost all infrared (IR) in the region measured.

to lighten or change in color. If kept in a drawer, they perfect backdrop for comparing two lens colors (Figure
may last up to 5 years before changing.7 11-9).
Fading happens to single lenses in the laboratory
or in the dispensary. This can become a source of
BALANCING LENS COLOR
confusion and misunderstanding when the patient’s
lens does not match the sample lens in the dispensary. Sometimes a lens comes out of the dye and is not the
In examination of a lens for trueness of color, the exact color expected. If this happens it is still possible
type of lighting used is important. Artificial indoor light to correct the lens color.
such as fluorescent or incandescent lighting does not By using only three colors, creation of any color is
give an accurate impression because these light sources theoretically possible. So if the color is not exactly what
do not contain the same spectral balance of colors as it should be, by adding a particular color the overall
does sunlight. Daylight-type bulbs are made to more color may be shifted in the desired direction. For
accurately mimic sunlight. One possibility is to simply example, if the colors blue and yellow make green, how
replace regular fluorescent bulbs with daylight-type can a green lens that is too yellowish be corrected? The
bulbs in the tinting area. solution is to dip the yellowish-green lens in the blue
dye. This counterbalances the yellowish effect and
Light Boxes results in a purer green. Table 11-1 provides a color-
A convenient device to aide in the comparison of lens correction chart.
colors is a light box. This is a box with a white, trans-
lucent piece of plastic on top and a full spectrum bulb
MATCHING AN EXISTING LENS COLOR
inside. The white, illuminated background is the
Sometimes a laboratory is asked to replace one lens,
7
Lamperelli K: To dye for: a guide to tints and tinting, Eyewear Oct matching the tint of the new lens to that of the original.
1998, p 31. The first step is to choose the dye that is thought to be
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 219

The risk involved is twofold. The first is that the

lenses still may not match because of age and manu-
facturer differences. The second risk is wearer
dissatisfaction. The lenses may match each other but
not be a close enough match to the original to satisfy
the wearer. Explaining the difficulties and risks to the
wearer or to the account before proceeding may be the
safer strategy.

REMOVING TINT WITH NEUTRALIZER

To remove color from a previously tinted lens, the lens
may be placed in a solution of lens neutralizer.
Neutralizer works by bleaching some tints and drawing
others back out of the lens and into the neutralizer.
Neutralizer can be topped off with more neutralizer
as it evaporates. It can continue to be used until it
becomes too slow or until it takes on color from
bleached lenses and will not clear.
Neutralizer also can be used to lighten the tint of a
lens. The lens is left in the neutralizer until it lightens
to the desired transmission, then the lens is removed
and rinsed clean. For polycarbonate lenses a neutral-
izer labeled specifically for polycarbonate or a water-
based neutralizer must be used.

TINTING AND MATCHING UNCUTS

Whenever possible a lens should be dyed after it has
been edged, not before. By dyeing the lens after
edging, the edges of the lens will be dyed. Dyeing the
lens as an uncut, before edging, results in lighter lens
edges because the tint does not soak completely into
the whole lens thickness.
Yet in certain circumstances a lens is dyed before
edging, particularly if a large laboratory is responding
FIGURE 11-8 The Humphrey Lens Analyzer, an automated to a request from a smaller laboratory. One of these
lensmeter, has a function that shows and prints a trans- requests may be to match an old lens color from a
mission curve of the lens. That transmission curve includes previously edged lens, then send the new, matched lens
the visible spectrum and ultraviolet region. This lens shows a to the smaller laboratory for edging.
transmission curve fairly typical for a brown plastic lens. If a lens is dyed as an uncut, it becomes more
difficult to judge a good match because the size of
the areas of comparison are unequal. To make the
the closest match. After dyeing the new lens, it may be match easier a small black velvet cloth with a hole in
altered in hue. To change the hue, the color correction the center is used. The size of the hole should be close
chart shown in Table 11-1 can be used. to the size of the edged lens. Placing the cloth over
the uncut lens may make comparison of the two lenses
Forcing a Match easier and increase the possibility of a more accurate
When only one lens in a wearer’s old pair of eyeglasses match.8
is being replaced, it is sometimes nearly impossible to
match the old lens. In an attempt to force a match,
sometimes the color is bleached from the wearer’s 8
Mecteau R: How to assure maximum quality and productivity in finishing,
remaining lens and the remaining lens redyed with the Optical Laboratories Association Meeting, Nashville, Tenn, Dec 12,
new lens. 1995.
220 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

FIGURE 11-9 A light box is a back-lighted piece of translucent white plastic. It allows
easy comparison of two lens colors. The lens on the right is used as the standard sample,
against which the newly tinted lens may be compared.

TABLE 11-1
Color Balancing Table*

From BPI Color Correction Chart, BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, p 172.
*Color balancing recommendations may vary according to dye manufacturer and also according to lens manufacturer, lens material, and lens coating type.

Styles of Tints GRADIENT TINTS

Gradients are lenses that vary in transmission over the
SOLIDS surface of the lens. A simple gradient tint is a lens that has
The most common type of lens tint is called a solid. one color but varies in transmission from the top to the
A solid is a tint that has the same color and light bottom of the lens. The lens starts out darker at the top
transmission over the entire lens (Figure 11-10, A). This of the lens and gradually lightens toward the bottom
is the easiest tint to produce. (Figure 11-10, B). The purpose of a gradient tint is
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 221

Solid

Gradient

Double
gradient

C
FIGURE 11-10 A, A solid tint has the same color and light transmission over the entire
lens. B, A gradient tint has the same color but is darker at the top of the lens and lightens
gradually toward the bottom. C, A double gradient usually has two colors, one at the
top and a second at the bottom. The color at the top is darkest at the top and fades out
toward the middle of the lens. The color at the bottom is most intense at the bottom and
lightens toward the middle. An example might be a lens that is blue at the top and pink at
the bottom. A triple gradient (not pictured here) is like a double gradient, but with a third,
usually light color in the central meridian of the lens.

primarily fashion, although it could be argued that a A gradient arm does not guarantee a better gradient
gradient tint is useful for a pair of eyeglasses in the tint than one done by hand but may save time. Many
same way that a windshield with a dark band at the top still prefer to dip the lenses by hand to achieve the
is useful for driving. effect desired.
Because of the slight pause that the gradient arm
Dyeing a Simple Gradient Lens makes as it cycles, it is recommended that the tint bath
To produce a lens with a dark upper half and a clear be lowered to between 190° and 200° F. This slows the
lower half, the lenses are mounted upside down in the absorption speed and helps produce a more gradual
lens holder and the top half immersed in the dye. To gradient line instead of a harsh one.
achieve a gradual change in transmission, the top half Some gradient arms have a separate setting that
of the lens is dipped in and out of the dye while varying allows a solid lens to be lowered into the dye, left there
how far into the dye the lens is dipped. for a predetermined length of time, then automatically
Gradient arms are sold for tint units. These arms lifted from the dye.
mechanically dip the lens in and out of the dye to
varying depths (Figure 11-11). With each downward Achieving a Level Gradient Line
stroke of the gradient arm the lens is lowered deeper A gradient should be horizontally straight after the
into the dye. After the last and deepest stroke in the lenses are mounted in the frame. To be sure the
series, the cycle repeats itself. gradient is horizontal and not tilted (Figure 11-12),
222 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

One way to ensure straightness of the gradient line is

to mount the untinted lenses in the frame correctly and
then spot them both on the 180-degree line (Figure
11-14). The edges of the lens are marked along the 180-
degree line (Figure 11-15), and the top of the lens is
marked with a T (Figure 11-16). Next the apex of the
lens bevel is filed lightly on the 180-degree line with a
narrow file (Figure 11-17). This mark remains on the
lens but is hidden within the frame’s groove. This mark
works well unless the lenses are rimless.
In fact, the practice of marking the 180-degree line
for round frames is a good idea for any round frame
where rotation of the lenses may cause optical problems
for the wearer. The marks should be barely visible to
the wearer. This way the wearer can monitor the
position of the lenses and have any problem corrected
so that the cylinder axis will remain positioned where
it should be.

Creating a Smooth Gradient

When a gradient lens is ordered, it should specify color
and transmission(s). If only one transmission is given,
this is the transmission of the upper portion. The upper
third of the edged gradient lens should have the
darkest specified transmission for the lens. The lower
FIGURE 11-11 A gradient arm dips the lens in and out of third of the lens should be very light or even clear. This
the dye at varying depths to produce a gradient transmission lower transmission may or may not be specified in the
lens. Note the springlike design at the top of the lens holder. order. The middle third of the lens should transition
This lens holder, designed especially for use with gradient evenly between the top and bottom thirds.
lenses, is meant to allow the lens to oscillate some as the If a distinct border appears between the upper
gradient arm moves, resulting in a more gradual change in and lower sections of a gradient lens with little or no
transmission over the surface of the lens.
transition, the gradient change is too harsh. This can
happen from faulty technique, cleaning solvent still on
the lens, or a failure to use lens conditioner. (It also can
the lenses must be positioned in the holder so that their happen when a gradient arm is used with the dye too
180-degree mounting line is exactly horizontal. If the hot, as described earlier.)
lens has a flat-top bifocal, the flat-top lines give a ready Removal of harshness from the line and creation of
reference, as shown in Figure 11-13. Frames in which a smoother gradient may not rely on totally bleaching
the top rim of the frame is straight and level are easiest. the lenses in lens neutralizer and starting all over again.
However, frames that have perfectly round lenses are With the lenses right side up so that the light areas of
hardest (especially if the prescription includes a the lenses are at the bottom, they are dipped part way
cylinder component). into the neutralizer until the fade is more appropriate.

FIGURE 11-12 If lenses are not oriented along the 180-degree meridian when placed in
the lens holder, the gradient lines will not be horizontal. These lenses were tipped when
placed in the lens holder.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 223

Sometimes it may work better to dip the whole lens in

and out of the neutralizer.

DOUBLE GRADIENTS
A gradient lens may be created with one color on the
top and another color on the bottom. These two colors
fade into one another. This type of lens is called a double
gradient (see Figure 11-10, C ). An example of a double
gradient would be a lens with a light blue upper
gradient area that gives a cosmetic eye-shadow–like
appearance to the lid area of the eye combined with a
rose-colored lower half that somewhat masks dark
circles under the eyes.
To produce a double gradient lens, an upper
gradient is created in just the top half of the lens. The
bottom half is left clear. Then the lenses are turned
over in the lens holder and the gradient process
repeated for the lower half in the second color. The
second color starts dark at the bottom and fades to the
center in “reverse” gradient fashion.

TRIPLE GRADIENTS
Although seldom called for, production of a triple FIGURE 11-13 Flat-top bifocals provide a ready reference
gradient lens is possible. Such a lens has one gradient for the location of the 180-degree line during tinting of
color in the upper half, a second reverse gradient in the gradient lenses. Remember that the bifocal will be upside
lower half, and a third color in the center. down, because the top of the lens must go into the tint first.
The top gets more of the tint than the bottom.

FIGURE 11-14 To ensure a straight gradient line on lens shapes that are either round or
close to a round shape, begin by spotting the 180-degree line with the lenses still in the
frame. When cylinder is present, the lenses may be placed in the lensmeter without the
frame, as long as it is clear which side of the lens is nasal and which is temporal.
224 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

FIGURE 11-16 In the sequence of preparing a lens for a

gradient tint, the top of the lens should be marked so that
the lens will not be turned accidentally upside down when
FIGURE 11-15 The process of making sure a gradient placed in the lens holder.
line will be straight began in Figure 11-14. To continue the
process, use the lensmeter dots as a guide and mark the
180-degree line at the edge of the lenses.

FIGURE 11-17 With a rimmed frame a small file mark can be made at the edges of the
lens along the 180-degree line. (Such marks are inappropriate for rimless lenses.) Once a
small file mark is made at each edge, the three lensmeter dots and the “T” are removed.
Then the lenses are placed upside down in the lens holder for gradient tinting with the file
marks at the horizontal meridian.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 225

This may be created in two ways. The first way is to both regular dress-wear lenses and prescription
overlap the upper and lower colors. The third center sunglass lenses.
color will be the result of a combination of upper and When an order includes a UV-blocking component,
lower colors. the UV dye should be applied first, before the applica-
The second and most common way to produce a tion of a colored dye. Otherwise the previously applied
triple gradient is to start with the center color as a solid. color will fade in the UV bath and contaminate the UV
The upper and lower colors might be added on top of dye. How long the lenses must be left in dye depends
the solid if they are able to mask it sufficiently. If not, on the type of dye purchased. Published times for dyes
the center color is done as a solid, and then neutralized vary. Some are listed from 2 to 10 minutes, others from
out of first the top, then the bottom of the lens. The top 30 to 40 minutes.11 Generally speaking, the less a lens is
and bottom gradient colors may then be added without left in hot dye, the better. This is especially important
being influenced by the center color. for a scratch-coated lens or lens that is to be AR-coated.
UV dye should not be allowed to get too old. Because
the lens has no actual color after the application of UV,
Ultraviolet Dyeing each lens should be checked on a photometer that is
capable of measuring UV transmission. Otherwise there
Sunglass lens tints that are sufficiently dark may reduce is no guarantee that the lens is furnishing adequate
the transmission of visible light, make the eyes more protection (Figure 11-18). Over time and with use the
comfortable on bright days, and preserve the eye’s UV dye requires longer to produce the required UV
ability to fully and rapidly adapt to dark at night.9 absorption. If the dye is not producing adequate UV in
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a shorter wavelength light the time expected for the dye, the dye should be
that is not visible but nevertheless can adversely affect replaced.
the eye. Long-term, low-dose exposure to UV light UV dyeing of plastic lenses is a reliable method for
can increase the incidence of cataracts.10 UV radiation providing protection against UV-A and UV-B radiation.
is present in normal sunlight. The closer to the equator Although dyes, including UV dyes, may fade some over
or the higher in altitude one is, the greater the expo- time, a 1997 study12 showed the following. Lenses that
sure to UV radiation. For this reason those who are were dyed for UV protection in the laboratory and
exposed to sunlight for significant periods of time those that were purchased as stock lenses with UV-
should have lenses that block UV rays. This includes absorbing monomers incorporated into the polymer of

9 11
Hecht S, Hendley C, Ross S: The effect of exposure to sunlight on BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, pp 27-34.
12
night vision, Am J Ophthal 31:1573, 1948. Lee DY, Brown WL, Trachimowicz R: Efficacy and durability of
10
Brilliant LB et al: Associations among cataract prevalence, sunlight ultraviolet tints in CR-39 ophthalmic lenses, J Am Ophthal Assoc
hours, and altitude in the Himalayas, Am J Epidemiol 118:239, 1983. 68(11):709-714, 1997.
_____________________________

_____________________________

UVB UVA Visible

100%
SPXN SEQ 01
HUMPHREY SYSTEMS

95%
0%
0%

50%
LA 360

:
:
Visible :
UVB
UVA

0%
Name

Date

300 400 500 600 700

FIGURE 11-18 This lens was measured using a Humphrey Lens Analyzer (autolens-
meter) with the ability to read lens transmission. The figure shows that most light below
400 nm has been filtered out by the lens.
226 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

the lens material both meet Z87.3-1996 UV standards The neutralizer should not be hotter than 200° F or
for nonprescription sunglasses and fashion eyewear. it can cause the coating to bubble.15 Along these same
They also maintained that same protection for the life lines, the lens should not be left in hot neutralizer
of the study (1 year) under normal daily washing and more than 10 minutes. Leaving lenses in the neutralizer
drying without a significant decrease in the protective too long can cause crazing of the lens surface.16
effect of the UV tint. (Crazing is a microcracking of the coating that makes
the surface of the lens look like the surface of dried,
cracked mud.) This is the reason some prefer using a
Effects of Lens Material and Lens capful of noncitrus dishwashing detergent in water for
light bleaching of polycarbonate lenses. (Lemon
Coating on the Dyeing Process scented detergents may damage the coating.17) Even
dishwashing detergent needs to be heated to 200° F to
DYEING POLYCARBONATE be effective.
The process for tinting polycarbonate is basically the Box 11-1 provides some additional specific and
same as it is for regular plastic lenses. Only a few helpful suggestions from the Polycarbonate Lens
differences are listed in this section. As with regular Council on tinting polycarbonate lenses.
plastic lenses, unevenness in the tint may occur if hard
water or contaminated water is used instead of distilled
or deionized water. Unevenness of tint also can happen
DYEING HARD-COATED LENSES
if the dye is not kept mixed well enough, if the dye is A plastic lens that has been hard coated dyes differently
overused by trying to tint too many lenses before than an uncoated plastic lens. It may also take longer to
changing the dye, by incomplete lens cleaning before dye. This is because the coating must first absorb the
dyeing, and by attempting to tint the lens with the dye dye before it can get into the lens itself.18
temperature too far above or below 210° F. However, A large variety of lens coatings are made. Hence a
the way the dye is absorbed by the polycarbonate lens variety of results also occur when these lenses are tinted.
does differ from a regular CR-39 plastic lens. If the lens manufacturer provides recommendations on
how to tint their lenses, it is best to follow their advice.
Dye Distribution in Polycarbonates As might be expected, lens coatings cause tint times
With regular plastic lenses, the dye is absorbed into the to change. They also may absorb some pigments better
plastic itself. Polycarbonate will not absorb lens dye. than others. This means that a coated lens may not
Instead the dye is absorbed by the coating on the lens.13 come out to exactly the same color as an uncoated lens
In the past, the more the coating on the polycarbonate would. It also means that two lenses with two different
lens resisted scratching, the harder it was to dye. With types of coatings may come out with slightly different
the changes that have been made in coatings, poly- shades of the same color, even if they are dyed in the
carbonate lenses are not as difficult to dye as they used same tank for the same length of time.
to be. It is now possible to tint most polycarbonate lenses
even to a dark sun lens tint. If a lens will not tint dark
DYEING HIGH-INDEX LENSES
enough, at least one manufacturer makes polycarbo-
nate lenses with a number 2 gray tint in the polycarbo- Recommendations for high-index plastic lenses vary
nate material itself.14 These number 2 gray lenses can according to manufacturer. For example, Optima
then be dyed to the desired sun lens shade of dark gray. recommends that its 1.66 HyperIndex lenses be tinted
(Note: Polycarbonate lenses already have a UV ab- at 180° F to 190° F.19 Optima also recommends leaving
sorber in the coating and do not have to be UV dyed.) 1.66 HyperIndex lenses in the dye for only 10 minutes
at a time, alternating between the tint dye and a
Heat and Neutralizer Sensitivities solution of warm water with three drops of Joy
A lens should not be left in the tint longer than 30 dishwashing liquid. This is only an example and does
minutes. If it has not reached the desired tint, either
the dye is too old, too cold, or the lens is already as dark
15
as it is going to get. Breheney ML: Processing tips for polycarbonate, LabTalk May 1999,
p 30.
16
BPI Catalog, Miami, 1999, BPI Incorporated, p 163.
17
Grootegoed J (of Walman Optical) as quoted in Optical Dispensing
13
Polycarbonate Lens Council: Polycarbonate information for educators: News, Nov. 15, 2000.
18
tinting polycarbonate, accessed May 2001 (http://www.polycarb.org/ Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business April 1998, p 40.
19
educ11.htm). HyperIndex 1.66 Technical Manual, Stratford, Conn, 1994, Optima
14
Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business April 1998, p 40. Inc, p 5.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 227

lower than 7 = acidic). Some of the cleaning solutions

BOX 11-1
used to prepare a lens for tinting are carried over in the
Suggestions for Tinting Polycarbonate tint solution in small amounts. This can change the pH
Lenses of the dye. A hot solution that is not neutral can cause
some types of lens coatings to be weakened. To bring
the tint bath back to neutral, a stabilizer such as BPI
Stabilizer may be helpful.
Some dyes are specifically made for high-index
materials. These may be most appropriate for labora-
tories that work with a large volume of lenses.

DYEING LENSES TO BE ANTIREFLECTION-

COATED
AR coatings eliminate the glare that reflects from the
surface of a spectacle lens. In eliminating reflections,
the net result is an increase in the amount of light that
goes through the lens. Normally each surface of a
regular plastic lens reflects about 4% of the light. This
means that in its “clear” state a CR-39 plastic lens trans-
mits only 92% of the incoming light. When AR-coated,
the lens may transmit nearly 99.5% of incoming light,
depending upon coating quality. So what does this mean
for a lens that is to be first tinted, then AR-coated?

Example 11-1
An order arrives for a lens that calls for a light pink tint
with a transmission of 80%. If the lens is tinted so that
it transmits 80% of the light in its uncoated state, what
percentage of light will it transmit after it has been
AR-coated?

Solution
For a normal CR-39 plastic lens, 3.974% of light striking
the lens is reflected by the front surface and 3.665% from
the back surface. So for a “clear” lens, only 92.36% of
the light actually goes through the lens, not 100%.20

20
Normally the following describes what happens with a clear, un-
coated plastic lens. As light enters a 1.498 index CR-39 lens, 3.974%
From Polycarbonate Lens Council: Polycarbonate information for educators: of the light is reflected from the front surface, leaving 96.026% to
tinting polycarbonate, accessed May 2001 travel on to the second surface. There 3.974% of the 96.026% of light
(http://www.polycarb.org/educ11.htm). that enters the second surface is reflected. This amounts to 3.665%
reflection from the second surface. The percent of light that
originally enters the lens that gets through is as follows:
not apply to other high-index lenses. Procedures for 100 – 3.974 – 3.665 = 92.36%
high-index plastic vary. Recommendations likely will The exact formula, called the Fresnel Equation, is written as follows:
change as available lens dyeing products change.
冤
IR = n′ – n
冥
2
×I
One general recommendation for high-index mate- n′ + n
rials is to use a product such as BPI Spotless solution where:
in the dyes. The purpose is to achieve more uniform n′ = Index of refraction of the second media
colors and prevent spots and blotches. n = Index of refraction of the first media
I = Amount of incident light
Another suggestion that may help with high-index IR = Amount of incident light reflected
lenses is to watch the pH of the lens dye. The pH of lens The equation must be worked twice, once for the first surface and
dyes should be neutral (7; higher than 7 = alkaline; once for the second surface.
228 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

So now this “clear” lens is dyed and the transmission back lens surfaces of a 1.66 index lens combined will
measured to be 80%. Next the lens is AR coated. If reflect 12% of total incoming light for a clear lens and
almost all of the reflected light from front and back 7% of total incoming light for a dark sunglass lens.
surfaces now passes through the lens, the lens transmits Consequently, the higher the refractive index a lens has,
slightly more than 7% more light than it did before it the greater the compensation required to make the
was AR-coated. In this case, the lens will transmit 87% final transmission of an AR-coated lens come out right.)
of the light. This is measurably more than was ordered.
Lenses that will be dyed to a dark sunglass lens tint Dyeing Lenses before AR Coating
will not show a full 7% difference between what the If a lens is to be dyed and AR-coated, it must be dyed
transmission of the lens is before and after AR coating. first. It cannot be AR-coated, then dyed. The AR
This is because a dark lens will have less light entering coating cannot handle the tinting process and prevents
the second surface and therefore less light reflected the lens from being properly dyed. This means that if a
from the second surface. The following is an example. lens is dyed, then AR-coated, it cannot be lightened,
darkened, or redyed in any way without first stripping
Example 11-2 the AR coating off the lens.
If a CR-39 plastic lens is dyed to a 15% transmission An AR-coating stripper may be purchased. The main
before being AR-coated, what percentage transmission purpose for this is to remove an old AR coating that is
will the lens have after being AR-coated? beginning to degrade.

Solution
DYEING PLASTIC POLARIZING LENSES
The first surface of this 1.498 index lens still reflects
3.974% of the incoming light, just like the clear lens. Polarizing lenses reduce the glare of light reflected
Once the lens is coated, total transmission is increased from water, sand, snow, or pavement. These lenses have
by this amount. However, the back surface of the lens a layer of polarizing material sandwiched into the lens.
only reflects 3.974% of the light it receives, which is slightly Nevertheless, it is possible to dye a plastic polarizing
less than 16%. So 3.974% of 16% is just more than lens. The process is carried out in the same manner as
0.6%. This means that for the dark lens, the difference for normal CR-39 plastic lenses.21 For best results, the
between lens transmission before and after it has been lenses are tinted in uncut form before they are edged.
AR-coated is just under 5%. Polarizing lenses come in a variety of tints already.
So what does all this mean in terms of tinting lenses The only reason to tint a polarizing lens is if the desired
before they are AR-coated? If AR coating were the lens color is not already available.
only factor it would mean that for lightly tinted lenses
that are to be lightly tinted, the lens would be dyed
7% darker than the percent transmission ordered. For
DYEING NYLON CORDS
lenses that are to be darkly tinted, they would be dyed Some frames hold the lens in place by using a nylon
5% darker than the percent ordered. cord. These frames are called by a variety of names,
However, lenses that are to be AR-coated are including rimlons, nylon supras, nylors, or simply nylon
subjected to an intensive, multistage cleaning process cord frames.
before they are coated. This can remove some of the Dyeing the nylon cord that surrounds the lens is
dye resident near the outer surface of the lens. When possible in the same dye used to tint plastic lenses.
this happens, the lens ends up lighter than it was, even Therefore nylon cords may be dyed to match the cord
before it is ever AR-coated. To prevent this problem, color to the lens or frame color, or just to be different.
the lens is dyed too dark. Then it is dipped in neutral-
izer to lighten it to the needed transmission.
To summarize: CR-39 plastic lenses that are to be Powering Down, Cleaning Up,
lightly AR-coated are dyed 15% darker than ordered,
then they are lightened in neutralizer until they are 7% and Reducing Smells
darker than ordered. CR-39 lenses that are to be darkly
tinted and AR-coated are dyed 10% darker than POWERING DOWN THE TINT UNIT
ordered and then lightened in neutralizer until they When lenses are being tinted, the base unit keeps the
are 5% darker than ordered. This process ensures the dye just under the boiling point. The tint tanks need to
requested transmission will come out as requested.
(Note: The higher the index of refraction, the more 21
Frequently asked questions about NuPolar polarized lenses,
light the surface of the lens will reflect. Both front and LensTalk January 2000, p 9.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 229

be monitored continually to keep the contents from or ordinary dishwashing detergent (without citrus) is
evaporating too fast. While the unit is running at full sufficient. If scrubbing is required, only a plastic or
temperature, water must be added constantly or the nylon pad that is not impregnated with cleaning agent
tint in the tanks evaporates and leaves a pigment should be used. Lens holders should be cleaned in the
residue on the sides of the tanks. (Some units even have same manner as are tint tanks.
warning systems that sound if the tint level is too low. 22)
If the tint unit will not be used for a while, it should
REDUCING DYE SMELLS IN THE
be turned down. If the dial is turned down and the
LABORATORY
temperature of the dye reaches 130° F, the lids may be
put on to reduce evaporation. The tint temperature Certain characteristic smells accompany lens tinting.
should reach 130° F before putting the lids on. Simply This factor must first be considered before adding a
turning the dial to 130° F and putting the lids on will tinting facility. Even though these smells are not
make the temperature rise rapidly and cause the tints to considered to be hazardous, certain steps may reduce
boil over. them, as follows:
1. Locate the tint unit in a well-ventilated area.
CLEANING TINT TANKS AND LENS 2. If needed, use a hood over the unit that is vented to
HOLDERS the outside.
3. If a hood is needed and it cannot be vented outside,
Tanks should be cleaned thoroughly every time the tint
use a hood or alternative fan unit, which draws air
is changed. This may be done with a mild detergent.
through a charcoal filter before returning it to the
The inside of the tank must not be contaminated with
room.
the heat transfer fluid that is on the outside of the tank.
4. Use odor-absorbing tint tank lids.
(To be sure the inside of the tank is free of transfer
fluids, after washing, the inside of the tank is rinsed for
10 minutes with running water.) Troubleshooting
The inside of the tank should be free from scratches.
Scratches serve as a magnet for dye residues. For this Any process has problems. The most effective solution
reason, the unit should not be cleaned with scouring for problems is to avoid them. However, despite the
pads, powders, chemicals, solvents, or steel wool. A most careful procedures, sometimes problems do arise.
cleaning agent purchased from the tint manufacturer, Table 11-2 lists several problems, their cause, and how
to correct them. The list is not inclusive and does not
22
Lamperelli K: To dye for: a guide to tints and tinting, Eyewear Oct try to address all of the issues already discussed in the
1998, p 30. chapter.

TABLE 11-2
Troubleshooting for Tinting
PROBLEM PROBABLE CAUSE(S) CORRECTION

Why does the lens appear blotchy? The lens was not properly cleaned. Put the lens in neutralizer to remove the color,
and then thoroughly clean it and start over.
The lens cured unevenly during Some practitioners recommend placing the lens in
manufacture. a 240° F oven for 15-20 minutes after removing
the dye with neutralizer and before retinting.
(Dye manufacturers sell small ovens for this and
other purposes.)
Why does the lens have a circlelike The lens cured unevenly during Use the same corrective procedure provided
variation in the tint? manufacture. above for uneven curing.
Why are my colors “off?” Minerals or contaminants are in the dye Use distilled or deionized water when dyes are
water. mixed.
Someone keeps using hard tap water in Obtain a product such as BPI Water Soft and add
the dyes. a few drops to the tint solution. It will bind
some of the contaminants in the water so that
the contaminants will not bind with the dye.

Continued
230 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

TABLE 11-2
Troubleshooting for Tinting—cont’d
PROBLEM PROBABLE CAUSE(S) CORRECTION

If tap water is being used regularly… …put the tap water into a container and let it
stand 24 hours before it is to be used. This will
allow some of the chlorine, fluoride, and other
chemicals to evaporate before the water is
used.*
Some heat transfer fluid got into the Thoroughly wash the tint tank. Begin by first
dye. This could have happened when completely rinsing the outside. After washing
the dye tank was removed from the the entire tank, rinse the inside 10 minutes
unit. The heat transfer fluid from the under running water.
bottom of the tank being moved may
have dripped into an open dye tank. It
could also be that transfer fluid got
inside the tank when the tank was
being washed.
Why do my lenses appear too The tint hue has been mixed and in the Add a bit of yellow dye to the tank.
purplish?† tank too long, causing some of the
tint pigment to react with the oxygen
in the water.
Why do my lenses appear too The tint concentrate did not all get into When using large bottles of concentrate intended
reddish?† the tank. for more than one tank of dye, thoroughly
shake the bottle before pouring the tint
concentrate. (Hint: To make mixing easier, place
a marble in the bottle.)
When using a single-use, small bottle, shake the
bottle well and rinse it at least three times,
pouring the rinse water into the tank. Ensure
that all the tint pigment empties into the tank.
You may be trying to tint the lens darker For dark tints, use a dye intended for dark tints.
than was intended for the dye you are
using.
Why does the lens appear That particular tint has not been used for From time to time, heat and stir those tints that
streaked? awhile, and some of the pigment has are not being actively used. (Laboratories often
begun to clump together. have more mixed tints in tint tanks than places
in the base unit in which to keep them. These
tints may not get heated and stirred often
enough.)
Preventively add a drop or more of a solution
designed to prevent clumping, such as BPI
Color Developer. It resuspends pigment and
breaks up clumping.
The lens was cured unevenly. Use better-quality lenses.
The lens holders contain dried tint Clean the holders regularly.
pigment.
The dye was contaminated with heat Thoroughly wash the tint tank. Begin by first
transfer fluid. completely rinsing the outside. After washing
the entire tank, rinse the inside 10 minutes
under running water.
The concentration of the lens Use the correct concentration of lens conditioner.
conditioner being used is too high.
Why do I have a lens pair in One of the following may have Attempt to choose lenses that are better matched
which the right and left lenses occurred: before dyeing.
are different colors and/or • The lenses are from different Ensure that the dye temperature is hot enough.
different transmissions? manufacturers. Low temperatures will cause more differences

*Herrick T: It’s up to hue, 20/20 March 2000, p 134.

†
For what to do to correct color of the lens itself, see Table 11-1 on color balancing.
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 231

TABLE 11-2
Troubleshooting for Tinting—cont’d
PROBLEM PROBABLE CAUSE(S) CORRECTION

• The lenses are from different batches between lenses in these situations.‡
from the same manufacturer.
• One lens is a stock lens, and the
other is a surfaced lens.
Lenses may have considerably different Match the two lenses by hand using a color-
thicknesses, such as minus and plus lens balancing table (see Table 11-1).
combinations.
Why is the heat transfer fluid Water or tint solution has gotten into the The heat transfer fluid has a higher boiling point
popping? transfer fluid. than water. If water or anything else with a low
boiling point gets into the heat transfer fluid,
the foreign fluid will boil and pop, just as when
water in hot oil pops. If only a small amount of
contaminant is in the fluid, turn the
temperature of the unit down to 130° F and
allow the spilled liquid to evaporate.
The heat transfer fluid appears dirty. It is considered normal for the heat At the same time the fluid is changed, the heating
Is something wrong? transfer fluid to appear dark. To check element should be checked. If it feels crusty,
and ensure whether the fluid is in fact clean the element with a plastic or nylon
dirty, use a teaspoon and scoop some cleaner. Take care not to scratch the element.
out. If the fluid is too dark and the Failure to clean the unit will result in early
bottom of the spoon is not visible, the element burnout.
fluid needs to be changed.
I have dye on my hands that will Unless you use latex gloves, this can be a Dye manufacturers generally have one or more
not wash off. How can I remove it? problem. soaps or cleansers specially formulated for hand
cleaning. If this is a continuous problem, use
latex gloves.
I splashed dye on my clothes. The best solution is prevention. Wear a Try using neutralizer to remove splashed lens dye
Are they ruined? laboratory jacket or old clothing on from clothing. However, there is always the
which you do not mind stains. possibility that the original color of the clothing
may be affected.
Some of my scratch-resistant coated There may be variations in lens surface Use a solution made for lenses with hard coatings,
lenses are having problems with color charges. such as BPI Spotless. Add the recommended
variations, white spots, and blotchy amount to the tint solution.
areas. What should I do?

‡
DeFranco LM: Eye on equipment, Eyecare Business Jan 2000, p 34.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Seiko Tinting Guide, Mahwah, NJ, Seiko Optical Products Wertheim HA et al: How to tint lenses made from CR-39 monomer
(undated publication). for prescription eyewear, ed 2, Pittsburgh, 1981, PPG
Silor Recommended Tinting Procedures, St Petersburg, Fla, Essilor Industries.
of America (undated publication).
232 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following does not describe one of 7. Which of the following best describes what
the three main ways in which ophthalmic lenses happens if pigment residue is left in the bottom of
may be tinted? a single-use bottle of concentrate?

a. By introducing a coloring substance into the a. The lenses may be a slightly different color
lens material before it becomes a lens from what they should normally be.
b. By vacuum coating the color onto the surface b. Not as many lenses may be dyed in this batch.
of the lens in much the same way that c. The lenses will not dye as darkly as they should.
antireflection coatings are applied to
lenses 8. To maintain the tint at optimum temperature,
c. By spray-coating the lens with an aerosol spray which of the following should happen?
d. By immersing the lens in a liquid dye so that
the dye is absorbed into the lens a. Buy a laboratory-grade thermometer to
measure dye temperature in the tanks.
2. True or False? All tint base units use a heat b. Use the temperature dial on the tint unit. It is
transfer fluid to convey the heat to the tint. custom made for the unit. Using another
thermometer is both time consuming and a
3. Tinting a lens with first one color, then with waste of money.
another, results in a green lens. Which two of the
following colors are they? 9. Which of the following is true of a lens that has
been slowly cured in the manufacturing process as
a. Blue it went from a liquid resin to a solid lens?
b. Red
c. Yellow a. It is called a soft lens.
b. It will accept dye more rapidly than one that
4. Is it advisable to use tap water to dye lenses? has been cured rapidly.
c. It will accept dye more slowly than one that has
a. Yes been cured rapidly.
b. No
10. Which of the following happens when one surfaced
5. To make the tint for lens dyeing, the concentrated lens and one stock lens are used together as a pair?
dye is best mixed with which of the following?
a. One lens will be thicker than the other and
a. Lens conditioner appear different, even when identically tinted.
b. Neutralizer b. A difference may occur in the color and/or
c. Tap water transmission of the two lenses.
d. Distilled water c. No difference occurs in the color and/or
e. There is no mixing. The dye comes ready to transmission of the two lenses.
use. d. Surfaced and stock lenses should never be
mixed when tinted under any circumstances.
6. When starting a new batch of dye, which of the
following choices describes the point at which the 11. True or False? It is not possible to use too much
concentrate should be added to the tint tank? lens conditioner. It may be a wasteful habit, but it
will not affect the lens.
a. Before the water is added to the tint tank
b. While the water in the tank is still cold
c. When the water in the tank is 140° F
d. After the water in the tank is heated to 200° F
CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING 233

12. Which of the following is true of lens neutralizer? 18. Which of the following is one way to smooth out a
gradient line that is too harsh?
a. It works OK when it is hot, but works best when
it is room temperature. a. Hold the lens right side up and dip it part way
b. It works OK when it is at room temperature, into lens conditioner.
but works best when it is hot. b. Hold the lens upside down and dip it part way
c. It works the same at room temperature as it into lens conditioner.
does when it is hot. There is no difference. c. Hold the lens right side up and dip it part way
d. It should not be used at room temperature, into lens neutralizer.
only hot. d. Hold the lens upside down and dip it part way
e. It should not be used hot, only at room into lens neutralizer.
temperature.
19. True or False? A dyed plastic prescription sunglass
13. Which of the following choices describes the way lens always contains protection from UV radiation.
in which a lens should be lowered into the tint
bath when it is to be tinted? 20. True or False? A properly coated, clear
polycarbonate prescription spectacle lens always
a. Quickly to prevent a boil-over of the tint solution contains protection from UV radiation.
b. Slowly to prevent a boil-over of the tint solution
c. The speed at which the lens is lowered is 21. True or False? Polycarbonate lenses are harder to
inconsequential. dye because the lens material is the only thing
that takes the dye. The dye must pass completely
14. True or False? After the lens is removed from the through the lens coating to get to the lens.
tint tank, it helps to put the lens in the lens
neutralizer, then rinse the lens with water. 22. A noncitrus dish detergent may be used in all of
the following ways except which one?
15. Which of the following is the instrument used to
measure visible and UV light transmission? a. Put a capful of noncitrus dish detergent in
water, heat the water to 200° F, and use the
a. Colmascope solution to lightly bleach polycarbonate lenses.
b. Lens analyzer b. Use noncitrus dish detergent to wash tint tanks.
c. Colorimeter c. Use three drops of noncitrus dish detergent in
d. Comparator each tank of tint when tinting polycarbonate
e. Photometer lenses.
d. Use a capful of noncitrus dish detergent in lens
16. Which of the following statements is false? conditioner when prepping polycarbonate
lenses.
a. Over a period of time, dyed plastic lenses fade e. All of the above are appropriate uses for
when exposed to sunlight. noncitrus dish detergent.
b. Over a period of time, dyed plastic lenses fade
when exposed to incandescent or fluorescent 23. Which of the following are true of hard-coated
lighting. CR-39 plastic lenses?
c. Over a period of time, dyed plastic lenses fade
when placed in a drawer, but not as fast as a. They dye more quickly than uncoated CR-39
lenses exposed to sunlight or artificial light. plastic lenses because both the coating and the
d. Dyed plastic lenses do not ever fade. lens material absorb the dye.
b. They dye more slowly than uncoated CR-39
17. To create a simple gradient tint, which of the plastic lenses because only the coating absorbs
following should be done first? the dye.
c. They dye more slowly than uncoated CR-39
a. Mount the lenses right side up in the lens plastic lenses because the coating must first
holder. absorb the dye before it can get into the lens
b. Mount the lenses upside down in the lens itself.
holder.
234 CHAPTER 11 LENS TINTING

24. An order calls for a light blue fashion tint in a CR- 27. After turning the tint unit off, which of the
39 plastic lens with an 82% transmission and an following should be performed next?
AR coating. How should the lens be tinted in
preparation for AR coating? a. Put the lids back on the tint tanks right away.
Forgetting this step will cause the dye to
a. It should be first tinted to a transmission of evaporate.
57%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a b. Wait until the dyes have reached 180° F before
transmission of 72%. After that it may be putting the lids back on the tint tanks.
AR-coated. c. Wait until the dyes have reached 130° F before
b. It should be first tinted to a transmission of putting the lids back on the tint tanks.
68%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a d. Wait until the dyes have reached room
transmission of 75%. After that it may be temperature before putting the lids back on the
AR-coated. tint tanks.
c. It should be first tinted to a transmission of
75%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a 28. True or False? The best thing that may be used to
transmission of 82%. After that it may be clean a tint tank that has burnt-on pigment is steel
AR-coated. wool.
d. It should be first tinted to a transmission of
82%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a 29. Which of the following is not a possible cause for a
transmission of 89%. After that it may be streaked lens?
AR-coated.
e. Just tint the lens to 82%, then AR coat it. a. The tank of tint that was used had not been
used for a while.
25. An order calls for a dark gray sunglass tint in a b. The lens was cured unevenly during
CR-39 plastic lens with an 18% transmission and manufacture.
an AR coating. How should the lens be tinted in c. The lens holders have dried pigment on them.
preparation for AR coating? d. The dye was contaminated with heat transfer
fluid.
a. It should be first tinted to a transmission of e. Tap water was used instead of distilled water.
18%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a f. The concentration of lens conditioner being
transmission of 23%. After that it may be used is too high.
AR-coated.
b. It should be first tinted to a transmission of 30. Your heat transfer fluid has started to pop. Which
13%, then be placed in neutralizer until it has a of the following describes what this is most likely
transmission of 18%. After that it may be to indicate?
AR-coated.
c. It should be first tinted to a transmission of 8%, a. The heat transfer fluid is too hot.
then be placed in neutralizer until it has a b. The heat transfer fluid is too old.
transmission of 13%. After that it may be c. The stainless steel tanks are getting worn.
AR-coated. d. There is tint solution contaminating the heat
d. It should be first tinted to a transmission of 3%, transfer fluid.
then be placed in neutralizer until it has a e. The lens has been left in the dye too long.
transmission of 8%. After that it may be
AR-coated.
e. Just tint the lens to 18%, then AR coat it.

26. True or False? Plastic polarizing lenses may not be

dyed because if they are dyed, they will
delaminate.
 Lens Insertion
12 and Standard
Alignment

Seeing the Full Picture

Once the lenses are edged and, if needed, have been
hardened or tinted or coated, they are ready to be
placed in the frame. Once inserted into the frame, the
completed eyeglasses need to be aligned and verified.
This chapter provides an overview of how spectacle
lenses should be inserted and the frame aligned. For
more detailed information on this process, the reader
is referred to the book System for Ophthalmic Dispensing1,
in which these processes are addressed in greater
detail. The book also contains a complete explanation
of the verification process.2 System for Ophthalmic
Dispensing is the appropriate companion book to use
with Essentials of Ophthalmic Lens Finishing.

INSERTING LENSES INTO PLASTIC

FRAMES
People insert lenses into the frames in a variety of ways.
If the lenses are inserted without damaging the frame
and are secure and are not rotated off axis, the task has
been accomplished. However, some ways have proven
to be efficient and are a good starting point for gaining
proficiency in the process.
The procedure explained here is for standard plastic
frames made from cellulose acetate material. The
following are two methods used for lens insertion. Both

1
Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Chapters 7 and 8].
2
Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterwoth-Heinemann [Chapter 6].

235
236 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

A B
FIGURE 12-1 Method 1. A, The temporal edge of the lens is placed in the frame groove.
(The first moments of lens insertion are crucial in proper alignment of the lens bevel with
the frame groove and must be done quickly.) B, The lens should snap in place fairly easily.
If extreme force must be used in attempting to snap the lens in place, the process is better
carried out using Method 2. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing,
ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-3].)

begin by heating the frame, then curving the top

BOX 12-1
and bottom of the frame to match the curved top and
bottom of the lens. Inserting Lenses into Plastic Frames

Method 1 Method 1
The eyewire of the frame is heated and the temporal 1. Heat and shape the frame top to match the lens top.
2. Heat the eyewire.
(outer) edge of the lens is inserted into the correspond-
3. Place the outer part of the lens in the outer part of
ing portion (outer edge) of the frame (Figure 12-1). the frame.
With the thumbs on the surface of the lens and the 4. Push the inner edge of the lens in with the thumbs.
fingers on the nasal (inner) edge of the frame eyewire,
the lens is snapped into the frame from the nasal Method 2
(inner) side by application of pressure with the thumbs 1. Heat and shape the frame top to match the lens top.
and fingers (Figure 12-1, B). 2. Heat the eyewire.
3. Place the upper outer edge of the lens into the
Method 2 frame.
The eyewire of the frame is heated and the upper outer 4. Place the upper inner edge of the lens in the frame.
(temporal) edge of the lens is inserted into the frame (The whole top of the lens is now in the frame.)
5. Pull the lower eyewire around the lens, beginning
groove (Figure 12-2, A). The upper inner (nasal) edge
temporally and ending nasally.
is pushed into the eyewire so that the whole upper edge
of the lens is in the frame (Figure 12-2, B). Next, the
lower tempered edge of the lens is pushed into place
(Figure 12-2, C). The final step is pulling the lower eye-
CHECKING ITEMS AFTER LENS INSERTION
wire of the frame around the lower half of the lens and
snapping the lower nasal corner of the lens into place After lenses are inserted, they are checked to ensure the
(Figure 12-2, D). Box 12-1 provides for a review of these lens is entirely in the groove of the eyewire. The eyewire
methods. must be flat or uniformly rounded on the outside. If it
 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T 237

A B

C D
FIGURE 12-2 Method 2. A, Method 2 also starts with alignment of the lens bevel and
frame groove, beginning in the upper temporal corner. B, When the upper and lower rims
of the eyewire have been preshaped to the lens configuration, lens insertion into the entire
upper half of the frame may be completed well before the frame cools. C, When the upper
part of the lens is in the frame, the next step is to start temporally and pull the lower
eyewire around the lens. D, The insertion process is concluded by snapping the bevel of
the lower nasal part of the lens into the groove. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-4].)

is slanted, the eyewire has been rolled. The practitioner hot air is the recommended method. However, if hot
can correct a roll by heating that portion of the eyewire salt is used to prevent scratching on the lens surface, both
involved and either twisting it with the fingers or the lens and the plier surfaces are inspected to ensure
pressing the frame against a flat surface with a counter- that they are free of salt before the lens is rotated.
rolling motion. If uncorrectable by this method, removal The practitioner should check to ensure that the top
of the lens and correction of the eyewire without the edges of flat-top bifocals are straight by placing a ruler in
lens in it is best. Then the lens is reinserted properly front of both segments for reference. With progressive
after heating the frame. Antireflection-(AR)coated addition lenses, the marked 180-degree reference marks
lenses should not be heated and should be removed should be horizontally straight. This is accomplished
from the frame during correction for a rolled eyewire. also by placing a ruler along the 180-degree line.

Checking the Lens for Rotation

NONCELLULOSE ACETATE
The eyewire containing the lens is compared with the
empty eyewire adjacent to it. If the lens is rotated For most plastic frames, basic lens insertion technique
(Figure 12-3), lens-twisting pliers are used to correct the is fairly standard. However, each frame material has its
problem. The frame may first need to be heated, and own peculiarities. Table 12-1 shows what those important
238 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

FIGURE 12-3 After putting the first lens in the frame, lens orientation for the inserted
lens should be compared with the empty eyewire. This frame shows too much nasal
humping. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-8].)

TABLE 12-1
Plastic Frame Material Differences in Lens Insertion
MATERIAL AMOUNT OF HEAT HEATING METHOD(S) EDGED LENS SIZE HOW TO SHRINK NOTES
MATERIAL

Cellulose Minimal heat until Hot air best; hot salt On size or up to Plunge in ice water; Cellulose acetate is the
acetate pliable or beads acceptable 0.5 mm larger material will shrink standard material
than frame size if previously used for most plastic
stretched. frames.
Nylon Hot water Hot water preferable = 0.2 mm larger Material does not To retain adjusted shape,
for penetration; hot than frame size shrink. hold frame in the
air used if hot water desired shape until
unavailable cool. (Running cold
water will speed
cooling.)
Carbon fiber None to minimal; When heat used, hot On size to just Material does not Types of carbon fiber
preferable air at low slightly larger shrink. material vary, as will
insertion method: temperature in some cases heat and insertion
cold snap techniques.
Polyamide No heat; lenses Hot air for temples Exactly on size Material shrinks After insertion, loose
cold-snapped in only slightly when lenses may be
place heated. tightened as the frame
is heated slightly.
Polycarbonate None Cold snap On size Material does not Material does not
shrink. adjust.
Optyl High heat until Hot air, high = 0.6 to 1.0 mm Material will not Material returns to
material bends temperature larger than shrink but instead original shape when
under its own frame size expands with heat. reheated. Quick
weight It gradually returns cooling stops the
to size as the shrinking process and
temperature cools. results in loose lenses.
C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T 239

FIGURE 12-4 Eyewire forming pliers are used to cause the frame eyewire to conform to
the meniscus curve of the lens bevel. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-15].)

differences are for some plastic frame materials. Of

particular importance are the following considerations:
• How (or even if) the frame material is heated
• What it takes to “shrink” the material down around
the lens to achieve a tight fit

Inserting Lenses into Metal Frames

Lenses to be inserted into a metal frame must be edged
to the exact size. To put a lens in a metal frame, the
curves of the top and bottom of the lens are compared
with the corresponding curves of the upper and lower
frame eyewires. Using eyewire-forming pliers occasionally
will be necessary to reshape the frame eyewire. To FIGURE 12-5 Eyewire closure pliers are made to fit into
increase the meniscus curve, the pliers are positioned the top and bottom of the eyewire barrel. (From Brooks CW,
along the eyewire (Figure 12-4) and squeezed lightly. Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
Then the pliers are repositioned along the upper and 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-16].)
possibly lower eyewire until the new curve is evenly
formed.
The eyewire screw is removed to place the lens in the For standard alignment, this procedure begins with
eyewire. Use of an eyewire closure pliers (Figure 12-5) may the bridge and then follows next with the endpieces.
be helpful to aid in seating the lens in the eyewire groove. The temples are handled last. Obviously, changes made
Closure pliers are especially useful during edging to see in one part of a frame may influence the alignment in
if the lens will be the correct size (Figure 12-6). another part. Bending the bridge, for example, may
change the relationship of the temples. Handling the
bridge first, and the other parts in order, helps to
eliminate the need to go back and realign parts.
Standard Alignment of Plastic In general, plastic frames must be heated for most
Frames alignments. Box 12-2 summarizes how frames are
heated using forced hot air or a salt bath. Hot air is best
Before a pair of glasses leaves the laboratory it should for frames that can be adjusted with heat. Salt is fast and
be adjusted so that it will sit symmetrically when placed appropriate if no danger exists of damaging the type of
on an individual of average head shape and size. frame or lenses being used.
240 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

FIGURE 12-6 By using eyewire closure pliers to squeeze the eyewire around the lens, it
is possible to see how well the lens will fit without having to replace the screw. Such pliers
are especially handy during the edging process. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-17].)

are said to be out of horizontal alignment. If the lenses

BOX 12-2
deviate from the vertical plane (one lens appears to be
Points to Remember in Heating Frames farther forward or backward than the other), they are
said to be out of vertical alignment.
With Hot Air
1. Check the type of frame material. Some materials can Rotated Lens
stand more heat than others. Two common causes exist for a frame being out of
2. Heat only the portion of the frame on which work is
horizontal alignment: rotated lens and skewed bridge.
to be performed.
3. Rotate the frame in the heat. (This step is important
A lens rotated in the frame causes the top of the
for warmers with heat from one direction only.) eyewire to hump up at the nasal bridge or one endpiece
to appear somewhat upswept in shape. An example of a
With Salt or Beads rotated lens was shown in Figure 12-3.
1. If in doubt as to whether the frame material or the
lenses should be subjected to salt or beads, use hot Skewed Bridge
air. When viewed from the front, a skewed bridge causes
2. Always stir the salt (or glass beads) before use. one lens to appear higher than the other. This
3. Keep the area of the frame being heated parallel to should not occur on a new frame unless the frame has
the surface of the salt. been poorly manufactured or mishandled during
4. Keep the frame moving slowly.
processing.
5. Heat only the portion of the frame on which work is
to be performed.
Vertical Alignment (Four-Point Touch)
To check for vertical alignment, or four-point touch, a ruler
or straight edge is placed so that its edge goes across the
inside of the entire front of the spectacles below the
BRIDGE
nosepad area. Theoretically the frame eyewire should
Bridge alignment is judged mainly by the effect it has touch at four points on the ruler, that is, at each place
on the plane of the lenses. If alignment is “off,” the where the ruler crosses the eyewire (Figure 12-7). This
lenses are readjusted to their proper planes by first will be the case only if the frame is small compared with
heating the bridge area, then grasping the frame by the the wearer’s head size; otherwise face form is required.
lens areas. If the lenses are decentered inward because the frame’s
If the lenses deviate from the horizontal plane (one A + distance between lenses (DBL) is greater than the
lens appears to be higher or lower than the other), they wearer’s PD, then face form is appropriate.
C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T 241

FIGURE 12-7 Checking for four-point touch. The frame eyewire touches at each place
where the ruler crosses the eyewire. This indicates correct alignment when the “frame PD”
equals the wearer’s interpupillary distance. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-5].)

FIGURE 12-8 For those frames that will not or should not conform to a perfect four-
point touch, the nasal sides of the eyewire should be equidistant from the ruler. (From
Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
Heinemann [Figure 8-6].)

Face Form
Face form or wraparound is when the frame front is just
slightly rounded to the form of the face. Frames with
face form will not conform to the four-point touch test.
But the temporal sides of the eyewires should touch,
and the nasal sides should be equidistant from the ruler
(Figure 12-8).

‘X-ing’
The frame front may be somewhat twisted. This is
called “X-ing” (Figure 12-9). X-ing causes the temples
to be out of line with each other.

Variant Planes FIGURE 12-9 X-ing may be identified by the character-

Another form of vertical misalignment is when the lens istic “X” the eyewires make with one another when viewed
planes are variant, or out of coplanar, alignment. When from the side. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthal-
the lens planes are parallel, but one lens is farther mic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
forward than the other, the frame is out of coplanar [Figure 8-9].)
242 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

alignment. This almost never occurs with a new frame 1. Position the glasses upside down on a flat surface with
unless it has been stressed during lens insertion. the temples open.
2. Note whether both temples sit flat or whether one
Open Temple Spread temple is not touching the flat surface.
After horizontal and vertical preadjustments have been 3. Touch first one temple and then the other to see
made to the bridge and eyewires, the next aspect whether the frame wobbles back and forth or sits
considered is how far the temples are spread. solidly.
To allow a good picture of temple spread, temple
shafts must be straight. Any curve to the temple shaft This procedure is known as the flat surface touch test
should be eliminated by heating the temple and (Figure 12-10). If the frame wobbles, it needs correc-
straightening it with the hands. The open temple spread is tion. If left uncorrected, the frame will likely sit on the
the angle that open temples form in relationship to the face at an angle.
front of the frame. A common mistake is to check for temple parallel-
ism with the glasses placed on the table right side up
Temples Spread Too Far instead of upside down. If this mistake is made and
Temples flaring more than 95 degrees are spread too either the bent-down portion of one temple is bent down
far for standard alignment. The endpiece must be the slightest bit more than the other, or if one temple
heated and bent around so that the temple will not be bend is located even the least bit farther forward than
able to open out as far. the other bend, then the flat surface touch test for
The practitioner begins by heating the endpiece. temple parallelism will not work.
The temple should already be spread to the wide-open Several possible sources exist for incorrect temple
position. Then the endpiece is bent inward with use of parallelism, as follows:
one of the following methods:
• A bent endpiece
• A broken rivet or loose hidden hinge (the temple
1. Heat the endpiece and press it back with the
will be loose and tightening the screw will not help)
thumb.
2. Heat the endpiece and press it against the tabletop.
3. Remove the lens and bend the endpiece and eyewire
near the endpiece. Reinsert the lens.
4. When the frame is old or does not respond to the
above methods, grasp the temple butt with half-
padded pliers and bend the temple as close to the
pliers as possible.
5. Sink the hidden hinge deeper into the frame front
using a soldering iron or Hot Fingers unit.

Temples Not Spread Enough

Occasionally the temples are not spread enough after
the lenses have been inserted. This may happen more
if lenses with steep front curves are used. If the
temples are not spread enough, the following may be
attempted:
1. File the temple where it abuts with the front.
2. Bend the endpiece forward.

Temple Parallelism
In standard alignment (but not necessarily after frame
fitting) the two temples must be parallel to one another
when viewed from the side. If the “pantoscopic angles”
the left and right temples make with the frame front are FIGURE 12-10 Testing for parallelism using the flat
unequal, the temples will not be parallel. surface touch test. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
The following steps are used to test whether the ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
temples are parallel: Heinemann [Figure 8-21].)
C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T 243

• A bent temple shaft Standard Alignment of Metal

• A bent hinge Frames
• A twisted bridge
Metal frames are aligned using the same standards as
Aligning the Temple Ends were used in evaluating plastic frames. Metal frames
A good standard alignment is one in which the ends of require heating only in those places where plastic coats
both temples are bent down equally. They also should the metal. All other bends are done “cold.”
be bent inward slightly. Pliers are used for the majority of adjustments.
Because the pressure of the metal jaws may mar or
Temple-Fold Angle disfigure the finished surface of the frames, to use
The final alignment step is to fold the temples to the padded pliers or to cushion one jaw of nonpadded
closed position and observe the angle formed as the pliers by attaching friction or adhesive tape to it is
temples cross. The temples should fold so that they essential. The order of procedure for aligning metal
are parallel to one another or form slight angles from frames is the same as that used for plastic frames,
parallel. The temples should cross each other exactly beginning with the bridge. The frame must be checked
in the center of the frame. A proper temple fold angle for horizontal alignment, a rotated lens, face form, and
permits the spectacle to easily fit into a standard glasses X-ing.
case. One of the primary areas in which adjustments
Changing the temple-fold angle on a plastic frame are different than those outlined for plastic frames is
by simply bending the temple with the hands does not when the temple angles are adjusted. Adjusting the
work as successfully as using pliers. Using hands alone temple angles encompasses open temple spread,
may cause the temple to split at the hinge. Instead, temple parallelism, and temple-fold angles, which are
angling pliers can be used to grasp the top and bottom discussed in the following sections.
of the hinge screw. Because the metal hinge is being
bent, heating the frame is not necessary.
The second method of angling the temple fold uses Metal Temples Spread Too Far
finger-piece pliers. These pliers, sometimes referred to If the temples are spread too far apart, a few selected
as Fits-U pliers, are made with parallel jaws. With the methods that may be used to correct them, as follows:
temple folded, the pliers are held parallel to the
endpiece hinge screw so that the hinge is grasped on 1. Use a pair of thin pliers that has a small metal jaw
both sides. While the frame front is held with the other on one side and a nylon-padded jaw on the other as
hand, the hinge is angled until it reaches the proper bending pliers. Grip the outside of the endpiece
position (Figure 12-11). (Figure 12-12) but hold the front firmly near the

FIGURE 12-11 While the frame is held with the other hand, the hinge is angled until it
reaches the proper position, as shown. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-32].)
244 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

FIGURE 12-13 The hand is used to grasp the frame front

FIGURE 12-12 If the temples are spread too far apart, a
firmly at the endpiece. Temple spread is decreased with
pair of half-padded pliers may serve as bending pliers and
the pliers. If risk of chipping the lens is possible, the lens is
grip the outside of the endpiece. (From Brooks CW, Borish
removed first. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for oph-
IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
thalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-41].)
Heinemann [Figure 8-42].)

FIGURE 12-14 The risk of lens chipping can be reduced by using holding pliers while
reducing temple spread. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed
2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-43].)

endpiece with the free hand. (When the endpiece is chipping the lens, whenever there is sufficient space
wide enough, a second pair of thin pliers is used to available, a second pair of pliers is used to grip the
hold the endpiece where it joins the eyewire.) Rotate frame near the lens so that the eyewire area is not
the bending pliers until the temple has reached and stressed (Figure 12-14).
maintains the desired temple-spread angle. 3. Bend the endpiece using a method that does not
2. Close the temple and grip the hinge from below with involve pliers but only a smooth flat surface. With
the thin pliers. (Because no visible external frame both hands, hold the frame by the lens and eyewire
areas are being gripped, the pliers do not have to be just adjacent to the endpiece. (The closer to the
padded.) Rotate the pliers and bend the endpiece endpiece the frame is held, the less danger there is
area inward (Figure 12-13). Because of the risk of of breaking a lens.) Hold the frame front perpen-
C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T 245

dicular to the table surface and push the endpiece

against the surface.

Temples Not Spread Enough

When the temple spread is too small, it can be increased
by several methods. The outside section of the endpiece
is grasped with padded pliers in the same manner as for
decreasing the temple spread. (This was shown in Figure
12-12.) The endpiece is bent outward to the proper
spread, while the front is supported at its junction with
the endpiece.
The second method listed in the previous section is
used to close the temple and grasp the hinge. (This was
shown in Figure 12-13.) As noted previously and seen in
Figure 12-14, certain kinds of frames allow enough
space at the endpiece to permit a second pair of pliers
next to the eyewire as holding pliers. This takes any
possible strain off the eyewire, which reduces the
possibility of chipping a lens.

Temple Parallelism
The glasses are placed upside down on a flat surface
and notice taken as to whether one or both temples
touch the surface (flat surface touch test). This is done FIGURE 12-15 To change the pantoscopic angle, the
as first one temple and then the other is touched, as endpiece is held, the top and bottom of the hinge area are
shown for plastic frames in Figure 12-10. If the frame grasped, and the temple reangled. (From Brooks CW, Borish
wobbles, the angle the frame front makes with the temple IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
must be adjusted until the two temples are parallel and Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-46].)
both touch the surface.
Several ways exist for bending the temple of a metal
frame up or down, as follow:
1. Using the simplest way, grasp with one hand the
eyewire and lens close to the endpiece on the same
side of the frame as the temple that needs to be angled
and bend the temple up or down with the other
hand.
2. Using a pair of bracing pliers with one metal and
one nylon jaw, hold the endpiece on the front of the
frame if there is room, or just anterior to the hinge
if there is not. (The second pliers, used for bending,
should be double-padded nylon jaw pliers to grasp
the temple close to or directly on the hinge. It may
be prudent to remove the lens if the frame is stiff or
there appears to be a possibility of chipping the lens.)
Grasp the frame as shown in Figure 12-15 and reangle
it upward or downward.
3. It may be possible to do the bend just described in
the previous method but without using a pair of
bracing pliers. This is shown in Figure 12-16. Take FIGURE 12-16 When the endpiece is too small, the panto-
care to prevent chipping the lens. scopic angle can be changed without holding pliers. If the
frame does not have enough flexibility, the lens may be
After the temples have been aligned for parallelism, removed first. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
the bend-down end positions of the temples are aligned ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
for symmetry. Both ends must be bent downward equally Heinemann [Figure 8-47].)
246 C H A P T E R 1 2 L E N S I N S E R T I O N A N D S TA N D A R D A L I G N M E N T

and inward slightly so that they are mirror images of Nosepads

each other. Nosepads3 already should be properly aligned at the
factory. From the laboratory standpoint, the most
Temple-Fold Angle important thing to keep in mind is symmetry. The
To change the fold angle on the commonly used types nosepads should be aligned to be mirror images of one
of metal frames, hold the front in the hand firmly, with another, as follows:
the temples closed, and bend the temple upward or
• Both pads should be at the same height.
downward.
• Both pads should be the same distance from the
To accomplish this same adjustment using pliers,
frame front.
with the temples closed, the frame front is held firmly
• Both pads should be equally angled so that the tops
in one hand. The top and bottom of the hinge area is
of the pads are closer together than the bottoms.
gripped with double-padded pliers similar to the manner
• Both pads should be equally angled so that the back
pictured in Figure 12-15 but with the double-padded
edges of the pads are slightly farther from each other
pliers pointing toward the center of the frame along
than the front edges.
the direction of the closed temple. The pliers are rotated
in the direction necessary to line up the temples. 3
For more information on standard alignment of nosepads, see
Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 171-174.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? Eyewire forming pliers are used to 6. Vertical alignment or four-point touch is done
reshape the upper and sometimes lower rims of a using which of the following?
metal frame so that it conforms to the meniscus
curve of the edged lens. a. Tabletop
b. Lensmeter
2. True or False? Eyewire closure pliers squeeze the c. Ruler
top and bottom rims of a plastic frame together so d. Pliers
that there are no gaps between lens and rim.
7. True or False? If the temples are spread to 95
3. True or False? In general, metal frames are heated degrees each, they should be re-adjusted so that
for most adjustments. they are both spread 90 degrees. If this is not done,
the frame is not properly standard aligned.
4. Which of the following items may be helpful in
identifying a lens that is rotated from its correct 8. True or False? For plastic frames, the temple fold
position in the frame? (Note: More than one angle should be changed without using heat.
response may be correct.)
9. Which of the following statements about nosepad
a. Incorrect cylinder power alignment is false?
b. A tilted flat-top segment top
c. Temples that are not parallel with each other a. Both pads should be at the same height.
d. Nasal humping of the eyewire b. Both pads should be the same distance from the
e. An off-axis cylinder frame front.
c. Both pads should be equally angled so that the
5. To check for temple parallelism, the glasses are tops of the pads are closer together than the
placed on the table, with the temples open, so that bottoms.
they are in which of the following positions? d. Both pads should be equally angled so that the
back edges of the pads are slightly farther from
a. Right side up each other than the front edges.
b. Upside down e. All of the statements about nosepad alignment
c. It makes no difference. are true.
 Drilled, Slotted,
13 and Notched
Mountings

A variety of ways exist to hold lenses in eyeglass

frames. The most common method is to bevel
the edge of the lens and place it in a frame that has a
groove in the rims. One of the most popular methods
of mounting lenses that has survived numerous changes
in frames and lenses is to drill holes in the lenses and
attach the lenses to the frame with screws or other types
of posts through the lenses.
Another long-standing method for keeping frames
and lenses together is achieved by cutting a groove in
the edge of the lens. The lens is held to the frame with
a nylon cord.
This chapter explains how to work with drilled,
slotted, and notched lenses. The next chapter discusses
grooved mountings.

Rimless Defined
Almost any type of frame that does not have a plastic or
metal rim around the lens has been called rimless.
Many different types of rimless-style frames exist. From
a technical standpoint, frames that may be classified as
rimless are called mountings instead of frames. In this
chapter the terms are used interchangeably.

TYPES OF RIMLESS MOUNTINGS

If a frame has no rims at all and no connection between
the bridge and endpiece areas, other than the lenses,
it is referred to as a three-piece mounting (Figure 13-1).
Without the lenses, the frame is three separate pieces.

247
248 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-1 Without the lenses, a rimless, three-piece mounting consists of three
pieces: one centerpiece and two endpieces with temples.

FIGURE 13-2 A semirimless mounting has a top bar that connects the center and
endpieces. Without the lenses, the mounting is one unit, not the three pieces characteristic
of a true rimless mounting.

Mountings that have the central bridge area attached

PARTS OF A RIMLESS MOUNTING
to the endpieces with a metal bar that runs along the
top, back side of the lens are called semirimless mountings Parts of a rimless frame are unique and have specific
(Figure 13-2). terminology. If a rimless mounting attaches the lenses
Rimless mountings may be further classified by how to the frame with screws, the screw passes through a
the lenses are attached. A style of mounting that holds part of a traditionally designed mounting called a strap.
notched lenses in place by spring tension, with clips, is Technically the strap is an area of the mounting. In the
called Balgrip mountings. Notching is now seldom used original type of rimless mounting, this area consisted of
alone. More often it is used in combination with drilling the following parts (Figure 13-3):
to lend stability to the mounting.
Frames whose lenses are grooved around the edge • The shoe (or shoulder) that braces against the edge of
then held in place with nylon cord are called nylon cord the lens
frames, string mounts, or nylon supras. Nylon cord frames • Between the shoe and the lens edge may or may not
are a category by themselves. However, they still be a thin metal spring
sometimes are referred to as rimless. Nylon cord frames • An ear (or tongue) extends behind the lens. Some-
are considered in the next chapter and are shown in times the lens has two of these—one on the front
Figure 14-1. surface of the lens and one on the back. Together
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 249

withstanding an impact of a 5/8 inch steel ball dropped

from a height of 50 inches. All glass lenses had to be
hardened to increase their impact resistance. The only
Spring

冦
available method for hardening glass lenses was heat
Shoe (shoulder) tempering. Heat tempering creates internal stress in
Strap area
the lens. Drilling a lens and screw mounting it to the
frame also sets up stress on the lens. The combination
of heat tempering stress and lens mounting stress
almost guarantees that the lens will break if struck on
Ear (tongue)
the edge. Because glass lenses were still a large segment
of the market, this drastically reduced the use of rimless
mountings.
Chemical tempering is now the method of choice for
hardening glass. Chemical tempering makes it possible
FIGURE 13-3 A close-up of the strap area of an old- to drill-mount a glass lens. This type of lens passes the
fashioned rimless mounting. Newer mountings will not have drop ball test but is still not a good option for rimless
as many parts. In most cases, only one “ear” or “tongue” is eyewear compared with other lens choices available in
on either the front or back of the lens, but not on both sides. plastic materials. An Optical Laboratories Association
Or, this part of the strap area may not even exist on many (OLA) technical paper states that drilling (or grooving)
new mountings. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for a glass lens “produces microscopic surface cracking,
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth- which will inevitably propagate and spread. The OLA
Heinemann [Figure 1-22].) strongly advises its members against it.”1 For liability
reasons most laboratories are not willing to put glass
lenses in a rimless mounting, although no specific
with the screw they clamp the lens in place. Most prohibitions exist against it.
people call the ear the strap, even though technically
the strap is the entire area. However, because of
common usage, this chapter does the same.
COMPARING LENS MATERIALS FOR
RIMLESS USE
Now, however, mountings are widely different in the
Of the available lens materials, glass is the least
specifics of how the frame is constructed at the point of
desirable for rimless eyewear. For a number of years the
attachment to the lens.
standard lens material used in rimless eyewear was the
standard CR-39 plastic. However, CR-39 is not as good
Types of Lens Drills as some other lens materials because it has a tendency
to flake and crack at the mounting points.2
A number of options are available for drilling lenses. Polycarbonate material is used regularly for rimless
These include the following: eyewear, but its use is associated with a few downsides.
Because polycarbonate lenses are softer than regular
• Nonelectric hand-held drills
plastic lenses, if the lens is not drilled properly and too
• Basic electric stand drills
much heat is produced, the hole may enlarge and cause
• In-edger drills
the mounting assembly to loosen. Because of internal
• Computer-assisted drills
stress when mounted, polycarbonate can still crack at
The information contained in this chapter begins the mounting points, although it is much less likely to
with principles and builds with explanations of drilling do so than conventional plastic materials.
options in the following sections. Procedures explained Trivex is emerging as a highly desirable material for
in sections on the most basics methods are applicable rimless eyewear. Like polycarbonate, Trivex is also highly
to other methods also and help in an overall under- impact resistant, yet it does not crack or distort around
standing of how lenses are mounted. the holes of a rimless mounting, even when surfaced
thin.3

Wearer Safety Issues

1
Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business, February 1996.
In 1971 the Food and Drug Administration passed a 2
Morgan E: Working with Trivex, Eyecare Business, February 2003, p 30.
ruling that mandates that lenses must be capable of 3
Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business, January 2003, p 30.
250 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

Edge Thickness for Rimless Lenses

surfaced to power for that particular frame. Using a
No one wants a thick edge on a rimless lens. Everyone large, higher–plus-powered finished lens blank for a
sees the edge. This should be a consideration for small frame is inappropriate. (This was explained in
dispensers. On the other hand, rimless lenses have to Chapter 2 and shown in Figure 2-3.)
have enough thickness for the drill mountings. This The other occurs through frame selection error. The
raises the question of what types of lens shapes and following are some ways to equalize and minimize lens
materials are most appropriate for rimless. Although thickness around the whole circumference of a plus
the question addresses plus and minus lens edges, one lens:
type of lens is not well suited for rimless: the Franklin-
1. Choose a frame that does not require much decen-
style (Executive) lens. This lens is unwieldy for drilled
tration. In other words, the A and distance between
lenses and for the type of grooved mountings that are
lenses (DBL) of the frame should not be much larger
discussed in Chapter 14.
than the wearer’s PD to prevent a thick nasal edge.
2. Choose a shape that is closer to a round shape than
MINIMIZING MINUS EDGES it is to a narrow oval shape. A frame that is narrow
vertically causes a plus lens to have thick upper and
In making a minus-powered lens for a rimless mounting,
lower edges.
thickness can become an issue, especially for higher-
3. Choose a shape in which the effective diameter of
powered minus lenses. Edge thickness can be a problem
the frame is not much larger than the frame eyesize.
from a cosmetic standpoint because, without frame rims,
4. Use an aspheric lens design.
the lens edges are highly visible. Edge thickness also
can make mounting the lenses more difficult. Dispensers Of course high-index materials reduce overall lens
should be advised of the possibilities of producing a thickness. However, a stock high-index lens will not
thinner lens edge if the minus lenses they order are necessarily have a thinner edge compared with a lower-
producing thick edges. The following are some ways to index lens that is custom surfaced for the wearer’s
make the edges look better: frame.4

• Using a higher-index material Thin Edges

• Using a lens material that can be made thinner A plus lens edge can be too thin for a rimless mounting.
in the center, which produces thinner edges (e.g., A low minus lens with a thin center also can have an
polycarbonate, Trivex, and a number of high-index edge that is too thin to use for rimless mountings.
plastics) Because no rim exists to protect the edge of the lens, an
• Using an aspheric design to reduce minus edge edge that is too thin may chip. It also must be thick
thickness enough to endure the stress of being mounted at only
• Polishing the edges to reduce visibility two points on the lens. A lens that is too thin can break
• Using as small an eyesize as feasible or crack at the mounting point.
• Using a lens shape that does not have long corners— How thin is too thin? Opinions vary regarding how
in other words, a frame shape in which the effective thin a lens may be. Some say that the minimum edge
diameter is not much bigger than the eyesize thickness for a rimless lens should not be less than
• Using an antireflection coating to reduce lens 1 mm.5 If the particular lens material being used at this
visibility thickness would not be able to withstand the required
impact test, 1 mm will be too thin. Others state the
“absolute minimum” to be 1.5 mm, whereas still others
PLUS LENS EDGE THICKNESS ERRORS
say to plan for a minimum of 2.0 to 2.2 mm.6
Plus lenses may have edges that are either too thick or Polycarbonate lenses and lenses made from Trivex
too thin. Each situation is discussed individually, are strong enough to hold up extremely well in rimless,
beginning with the plus lens with a thick edge. even with somewhat thinner lens edges. Most other
mid- to high-index plastic materials are suitable for
Overly Thick Plus Edges
Usually two possibilities exist when a plus lens edge 4
For more on correct frame/lens selection, see Brooks CW, Borish
thickness is too thick for a rimless mounting. The first IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
is that a plus lens has been taken from stock as an uncut Heinemann [Chapter 4].)
5
lens and is edged for a small frame. To bring the edges Herrick T: Three-piece mountings, when lenses are the frame, Lenses
& Technology, April 2000, p 20.
down to a reasonable size, the whole thickness of the 6
DeFranco LM: Eight tips for processing rimless (or semirimless)
lens must be reduced. To do this, a semifinished lens is eyewear, Eyecare Business, August 1999, p 36.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 251

rimless, although they do not have as much resistance chart must be considered in perspective. For example,
to fractures at the drilled areas as do polycarbonate and older types of rimless eyewear have straps that end up
Trivex. The primary weak point with plastic lenses on the front and back surfaces of the lens. If the lens is
made from another material than polycarbonate and a high-minus lens, the holes in the straps will be closer
Trivex is that they may not have as much edge strength to the edge of the lens than for a plus lens. This is
as desired if edges are thin. because they have to be bent open farther to accept the
thickness of the lens and therefore are closer to the
Flatter Base Curves edge of the lens. The operator should bear in mind
It is generally easier to mount a rimless lens with a how lens power and frame construction may affect
flatter base curve than one with a steeper base curve. If lateral hole position before marking the lens for
the plus-powered lens prescription is one that calls for drilling. The vertical position of the holes always will be
a steep base curve, then an aspheric lens, instead of a as indicated on the chart.
regular, nonaspheric lens, should be used. Aspheric
lenses may be designed with flatter base curves without Steps to Mark a Lens Using a Drilling Chart
degrading the optical quality of the lens. Going to an 1. Find the size and shape that matches the edged lens.
aspheric design is much more preferable than simply 2. Place the edged lens on the corresponding picture.
flattening the basic curve of a nonaspheric lens. 3. Line up the lens exactly over the drawn shape. To
line the lens up exactly, one eye is closed and the
open eye positioned exactly above the lens.
Marking and Drilling the Lens 4. When ready to mark the lens, shift position so that
the sighting eye is exactly over the location of the
Before drilling a lens, the operator must know exactly hole to be marked.
where the holes are to be located. If the hole is 5. Use a fine-point felt-tipped marking pen to dot the
misplaced, the lens will be too high, too low, or tilted in location of the center of the hole with a small dot
the frame. Or it may be impossible to mount if the (Figure 13-4).
holes do not line up with the mounting points on the 6. Reposition yourself so that your open eye is exactly
frame. Therefore the lenses must be marked or the above the next hole. Repeat the procedure for each
drilling unit programmed for the correct hole locations additional hole to be drilled. Both lenses must be
ahead of time. marked.
If the lens hole locations are to be marked, they may 7. When both lenses have been marked, check to ensure
be marked with use of a drilling template or chart if it that both lenses are identical by holding right and
is available. If a chart is not available, then the actual left lenses back-to-back. Their shapes must overlap
frame may be used. exactly. Corresponding dots must be lined up over
one another.
LENS-DRILLING CHARTS, GUIDES, AND
TEMPLATES
A lens-drilling chart is a series of pictures of pairs of
drilled lenses. These pictures are actual size drawings of
the lens shape in every available eyesize. A number of
different lens shapes may exist for the same mounting,
because rimless lenses are not constrained by rims that
limit their shape. The same mounting may look totally
different when the shape of the lens changes.
Rimless frames should come with a drill-guide, a
template, or an actual-size pattern with drill markings
on the pattern. If none is with the frame, it should be
available upon request. A drill guide is a picture of the
lenses and where the holes are supposed to be. A
template looks just like the lens and is placed on the
lens. Holes are drilled through the template and on
through the lens. FIGURE 13-4 When using a drilling chart, the operator
Before using a mounting chart, the operator must should be positioned with the sighting eye directly over the
first think about the finished product. Even a mounting place on the lens being marked.
252 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

A B
FIGURE 13-5 Marking a horizontal, 180-degree reference line on a lens before drilling
the lens will help keep the lens oriented correctly during drilling and serve as a check after
mounting is complete. A, A line is being drawn on the uncut. B, A line is being drawn
through the edged lens. In both cases the three lensmeter dots are used for reference,
although this is more visibly evident in B.

mounted coquilles, the coquilles may be used as guides

USING COQUILLES TO MARK THREE- rather than a chart. To use the coquilles, they are removed
PIECE MOUNTINGS from the mounting. Some recommend holding the
Three-piece mountings have certain advantages over right edged lens in a back-to-back position with the left
semirimless mountings regarding lens drilling. The dummy lens. (When using this technique the lenses
distance between the screws on a semirimless mounting
does not have much flexibility. The distance between
the nasal and temporal holes in the lens cannot be
incorrect.
For a three-piece mounting, the distance between
nasal and temporal lens holes is not limited by the top
bar. Nothing is connecting the central nosepiece area
of the frame to the temporal endpieces.
Before the positions of the drill holes are marked,
many recommend drawing a 180-degree reference line
across the three lensmeter dots with a permanent felt-
tipped overhead transparency pen. The line remains
throughout the process. When the lenses are mounted,
the lines on both right and left lenses should go straight
across the frame. This line may be drawn before or after
edging (Figure 13-5). After drawing 180-degree lines
on the lenses, edged lenses are held back-to-back to be
sure both have identically straight 180-degree lines
(Figure 13-6). If they do not, the axis of one lens may
be off. If one line is higher than the other, unwanted
vertical prism may be present. Finding an error at this
point will save wasted time later on.
Many frames come with thin plastic demonstration FIGURE 13-6 Once the lenses are edged and the 180-
lenses to make the frame look better on display and to degree lines drawn on both, hold the lenses back to back.
lend stability to the frame. These lenses are called coquilles, When the shapes are superimposed, the drawn lines should
or dummy lenses. If the frame came with attractively overlap exactly.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 253

FIGURE 13-7 When using the frame’s sample lens or the

wearer’s old lens as a guide, the eye should be positioned
directly over the hole and its location marked.

must be right-with-left or left-with-right. This is harder

than just holding the edged right lens directly over the
dummy right lens, back-to-front. Those who advocate
this right-with-left technique, as backward as this seems,
maintain that marking right-with-right is more likely to
cause the lenses to come out incorrectly.)7 With
experience, each will choose the method that brings FIGURE 13-8 Some drills have a small-millimeter gauge.
them the best results. When the two lenses are aligned, The gauge is rotated until the marked drill point is exactly
the eye is positioned directly over the place where the over the proposed location of the hole.
hole is to be drilled and the desired location of the hole
is marked (Figure 13-7). The lens should be held so that the angle of the hole
will be perpendicular to the front surface of the lens8
(Figure 13-10). Without turning the drill on, the drill
DRILLING THE LENS WITH BASIC bit is lowered to a position just above the mark on the
ELECTRIC STAND DRILLS lens. If the lens is accurately aligned, the drill is turned
The electric stand drill is made like a miniature drill on and used to slowly drill through the lens (Figure
press. The difference between the various types of stand 13-11). A foot switch is almost a must when drilling
drills is in the way the lens is steadied and held in place because both hands are usually busy with the lens.
so that the drill will create the hole in the intended Pressing too hard causes the lens hole to chip as the
position on the lens. drill passes out the back surface of the lens.
A basic stand drill has a base that the back surface of The drill bit should go through the lens smoothly. If
the lens is rested against. The lens is hand held. The it does not go through smoothly or goes through more
marked location for the hole is centered on the base slowly than it should, it is dull and needs to be replaced.
and in some models may be braced against a small Unless the drill has a lens mounting system that
millimeter gauge that is rotated to increase or decrease allows the lens to be exactly flipped over, or unless the
the distance from the edge of the lens to align the drill has two drill bits that drill the lens from both sides
location of the hole (Figure 13-8). Once positioned, the at once, it is not advisable to turn the lens over and drill
gauge is locked in position (Figure 13-9). The gauge is from the other side. (Glass lenses are the exception.)
especially useful when the vertical position of the hole Drilling from both sides without the appropriate
is marked on the lens. The horizontal position is set for mechanical assistance makes it too easy to line the hole
a certain number of millimeters from the edge of the up wrong and mess up the lens. This is especially true
lens by using the gauge. for high minus lenses with thick edges.

7
Levoy BM: How to work with rimless, Optometric Weekly, February 17,
8
1977, p 34. Field C: Processing drill-mounted eyewear, LabTalk, 28(42):32, 2000.
254 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-9 Once the gauge is correctly positioned, it is

locked. FIGURE 13-11 When pressing the drill bit through the
lens, do not press too hard. Drilling through the lens too
quickly will cause the back side of the hole to chip.

If the angle of the hole is slanted instead of being

perpendicular to the front surface the lens may not
mount properly. If this is the case, the hole is
straightened by putting the drill back in the hole and,
with drill running, the lens is turned to the correct
angle. This elongates the hole somewhat and may make
it possible to mount the lens.

Chamfering and Smoothing Holes

A drill hole that has not had the sharp edges taken off
is just like an edged lens that has not been safety
beveled. It is likely to chip. Smoothing off the sharp
edges of the hole is called chamfering. Chamfering is the
equivalent term for safety or pin beveling. To chamfer
the edges of the hole either a round diamond burr that
is at least twice the diameter of the hole9, or a small
cone tool (Figure 13-12, A) is used. The front and back
entrances of the hole should be smoothed lightly
(Figure 13-12, B).
FIGURE 13-10 The left-hand side of the figure shows the
The inside of the hole can be smoothed with a rat-
angle of a hole incorrectly drilled. The hole is perpendicular
to the lens plane, but not perpendicular to the lens surface tail file. A rat-tail file is a small-diameter, round file that
at the location of the hole. The right-hand side shows the starts narrow at the tip and increases slightly in diameter
correct angle. The lens must be angled so that the hole is
approximately perpendicular to the front surface of the lens 9
Yoho A: Keeping the rimless lens tight, Eyecare Business, August 2000,
at the location of the hole. p 34.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 255

B
FIGURE 13-12 A, A small abrasive cone tool works well to safely bevel (chamfer) the
edges of a drilled hole. Leaving the edges of the hole sharp often will cause the hole to
chip either during assembly or after the spectacles have been delivered to the wearer.
B, Chamfering a drilled hole by rotating the tool in the hole.

toward the center of the file (Figure 13-13). The same loosen with time. For this reason some people like to
file may be used to chamfer the edges in the absence of use a screw-locking compound on the screw to keep it
a diamond burr or cone tool (Figure 13-14). However, from loosening. These locking compounds are available
a rat-tail file cannot be expected to provide the same from optical suppliers.
uniform smoothness. Often hex nuts are used to hold the lens in place and
are screwed on with a hex wrench (Figure 13-16).
To cushion the lens and reduce lens fractures, use
ATTACHING THE DRILLED LENS TO THE of plastic bushings in the drilled holes may be
MOUNTING advisable. A plastic bushing looks like a miniature top
When assembling the drilled lens and mounting, the hat. The plastic bushings are put in from both sides of
operator should use a screwdriver that has a plastic sleeve the hole before the lens is mounted.
around the blade to reduce the chance of slipping and Many rimless mountings have only one strap. That
gouging the lens surface (Figure 13-15). Lens screws strap may be on the front or the back of the lens. If the
are no different from other screws in that they may strap is on the front, the back side of the lens will have
256 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-14 A rat-tail file may be used to smooth the

inside of a drilled hole or to enlarge its diameter.

FIGURE 13-13 Rat-tail files are tapered and come in a

variety of sizes.

FIGURE 13-15 A screwdriver with a plastic sleeve helps in reducing lens spoilage caused
by the blade slipping from the head of the lens screw. This lens is being mounted into a
semirimless mounting.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 257

FIGURE 13-17 Once the screw is in place, it needs to be

FIGURE 13-16 A hex wrench is used to tighten a nut clipped with a cutting pliers to remove excess length.
down. The head of the bolt is held in place with the finger
of the other hand to keep it from turning.

a nut. A small metal washer is used between the nut and

the bushing to keep the nut from crushing the bushing
and possibly gouging the lens.10
The screw is clipped flush with the nut or strap
(Figure 13-17). Next the screw is filed flush. A good file
to use is a riffler file (Figure 13-18).

DETECTING MOUNTING FLAWS

One common mounting flaw is to tighten the mounting
screws too hard. Screws should be tight. A visible slight
amount of pressure distortion on the lens surface is
even acceptable. But they should not be so tight that
distortion is obvious.11 This means heavy pressure is in
the area and an increased potential exists for the lens
breaking at that point. Overtightening a screw also may FIGURE 13-18 A clipped screw has a rough end. The end
cause an antireflection (AR) coating on a lens to craze. of the screw is smoothed after it has been clipped. The file
One suggested method for getting the correct tightness being used is a spoon-shaped riffler file. Its form helps keep
is to tighten the screw as far as it goes, then back it off the rough file surface away from the surface of the lens.
a half turn.12
If two mounting holes are on one side of the lens for lens drill or a computer-assisted drill system will reduce
style or stability, those two holes must be spaced accurately. this type of flaw.
If they are too close together or too far apart, they will
cause more stress on the lens. Using a high-end manual
Notching Lenses
10
Yoho A: Keeping the rimless lens tight, Eyecare Business, August 2000,
p 34. Lenses may be notched on either side and held in place
11
Yoho A: Keeping the rimless lens tight, Eyecare Business, August 2000, with clips on the frame that fit into the notches. This
p 34.
12
Herrick T: Three-piece mountings, when lenses are the frame, Lenses type of mounting is called a Balgrip mounting or spring
& Technology, April 2000, p 22. tension semirimless mounting. The clips are on either side
258 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

of the top bar of the frame. The top bar is curved so Once drilled or notched lenses have been mounted,
that it must be pulled apart slightly so that the clips fit the drawn 180-degree lines should be along the 180 of
into the lens. The lenses are held in place with spring the frame (Figure 13-21).
tension from the top bar. Use of notches alone to hold
the lenses in place is rare. Instead notches are used in
combination with drilled holes to increase the stability
DRILLING POLYCARBONATE LENSES
of the mounting. For polycarbonate lenses the lens should not be drilled
When mountings with notched lenses were used straight through in one pass. Instead about 0.5 mm at a
more commonly, it was not unusual to see small machines time should be drilled. After each 0.5 mm, the drill is
called Balgrip Lens Groovers in the laboratory. These backed out and the drill operator waits for the material
used a narrow grinding wheel to notch the lenses. to cool. Then the next half-millimeter is done. Pressing
When a request for notched lenses occurs, a piece of through all at once “will push the material through and
machinery like this is not necessary. Lenses even may be blow it out in a hump on the back side of the lens.”13 It
notched by hand with a rat-tail file. However, to use the also will cause the hole to be larger than intended and
drill with a milling bit to make the notch is much easier. result in an unstable mounting.14 Drilling with a dull bit
will also create unwanted heat, even when proper drilling
techniques are applied. This, too, may result in a hole
USING A MILLING BIT TO NOTCH A LENS that is slightly larger than intended.
A milling bit may be used to notch the edge of a lens. It
is much easier than trying to notch a lens by hand and
AN HISTORICAL NOTE ON HAND DRILLS
does a better job. The milling bit may be lowered onto
the edge of the lens as in drilling (Figure 13-19), or the With plastic lenses, drilling a lens without an electric
lens may be pressed against the side of the milling bit. drill is possible but not necessarily efficient. The correct
After the notch is created, the edges of the notch are size drill bit can be mounted in a hand chuck with a
smoothed (Figure 13-20). swivel handle. To start the drill hole, the lens should be
indented with a pointed instrument. The drill bit is
placed in the indentation and turned but without a lot
of pressure. Too much pressure with a hand or electric
drill causes hairline cracks around the hole. When
using a hand drill, the operator should not drill more
than halfway through the lens before turning it over
and drilling from the other side. Again, the operator
begins by indenting the back surface of the lens with a
sharp instrument at the intended point of drilling, then
drills from the back. Applying too much pressure will
cause plastic to break away next to the hole.

Notes Regarding Glass Lenses

Because plastic, polycarbonate, and Trivex lens materials
are so much less likely to break in a rimless mounting
than is glass, glass is no longer considered a good option
for rimless mountings. If glass lenses are used in a
rimless mounting, the lens must be drilled alternately
first from one side, then the other, until the two holes
meet halfway through the lens. This prevents the hole
from chipping and ruining the lens as the drill comes
out the other side. Glass lenses almost always chip out
around the hole unless this is done. When drilling glass
the operator should lubricate the place where the lens
FIGURE 13-19 A lens may be notched with a milling bit.
In this photo there is a small piece of cardboard under the 13
DeFranco LM: Eight tips for processing rimless (or semirimless)
temporal half of the lens. This allows the lens to be angled eyewear, Eyecare Business, August 1999, p 37.
some and also allows extra space under the lens for when 14
DeFranco LM: Drilling polycarbonate can be hot, Optical Dispensing
the milling bit comes out the other side. News, No. 1, September 26, 2000.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 259

FIGURE 13-20 Notches need to be safety beveled too. A cone tool works for both holes
and notches.

FIGURE 13-21 When the lenses are mounted, the marked 180-degree lines should both
be on the same level. They should both be exactly horizontal as if they were one
continuous line.

and drill meet with oil to prevent heat buildup. Without 1. With the frame flat on the table, hold the lens
oil, breakage increases and drill bits are ruined quickly. in front of the mounting as it should appear
Once again, glass lenses are not recommended for after it has been mounted.
rimless or grooved mountings. The lens is weaker than a. The top of the shape should follow the curve
a normally beveled and mounted lens and, though not of the top bar.
illegal, is not advisable. b. When correctly aligned, the top bar should
have about one third of its thickness showing
above the edge of the lens.15
USING THE FRAME TO MARK FOR 2. Use a fine-point, felt-tipped marking pen to dot
SEMIRIMLESS MOUNTINGS the location of the nasal screw hole.
With semirimless mountings, the shape of the top of the
lens matches the curve of the top bar of the mounting. 15
Levoy BM: How to work with rimless, Optometric Weekly, February 17,
The following is the procedure: 1977, p 39.
260 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-22 This is a semirimless mounting. When no

chart is available, the frame may be used as a guide for
marking and drilling the lenses. First the nasal hole is marked
and drilled. The lens is mounted in the nasal hole. With nasal
hole drilled and lens mounted nasally, the lens is swung into
position as it should appear when finished. Next the location
of the temporal hole is marked as shown here. FIGURE 13-23 On this semirimless mounting the nasal
hole has been drilled and mounted. The temporal hole has
been marked with the lens mounted nasally. Now the tem-
3. Repeat the procedure for the other lens. poral hole may be drilled. As in this photo, it may be possible
4. Hold the just-marked lenses back-to-back. The to drill the lens without removing the lens from the frame.
two nasal marks must overlap exactly.
5. Drill the hole for the first lens and smooth it as
described in the section on lens drilling. edging (as discussed earlier in the chapter). After
6. Mount the nasal side of the lens, leaving it loose edging, transparent tape is placed on the front of the
enough to swing it away from its normal position. lens to protect the surface. The nasal and temporal lens
7. Hold the half-mounted lens as it should look drilling positions are marked by using the notches on
when correctly mounted. Mark the location of the edge of the pattern as guides (Figure 13-24). Next
the temporal screw hole (Figure 13-22). (The a strip of double-sided adhesive tape is placed on the
biggest pitfall here is the possibility of misaligning inside of the drilling guide to hold it to the lens (Figure
the axis of the cylinder.) 13-25).
8. Either remove the lens from the mounting To drill the nasal holes, the drill guide is stuck on the
and then drill it, or swing the lens upward or lens so that the center line of the guide is parallel to the
downward and drill the temporal hole with the 180-degree line marked on the lens. For the temporal
lens still in the mounting (Figure 13-23). holes, the bottom line of the guide is parallel to the
9. Repeat the process to mark and drill the lens’ 180-degree line (Figure 13-26). The lens is drilled
temporal hole for the other lens. by pressing the drill bit into the holes in the drill guide
(Figure 13-27).
DRILLING GUIDES
Some frame manufacturers make drilling guides Improvements in Electric Drills
available to simplify drilling. Silhouette uses a plastic
guide for double-hole mountings. To use this system, A variety of options are available with basic electric drills.
the 180-degree line is marked on the uncut lens before These options become increasingly important because
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 261

FIGURE 13-26 Here the lens guide is being applied to

the lens.

of (1) the large variety of rimless designs available, (2)

the necessity for drilling more than just two holes in
one lens, and (3) the increased number of lenses that
FIGURE 13-24 Here the pattern has been made to serve are slotted or notched. The following list outlines some
as a type of template in the drilling sequence. The edge of improvements available with some electric stand drills
the lens is marked at the level of the notch on the pattern. (with options varying according to drill manufacturer):
This establishes the height where holes will be drilled.
• An edge gauge: An edge gauge allows the hole to be
positioned a known distance inward from the edge
of the lens (see Figure 13-8).
• A clamp-down holding system to hold the lens securely for
drilling
• The ability to transfer measurements from one lens to the
other: If the drill base guide has horizontal and vertical
scales, one lens is marked first. It is then aligned and
clamped in the drill base guide. The second lens
then is clamped symmetrically in place. Hole location
measurements are transferred to the second lens.
• A lens-holding system that leaves the adhesive-pad blocks on
the lenses and uses the blocks to hold the lenses in the drill 16
(Figure 13-28): This system has several advantages. It
assures that the lenses will be on axis. The 180-
degree line is exactly as it was for edging. It confirms
that both lenses will be drilled the same. It makes
replacement of a single lens easier if one lens was
incorrect or if one lens has to be replaced later because
of damage to the lens or a prescription change.
• The ability to tilt both lenses at once: When drilling a
lens, the hole should be drilled approximately
perpendicular to the first surface. If both lenses are
mounted at the same time and one lens is angled for
drilling, the second lens will be angled identically.
This way both nasal holes will be tilted the same and

FIGURE 13-25 Double-sided tape on the drilling guide 16

One such drill is The Smart Drill (Smart Lab Equipment Co, Grants
will hold the guide to the lens during drilling. Pass, Ore.).
262 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-27 When using a drilling guide, the drill can be held “free hand” without
having to be mounted on a stand.

drilled. Then after readjusting the tilt, the operator blocks, the cylinder axis cannot be off if the lens was
may drill both temporal holes. correctly edged. The following is a representative drilling
• The ability to transfer the frame manufacturer’s hole location sequence for the type of drill that was shown in Figure
specifications to the scale on the drill base guide: For 13-28.
example, vertical hole location could be specified as Before edging, the base curve of the lens is measured
distance above or below the boxing center; horizontal (Figure 13-29). Once the lens is edged, it is mounted
location as distance from the edge of the lens. For on the drill base. The lens is angled by tilting the
example, if a lens has two temporal holes their lens to the corresponding base curve setting (Figures
locations could be specified as 5 mm above center 13-30 and 13-31). This angles the lens so that the drill
and 3 and 6 mm in from the temporal edge of the enters the front surface at the correct angle. (The
lens, respectively. importance of this was discussed earlier and illustrated
• Twin drill bits: Twin drill bits approach the lens from in Figure 13-10.)
both front and back sides at the same time. Drill bits Drilling charts designed for ease of use with this
meet in the middle and produce chip-free guide- particular drill show both horizontal and vertical
holes that will ream out smoothly.17 measurements for all the holes and notches in the
• Variable-hole diameters: Hole diameters can be varied mounting. These charts also tell which drill bit sizes are
without having to change drill bits. needed for each hole (Figure 13-32). The vertical
• The ability to move the drill or table in a controlled manner distance from the 180-line to the first hole is dialed.
to allow for slotting and notching of lenses This moves the lens vertically (Figure 13-33).
• Reflective screen: The reflective screen option allows a With the horizontal scale set to zero, the edge of the
parallax-free view of the lens and drill.18 lens is “zero-ed in” by sliding the base of the stand until
the edge touches the drill (Figure 13-34). Now the stand
is moved to the notch or hole location indicated on the
DRILLING BLOCKED LENSES chart using a screw-mechanism to set the horizontal
Some drills allow the lenses to remain blocked during distance on the scale (Figure 13-35). At this point the
drilling. Because the lenses are held in place by the lens may be notched or drilled as needed (Figure 13-
36). In this example a notch and a hole are on the nasal
17
The LAB-Tech DM-3 Drilling System (LAB-Tech, Inc., Miami) has side. After notching the lens, the measurements are
this feature.
18
The Drillrite Automatic Lens Drill (Nu-Tec Optical Equipment, reset. When necessary, a different size bit is used to drill
Richardson, Texas) has this feature. the second hole (Figure 13-37).
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 263

FIGURE 13-29 With certain drills the lens may be tilted

for drilling according to base curve. This lens has a +3.50 D
base curve.

The lens is marked with a 180-degree line, R or L,

and an N for the nasal side and placed on the drilling
chart. In preparation for slotting, the center of the slot
is dotted (Figure 13-39). Then the lens is marked with
FIGURE 13-28 This lens drilling system holds the lenses
a line drawn perpendicular to the center of the slot
in place by the lens blocks. Because lenses are still blocked,
it is not necessary to draw a 180-degree line on the lens. The
(Figure 13-40). Unless the nasal and temporal slots are
clamping system ensures an accurate 180-degree alignment. at exactly the same height, two lines will be on the lens,
one for each slot.
If the slot is vertical, the line(s) will be parallel to the
Slotted Lenses 180. The lens is secured in place on the table and the
desired position of the slot centered (Figure 13-41).
Some lenses are held in place with a clip (Figure 13-38). The table is placed on the base of the stand20 and
The clip is slipped into a slot in the lens and stays in locked into position (Figure 13-42).
place by a tensile spring effect. This happens because A drill cuts into a plastic lens by being pressed into
the slot is slightly smaller than the distance between the the lens from above. However, with use of a “milling
two sections of the wire that makes up the clip. Clips drill bit,” the “drill” can now cut sideways. To cut a slot
may come in different lengths, depending upon lens in a lens, the milling bit must have the ability to move
thickness at the location of the slot. To provide enough laterally.21 The milling drill bit is now set to move left
lens substance for the clip, the lens must be no less than
2.7 mm thick at the position of the slot.19 20
A space bar is used between the back edge of the table and the
stand. The thickness of the bar causes the location of the slot to come
out as needed.
19 21
Air Titanium Optician’s Video (Lindberg Optic Design, It would be possible to construct a table for the drill stand that
Frichsparken, Denmark). moved the lens laterally.
264 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-30 The +3.50 base lens from the previous

figure has been edged. It is still blocked and has been
mounted on the drill. For this drill, lenses with a base curve
of +4.00 D and below are considered flat enough not to
require any tilt when drilled.

FIGURE 13-31 For comparison we see how much tilt is

required to drill this +8.00 D base curve lens. The drill is
and right from the center point of the slot by equal basically perpendicular to the front surface of the lens.
amounts. The total length of the move corresponds to
the length of the slot.
The milling bit is lowered onto the lens and drilled
through the center of where the slot will be (Figure 13- across the spinning cone in the drill. Both the front and
43). A locking mechanism is loosened (Figure 13-44), the back of the slot must be beveled. When safety
the milling bit pressed slightly into the lens surface, and beveled with the hand tool, the cone-shaped hand tool
then moved laterally. This removes plastic along the whole is rotated in the slot (Figure 13-46).
length of the slot (Figure 13-45). The bit is lowered into The clip is cleaned with alcohol (Figure 13-47) and
the lens a little at a time, each time moving the bit back the clip/slot fit is checked (Figure 13-48). The clips
and forth. This process is repeated about 15 to 20 times should slide into the lens easily. If force is used, stress
until the slot goes all the way through the lens. (The will be introduced into the lens and the possibility of
number of times varies, depending upon lens thickness.) breakage increases. Clips from looped wire may be
Once the slot is through the lens, the bit is raised. It expanded or compressed (Figure 13-49). However, the
is moved to one end of the slot and the end of the slot top and bottom wire must remain parallel with each
“drilled.” This process is repeated for the other end. other so that they contact the ends of the slots evenly.
This smoothes the inside ends of the slot. When all is prepared, glue is added to the inside slot
Next the slot needs to be chamfered (safety beveled). of the lens or to the clip (Figure 13-50) and the clip
This may be done with the drill, a cone-shaped tool, or secured in the lens (Figure 13-51). When glue is
by hand with the same type of tool. When done with the applied to the inside of the slot, excess glue should be
drill, the cone-shaped tool is mounted like a drill bit. wiped off the lens surface with alcohol before the clips
The lens is held in the hands and moved back and forth are pressed into the slots.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 265

Fendi 549
17 mm
#5 #3 #3 #5
#2
#4 #1 #1 #4

Use Drill Bit # 1.25 mm, Green Ring, for Notch

Use Drill Bit #51, Pink Ring, for Hole with Inserting Bushing #SM-435
Eyesize #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
50 A 4 mm 1/ mm 4 mm 2.5 mm 5 mm
2

FIGURE 13-32 This chart indicates that the nasal hole is 4 mm above the 180-degree
line (measure #1), the temporal hole is 2.5 mm above the 180-degree line (measure #4),
the nasal notch is 0.5 mm in from the nasal edge (measure #2), the nasal hole is 4 mm in
from the nasal edge (measure #3), and the temporal hole is 5 mm in from the temporal
edge (measure #5). It also tells exactly which diameter drill to use for each hole or notch.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED DRILLS
The reason for going to a computer-assisted drill is not
necessarily to achieve a higher quality drill-mounting
job than would otherwise be possible with other drills.
Using a good quality manual drill that has some of the
better available options will produce a drilled lens
mounting of outstanding quality. The reason many elect
to use a computer-assisted drill is to “maintain the quality
of workmanship while increasing productivity.”22 In
other words, a computer-assisted drill should decrease
the amount of time required for each job.
Another reason for going to a computer-assisted drill
is to increase the number of people who are able to
participate in the drilling process. Computerizing many
of the steps in the process makes it easier to train others
to do drill-mounts. However, the comparatively high
FIGURE 13-33 To set up the nasal side for drilling for the
22
Freeburg S et al: L & T review, OptiDrill CNC Drilling System, Lenses mounting in the previous figure, the hole is set for 4 mm
& Technology, April 2001, p 20. above the midline.
266 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-34 With the horizontal scale set for zero, the FIGURE 13-36 The drill accurately “notches” the lens
stand table is moved until the edge of the lens is pressed 0.5 mm.
tight against the tip of the drill bit. This establishes the
horizontal zero point for the nasal holes of the right lens.
Other features available for computer-assisted drills
will be similar to those features listed for manual drills.
In evaluating computer-assisted drills, the same features
that are attractive for manual drills should be searched
for in a computer-assisted drill.
Computer-assisted drills generally interface with a
personal computer (Figure 13-52).

THE IN-EDGER DRILL

WECO has an edger that drills the lens while it is still in
the edger (Figure 13-53). To use this option, the WECO
blocker also must be used. An image of the drilled
demo lens or the wearer’s old drilled lens is projected
on a screen in the blocker during layout. Then a cursor
is moved to the location of the hole and an X is placed
over the future position of the holes. The edger edges
FIGURE 13-35 In preparation for cutting the notch, the the lenses then drills them as indicated in the blocking
table is moved 0.5 mm using a crank handle. process.

cost of computer-assisted drills is justifiable only for

laboratories that have a high volume of drill mountings. Working with Older-Style,
Computer-assisted drills have, or should have, a Double-Strap Mountings
capacity to store and recall a database of drill, slot, and
notch positions for a large number of mountings in Older style rimless mountings have a double-strap
their full range of available sizes and shapes. assembly and were used extensively in years past.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 267

FIGURE 13-39 This drilling chart is on a translucent sheet

of plastic that is used first for one lens, then is turned over for
the second lens. The centers of the slots are dotted.

FIGURE 13-37 After notching the lens, the lens table is

horizontally repositioned to 4 mm. The hole is drilled using
a different sized drill bit.

FIGURE 13-40 After the slot centers are dotted, each

gets a horizontal line drawn through it. On this lens both
slots are at the same height, so the same line goes through
both slot centers.

FIGURE 13-38 One type of Air Titanium frame design

uses a clip that slips into a slot in the lens. The clip stays in
the lens slot primarily because of the spring-tension effect of lens/frame assembly. The problem is that each lens has
the clip. a slightly different edge thickness. Therefore the straps
have to be realigned for the width of the lens edge. If
the edge is wider, the straps go farther out before they
Fortunately, laboratories seldom have to deal with these bend around the lens edge. This positions the hole
types of mountings now. When these mountings appear, closer to the edge. For normal-thickness lenses, the
the following discussion provides guidance on how to procedure for marking and drilling the lens is basically
work with them. the same as for any other rimless mounting. A lens-
Double-strap mountings have a strap on the front mounting chart or a dummy lens is used to mark the
and on the back of the lens. This helps stabilize the lenses. Next the lens is drilled.
268 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

ADJUSTING THE DOUBLE-STRAP AREA

The way the straps are adjusted before mounting the
lenses strongly influences the alignment of the assembled
spectacles. For example, if the straps are bent forward,
even though they are still parallel to one another, the
temple will be spread too widely.
The nasal and temporal lens straps are bent to the
correct angles, beginning with the nasal straps. Next
the centerpiece on the lens is held so that the lens edge
is between the two straps. This way it is possible to see if
the “front” of the spectacles will align properly. When
satisfied, the lens hole is aligned with the holes in the
straps and a “tap” used to rethread the straps (Figure
13-54). (A tap is a lens threader mounted in a chuck
handle.) Rethreading allows the screw to go through
the straps at the proper angle. Next the temporal straps
are done.
The shoe and spring section of the strap area
contribute to the stability of the lens mounting. The
FIGURE 13-41 The lens is placed in the lens holder on shoe and spring should be touching the edge of the lens
the mounting table so that the slot center is on the above and below the strap with moderate pressure. (To
intersection of vertical and horizontal lines. The horizontal view this area of the frame, see Figure 13-3.) If necessary,
line running through the slot center overlaps the horizontal the shoe is bent to establish proper tension against the
line on the table. This way the finished slot will be precisely lens edge.
vertical.

FIGURE 13-42 The table is placed on the base of the stand and locked into position.
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 269

FIGURE 13-43 A hole is drilled through the center of

where the slot will be.

FIGURE 13-44 To make a slot, the locking mechanism is

loosened to allow the drill to swing back and forth as it cuts
the slot.

FIGURE 13-45 The drilling bit is pressed lightly into the

surface and moved back and forth to remove plastic along
the length of the slot. The process is repeated 15 or 20 times
until the slot goes all the way through the lens.

FIGURE 13-46 A cone-shaped tool will safety bevel

(chamfer) the lens slot and will keep the slot from chipping.
270 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-48 Before applying lock glue, the fit of the

clip in the slot is checked. If the tension is not correct, the
clip needs to be widened or narrowed.

FIGURE 13-47 The clip needs to be free of any dirt or oils

before being put into the slot. Cleaning it with alcohol helps
the lock-glue to adhere better as well.

FIGURE 13-49 Clip width may be adjusted so that it has the correct amount of tension
in the slot. Both sides of the clip must be parallel after adjustment.

The shoe should contact the lens all along the edge. at the location of the proposed hole. If the straps need
To have this happen, the face of the straps must parallel to be narrowed or widened, an old-fashioned strapping
the up and down plane of the spring/shoe portion of pliers is used (Figure 13-56). This widens or narrows
the assembly (Figure 13-55). the distance between the straps as shown in Figure 13-
57. The straps also should be shaped to conform to the
curve of the lens, lying flat against it.
MODERATELY THICK LENS EDGES When in doubt as to how close to the edge the holes
If the lens edge is moderately thick, the location of the should be, the operator should remember that it may
holes is marked, but the holes are not drilled yet. be better to have the hole too far in from the edge than
Instead the straps are adjusted to fit the edge of the lens too close to the edge. If the hole is too close to the edge,
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 271

FIGURE 13-50 Applying “lock glue” to the inside of the slot and/or the clip before
inserting the clip helps retain the clip in the lens.

FIGURE 13-51 The clip as it appears in the lens. Clips

come in different lengths, depending upon the edge
thickness of the prescription.

the lens will be loose. But if the hole is too far in from
the edge of the lens, the front or back surface of the lens
under the strap can be filed. (See the next section.)
FIGURE 13-52 Computer-assisted drills are considerably
Once the straps are adjusted, the new location for more expensive but are faster and require less training.
the hole is marked. That location will be closer to the
lens edge than it would have been. Yet it will be at the
same vertical height as it was before.
272 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 13-53 One type of WECO edger drills the lenses

immediately after they have been edged. For this feature to
work, the locations of the drill holes, slots or notches are set
up in the blocking process with the corresponding WECO
blocker.

A B

C D

FIGURE 13-54 In this sequence, A shows straps that are improperly angled, causing the
temple to open out too far. In B the straps are being reangled, and in C rethreaded, using
a tap. When corrected as shown in D, the temple once more shows proper positioning.
(From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-67].)
 273

A B C
FIGURE 13-55 A, The straps are misrotated, causing the lens to be angled. B, The
straps are re-angled using hollow snipe-nosed pliers. C, The straps are shown correctly
positioned. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-75].)

FIGURE 13-56 Strapping pliers are made to help in spreading or narrowing the distance
between the double straps of an old-fashioned rimless mounting. (From Brooks CW, Borish
IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure
8-73].)

LENS TOO THICK FOR THE STRAPS

If the lens edge is too thick for the size of the straps,
again, the location of the holes is marked. Their marked
location is for vertical reference only.
Next the back surface of the lens is filed to thin the
edge where the strap will grip the lens. On extremely
thick lenses, it may be necessary to file some off the front
surface, too. A rat-tail file is used to file the lens surface.
When the lens edge is thin enough to accommodate
the strap, the strap is adjusted to fit. The location of the
new hole is marked and the lens is drilled.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Air Titanium Optician’s Video, Frichsparken, Denmark,
Lindberg Optic Design (undated).
DeFranco LM: Eight tips for processing rimless (or
semirimless) eyewear, Eyecare Business, August 1999, pp 36-
37. FIGURE 13-57 A strapping pliers can be used to either
Field C: Processing drill-mounted eyewear, LabTalk 28(42):32- widen or narrow the distance between straps to
34, 2000. accommodate varying lens thickness. (From Brooks CW,
Geeren H: Werkstatt buch, Pforzheim, Germany, 1981, Verlag Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
Neues Optikerjournal. 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 8-74].)
274 CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS

Herrick T: Three-piece mountings: when lenses are the frame, Levoy BM: How to work with rimless, Optometric Weekly,
Lenses & Technology, April, 2000, pp 18-22. February 17, 1977, pp 33-40.
How to assemble 1776 and other Balgrip mountings, Rochester, NY, Yoho A: Keeping the rimless lens tight, Eyecare Business,
Bausch & Lomb, (publication A-1907), undated. August 2000, p 34.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? Polycarbonate is not well suited for 6. A drilling template describes which of the
any type of rimless eyewear because the material is following?
so soft.
a. A picture of the lens, including where the holes
2. True or False? Using glass lenses in a rimless are to be drilled on the lens
mounting, even when they are chemically b. Something that is shaped just like the lens. It is
hardened, is against FDA regulations. placed on the lens. Holes are drilled through
the “holes” in the template and on through the
3. Which of the following is not a good option for lens.
minimizing minus lens edges for rimless eyewear?
7. A coquille describes which of the following?
a. Use a lens with an ED at least 5 mm larger than
the A dimension of the lens. a. The mounting assembly of a double-drilled
b. Use high-index material. mounting
c. Polish the edges. b. A tool used to guide the drill through the lens,
d. Use a small eyesize. reducing chipping and spoiled lenses
e. Use an AR coating. c. A type of French monocle that is drill-mounted
f. All of the above are good options for d. The plastic display lens that comes in a frame
minimizing minus lens edges for rimless e. A flowerlike decorative piece that is
eyewear. drill-mounted to a spectacle lens

4. To minimize and equalize plus lens edges for 8. You must drill a lens for a semirimless mounting
rimless eyewear, all but one of the following without the help of drill guides. Using only the
may help. Which one of the following will not frame, with which of the following would you
help? begin?

a. Choose a frame size such that A+DBL is close a. The right lens
to the wearer’s PD. b. The left lens
b. Choose a shape with a narrow B dimension. c. The nasal hole
c. Choose a shape with an ED not much bigger d. The temporal hole
than the A dimension. e. Any lens or any hole; it will all end up the same
d. All of the above will help minimize and anyway
equalize plus lens edge thickness.
e. None of the above will help minimize and
equalize plus lens edge thickness.

5. For lenses of the same power, which of the

following may be more difficult to mount in a
rimless mounting?

a. One with a flat base curve

b. One with a steep base curve
c. One with an aspheric base curve
d. No difference exists in how easy or hard these
lenses are to mount in a rimless frame
CHAPTER 13 DRILLED, SLOTTED, AND NOTCHED MOUNTINGS 275

9. Of the possibilities listed below, which is 12. To drill a glass lens, which of the following is
considered to be the most proper sequence of correct?
steps for drilling and mounting of plastic lenses
for semirimless eyewear when a drilling chart is a. Drill straight through in a slow steady motion.
not available? b. Drill straight through, exerting moderate to
heavy pressure on the lens.
1. Drill the nasal hole. c. Drill halfway through, then turn the lens over
2. Hold the lens in the proper position and and drill from the other side until the two
mark the location for the temporal hole. holes meet.
3. Hold the lens in the proper position and d. Drill 0.5 mm at a time, backing the drill out
mark the location for the nasal hole. each time to wait for the material to cool.
4. Mount the lens temporally. e. Glass lenses are never drilled.
5. Mount the lens nasally.
6. Drill the temporal hole. 13. Smoothing off the sharp edges of a drilled hole is
called which of the following?
a. 3, 1, 2, 6, 5, 4
b. 2, 6, 4, 3, 1, 5 a. Chamfering
c. 3, 1, 2, 6, 4, 5 b. Counter-rolling
d. 2, 6, 3, 1, 5, 4 c. Sacheting
e. 3, 1, 5, 2, 6, 4 d. Stoning
e. Blending
10. To drill a lens, the drill should be positioned as
which of the following? 14. True or False? One option available on some lens
drills will allow the diameter of the hole to be
a. The lens lies flat and the drill is positioned varied without changing bits.
perpendicular to the flat surface.
b. The lens is angled so that the drill goes 15. True or False? The number one reason to get a
through the lens perpendicular to the front computer-assisted drill is to increase the quality of
surface. drill mountings. It is not possible to obtain the
c. The lens is angled so that the drill goes same high-quality drill jobs with a manual drill.
through the lens and exits perpendicular to the
back surface. 16. True or False? Balgrip mountings use notches
alone to hold the lenses in place. However,
11. Which of the following describes the proper notches are also sometimes used with a drilled
procedure for drilling polycarbonate material? mounting to further stabilize the mounting.

a. Drill straight through in a slow steady motion.

b. Drill straight through, exerting moderate to
heavy pressure on the lens.
c. Drill halfway through, then turn the lens over
and drill from the other side until the two
holes meet.
d. Drill 0.5 mm at a time, backing the drill out
each time to wait for the material to cool.
 Nylon Cord and
14 Other Groove
Mountings

O ne method to keep frames and lenses together

holds the lens in place with a nylon cord that
resides in a groove cut in the edge of the lens (Figure
14-1). Alternatively some frames have a rim that slips
into the groove (Figure 14-2). When the frame rim slips
into the groove, the groove must be wider than for
nylon cords.
A nylon cord frame is also referred to by a number
of names, including nylon supra, a string mount, Rimlon,
Nylor, and suspension mounting.

Wearer Safety Issues

Wearer safety issues1 for grooved lenses are essentially
the same as for rimless mountings and were discussed
in Chapter 13. Reviewing these issues is recommended.
The issue of whether to use glass lenses in nylon cord
frames is not as clear-cut as it is with drilled lenses. Most
laboratories either do not put glass lenses in nylon cord
frames, or if they do, they do so with reservations. The
Optical Laboratories Association (OLA) addressed the
issue in a 1993 technical paper. Even though a hardened
glass lens will pass the required impact resistance test
for a new lens in a nylon cord mounting, the edge of
the lens is left unprotected. Putting the lenses on a
rough surface or dropping them on a hard surface can

For more information, refer to Instruction for the automatic groove

master, Los Angeles, Novamatic Systems (undated).
1
The information in this section was taken from Bruneni JL: Ask the
labs, glass lenses/nylon suspension mountings, (response by Dan
Torgersen, technical director, Optical Laboratories Association),
Eyecare Business, November 2000, p 36.
 reduces the original impact resistance of the lenses. Plastic
lenses2 are strongly recommended for such mountings.

Edge Thickness for Grooving

The edges of a rimless lens will be visible and should be
as thin as possible for best cosmetic effect. However,
lens edges need to be thick enough to allow them to be
grooved but still have enough lens material left on
either side of the groove so that it will not chip off.
Chapter 13, on rimless eyewear, includes a section
FIGURE 14-1 A nylon cord frame holds the lenses in
titled “Edge Thickness for Rimless Lenses.” If the
place with a nylon cord that slips into a groove on the edge reader has not yet read or does not recall the section,
of the lens. that section should be reviewed now, including the
subsections on plus and minus lens edge thickness.
These sections include cosmetic, safety, and functional
considerations for edge thickness and apply equally to
grooved mountings.
Another factor is important to remember when
grooving a lens. The groove for the nylon cord is 0.5 mm
wide. After the lens is grooved, enough thickness
must remain on either side of the groove to keep the
edge from chipping. Apart from safety factors, ideas on
just how much extra thickness is required vary. Most
practitioners recommend a minimum edge thickness of
2.3 mm.
Many polycarbonate and high-index minus lenses
have thin centers. When these are edged for small frames,
the lens edge can be less than 2.3 mm in places. These
lenses may not be thick enough to be grooved. To keep
the same frame, either a different finished lens will
have to be selected, or lenses will have to be surfaced to
FIGURE 14-2 Some frames have thin metal rims. The lens ensure enough edge thickness for grooving.
edges are grooved and the rim slips into the groove on the
lens and is tightened.
Grooving Methods
cause small edge chips or microcracks. These may The groove can be cut into the edge of the lens by using
reduce the impact resistance of the lens by a significant either a specially equipped lens edger, or a separate piece
amount. A previous OLA technical director, George of equipment called a lens groover. The groover is
Chase, suggested that if the laboratory decides to make currently the most common method.
a grooved glass lens at the insistence of the prescriber The first type of edger to incorporate a grooving option
or dispenser, a warning label should accompany the was a dry-cut router-blade-type edger. By replacing the
eyewear. The suggested wording is as follows: normal V-bevel blade with a flat blade having a small
To Prescriber/Dispenser: The glass lenses in this rimless cutting nib, the lens may be edged flat and grooved at
mounting were made according to your work order. the same time (Figure 14-3). Several types of edgers have
Instruct your patient to take care to avoid damaging the
edge. Should the exposed edge of the lens become 2
Polycarbonate and Trivex lenses are included in this broad plastic
damaged, have it replaced immediately. Edge damage lens material classification.

277
278 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

PREPARING THE LENS FOR GROOVING

A lens groover requires a lens that has been edged flat,
as if it were to be drill-mounted. Lenses to be grooved
should have a safety bevel—but only a moderate one.
Excessive safety beveling of a thin-edged lens that is to
be grooved causes the lens edge to be weak after
grooving.3

Setting Up the Groover

The cutter wheel in a lens groover is a water-cooled
diamond abrasive wheel. Because the wheel is thin and
so narrow, only a wet sponge is needed to keep it cooled
and cleaned. The sponge is placed against the wheel
FIGURE 14-3 The cutting blade that can edge and from underneath and should be wet thoroughly before
groove a lens simultaneously. The arrow shows where the each use if it is not already sitting in a reservoir of water
blade cuts the groove. (Figure 14-5).
The cutter wheel protrudes through a wheel dome.
The edge of the lens rests on the wheel dome and the
lens turns on the groover. The wheel cuts into the lens
a grooving option as part of the edging cycle (Figure at the same depth that the wheel protrudes from the
14-4). This topic is discussed again later in the chapter. dome.
The groover has a groove depth adjustment. To
calibrate groove depth, the depth dial is turned until
Lens Grooving Method the cutter wheel is flush with the wheel dome. The
depth dial should register zero (Figure 14-6). If it does
Although several different types of manually operated not, the zero-adjuster knob is used to reset the dial to
groovers are available, the explanation that follows is zero.
primarily for one commonly occurring type of groover.
Each groover operates somewhat differently. However,
the basic principles are the same. 3
Rimlon mounting instructions, Hoya Corporation, 1983, p 4.

FIGURE 14-4 Some diamond-wheel edgers have the capability of grooving the lens
immediately after it has been edged. (Courtesy Nidek, Fremont, Calif.)
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 279

FIGURE 14-5 A wet sponge keeps the cutting wheel of a

lens groover clean and cool.

Before the grooving process begins, the depth for

the desired cut is set. The groove depth required for
nylon cord frames is normally between 0.4 and 0.5 mm.
FIGURE 14-6 When the cutting wheel of the lens groover
POSITIONING THE GROOVE ON THE is flush with the wheel dome, the cutting depth dial should
LENS EDGE register zero. The top arrow shows the cutting wheel.

The position on the lens edge on which the groove is

placed depends on the power of the lens and sometimes
on the type of lens. When a lens has a fairly thin edge A
that is uniform in thickness all the way around the
circumference of the lens, the only logical position for
a groove is halfway between the front and the back
surfaces. When the lens edge thickens or varies in
thickness around the lens, the possibilities for groove B
location increase. The groove can be placed in one of
the following positions:
• In the middle of the edge
• At a constant distance from the front edge and
usually closer to the front C
• At a constant distance from the back edge and FIGURE 14-7 A, For the thin-edged, low-powered lens
usually closer to the back shown in A, the groove is placed exactly in the middle of the
lens edge. B, For thick-edged high minus lenses, the groove
position is the same distance from the front edge of the lens,
Grooving the Lens in the Middle of the Lens
all the way around the lens. This is especially the case for
Edge high minus lenses with high cylinder. C, High plus lenses
When the lens is thin, the groove is placed in the middle often base the groove location on the back surface of the
of the edge (Figure 14-7, A). This occurs with low minus lens. These lenses are viewed from the top. Lenses,
and low–plus-powered lenses and keeps the groove particularly lenses B and C, vary in edge thickness around
from getting too close to either surface. the perimeter of the lens.
280 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

To center-groove a lens, the operator begins by

correctly setting the guide arms. The groover has two
spring-controlled guide arms with rollers. The rollers
follow along the front and back surfaces of the lens as
the lens rotates to hold it on center. To keep the lens
centered for center grooving, these arms must be locked
together in such a way that they may spread apart
evenly as the lens passes between them. The two guide
arms are locked together from underneath when two
coupling pins connected with a spring are set for
centering (Figure 14-8, A). In addition, a centering pin
(Figure 14-8, B) locks the unit into a centered position.
The lens is placed between the two lens groover
chucks (Figure 14-9). The lens should be positioned in
the groover so that the front surface is always facing in Coupling pins
positioned for
one direction. For the groover shown, the correct groove centering
direction is toward the right. The lens must face this
way because the cutting wheel is angled slightly so that A
the groove angle conforms to the normal meniscus
curve of the lens (see Figure 14-5). Once the pins are
set, the guide arms are spread and the lens is lowered
onto the wheel between the arms (Figure 14-10).
The groover has two switches. One switch causes the
lens to rotate; the other turns the small grinding wheel
on and off. The switch to rotate the lens is turned on
and the lens begins to rotate. After the lens rotates
about one quarter turn, the cutting wheel is turned on
and begins to groove the lens.
After the lens has been grooved all the way around,
the sound of the cutter wheel changes. When this
happens, the cutter wheel is turned off. Afterward the
lens rotation switch is turned off.
The lens is taken out of the groover and rinsed to
remove ground up lens material. To remove ground
lens material from the groove, either a toothbrush or
an ultrasonic cleaner, or both, are used (Figure 14-11).
When using an ultrasonic cleaner and leaving the lens
in the unit for cleaning, the operator should be sure
the lens is placed face up to prevent surface scratching.
The operator should not reach into the water in the Centering
ultrasonic unit before turning the unit off. Continued pin
exposure of the joints of the fingers to ultrasonic vibration
causes arthritis. The unit is turned off or a metal basket
used to lower objects into and remove objects from the
ultrasonic cleaner. B
FIGURE 14-8 A, To cut a lens groove in the middle of the
Grooving the Lens toward the Front of the Lens lens edge, first the two spring-connected coupling pins need
Edge to be positioned for centering. B, A centering pin locks the
The groover may be reset so that the groove will be groover so that the lens groove will center.
based on a specific distance from the front of the lens
edge rather than positioned in the center of the lens of cylinder power. (The cylinder normally is created on
edge. The groove position normally is based on the the back surface of the lens.) This is not to say that the
front edge of the lens for higher minus lenses, groove needs to be close to the front of the lens. The
especially when the lens has more than a small amount distance the groove may be offset from the front
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 281

FIGURE 14-9 To begin the grooving process, the lens is held in place between the two
chucks of the lens groover.

FIGURE 14-10 The lens is positioned between the guide arms for grooving.

surface may be varied. The distance from the front of To change the settings of the groover so that the
the lens is based on how the groove will be positioned groove location is based on the front of the edge, one
when it reaches the thinnest edge of the lens. of the spring-coupled pins is moved to the “F” or front
Therefore groove location should be set at the location position (Figure 14-12, A). The centering pin is removed.
of the thinnest portion of the edge. Once set, the (The centering pin was shown in Figure 14-8, B.)
groove maintains that same distance from the front The lens is chucked and lowered between the guide
surface (see Figure 14-7, B). arms. Next the operator looks to see where the cutting
282 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

wheel will meet the lens edge and decides how far the
groove should be from the front surface of the lens.
The groove position control lever is turned (Figure
14-12, B). This will move the front surface guide arm,
shifting the lens left or right, until the groove location
is at the desired position.
To help in deciding exactly where the groove should
be located, the operator rotates the lens and observes
where the groove will fall. Noting where the groove will
be as it comes around to the thinnest part of the lens
edge is especially important. Opinions vary regarding
what distance from the front surface to put the groove.
One suggestion is to position the groove just far
enough back from the front surface so that when it
reaches the thinnest part of the minus lens edge it
bisects the edge.4
FIGURE 14-11 When the groove is cleaned with an
ultrasonic cleaner, the fingers must not dip into the solution
4
with the unit running. Lisa J: Answers to challenges that arise when grooving and drilling
lenses, (contributed by Chris Farley, Gerber/Coburn), Eyecare
Business, October 1998, p 20.

A B
FIGURE 14-12 A, If the groove is to take its location based on a uniform distance from
the front surface of the lens, one of the spring-coupled pins is moved to the front position.
B, To set the distance from the front surface to the groove, the lever is turned to the right
by varying degrees. Here the lever is turned to the extreme right. This would result in a
large distance from the front of the lens to the groove.
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 283

Grooving the Lens toward the Back of the Lens

Edge
Occasionally it is helpful to position the groove a certain
distance from the back surface of the lens. Some people
like to use this positioning for higher plus lenses (see
Figure 14-7, C). This positioning is especially appropriate
for Franklin-style (Executive) lenses. Franklin-style
lenses have a shelf between the distance and near
portions that goes all the way across the lens. If the
groove is based on either the center or the front edge
of the lens, the groove will track well on the upper part
of the lens then “drop off” the lens edge at the shelf.
Steps to prevent this problem include ensuring that the
thinner, lower portion of the lens edge is sufficiently
thick and basing the groove position on the back
surface (Figure 14-13). In reality, the best solution is
not to use a Franklin-style lens at all for grooved or drill-
mounted lenses. If so desired, switching to a flat-top 35
will provide a wide near viewing area.
To change the settings of the groover so that the
groove location is based on the back of the edge, one of
the spring-coupled pins is moved to the “R” or rear
position (Figure 14-14, A). Because the groove will not
be centered, the centering pin must be removed. A
The lens is chucked and lowered between the guide
arms. The operator should notice where the cutting
wheel will meet the lens edge and then decide how far
the groove should be from the back surface of the lens.

A B
FIGURE 14-13 Grooved Executive lenses must have the B
groove based on the back surface of the lens. Otherwise the
groove can go off the lens edge at the ledge. The lens shown FIGURE 14-14 A, The setting for basing the groove
in A was grooved based on the front surface. The groove position on the rear surface of the lens. B, Turning the
drops off the ledge from the top and then must reposition groove position control lever to the left moves the groove
itself on the lower half of the lens. This type of groove is farther from the back surface of the lens. Here the lever is
unusable. The lens shown in B was based on the back to the extreme left. This is farther than normally would be
surface of the lens and does not encounter the ledge. used.
284 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

The groove position control lever is turned until the

TABLE 14-1
groove location is at the desired position (Figure 14-14,
B). Groove Position by Lens Type
For Franklin-style lenses, the lens is rotated to the TYPE OF LENS GROOVE LOCATION
places where the lens shelf separates distance and near
portions and the position of the groove is noted. (For Low-powered plus or minus In the center of the edge
any style lens, the operator should look to see where the lenses
groove will be located when it tracks along the thinnest High minus lenses A uniform distance from the
front surface of the lens
part of the lens edge.) When it is certain that the groove
High plus lenses A uniform distance from the
will be placed properly along the entire circumference
back surface of the lens
of the lens edge, the operator starts the lens rotating Franklin-style (Executive) A uniform distance from the
and turns on the cutting wheel. lenses back surface of the lens
For a summary of groove placements, see Table 14-1.
See Figure 14-15 for another type of groover.
SAFETY BEVELING THE GROOVE
TOUCHING UP THE GROOVE Grooves on the edge of lenses chip if they are too sharp.
If one part of the lens groove is not exactly as wanted, This is true especially for lenses with wider grooves. Two
the groove may be touched up by hand. The plate ways exist to safety bevel the inner groove edges5:
supporting the guide arms is lifted, which exposes the
cutting wheel. The operator holds the lens in the hand 5
DeFranco LM: Rimless and faceted eyewear, (contributed by Matt
and smoothes out the groove where needed. Vulich, AIT Industries), Eyecare Business, December 2000, p 24.

A B C
FIGURE 14-15 A, The Santinelli groover also uses a centering pin to keep the groove in
the middle of the lens edge. B, To base the groove location on the front surface of the lens,
the centering pin is removed and the plus/minus dial is turned toward the minus. The
farther the dial is turned, the farther the groove moves away from the front surface of the
lens. C, For high plus lenses, the dial is turned toward the plus direction, basing groove
location on the back surface.
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 285

affecting appearance and possibly security of the lens in

the frame.

GROOVING FOR A RECESSED METAL RIM

Some frames are made with a metal eyewire rim that
slips into a groove in the lens edge (see Figure 14-2).
The rims of these types of frames are thin but not as
thin as a nylon cord. This means that the groove in the
edge of the lens must be wider than the normal 0.5 mm
width.
Because the groove must be wider, the minimum
edge thickness for these lenses also will be greater than
for regular nylon cord frames. Minimum edge thickness
recommendations may vary. A recommendation of 2.4
edge is minimum.7 A 2.4 edge thickness works best with
high-index or polycarbonate lenses. For CR-39 lenses, a
2.8 minimum edge thickness is less likely to chip in the
course of normal handling.
To create a wider groove, either a wider cutting wheel
must be used, or the lens must be grooved more than
once. Using a wider wheel is certainly easier and is more
FIGURE 14-16 One method of safety-beveling the inside likely to give a better-looking end result.
edges of the lens groove is to hand-smooth it with the
corner edge of a ceramic block. Grooving for Recessed Metal Rims with a Wide
Cutting Wheel
1. A ceramic wheel with a 90-degree angle is used. The The groove-cutting wheel for recessed-rim mountings is
groove is touched lightly to the corner of the wheel. 0.3 mm thicker than the standard cutting wheel.8 The
The lens is turned evenly without pressure. cutting wheel protrudes through a slot in a small dome
2. A ceramic block is used to rub a corner of the block (see Figure 14-6). The slot is wide enough for the
along the inner edge of the groove by hand (Figure standard-width wheel but might be too small for the
14-16). new, wider-width wheel. If the slot is not wide enough,
the dome will need to be replaced with one that has a
wider slot.
GROOVING POLYCARBONATE
Polycarbonate material softens with heat. Therefore, Grooving for Recessed Metal Rims with a
making multiple passes around the lens when grooving Standard-Width Cutting Wheel
is advisable. The first pass is done at one half the groove To groove the lens more than once, the groover is set to
depth. The second pass is done at or close to the final trace off either the front surface or the back surface of
groove depth.6 the lens. (It should not be set for centering, otherwise
The following steps can help ensure a nice-looking the additional groove simply will overlap the original
polycarbonate lens: groove.) The groove is set at a certain distance from the
front (or back) surface of the lens. The lens is grooved
1. Groove the lens dry.
as usual. Next the lens is reset slightly farther away from
2. Leave only a little depth ungrooved.
the front (or back) surface than it was before. If the
3. For the last pass, groove the lens wet. This eliminates
groove is 0.3 mm larger than the standard groove, then
the frosted look and gives a more polished
the groove is moved back an additional 0.3 mm and
appearance to the groove.
regrooved for this distance. This widens the groove by
If the edge of the lens is to be polished, it should be an amount equal to the difference between the first
polished before it is grooved, instead of afterward. setting and the second setting.
Polishing over a groove will wallow out the groove,
7
Air Titanium Rim, Optician’s video. Section C. Frichsparken,
Denmark, Lindberg Optic Design (undated).
6 8
DeFranco LM: Eight tips for processing rimless (or semi-rimless) Air Titanium Rim, Optician’s video. Section C. Frichsparken,
eyewear, Eyecare Business, August 1999, p 37. Denmark, Lindberg Optic Design (undated).
286 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

Mounting a Grooved Lens

Grooving a lens twice with a narrow wheel and
achieving the desired result is more difficult than grooving The procedures for mounting a new grooved lens in a
the lens once with the correct wheel width. nylon cord frame or replacing a broken cord and
The process for mounting a lens-recessed rim is remounting the lens are similar. Restringing requires a
similar to that for lenses for nylon cord mountings. A few extra steps but includes everything required for
ribbon is used to pull the rim around the lens. This mounting a new lens in a new frame. The following is
procedure is described later in the chapter. the procedure for restringing:
1. Remove the old cord. Sometimes it is difficult to
remove the end of the cord from the frame groove
Grooving in the Edger because it is wedged in the groove. If this is the
case, a dental pick can be useful for pulling the end
Many newer patternless edgers offer the option of
of the cord out of the groove (Figure 14-18).
grooving the lens in the edger. The increased precision
2. Cut the end of the new cord at an angle. The end of the
of these edgers allows control that includes variable
cord should be cut at an angle to make threading
groove depth, groove width, and groove location.
easier. A razor blade works best (Figure 14-19). If
Figure 14-17 shows how the screen appears for lens
the old cord is unbroken, a new length of cord can
grooving on one such edger.
be cut to match the old. Many choose to purchase
monofilament fishing line as replacement line for
nylon cord frames. The line is 0.4 mm (0.016 inch)
in diameter. The old cord is used as a guide and the
new cord length is cut to match.
3. Thread the cord into one side of the frame. The cord
must be attached to the mounting at two locations.
Each point of attachment consists of two small holes.
Some people prefer to start with the nasal point of
attachment; others the temporal. For illustration
purposes, this example begins temporally.
Starting with the temporal point of attachment,
one end of the nylon line is threaded into the lower
hole from the lens side. Then the same end is

FIGURE 14-17 This grooving screen shows the lens

shape. The highlighted groove % icon shows that 50% of
the edge of the lens is in front of the groove center (leaving
50% behind the groove center). In other words the groove
is centered on the edge. The almost vertical line in the lens
shape shows where the second box down on the right is
measuring finished lens thickness. The distance measures 1.1
mm from the center of the groove to the front and 1.1 mm FIGURE 14-18 When it is difficult to remove a nylon cord
from the center of the groove to the back. The third box from the lens groove of a nylon cord frame, a dental pick
down on the right side shows that the groove depth is makes the job easier. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
0.60 mm. The third icon from the left shows a groove width ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
of 0.8 mm. Heinemann [Figure 7-18].)
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 287

Melted end holds

cord in place

FIGURE 14-19 Cutting the nylon cord at an angle makes

it easier to thread it through the holes in the frame and
allows it to seat smoothly in the groove under the lens. Nylon cord in groove
(From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
[Figure 7-19].)

FIGURE 14-21 With certain types of nylon cord frames

an alternative method used to secure the lens in place is to
melt the end of the string. This hard melted ball will not pull
through the hole.

through the upper hole. With the end of the nylon

cord still loose, the lens is slipped into the upper
part of the frame. It is not shoved tight into the
frame eyewire. The cord is threaded around the
lens and the cord is pulled snug (Figure 14-22).
The cord is not pulled so tight that it stretches.
5. Remove the lens. The excess end of the cord is held
with the thumb so that it does not slide out, and the
lens is removed. (Because the lens was not pressed
up tight into the eyewire it should be able to be
removed without loosening the cord and losing the
FIGURE 14-20 The cord is threaded into the lower hole point of reference for cord length.)
from the inside and back into the upper hole. (From Brooks 6. Take up the slack in the cord. Because the cord was not
CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, pulled tight around the lens, it must be pulled 1.5
Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-20].) to 2 mm farther through the lower hole so that the
lens will be tight enough.
7. Thread the excess cord through the remaining hole. The
threaded into the upper hole, and a length of 1.5 excess cord is threaded through the upper nasal hole
to 2 mm is left (Figure 14-20). For frames that will while the new position of the cord is maintained in
allow, an alternative method of securing the cord is the lower hole.
to melt the end. The nylon balls up and will not slip 8. Clip the excess cord. The excess cord is clipped, which
through the hole (Figure 14-21). leaves 1.5 to 2 mm inside the eyewire. It should be
4. Size the lens. The other end of the cord is slipped clipped at an angle so that it lays down in the
through the lower hole from the lens side at the groove smoothly (Figure 14-23; nail clippers work
nasal point of attachment. It is not threaded as well as regular cutting nippers.)
288 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

FIGURE 14-24 Using a half-padded pliers, the free end of

FIGURE 14-22 When a nylon cord of unknown length is
the cord at each point of attachment is pressed into the
replaced, the cord is pulled snug around the lens but should
groove. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
not stretch. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
[Figure 7-23].)
Heinemann [Figure 7-21].)

edge of the lens and the edge of the eyewire.) This

is done nasally and temporally.
10. Secure the lens in the upper half of the frame. The lens is
inserted into the upper half of the frame beginning
in the upper nasal area (Figure 14-25), followed by
the upper temporal area (Figure 14-26). The lens
should come in behind the nylon cord so that the
cord rests on the front surface of the lens.
11. Stretch the cord into the groove around the lens. To secure
the lens in the frame, the cord must be stretched to
fit into the lens groove. This is done with a plastic
strip. Many people use a fabric ribbon. However, a
ribbon often frays, which leaves threads wedged
between the lens and the cord. These threads are
extremely difficult to remove.
Some metal hooks are made specifically for
stringing lenses. The main hazard of these hooks is
FIGURE 14-23 Once the cord has been sized, extra cord the possibility of causing a small flake of the lens to
is cut off. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic chip out at the groove area. When this occurs the
dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann, lens must be replaced.
[Figure 7-22].) The plastic strip is slipped between the nylon
cord and the lens. The strip then is folded back,
and both ends are grasped together. Beginning at
9. Press the end of the cord into the frame groove. A pair of the thinnest portion of the lens edge and using the
half-padded nylon jaw pliers is used to push the strip to pull the cord around the edge of the lens,
loose end of the cord down into the groove in the the lens is seated into the groove on the way
eyewire (Figure 14-24). (Failure to tuck the cord around (Figure 14-27).
into the groove causes the lens to chip or flake 12. Check the cord tension. Cord tension can be checked
because of the pressure of the cord between the as the plastic strip slides toward the bottom of the
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 289

FIGURE 14-25 The lens is inserted in the frame begin-

FIGURE 14-27 To thread a nylon cord into the lens
ning with the upper nasal corner. (From Brooks CW, Borish
groove, the cord is pulled around the lens, beginning
IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996,
temporally and continuing in a nasal direction. The cord
Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-24].)
must be on the front side of the lens. (From Brooks CW,
Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-26].)

and the length of the cord altered. (Using the dental

pick may be necessary to free the end of the cord
from the frame groove.) Usually the cord will be
loose and have to be shortened. If this is the case, the
earlier steps are repeated, beginning with step 8.
Once the lens is securely seated, one end of the
plastic strip is released and pulled from between
the lens and cord.

RETIGHTENING A LOOSE LENS

If a lens in an old nylon cord frame is loose or has fallen
out, it is better to replace the cord, rather than to
retighten the existing cord. An old cord may have lost
some of its elasticity. The new cord has more elasticity
and is less likely to break later.
FIGURE 14-26 Once the upper nasal corner of the lens is Some have resorted to removing the lens and heating
in place, the upper edge of the lens is seated in the rim. This the old cord. The heat will cause the cord to shrink.
is done through temporal movement across the upper rim When the lens is reinserted it will be tighter but only
while the rim is slipped into the groove. (From Brooks CW, temporarily. Tightening a lens in this manner is not a
Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, good practice. The cord will not remain tightened long
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann [Figure 7-25].)
and the lens may fall out unexpectedly, breaking or
scratching the lens.
lens until it is close to the midpoint of the lens
cord. The strip should be pulled fairly hard. The
NYLON CORD FRAMES WITH LINERS
strip should pull the cord about 0.5 to 1.0 mm away
from the edge of the lens (Figure 14-28). If the Some nylon cord frames have liners that fit into the top
tension is incorrect, the lens should be removed eyewire channel of the frame. These liners are called
290 CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS

figure-8 liners because, when viewed from the end (in

cross-section) the liner looks like the number 8. One
part of the 8 is smaller than the other.
If it is necessary to replace the figure-8 liner in the
top eyewire, a knife blade, file, or dental pick is used to
dig into the liner and slide it out either end. The old
length of liner is measured and a new piece of the same
length is cut. To aid in insertion of the figure-8 liner
back into the top eyewire, the new piece should be cut
at an angle.
Using the smallest side of the figure 8 first and
beginning either nasally or temporally, the operator
slides the liner into the top eyewire channel. The entire
piece of liner is fed in and centered in the channel. If
the liner seems loose, it is turned around and the larger
side is used. Care should be taken not to block any of
the four holes used to hold the nylon cord in place.
Some frames use a thin, raised metal ridge in the top
rim of the nylon cord frame to lend stability to the
mounting instead of a figure-8 liner. Regrooving that
FIGURE 14-28 To check for cord tension, the plastic strip section of the lens with a wider groove may be advisable.
is slid toward the bottom central part of the cord and pulled Then when the frame flexes, the lens is less likely to
fairly hard. As shown, the cord should stretch some; no more chip along the groove.
than a 1.0-mm gap should show between the cord and the
lens. A gap between 0.5 and 1.0 mm indicates the correct
amount of tension. (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for
ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-
Heinemann, [Figure 7-27].)

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following is not a synonym for a 4. True or False? Edging and grooving lenses on
nylon cord frame? some lens edgers is possible.

a. Nebulon 5. True or False? A heavy safety bevel on a grooved

b. String mount lens may cause the edge to be weak.
c. Nylor
d. Suspension mounting 6. If a lens is ordered with polished edges, the edges
e. Nylon supra should be polished at which of the following times?

2. True or False? FDA regulations prohibit the use of a. Before the lens is grooved
glass lenses in nylon cord frames. b. After the lens is grooved
c. Either before or after the lens is grooved—it
3. Which of the following is the minimum edge makes no difference
thickness that is recommended for grooved
high-index and polycarbonate lenses? 7. Normally the required groove depth for a lens to
be mounted in a nylon cord frame is which of the
a. 1.5 mm following?
b. 2.4 mm
c. 2.8 mm a. 0.4-0.5 mm
d. 3.2 mm b. 0.9-1.0 mm
e. No recommended minimum edge c. 1.4-1.5 mm
d. 1.9-2.0 mm
CHAPTER 14 NYLON CORD AND OTHER GROOVE MOUNTINGS 291

8. Match the lens with the most likely groove 13. During grooving of a polycarbonate lens, because
placement. polycarbonate is soft, which of the following is
correct?
1. In the middle of the edge
2. Closer to the front edge a. The lens should be grooved slightly deeper
3. Close to the back edge than normal.
b. The lens should be grooved slightly less deep
a. High-powered minu powered lens than normal.
b. Low-powered plus or minus lens c. The lens should be grooved in two or more
c. Franklin-style lens passes, with the first pass being half the depth
and the second, the full depth.
9. True or False? If the lens grooving process d. Both a and c are correct.
progresses in the normal manner, a change in the e. Both b and c are correct.
sound of the cutting-wheel means that the lens
groove has been cut all the way around the edge. 14. When threading the nylon cord into one side of a
nylon cord frame, the operator should start with
10. On a lens groover that has two switches—one for which of the following?
lens rotation and the other for cutting wheel
rotation—which of the following is turned on a. The upper hole and thread it in from the
first? outside of the frame
b. The upper hole and thread it in from the lens
a. The cutting wheel rotation switch side
b. The lens rotation switch c. The lower hole and thread it in from the
c. Both must be turned on at the same time. outside of the frame
d. It makes absolutely no difference. d. The lower hole and thread it in from the lens
side
11. On a lens groover that has two switches—one for
lens rotation and the other for cutting wheel 15. For a nylon cord frame, how much extra cord
rotation—after the lens has been grooved all the length should there be on each end of the cord?
way around, which of the following switches is
turned off first? a. 0.5-1.0 mm
b. 1.5-2.0 mm
a. The cutting wheel rotation switch c. 2.5-3.0 mm
b. The lens rotation switch d. 3.0-3.5 mm
c. Both must be turned off at the same time. e. 4.0-4.5 mm
d. It makes absolutely no difference.
16. To check for the correct amount of cord tension
12. Reaching into an ultrasonic cleaning unit on a nylon cord frame, using a plastic strip, pull
repeatedly with the unit still on may cause which the cord away from the lens edge fairly hard. The
of the following? strip should pull the cord how far from the lens
edge?
a. Fingernail damage
b. Skin cancer a. The cord should not pull away from the lens
c. Arthritis edge at all.
d. Dry skin b. The cord should pull away less than 0.5 mm.
e. All of the above c. The cord should pull away between 0.5 mm
and 1.0 mm.
d. The cord should pull away between 1.5 mm
and 2.0 mm.

17. True or False? A rapid and acceptable method for

retightening a loose lens in a nylon cord frame is
to remove the lens, heat the cord in the frame
heater to shrink it, and remount the lens.
 Lens Impact
15 Resistance and
Testing

T he optical finishing laboratory is the last step

before lenses and frame become finished
eyewear. When the product is assembled, it must be
suitable for wear. The product’s suitability involves legal,
optical, and aesthetic aspects. To be suitable for wear,
the spectacles must be safe enough to pass certain
preestablished standards. This section investigates impact
resistance and how impact resistance is determined to
be sufficient.

General Eyewear Categories

Eyewear is divided into the following three broad
categories:
1. Dress eyewear: designed for everyday use
2. Safety eyewear: designed to meet higher standards of
impact resistance because it will be worn in situations
that could be potentially hazardous to the eyes
3. Sports eyewear: designed to protect the eyes and/or
enhance vision in specific sports situations; the design
varies by sport

Requirements for Dress Eyewear

There did not used to be any impact-resistance
requirements for dress ophthalmic lenses in the United
States. The United States is currently the only country
with an impact-resistance requirement for dress eyewear.1
1
Impact resistance compliance guide: street/dress eyewear (not industrial
eyewear), Falls Church, Va, 1998, Optical Laboratory Association, p 3.
In many countries it is possible to surface glass lenses to the patient, explaining that the patient is receiving
as thin as 0.3 mm and still dispense the lenses for a lens that is not impact resistant.
regular spectacle lens wear. Such lenses appear thin Q: May a physician or optometrist prescribe
and are still considered optically excellent. However, non–impact-resistant lenses for a patient for purely
they afford little protection for the eyes, and in many cosmetic reasons?
situations end up becoming a hazard to the wearer. A: No. If medical problems are related to cosmetic
considerations, however, the physician or optometrist
may invoke special exemption provisions of the
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION regulation based on professional judgment. For
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began example, if the patient’s prescription cannot be filled
mandating impact resistance for dress ophthalmic by impact-resistant lenses because the physician or
lenses in 1971. Since then all eyeglass and sunglass optometrist knows from previous experience that
lenses must be impact resistant, except when the opto- the weight of the heavy lenses may cause headaches,
metrist or physician finds that they will not otherwise undue pressure on the bridge of the nose or ears,
fulfill the patient’s visual requirements. If the lens pressure sores, etc., the physician or optometrist may
cannot be rendered impact resistant, this must be find that the visual requirements of the patient
recorded in the patient’s record and the patient also cannot be met by use of impact-resistant lenses.
must be notified in writing.
For lenses to qualify for impact resistance, they must
meet certain qualifications.
Situations for Dispensing Non–Impact-Resistant
Lenses
Some dispensers may assume that a written agreement
MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR DRESS
having the patient assume responsibility makes it
OPHTHALMIC LENSES
possible to dispense non–impact-resistant lenses. This
does not ensure freedom from liability. The following Formerly the American National Standards Institute
are the FDA’s responses to three frequently asked (ANSI) Z80.1 prescription lens standards had a
questions regarding dispensing non–impact-resistant minimum thickness recommendation of 2.0 mm. Now
lenses2: no thickness recommendation exists. FDA impact-
resistance requirements are—and have always been—
Q: Under what circumstances may retailers
performance-based; the lens must be capable of with-
dispense lenses that are not impact resistant?
standing a predetermined amount of impact. If that
A: Lenses that are not impact resistant may be
requirement can be met with lenses that are thinner
dispensed when a physician or optometrist determines
than 2.0 mm, the lens is acceptable. Today many lenses
that impact-resistant lenses will not fulfill the visual
can meet current impact-resistance requirements and still
requirements of a particular patient. The physician
be below 2.0 mm, including some types of glass lenses.
or optometrist directs this in writing and gives written
notification to the patient.
Q: Can a retailer supply a non–impact-resistant IMPACT-RESISTANCE TEST
lens if a patient requests it or if the patient/customer REQUIREMENTS
agrees to assume all responsibility?
The standard “referee test” for determination of impact-
A: No. Non–impact-resistant lenses may be provided
resistance suitability for dress ophthalmic lenses is the
only when the physician or optometrist determines
drop-ball test. This test has specific administration
that impact-resistant lenses will not fulfill the visual
guidelines. However, the FDA states that this does not
requirements of the patient…. In such cases the
inhibit the lens manufacturer from using equal or
physician or optometrist must give notice in writing
superior test methods to test for impact resistance.

2
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS
Publication FDA 87-4002, Rockville, Md, Revised September 1987, US THE DROP-BALL TEST
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological To be judged acceptable, first a lens is placed front-
Health, pp 11-12. side-up on a neoprene gasket. It must be capable of

293
294 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Drop-Ball Testing of Glass Lenses

With few exceptions, all glass lenses must be hardened
and individually subjected to the drop-ball test. Only
lenses that could be damaged by the test are exempt.
These lenses must still be hardened but do not need to
be tested. Glass lenses that are exempt from testing are
the following:
• Raised multifocal lenses (lenses that have a ledge
area on the lens, such as an Executive lens)
• Prism segment multifocals
• Slab-off lenses
• Lenticular cataract lenses
• Iseikonic (size) lenses
• Depressed-segment one-piece multifocals
• Biconcave, myodisc, and minus lenticular lenses
• Custom laminate lenses (such as polarizing lenses)
• Cement assembly lenses

INDIVIDUAL VERSUS BATCH TESTING

Batch testing is the practice of selectively testing a
statistically significant number of lenses in a manufactured
group. This prevents having to test individually lenses
that could sustain damage by the test. The practice of
batch testing is permitted for plastic lenses and
nonprescription lenses such as mass-produced sunglass
lenses. Glass, plano-powered sunglass lenses that are
FIGURE 15-1 A drop-ball tester drops a steel ball on the
produced individually in a finishing laboratory must
front surface of a lens from 50 inches.
still be individually drop-ball tested.

Performing Batch Testing

withstanding the impact of a 5/8-inch steel ball weighing Most—but not all—lens manufacturers normally batch-
0.56 ounce, dropped from a height of 50 inches (Figure test for finished lens product impact resistance. This
15-1). (The exact specifications for the drop-ball test allows finished plastic lenses edged in a finishing
are given in Appendix C.) laboratory to avoid individual testing or batch testing.
The area of contact that the dropped steel ball makes Currently, nearly every lens manufacturer states that
with the surface of the lens influences the outcome of laboratories must perform testing to ensure impact
the test. Because with use these steel balls deform over resistance for lenses that have been surfaced from
time they should be replaced periodically. Similarly, the semifinished product.
neoprene gasket compresses and loses some elasticity If the lens is altered after having been received, as
over time. If a worn gasket is not replaced, the per- when it is sent out for antireflection (AR) coating, its
centage of glass lenses that pass the drop-ball test will impact resistance is altered. A great many types of coat-
decrease by 25%.3 ings could be applied to the lens. Each of these coatings
affects the impact resistance of the lens differently.
Timing of Drop-Ball Test The envelope or box that the lens comes in should
Glass lenses must be tested after the lens has been state whether the lens has been batch tested. If the
edged and hardened and before it is placed in the frame. package has nothing on it about impact testing, even if
Plastic lenses may be tested in the “uncut-finished” stage it is polycarbonate, it must be tested for FDA
before they have been edged. compliance.4
Typically the AR-coating laboratory batch tests lenses
being coated. Laboratory personnel use lenses of the
3
Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
4
Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, pp 3-4. Young J: Technical Information for Labs, Lab Talk, 25(11):25, 1997.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 295

EFFECT OF LENS PROCESSING ON

same material and minimum thickness as those sent to
IMPACT RESISTANCE
them for coating. Finishing laboratory personnel are
responsible to communicate with the company that A number of processes can be performed on a lens that
applies the coating to determine that testing require- affect the way the lens is able to resist the impact of an
ments have been fulfilled. object. One of the most obvious is lens thickness: the
thinner the lens, the less the impact resistance will be.
Other factors may reduce impact resistance. Some of
DEFINING ‘MANUFACTURER’ the more significant ones are listed below.
A large number of participants are involved in the
process of making a pair of glasses. One company makes Effect of Lens Coatings on Impact Resistance
the lenses, another may surface the lenses, a third may When a plastic lens is either scratch-resistant–coated or
edge the lenses, and someone else could coat the antireflection-(AR-)coated, the impact resistance of the
lenses. Who then is the manufacturer of the finished lens normally decreases. This seems opposite to what
eyeglasses? Although in a lawsuit, each participating would be expected.
party is likely to be named, final responsibility lies Both scratch-resistance and AR coatings are harder
heavily with the unit that performed the final process than the plastic lens material to which they adhere.
on that lens. The following is the FDA’s response to the When a lens breaks, the break starts at the weakest
question: point. If a plastic lens is hit by an object, the lens may
flex but may not break. However, if the coating is
Q: In terms of the regulation, who is the
harder than the lens, as the lens flexes, the harder
manufacturer?
(more brittle) coating cracks before the uncoated lens
A: The manufacturer is the person who puts the
would. When the coating is bonded strongly to the lens,
lens in the form ready for its intended use or who
the energy that is concentrated at the first crack is
alters the physical or chemical characteristics of the
released. The released energy travels through the lens
lens by such acts as grinding, heat treating, beveling,
and may cause it to break.
or cutting. For the purpose of this regulation the
Corzine and colleagues7 used a static load form of
term “manufacturer” includes a company that imports
testing8 and compared uncoated CR-39 lenses to the
eyeglasses for resale.5
following:
In this chain of manufacturing events, the question
• Scratch-resistance–coated lenses
of record-keeping may arise. The following is how the
• Five-layer AR-coated lenses
FDA poses and answers this question:
• Lenses that had been prepped for AR coating but
Q: What are the record keeping requirements on were not yet AR-coated
partially finished lenses furnished by one manufacturer
The mean fracture load required to break the lenses
for completion by another?
in each category were as follows:
A: Records must be kept to show how lenses were
rendered impact-resistant, when and how they were Uncoated CR-39: 587
tested for impact resistance, and by whom in the Scratch-resistance coated CR-39: 505
processing chain these actions were accomplished.6 AR-coated CR-39: 465
AR-prepped, but not AR-coated CR-39: 609
This means that if the retailer is the manufacturer,
then the record-keeping requirements of the manu- As can be seen from the results, the weakening of the
facturer apply. Retailers also have a 3-year requirement lens is as a result of the coating itself, not by the process
of keeping the names and addresses of persons buying the lens is subjected to in preparation for coating.
prescription eyewear. This tendency of the coating to reduce impact
resistance can be countered to some extent by using
cushion coatings or primers applied to the surface of
5
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS the lens before the application of a hard coating.9
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 7, Rockville, Md, Revised September
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
7
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Corzine JC, Greer RB, Bruess RD, et al: The effects of coatings on the
Radiological Health. fracture resistance of ophthalmic lenses, Optometry and Vision Science
6
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS 73:8, 1996.
8
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 10, Rockville, Md, Revised September Static load testing is where an increasing amount of pressure is
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health applied to the lens until the lens finally breaks.
9
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
Radiological Health. Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, p 5.
296 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Newer methods of coating probably will be engineered Effect of Drilling and Grooving on Impact
with impact resistance in mind. Resistance
In consideration of the effect a coating may have, a Drilled glass lenses that are heat treated are not safe to wear.
point worth remembering is that highly impact- They may pass the drop-ball test in their unmounted
resistant lenses such as polycarbonate still have plenty state, but the compounded stress brought about by the
of impact resistance, regardless of the coating. The mounting causes the mounted lenses to fail too easily.
main concern is for plastic lenses, especially some high- Drilled lenses that are tempered chemically will pass
index plastic lenses. These lenses might be surfaced the drop-ball test and are not as affected by drill
very thin and then have a coating applied without the mounting as are heat-treated lenses. Nevertheless, glass
benefit of cushion or primer coatings. As the number lenses are seldom used in a drill mounting even when
of finished stock lenses that have been AR-coated at the chemically tempered.
factory increases, there may be a resulting increase in In fact, glass lenses are seldom used with grooved
impact-resistance quality. This result is because cushion lenses either. In 1993, Optical Laboratories Association
or primer coatings can be engineered for the specific Technical Director George Chase addressed the glass
plastic substrate/lens coating combination being lens grooving/drilling issue in an OLA Tech Topics
delivered in a factory-finished, already-coated, uncut paper. He indicated that even though drilled and
lens blank. grooved glass lenses normally would pass the drop-ball
Lenses sent out for coating have the chemical charac- test, the unprotected, exposed lens edges were likely to
teristics of the lens altered by the coating process. It chip or microcrack with normal use and reduce impact
then becomes the responsibility of the coating laboratory strength. If drilled or grooved glass lenses are to be
to comply with testing requirements for impact made, the OLA encourages optical laboratories to first
resistance. The edging laboratory personnel should be obtain a waiver from the person ordering the lenses.12
certain that the coating laboratory personnel fulfill
these responsibilities. Otherwise the edging laboratory Effect of Surface Scratches on Impact Resistance
becomes responsible.10 A scratched lens surface reduces impact resistance. The
scratch introduces a weak spot on the lens and creates
Effect of Re-edging on Impact Resistance a sort of “fault line.” The scratch provides an easy area
Re-edging a plastic lens to another shape after it has for stress to build during impact, which makes breakage
been edged once does not significantly affect impact more likely. To better imagine how this works, the
resistance. However, edging or re-edging a glass lens reader may think about how panes of glass are “scored”
that already has been hardened will affect impact with a diamond so that they may be broken along the
resistance. So may a hardened glass lens be re-edged to scored line.
a new shape and then worn? The following is the FDA’s Contrary to intuition, scratches on the back surface
response to the question: of a lens reduce lens impact resistance more than front
surface scratches. Glass or CR-39 lenses with front
Q: May a glass lens, after it has been chemically or
surface scratches were reduced in impact resistance by
thermally treated for impact resistance, be processed
20%, whereas CR-39 lenses with back surface scratches
further in any way?
were reduced in impact resistance by 80%.13
A: Lenses that are treated for impact resistance by
induced surface compression may be re-edged or
modified for power. However, the beneficial effects
of surface compression may be reduced substantially. ‘Duty To Inform’
Such lenses must be retreated and tested before they
Eyeglasses come in a large variety of lens materials.
are dispensed to the patient.11
Each of these materials varies in impact resistance.
Lenses that have a lower impact resistance may be
acceptable for a person with a sedentary lifestyle but
would not be appropriate for children who run and
play. Laboratory personnel have no way of knowing the
10 lifestyle of the person whose name appears at the top of
Torgensen D: The effect of coatings on impact resistance,
Clearvisions (Optical Laboratories Association), 3(7):8, 2000.
11 12
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS Chase G (as quoted by Torgerson D): Impact resistance questions
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 9, Rockville, Md, Revised September and answers (May 26, 1993), OLA Tech Topic (Optical Laboratories
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Association), February 1998, p 4.
13
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
Radiological Health. Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, p 4.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 297

the prescription form. Yet the laboratory usually is is meant for the wearer and is not to be removed by the
named in a lawsuit. dispenser.
The optical laboratory personnel must lower their This particular OLA program is only one method of
potential liability and ensure the wearer of the ensuring that the wearer is informed fully regarding the
eyeglasses knows of variability in protection given by choices available in lens material and is able to make an
different options in spectacles. The Optical Laboratories informed decision. The mechanics of such a program
Association and others recommend a program of and the methods of passing along the information may
ensuring that wearers are informed of the availability of be varied, depending upon the eyecare practice. The
highly impact-resistant lens material. This type of most important aspect is getting that information
program is called “Duty to Inform.” conveyed in a clear, documented, and regular manner
A similar phrase, “duty to warn,” was used originally that reflects a consistent practice policy.
in a 1980s court case. In that case it was maintained that
the eye injury was a result of negligence by the
dispenser. Lawyers argued that “the dispenser, owner,
laboratory, manufacturer, and all other parties down FDA LABORATORY LABELING
the line had a duty to inform the patient about all REQUIREMENTS
products and options, including the ones purchased.”14
In other words, laboratories and optical dispensers may When an optical laboratory sends a finished spectacle
not have a legal responsibility but do have a professional prescription to an account, the FDA requires certain
responsibility to warn prospective wearers of the dangers labeling, as follows:
that may be associated with wearing spectacles that are Under 21 C.F.R. § 801.1, the label on prescription
not suited for certain potentially hazardous situations. spectacle lenses, or finished spectacles containing those
lenses, must conspicuously contain the name and address
of the optical laboratory (city, state, Zip code, and street
HOW THE PROGRAM WORKS address, if not in current telephone directory) and such
The “duty to inform” program that the Optical name and address should be prefaced with the phrase,
“Distributed by .” The name of the cor-
Laboratories Association recommends starts with the
poration must be the actual corporate name, which may be
eye examination and includes the optical dispensary preceded or followed by the name of a particular division
and the laboratory. The following is an overview of the of the corporation.
OLA Program, which is currently under revision. In addition, the label on prescription spectacle lenses,
At the time of the visual examination the patient or finished spectacle lenses containing those lenses, must
would receive a “Lens Menu.” This pamphlet describes contain the Rx legend, which is simply the text, “Rx Only.”
the variety of options available in lenses. It includes an The label must be “open the immediate container” (not
explanation of lens materials, lens designs (e.g., including package liners) of each set of lenses or finished
aspherics, bifocals, progressives), specialty glasses such spectacles.15
as sports or computer, and lens treatments such as These requirements must be fulfilled by use of the
ultraviolet (UV) protection. The pamphlet is used as laboratory invoice as a “label.” The invoice is printed
a basis for the prescriber and dispenser to explain with the name and address of the laboratory, along with
available lens options. A clear “Vision Safety Notice,” is the words “Rx Only.” It is then folded to expose this
being revised to inform the patient of lens materials printing and secured to the eyeglasses or slipped into
capable of withstanding high impact. At present, the plastic bag holding the eyeglasses so that it may be
these materials are polycarbonate and Trivex (PPG seen through the bag. Alternatively, the label address
Industries, Pittsburgh, Pa.), but new materials with and the words “Rx Only” can be printed on the outside
high-impact capabilities are sure to emerge. of the bag or packing material that encloses the eyeglasses.
When the laboratory personnel complete the The FDA also requires that “…copies of invoices,
spectacles, a printed warning is enclosed with each. shipping documents and records of sale for distribution
These warnings vary, depending upon whether the of all impact resistant lenses be kept and maintained
finished spectacles are dress eyewear, glass safety for a period of three years.”16
spectacles, hard resin safety spectacles, polycarbonate
safety spectacles, or unfinished eyewear components. 15
Hart HA, Smith R: Checklist of federal statutes and regulations of
Except in the case of unfinished components, the warning particular interest to the optical lab, Falls Church, Va, 2002, Optical
Laboratories Association, p 7.
16
Hart HA, Smith R: Checklist of federal statutes and regulations of
14
Duty to Warn: how to set up a program, Eyecare Business, June 1998, particular interest to the optical lab, Falls Church, Va, 2002, Optical
p 53. Laboratories Association, p 9.
298 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Safety Eyewear standards will be affirmed. The older standard has one
set of requirements for all safety eyewear. The new
Safety eyewear has been an extremely important factor standards may have two levels of standards. One is
in reducing eye injuries. Although safety eyewear is a called basic impact; the other, high impact. The 1998-
must in industry, 60% of eye injuries occur because of a affirmed Z87.1 standard is the same as the basic-impact
failure to wear eye protection at the time of the level for what the new standard is expected to be. In the
accident. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, next sections of the chapter, the two levels of impact
of the remaining 40%, “these workers were most likely resistance requirements that may become the new
to be wearing protective eyeglasses with no side standard are explained.
shields… .”17

REGULATION OF SAFETY EYEWEAR Basic-Impact Requirements for

The standards used for safety lenses and frames are put Safety Eyewear
forth by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). The requirements for use of safety eyewear are Because two levels of safety eyewear may be set forth by
regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health ANSI, the logical question is, why would anyone want to
Administration (OSHA). wear a basic-impact lens when high-impact lenses are
available? Glass lenses are in the basic-impact category.
ANSI In a number of work situations workers are cleaning
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is their glasses constantly; for example, places with a lot of
an industry-based standards-setting association. ANSI dust and places in which liquids or mists are present. In
is not just an agency for ophthalmic matters, but it these situations, plastic and polycarbonate lenses may
addresses standards throughout all of industry, of which scratch. Glass lenses withstand scratching better and
the ophthalmic industry is only a small part. will not have to be replaced constantly. Badly scratched
lenses are irritating to wear and, if vision is impaired,
ANSI’s Relation to OSHA may create a safety hazard.
ANSI standards for dress eyewear are unrelated to
OSHA requirements. However, for safety eyewear, the
situation changes. For safety eyewear the American
BASIC-IMPACT THICKNESS
National Standard Practice for Occupational and
REQUIREMENTS
Educational Eye and Face Protection (ANSI Standard Historically thickness requirements for prescription
Z87.1) has the power of a regulatory instrument. This is safety lenses are a minimum thickness of 3.0 mm, with
because OSHA has incorporated the Z87.1 standard the exception being for plus lenses that have a power of
into their requirements. The Z87.1 standard defines +3.00 D or higher in the most plus meridian of the
what constitutes a pair of safety glasses. The standard distance portion of the lens. Because high plus lenses
goes beyond safety glasses, however, to include the are so much thicker in the center, these lenses may be
whole area of nonprescription eye and face protective thinned to a 2.5 mm minimum edge thickness. These
devices. standards continue on in the basic-impact category.

BASIC-IMPACT TESTING REQUIREMENTS

Impact Requirements for Safety The testing requirements for basic-impact safety lenses
Eyewear are similar to those for dress ophthalmic lenses. Dress
lenses are required to withstand the impact of a 5/8 -inch
At the time of this writing the Z87.1 requirements for steel ball dropped from 50 inches. Basic-impact safety
safety eyewear are those that were passed in 1989 and lenses must withstand the impact of a 1-inch steel ball
reaffirmed in 1998. However, new standards for safety dropped from 50 inches.
eyewear are out for review. It appears likely that these
BASIC-IMPACT MARKING REQUIREMENTS
17
Basic-impact safety lenses must be marked with the
Eye protection in the workplace, US Department of Labor Program
Highlight, Fact Sheet No. OSHA 93-03, GPO: 1993 0-353-374, manufacturer’s logo or identifying marking. The
Washington, DC, 1993, US Department of Labor. markings are applied after edging. In-house laboratories
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 299

TABLE 15-1
Current and Anticipated ANSI Z87.1 Lens Marking Requirements

JO, James Optical (fictitious optical company).

*All markings must be legible and permanent and placed so that interference with the vision of the wearer is minimal.
†
Basic-impact requirements are historically the same as the Z87.1-1989 standard and are part of the projected new standard that would include both basic and
high-impact lenses.
‡
“Many such (special purpose) lenses offer inadequate ultraviolet and/or infrared protection; caution shall be exercised in their use. For each application, the
responsible individual shall ensure that the proper ultraviolet, infrared, and visible protection is provided. Spectral transmittance data shall be available to buyers
upon request.” (ANSI Z87.1-1989 American National Standard Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection, New York, 1989, American National
Standards Institute, Inc, p 14.)

that do their own edging of safety lenses must mark the Then the mask is sandblasted. The cutout area exposes
lenses. Marks on the surface of the lens should not the lens to the sand and etches the exposed lens
interfere with straight-ahead viewing; they must, surface, which creates the desired symbol (Figure 15-5).
however, be visible. They usually appear at the center Plastic lenses may be marked by indentation of the
of the top of the lens or in the upper, outer corner. If surface. To do this, a small branding-iron–like tool is
the lens is other than a clear lens, it may require an mounted on a specifically designed pair of pliers. The
additional marking. A summary of these marking tool has the shape of the manufacturer’s symbol. When
requirements is found in Table 15-1. A lens that is thick it is squeezed against the lens surface, the surface
enough to be classed as a safety lens and strong enough indents.
to pass safety lens impact testing is not acceptable as a A third option is to “tattoo” the lens using a discreet
safety lens until it is marked with the required method of laser engraving.
manufacturer identification.
WARNING LABELS FOR BASIC-IMPACT
Methods Used to Mark Safety Lenses
LENSES
Several methods may be used to mark safety lenses.
These include sandblasting, indenting, and laser Basic-impact safety glasses are not as impact resistant as
engraving. high-impact safety glasses. The person wearing the
Sandblasting is the only method that works for glass lenses needs to know this. Therefore, if the standards
lenses. The same sandblasting unit (Figure 15-2) works pass as anticipated, a warning must accompany basic-
equally well for plastic lenses. To mark the lens, a thin impact eyewear. That warning will be in the form of a
rubber “mask” is used. This mask has a cutout of the hang tag or label to be removed only by the wearer. The
manufacturer’s mark. Before each use the rubber mask label must say that the lenses meet the basic-impact
is brushed clean (Figure 15-3). The lens is placed on the requirements but should not be relied upon for
mask at the desired location of the mark (Figure 15-4). protection from high-impact exposure.
300 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

FIGURE 15-4 The lens is placed on the rubber mask

FIGURE 15-2 A sandblasting unit may be used to mark where the safety marking is to be etched. The mask is
safety lenses. sandblasted from underneath, leaving an imprint of the logo
on the lens.

FIGURE 15-5 An identifying marking on a safety lens.

FIGURE 15-3 A rubber mask stenciled with the identi- HIGH-IMPACT THICKNESS
fying lens and laboratory marking is positioned in the REQUIREMENTS
sandblasting unit. Before each use it should be brushed
clean. Loose sand particles can scratch the lens. The thickness requirement for high-impact safety lenses
is that they be 2.0 mm thick or more. This includes both
prescription and nonprescription (plano) safety lenses.

High-Impact Requirements for

HIGH-IMPACT TESTING REQUIREMENTS
Safety Eyewear
High-impact safety lenses must pass the high-velocity
High-impact requirements allow the lenses to be thinner impact test. In this test the lens must be capable of
than basic-impact lenses. However, the tests that high- withstanding the force of a 1/4 -inch steel ball traveling
impact lenses must withstand are more stringent. at 150 feet/sec when mounted on a special holder.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 301

TABLE 15-2
Safety Lens Requirements
TYPE OF THICKNESS MARKING* IMPACT
REQUIREMENT TESTING

Basic 3.0 mm Manufacturer’s 1-inch steel ball

impact† 2.5 mm if logo dropped from
power in 50 inches
most plus
meridian is
+3.00 D
or more
High 2.0 mm Manufacturer’s 1-inch steel ball
impact logo + dropped from
50 inches and
1/ -inch steel
4
ball traveling
at 150 feet/sec

*See also Table 15-1.

†
Basic-impact requirements are historically the same as the Z87.1-1989 FIGURE 15-6 The high-velocity impact test fires a 1/4-inch
standard and are part of the projected new standard that would include both
basic- and high-impact lenses.
steel ball at 150 feet/sec at a frame or lens.

HIGH-IMPACT MARKING REQUIREMENTS

High-impact safety lenses are marked in the same
manner as basic-impact lenses, except that they are to
be additionally marked with a plus (+) symbol—not just
the manufacturer’s logo (Table 15-2).

Safety Frames
In 1989 the ANSI standards for safety frames dropped
specific design requirements, including groove design.
Instead, requirements are performance based. Safety
frames must withstand certain specific impact tests that
are not required of normal dress frames. Frames are
placed on a head model. When impact occurs, the frame
cannot break. Nor can the frame or lens come into
contact with the eye.
One test is the high-velocity impact test. This test simulates
a high-velocity, low-mass object. In the high-velocity
impact test a series of 1/4 -inch steel balls traveling at 150
feet per second are directed at 20 different parts of the
glazed frame18 (Figure 15-6). A new frame is used for
each impact. Neither the frame nor the lens can break,
nor can the lens come out of the frame.
The second test simulates the impact of a large,
pointed, slow-moving object. In this high-mass impact test
a pointed, conical-tipped projectile, 1 inch in diameter,
weighing 17.6 ounces, is dropped 51.2 inches through
a tube and onto the eyeglasses (Figure 15-7). The lens
must not break, nor come out of the frame. FIGURE 15-7 The high-mass impact test drops a pointed,
18
A glazed frame is a frame with lenses. In this case the lenses are 1-inch diameter projectile onto the eyeglasses from 51.2
plano in power. inches.
302 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

MARKING SAFETY FRAMES frame with dress-thickness lenses is no more safety

With safety requirements, a clear distinction between eyewear than a dress frame with safety lenses. Eyeglasses
“dress” frames and safety frames must be kept in mind. are not safety glasses until both the frame and lenses
Dress frames are those worn for everyday purposes. No are in compliance.
matter how sturdy the construction of a dress frame, it Intentionally thick lenses should not be placed in a
is still not a safety frame unless it meets certain pair of regular frames for increased safety. If safety is
requirements and is marked as a safety frame. important enough to warrant thick lenses, it is important
The first requirement is that it be capable of with- enough to warrant safety or sports-type frames. “Safety”
standing a series of stress tests. If the frames are capable lenses in regular frames can give the wearer a false sense
of passing these tests and have been so certified, they of security and the mistaken impression than this is a
may be marked as safety frames. Without these “safe” prescription. Under no circumstances should a pair
markings, the frames are not safety frames. Markings of lenses be marked as safety and placed in a nonsafety frame.
consist of size, the manufacturer’s trademark, and the
all-important Z87 marking on temples and front,
indicating compliance with ANSI Z87 standards.
SIDE SHIELDS
With the anticipated passage of new requirements in Now that eye protection is required and used in many
the form of a high-impact category of safety lenses, more settings, eye injuries that happen to people wearing
safety frames intended for use with 2.0-millimeter thick safety glasses usually occur from the side. Therefore
lenses must be tested for 2.0-mm thick lenses. When “use of protectors providing side protection should be
successfully designed and tested, these frames are to be encouraged whenever practical.”19
marked Z87-2 instead of just Z87. The “2” signifies that Side shields may be removable or permanent
the frame is suitable for lenses with a minimum thickness (Figure 15-8). Most people would rather not wear side
of 2 or 3 mm (Box 15-1). The new requirements will be shields if given the choice. If side shields are constantly
for all safety frames, meaning that all frames will need required, then permanent side shields are logical.
to be marked “Z87-2.” Removable side shields have the advantage of being
able to be taken off when working in a nonhazardous
situation. The drawback is that removable side shields
DEFINING SAFETY GLASSES
often end up not being worn when they should.
Safety frames should be used only with safety lenses. Side shields are not universally interchangeable. A
Regular lenses must not be put into a safety frame, even to removable side shield designed for one particular type
save the wearer money. A pair of regular “dress” lenses
placed in a safety frame may give the wearer the 19
American National Standard practice for occupational and educational eye
impression that they are wearing safety glasses. A safety and face protection, Z87.1-1989, New York, 1989, American National
Standards Institute, Inc, p 15.

BOX 15-1
Safety Frame Marking Requirements

Fronts
• A-dimension (eyesize)
• DBL (distance between lenses)
• “Z87-2”*
• Manufacturer’s identifying trademark

Temples
• Overall length
• “Z87-2”*
• Manufacturer’s identifying trademark
• “Z87-2” markings also required for side shields

*The marking “Z87” indicates frame compliance with Z87.1-1989 standards.

After new standards take effect, the “Z87-2” marking will indicate frame
compliance with high-impact standards. Thereafter, frames with removable
lenses will only be marked “Z87” if the lenses in the frames are non-Rx (plano). FIGURE 15-8 Some side shields are removable.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 303

of frame will not necessarily provide the ANSI-standard- remember that as glass heats, it expands and becomes
approved protection required if used on a different more like a liquid. When the hot lens is struck by cool
type of frame. air against its outer surfaces, the outer surfaces
“freeze.” The inner part of the lens cools more slowly.
As it is cooling it is trying to contract. But the outer part
Hardening Glass Lenses of the lens is already “frozen” and refuses to shrink
farther. This creates an inner pull on the lens, which
Glass lenses are not impact resistant enough to pass the induces stress. Part of the stress is surface compaction
FDA-mandated impact test unless they are hardened. or squeezing called maximum compressive stress. Another
Currently two methods are used to harden glass lenses. part of the stress is called maximum tensile stress. This
One uses a heat-treating process and the second a stress creates strength in the same way that the
chemical-tempering process. Not all types of glass are tightened spokes on a bicycle wheel add strength to the
capable of being tempered. These types may be used rim. These forces result in a compression of the lens
only in the United States if no other type of lens surface. The depth from the outside surface of the lens
material is acceptable for the visual needs of the wearer. where compressive stress and tensile stress meet is
Scratched lenses are more likely to break than called the depth of compression.
unscratched lenses regardless of the method used to The advantage to heat treating is that it is fast. The
harden a lens. Scratches introduce weak points on the disadvantage is that the heat-tempered lens is not as
lens. A scratched heat-tempered lens loses more of its impact resistant as lenses that are chemically tempered.
impact resistance than a scratched chemically tempered
(or chemtempered) lens. For maximum safety, scratched
lenses should be replaced.
CHEMICAL TEMPERING
Glass lenses are hardened chemically by immersing
them in molten salt. The salt used for clear crown glass
HEAT-TREATING PROCESS and tinted crown glass lenses is potassium nitrate
Heat treating is done by placement of the edged glass (KNO3). During the process of chemical tempering,
lens into a small kiln, where the temperature is high smaller Sodium (Na) or Lithium (Li) ions from the
enough to almost bring the glass to the softening point. glass are drawn out of the lens surface and replaced by
The lens is left in the kiln for about 2 or 3 minutes. The larger potassium (K) ions from the salt. This crowds the
exact amount of time depends upon (1) lens thickness, surface, setting up a surface tension that “squeezes” the
(2) type of glass, and (3) lens tint. (For more exactness, lens. This surface tension increases impact resistance by
lens weight may also be considered.) creating compressive stresses. The actual amount of
The lens is removed from the heat and cooled compressive stress is 28 to 50 kg/mm2, compared with
rapidly by blowing forced air against both front and 6 to 14 kg/mm2 for heat-tempered glass20 (Figure 15-10).
back surfaces (Figure 15-9). The salt used to temper photochromic lenses is
To understand how this process could cause an different from the salt used for crown glass lenses. Salt
increase in impact resistance, the reader should used for photochromic lenses is a mixture of 40%
sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and 60% potassium nitrate
(KNO3). Both of these salts are hazardous in dry or
molten states. Salts are available in both commercial
and reagent grades. Reagent grade is more expensive,
but being purer, does not require conditioning and
prevents salt-related problems.
If the proportion between salts is incorrect, or if the
salt is contaminated or has been used too long, the
lenses will have problems. Lenses may break in the bath,
come out hazy, or show hairline cracks. Processing a
crown glass lens in a salt bath intended for photo-
chromics will cause the lens to craze, showing a
meshwork of hairline surface cracks (Figure 15-11).
FIGURE 15-9 When air strikes front and back surfaces of
a lens that has been heated just below the softening point,
it “freezes” the outside, setting up a controlled internal stress 20
Krauser RP: Chemtempering today, Corning, NY, 1974, Corning Glass
that makes the lens more impact resistant. Works, p 4.
304 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Before ion exchange After ion exchange

K+ K+
K+
K+ Na+

Na+ Na+
K+
K+
K+ Na+ Na+
K+ Na+
Molten salt Molten salt
O O K+ K+
K+

=
=

Na+ Na+ Na+

Si Si Na+
Na+ Na+ K+

–
K+
–

O Na+ Na+ O
O

–
=

–
Na+
O=
Si
K+
K+ Si
–O
Na+

–
Na+ O K+ Na+ O
Na+ Na+ K+

–
O O= O O=
–

–
Si
O = Si – O – Si –O – O = Si – O – Si –O–
Glass Glass
FIGURE 15-10 In chemical tempering, smaller sodium (Na) or lithium (Li) ions from the
glass are replaced by larger potassium (K) ions from the molten salt.

±9° F). To temper photochromic glass lenses the salt is

heated to 400° ± 5°C (752° ± 9° F).21
This temperature is especially critical for photochromic
lenses and should be verified with use of a calibrated
stainless steel thermometer with a long stem. The stem
should be long enough so that the thermometer may
be read without having to hold it with the hands near
the salt. Thermometers are important even though the
chemical tempering unit has a temperature control
that reads in degrees.
If the temperature of the bath is not exact, problems
will occur with photochromic lenses being off-color,
splotching, or not lightening or darkening properly.

Chemical Tempering Process

Lenses are cleaned and placed in a lens holder. That
holder is held above the bath for 15±2 minutes for
crown glass lenses. For photochromics these times may
FIGURE 15-11 A crown glass lens mistakenly placed in a vary from 0 to 15 minutes. This allows the lenses to
photochromic salt bath will craze. preheat, which prevents breakage resulting from extreme
temperature changes. The lenses are then immersed in
the molten salt bath for 16 hours. (It is possible to leave
Salt needs to be replaced on a regular basis. As salt the lenses over the weekend for 64 hours. Impact
pH rises above neutral, some salt should be removed resistance drops slightly, but the amount of drop is
and replaced with new salt to lower the pH. When normally insignificant.) At the end of the cycle the
sediment builds up in the bottom of the tank, all of the lenses are again held above the bath. The postbath-cool
salt should be replaced.
To chemically temper crown and tinted glass lenses 21
Chemtempering photochromics, Publication OPO-5-3/79MA, Corning,
together, the temperature of the salt is 450°± 5° C (842° NY, 1979, Corning Glass Works.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 305

times are the same as the preheat times. Lenses are

then removed from the unit, allowed to cool at room
temperature, then rinsed in hot water to remove the salt.
(A special process makes it possible to chemically
harden standard photochromic lenses in 2 hours.22)
Chemically hardened crown glass lenses are more
impact resistant than thermally hardened crown glass
lenses and maintain their strength better, even when
scratched. They will not warp during the chemical
tempering process, as do some lenses during the heat
tempering process. Because their internal tensile stress
is less than that of a heat-tempered lens, chemically
tempered lenses may be re-edged or resurfaced without
breaking.
If a pair of chemically tempered glass lenses has been
removed from a broken frame and reshaped for a new
frame, the lenses should be rehardened. (Heat tem-
pered lenses should never be re-edged on an edger or
hand edger unless they have been dehardened23 first.)
Compared with heat tempering, chemical tempering
FIGURE 15-12 A heat-treated lens may be identified by
of crown glass lenses is clearly the method of choice.
the characteristic maltese cross pattern seen when the lens is
viewed through the crossed polarizing filter of a colmascope.
Determining whether a Lens Has Been Hardened (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
Determining whether a lens has been heat treated is dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
possible by viewing it between two crossed polarizing [Figure 21-1].)
filters. An instrument with a light source and two crossed
polarizing filters made for this purpose is called a
colmascope or polariscope. Viewed through a colmascope,
a heat-treated lens shows a maltese cross pattern
(Figure 15-12). A perfectly shaped maltese cross pattern
does not mean that the lens is any more impact resistant
than a lens showing a misshapen maltese cross.
Rotating the lens while viewing it though the colmascope
will cause the maltese cross to change in appearance.
This pattern shows up because surface compression in
a heat-treated lens is nonuniform.24
Chemically tempered lenses have an even surface
compression and therefore show no stress patterns when FIGURE 15-13 Sports eyewear is not just safety glasses
viewed through crossed polarizing filters. A chemically for sports. Each sport has particular visual and eye protective
needs.
tempered lens can be identified only by taking the lens
out of the frame and immersing it in a glycerin solution
finished spectacle lenses as assurance that the lens has
while viewing it between crossed polarizing filters.
been chemically hardened.
A chemically hardened lens shows a halolike, bright
band around the edge of the lens. Because of the time-
consuming inconvenience of this process, almost Sports Eyewear
everyone depends upon notification enclosed with the
Standards for sports eyewear vary. Most of that variation
22
The 2-hour photochromic process is used for PhotoGray Extra, takes place in the frame. Generally the same lenses that
PhotoBrown Extra, PhotoGray II, and PhotoSun II. It may not be are appropriate for high-impact safety eyewear also are
used for PhotoGray, PhotoBrown, PhotoSun, PhotoGray Extra 16, or
PhotoBrown Extra 16. appropriate for sports. However, standard Z87–type
23
A heat-tempered lens is “dehardened” by heating it as if it were to safety frames are not necessarily appropriate. Specialized
be heat tempered again. When the lens comes out of the furnace, the sports require specialized frames (Figure 15-13). None
cold air is turned off and the lens allowed to cool slowly.
24
Wilson-Powers B: Chemtempering photochromic lenses, Optical of the lenses placed in sports frames are marked with a
Management, 8(5):39, 1979. manufacturer’s logo as safety lenses.
306 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. Which of the following is the term for eyewear 5. Which of the following lenses must be individually
used for everyday and not for sports or safety? drop-ball tested and not just batch tested or
exempted from testing?
a. Casual eyewear
b. Everyday eyewear a. A stock high-index plastic AR-coated lens
c. Formal eyewear b. A crown glass executive bifocal lens
d. Dress eyewear c. A fused flat-top 25 photochromic glass bifocal
e. Standard eyewear lens
d. A glass slab-off lens
2. Which of the following is the minimum thickness e. All of the above must be individually drop-ball
requirements mandated by the FDA for dress tested.
eyewear? f. None of the above must be individually drop-
ball tested.
a. 1.0 mm
b. 1.5 mm 6. True or False? Plano sunglasses manufactured in
c. 2.0 mm quantity do not have to be impact resistant.
d. 2.2 mm
e. No minimum thickness requirements exist. 7. An edging laboratory orders a single vision
photochromic glass lens from a surfacing
3. When may retailers dispense prescription lenses laboratory because it is a high cylinder and is not
that are not impact resistant? available as a stock lens. Which of the following
parties is responsible for drop-ball testing the
a. When the wearer signs a waiver accepting lens?
responsibility
b. When no other types of impact-resistant a. The surfacing laboratory
lenses will fulfill the visual requirements of the b. The edging laboratory before it has been edged
wearer c. The edging laboratory after it has been edged
c. When the lenses are high-index glass and are d. Neither, because the lenses are batch tested
unable to be either heat treated or chemically e. Neither, because glass photochromics are
tempered exempt
d. In any of the above circumstances
e. In none of the above circumstances 8. Arrange the following lenses in order, estimating
what you think the relative impact resistance
4. Which of the following is the standard “referee might be, from the most impact resistant to the
test” for determining impact resistance suitable least impact resistant. (Variations may occur.)
for dress ophthalmic lenses?
1. An uncoated plastic lens
a. A 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface 2. A lens coated with scratch-resistant and AR
of the lens from a height of 50 inches coatings
b. A 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface 3. A lens coated with scratch-resistant and AR
of the lens from a height of 52 inches coatings, with cushion coatings and/or
c. A 5/8 -inch steel ball dropped on the front primers
surface of the lens from a height of 50 inches
d. A 5/8 -inch steel ball dropped on the front a. 1, 2, 3
surface of the lens from a height of 52 inches b. 3, 2, 1
e. A 1/4 -inch steel ball shot at the front of lens at a c. 2, 1, 3
speed of 150 feet per second d. 1, 3, 2
e. 2, 3, 1
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 307

9. A wearer breaks his frames. You find a new frame, 14. Which of the following is the anticipated
but the old glass lenses are too large. Which of the high-impact safety eyewear minimum thicknesses?
following is true?
a. 2.0 mm
a. New lenses must be used in the new frame. b. 2.2 mm
Chemically tempered lenses cannot be c. 3.0 mm (except +3.00 D in the most plus
re-edged. meridian and above, which have a minimum
b. The lenses can be re-edged and put back in the thickness of 2.5 mm)
frame as is. The chemical tempering is d. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D in the most plus
unaffected because the chemical change occurs meridian and above, which have a minimum
on the surfaces of the lens. thickness of 2.8 mm)
c. The lenses can be re-edged but must be
chemically tempered all over again before 15. Which of the following is the standard “referee
being put into the new frame. test” for determining impact resistance suitable
d. The lenses can be re-edged but must be for basic-impact prescription safety lenses?
chemically tempered again and drop-ball tested
again before being put into the new frame. a. A 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
of the lens from a height of 50 inches
10. True or False? It is illegal to use a glass lens in a b. A 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
nylon cord frame. of the lens from a height of 54 inches
c. A 5/8 -inch steel ball dropped on the front
11. Which of the following lenses is most likely to surface of the lens from a height of 50 inches
break? d. A 5/8 -inch steel ball dropped on the front
surface of the lens from a height of 54 inches
a. An unscratched lens e. A 1/4 -inch steel ball shot at the front of lens at a
b. A lens that has been scratched on the front speed of 150 feet per second
surface
c. A lens that has been scratched on the back 16. How must a safety frame suitable for high-impact
surface safety lenses be marked on the front and temples,
d. All lenses are equally likely to break assuming that the projected standards become
actual standards?
12. The “duty to inform” is which of the following?
a. Size and manufacturer
a. A legal responsibility b. Size, manufacturer, and Z87
b. A professional responsibility c. Size, manufacturer, and Z87+
c. Both d. Size, manufacturer, and Z87-2

13. Which of the following is the basic-impact* safety 17. True or False? Putting 2.0-mm thick CR-39 lenses
eyewear minimum thickness? in a safety frame but not marking the lenses for
safety is acceptable if the person just wants the
a. 2.0 mm glasses for regular wear.
b. 2.2 mm
c. 3.0 mm (except +3.00 D in the most plus 18. True or False? Putting 2.0-mm thick polycarbonate
meridian and above, which have a minimum lenses in a safety frame but not marking the lenses
thickness of 2.5 mm) for safety is acceptable if the person just wants the
d. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D in the most plus glasses for regular wear.
meridian and above, which have a minimum
thickness of 2.8 mm)

*Basic-impact requirements are historically the same as the Z87.1-

1989 standard and are part of the projected new standard that would
include both basic- and high-impact lenses.
308 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

19. Which of the following lenses is the most impact 21. True or False? A lens may be identified has having
resistant? been chemically tempered by placing it in a
colmascope. (A colmascope consists of two crossed
a A 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has not polarizing filters that are backlighted.)
been heat treated or chemically tempered
b. A 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has been
heat treated
c. A 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has been
chemically tempered

20. Chemically tempered photochromic lenses are

treated in a bath of molten salt that consists of
which of the following?

a. Sodium nitrate
b. Potassium nitrate
c. A combination of sodium nitrate and potassium
nitrate
d. Sodium chloride
e. Potassium chloride
f. A combination of sodium chloride and
potassium chloride
 Maintenance
16 and Calibration

H aving the best and newest equipment does not

ensure prescription accuracy and quality crafts-
manship if that equipment is not properly maintained
and correctly calibrated. Many fine apprenticeship
programs in optical craftsmanship begin, not with an
explanation of optics, but with instruction on cleaning
and care of the equipment vital to the functioning of
the laboratory. The material presented in this chapter is
more than reference material to consult only in an
emergency situation—the maintenance of equipment
is important to the successful operation of an optical
laboratory.

Maintenance Schedules
A master maintenance schedule that outlines how often
each piece of equipment should be lubricated, greased,
cleaned, or calibrated is helpful. This master list should
detail how often each of these tasks must be done and
leave enough space to enter the date when the service
was performed and the signature or initials of the
individual who performed it. In this way deficiencies
may be noted at a glance.
As much as is possible, maintenance services should
be done on a regularly scheduled basis so that each
workday concludes with cleaning and wiping of equip-
ment. A section of time at the end of the week could,
for example, be devoted to more thorough maintenance,
including lubrication, coolant changes, and calibration
checks.

309
310 C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N

Care of the Lensmeter

Prescription accuracy begins and ends with the lensmeter.
A laboratory lensmeter must be highly accurate. Those
who use the lensmeter regularly must know how to
adjust it for exact measurements so that they are
confident that the power being read is the power the
lens actually has. Many a disagreement between laboratory
and account would never have occurred if both instru-
ments had been used correctly and rightly calibrated.

CALIBRATION OF POWER
Before any instrument is calibrated, the individual must
be certain that it is adjusted properly for his or her eye.
The eye’s accommodative (focusing) mechanism and
refractive error can directly influence lens power readings.
The eyepiece is turned out (counter-clockwise) and slowly
turned inward until the black reticle lines first come
into focus. (For better illumination holding a sheet of
white paper in the lensmeter where the lens would be FIGURE 16-1 If the lensmeter does not read zero without
normally to reflect light back and provide a white a lens in place, a manual model may often be readjusted by
background may be helpful.) Looking at the 1.0Δ ring loosening the power wheel set screw and turning the wheel
is helpful for best reference. Once the eyepiece is in to zero.
focus, then power accuracy may be checked.
Those wearing bifocals and progressive addition
lenses should look through the lensmeter through the Once the target is accurately sharp and zeroed, the
distance part of the prescription. The instrument is set power is recalibrated by loosening the power wheel
for distance vision. They should not look through the with the appropriate tool, such as a screwdriver or Allen
segment or the progressive zone, even though the wrench (Figure 16-1). This allows the wheel to turn
instrument target appears to be close. It is easy to make freely. The zero setting on the power wheel is turned to
a mistake with progressive addition lenses, looking the index mark and the wheel retightened. (Some
through a slightly different part of the progressive lens instruments allow for correction of small errors by an
each time. Those who wear bifocals and progressive adjustment of the index mark.)
addition lenses should ensure they are well into the
upper, distance portion of the progressive addition lens
correction when using the lensmeter.
PRISM
With no lens in the instrument, the power wheel is With both reticle and target in focus, the instrument is
turned from a minus direction1 until the target clears. checked for prism accuracy. With no lens in the
The wheel is not rocked back and forth to obtain a instrument, the target should cross exactly at the center
focus; instead, the operator simply stops when the target of the reticle. Note: If the lensmeter has an auxiliary
first clears. (This rule applies equally for reading lens rotary prism system, it must be set on zero. Otherwise
power. For more on how to use a lensmeter, see Brooks the instrument will show prism when no prism exists.
CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, If prism is evident without lenses present, as is seen
Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann.) The power in Figure 16-2, the instrument manual should be
should read zero. If the instrument does not read zero, consulted for corrective measures. It may require factory
the process is repeated several times to be certain of realignment.
obtaining a clear target. If the target still does not focus
at zero, the instrument must be recalibrated.
OPTICS
The optics of a lensmeter or other optical instrument
1
may be blown free of dust using a syringe or canned
ANSI Z80.1-1999 American National Standard for ophthalmics—
prescription ophthalmic lenses—recommendations, Merrifield, Va, 2000, compressed air (such as is employed for photography
Optical Laboratories Association, p 12. lenses). Alternatively, a camel’s hair brush may be used
C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N 311

Centration Blockers
5
The centration blocker places the block on the lens.
4 The traditional centration blocker always puts the block
exactly at the same place in the instrument. However,
3
because the lens is decentered, the block is not at the
2 same place on the lens every time. The centration blocker
places the block at the center of the background grid of
1 the instrument. The lens is moved to create the correct
amount of decentration. The center of the block should
always correspond to the zero point on the background
1 grid both horizontally and vertically. Centration
blockers have a movable vertical line and a background
2 grid. The background grid does not move.
The 180-degree line of the block must overlap with
3
the 180-degree line of the background grid.
4
• If the block is displaced horizontally, the PD will be off.
5 • If the block is displaced vertically, major reference
point (MRP) heights, fitting cross heights, and
bifocal heights will be wrong.
• If the block is tilted relative to the background 180,
FIGURE 16-2 An off-center target is difficult to compen-
sate for and should be fixed as soon as possible. (Instruments the cylinder axis will be incorrect and bifocal lines
with prism compensation devices should be checked to will not be straight.
ensure that the device registers zero.) To check the accuracy of a centration blocker, a lens
with the flattest front curve available is chosen. First this
lens is hand-marked with a long horizontal and short
vertical line through the center. A flexible ruler should
be used to ensure that the line is straight.2 The hand-
to wipe dust from the lenses. Any solution that would drawn mark is aligned on the grid as if no decentration
not damage a fine, vacuum-coated camera lens may be existed. The mark must be exactly on the origin of the
used to clean away oily film or smudges. background grid. The lens is blocked in the customary
manner.
After blocking, the mark on the lens should be
EXTERIOR exactly in the center of the block. Figure 16-3 illustrates
Smooth-finish exteriors may be cleaned with a damp how the 180-degree line marked on the lens should
cloth. To restore polish to enamel exteriors on lens- overlap the 180-degree reference line(s) on the block.
meters, edgers, or other instruments having a shiny Some adhesive pad blocks have a small central hole
enameled look, a high-quality automotive paste wax is used in some blocking alignment systems. This hole
used. should be at the center of the hand-drawn mark. Other
Black crackle-finish exteriors are wiped clean with a blocks have vertical and horizontal lines at the center of the
damp cloth then polished with mineral oil to return front of the block. This also can be seen in Figure 16-3.
their original luster. If the marker/blocker is off horizontally or vertically,
the problem is corrected by readjusting the back-
ground grid. Readjustment of the background grid
INKING varies according to the type of instrument. Figure 16-4,
If the spotting mechanism is giving splotchy and A, shows one example of how a centration blocker is
incomplete dots, or is depositing too much ink on the recalibrated. A cap is on each side of the screen. The
lens, the pad and reservoir are cleaned; then the pad is cap is removed and an Allen screw is loosened as shown
reinked. Ordinary stamp pad ink works well. in the figure. This allows the tabletop to be pushed left
The marking pins should move freely, be clear of or right as shown in Figure 16-4, B.
debris, and be smooth-tipped so as not to scratch the 2
Using a higher base curve lens causes the ruler to curve when
lens. If the pins do not move freely, the assembly is pressed against the lens. Therefore the use of a flat base curve lens for
cleaned and lubricated with a light oil. these purposes is important.
 312 C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N

Marked and
Marked lens blocked lens

Block seen
from back side

B C
FIGURE 16-3 Lens blockers may be checked by first hand-marking the lens, then
placing the center of the mark on the grid origin and blocking the lens. A, The back of the
lens block. Most blocks have horizontal markings and a central reference point or line. B,
The marked lens before blocking. C, The lens after it is blocked. If the block conforms to
the marked 180-degree line both horizontally and vertically, the blocker is in adjustment.
If the marked cross is not in the middle of the block both horizontally and vertically, or is
tilted, the blocker is not aligned properly and should be readjusted.

A B
FIGURE 16-4 A, Translucent background grids may be readjusted by Allen screws
(setscrews), or other similar means. Here set screws are being loosened to allow for
horizontal alignment. B, Once the tabletop containing the background grid is loosened, it
may be moved left or right until it is properly realigned.
C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N 313

It is helpful if pattern corners are squared-off and

distinct, with sides, tops, and bottoms as straight as
possible.
A pair of lenses is marked carefully along the 180-
degree line. The lenses are blocked on this line. The
10 10
mark must be either non–water-soluble or protected with
5 5
tape or spray to withstand the washing effect of the
0 0
5 5
coolant. (Test lenses do not need to be cylindrical
10 10
because the point of reference is the marked cutting
line and not the cylinder axis.)
Next, the lenses are edged. As the two lenses must be
held back-to-back exactly over one another when cut, it
is helpful to have a flat edge on the lenses. Therefore
the lenses should be either cut on the rimless program
or stopped after they have been roughed. (Reminder:
FIGURE 16-5 A centration device that blocks at an angle Lenses are being edged as if they were a pair; therefore
will result in cylinder axis errors and tilted bifocal segments. the pattern must be turned after edging the first lens.)
When edging is completed, the lenses are held back
to back. Their shapes must match exactly. If the marked
lines exactly overlap each other, the edger axis is properly
If the block is tilted relative to the 180-degree line on set. (The sequence for checking the edger axis is
the lens, the axis is out of adjustment (Figure 16-5). reviewed in Box 16-1.) If, however, these marked lines
This means that every cylinder lens will be off axis and are not coincident (Figure 16-6), then the axis of the
every bifocal top tilted. If the block is tilted, the blocking edger must be readjusted. This is further clarified in
mechanism that lowers the block onto the lens may be Figure 16-7, A. Figure 16-7 and Table 16-1 help clarify
at fault. the possible sources of error.

Calibration of Edgers BOX 16-1

When considering calibration and maintenance of edgers, Edger Axis Checking Sequence
the reader must keep in mind that the information
included here is not an adequate substitute for material 1. Clearly mark one lens pair with non–water-soluble ink.
provided with each individual edger. This discussion 2. Accurately block both lenses with no decentration.
3. Choose a squared pattern.
should be regarded as an overview of general main-
4. Flat-edge or rough only.
tenance and calibration requirements.
5. Hold the edged lenses back to back.
No attempt is made to cover calibration of patternless 6. Check to ensure that the marks on the lenses overlap.
edgers. These requirements vary considerably. Calibration
is unique and usually built into the program that runs
the edger.

CHECKING AXIS ACCURACY FOR

PATTERNED EDGERS
In edging lenses, it is essential that the 180-degree line
on the pattern is always parallel to the 180-degree line
on the lens. However, because the pattern and lens are
some distance apart and each is held in place by a N (R + L)
separate mechanism, the possibility of misalignment is
understandable. For this reason patterned edgers are FIGURE 16-6 When edged lenses are held back to back
made so that axis alignment may be fine-tuned for and their reference marks do not overlap, the origin of the
reliability. problem could stem from a variety of possible sources. This
To check for accuracy of the axis, a pattern is chosen particular error is shown in a different manner in Figure
whose shape comes close to being a square or octagon. 16-7, A, where it is also discussed in more detail.
314 C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N

N N

A R L

N N

B R L

N N

C R L

N N

D R L

FIGURE 16-7 A, The lenses are placed face up and correctly turned; the marks are off
axis. (These lenses are the same as those shown in the previous figure.) When the error
manifests itself in this manner, the problem could stem from an axis error in either the
edger or the blocker. B, If these lenses were placed back to back, the two marks would
overlap exactly, masking the problem. The possible source of this error is a pattern that has
been cut off axis. (It could be that the lenses are actually correct, but the frame shape has
been misinterpreted and the lenses are twisted wrong.) C, Two sources of error are possible
here: human error or the block slipped during edging. D, If the marks are correct after
edging, but the cylinder axis is off for both lenses when checked in the lensmeter, then the
problem lies with the centration device.
C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N 315

in edging time with a corresponding decrease in edge

TABLE 16-1 quality and finishing wheel life.
Possible Sources of Axis Errors
CHECKPOINT SOURCE OF ERROR MEASURING WHEEL DIFFERENTIAL
An axis error shows up when The two lensmeters should be To measure wheel differential, a blocked lens blank is
a second lensmeter is used. compared. placed in the edger and the edging cycle starts. After
One of the lensmeters may the roughing cycle is completed, but before the finishing
be out of adjustment. cycle starts, the cycle is stopped. The roughed lens is
An axis error shows up when Lensmeter error is ruled out.
removed and its A dimension measured. Afterwards the
the same lensmeter is used The error may be caused by
lens is returned to the edger and the cycle is allowed to
as was used for spotting. the edger or the centration
instrument.
continue until the lens is fully beveled. Upon completion
Formally check the edger If the marks on the lenses are of the cycle, the lens is measured a second time. The
with marked lenses. not coincident, consult difference in size between the first and second measure-
Afterward, hold the lenses Figure 16-7 for the source ments is the wheel differential. This is summarized in
back to back. of the error. Box 16-2. Use a round lens and a vernier caliper-like
Formally check the centration If the drawn line is not parallel the one that was shown in Figure 3-12.
device by premarking the to the 180-degree line on
lens with a horizontal line. the lens block, the Example 16-1
Block the lens on the line centration device is at fault. A lens is to be edged to a 50-mm eyesize. If the pattern
to determine whether the
is a “set –10” pattern, the edger is set for 40.0. To check
line is parallel to the 180-
for wheel differential, the edging cycle is started but
degree line of the block.
stopped after roughing. The lens is removed from the
edger, measured with a caliper, and found to have an
eyesize of 52.8 mm. The lens is put back in the edger
and edged to completion. It is taken out and measured
Methods for readjusting the edger axis vary. The with the caliper. Now the lens has an eyesize of 50 mm.
edger manual will detail exactly how to do this for the What is the wheel differential for this edger?
edger being used.
Solution
The difference between the two measurements is taken
CHECKING WHEEL DIFFERENTIAL to find wheel differential:
(GRINDING ALLOWANCE)
Wheel differential = 52.8 mm – 50 mm
Wheel differential is the difference in size of a lens after = 2.8 mm
it has been rough edged compared with its final size.
Because the finishing wheel uses fine-grit diamond Because this measured wheel differential is larger
particles, it cuts slowly and has the potential of wearing than recommended, it should be reduced to about
down quickly if used excessively. For maximum speed 2.0 mm.
and best wheel life, the lens should be cut as small as
possible on the coarse-grit roughing wheel first.
Computer-assisted patternless edgers also must be
checked for wheel differential.
Roughing wheels cut rapidly but coarsely and leave a
rough edge along the lens periphery. This rough edge BOX 16-2
should be removed on the finishing wheel. Generally Wheel Differential Checking Sequence
the roughed lens must be reduced in size by about
2 mm. 1. Begin to edge a lens.
Wheel differential increases as a metal bonded 2. Stop the cycle after roughing the lens.
roughing wheel wears down and should be monitored. 3. Measure the eyesize of the roughed lens.
Normally this is not an issue with electroplated wheels 4. Replace the lens and complete the cycle.
because little wear occurs with this type of wheel from 5. Measured the finished lens eyesize.
plastic lenses. (For more on edger wheel types, see 6. Wheel differential = Roughed eyesize – Finished
Chapter 17.) Failure to check wheel differential with eyesize
bonded roughing wheels causes an unnecessary increase
316 C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N

ADJUSTING FOR WHEEL DIFFERENTIAL 3. Set the edger to an average value eyesize setting for
Methods for wheel differential adjustment vary con- the pattern.
siderably from edger to edger. Sometimes the position 4. Edge a test lens.
of the clapper plate upon which the pattern turns 5. Measure the test lens.
during roughing must be readjusted. These plates
also must be reset after installation of new or retrued Example 16-2
wheels. (Exact procedures are found in the manual The edger seems to be edging large; a set-10, round
that accompanies each edger.) Make no attempt to pattern is chosen. The edger is set at 40 to provide a
recalibrate eyesize until the correct wheel differential 50-mm eyesize lens. The lens is edged and measured
has been properly set. with a vernier caliper. Instead of 50-mm, it edges out as
50.5 mm. How would the edger be recalibrated for this
error?
EYESIZE ADJUSTMENTS FOR MANUAL,
PATTERNED EDGERS
Solution
In simplest terms, lens edger eyesize accuracy is checked The setting that should produce a 50.5-mm lens using a
by first edging a lens and then measuring to see whether set –10 pattern is the following:
its size corresponds to what was intended. There are
Edger setting = Eyesize + Set number
two methods for checking eyesize accuracy—one that
uses the A dimension of the lens and another that uses or
lens circumference.
Edger setting = 50.5 – 10
= 40.5
Adjusting Edger Setting Accuracy Using the A
Dimension Therefore the dial is loosened, turned to 40.5, and
When checking eyesize accuracy it is best to use a round retightened.
pattern, or a pattern whose A dimension is easily
measured. If the pattern is not round, the pattern Adjusting Edger Setting Accuracy Using
chosen must be widest at the midline. With this shape Circumference
less error in measurement is likely. If the pattern size is Recalibration of the edger size setting is possible with
not exactly known, the pattern is measured with vernier use of a round pattern and a circumference gauge. The
calipers and its set number determined. following is the procedure.
The set number is calculated by subtracting the pattern The circumference of a round pattern is measured.
A dimension from the standard size of 36.5 mm. If the The edger is set for slightly more than 36.5 mm. That
pattern measures 46.5 mm, the set number would be pattern is used to edge a lens. The edged lens is measured
–10, as follows: with the circumference gauge. The circumference of
36.5 – 46.5 = –10 the lens should come out larger than the circumference
of the pattern. The edger setting is reduced step-wise;
The pattern is placed on the edger. The eyesize is set.
each time the operator checks the circumference of the
(For a 50-mm eyesize, a 40-mm setting would be chosen.)
lens. When the lens reaches the circumference of the
With a test lens in place, the edger is run through its
pattern, the edger should be reading 36.5 mm. If it is
complete cycle. The edged lens is removed and measured
not, loosen the edger setting dial until it moves freely.
with the vernier caliper in the same manner as was
The loosened dial is turned until it reads 36.5 mm and
done for the pattern. The edged lens size should come
is retightened.
out right. In this example, the lens would be exactly
50 mm. If it does not have the expected eyesize, the
edger size needs to be recalibrated.
For many edgers, recalibration is as easy as loosening Cleaning and Lubricating Edgers
the setscrew on the eyesize dial. This allows the dial to
Glass and plastic sludge should not be allowed to build
turn freely. The dial is turned to the setting that corresponds
up hard deposits anywhere within or upon the edger
to the eyesize actually produced by the edger and the setscrew
because they can be removed only through mechanical
is tightened up again.
action that is damaging to machine surfaces.
In summary, the following steps are involved in
To clean the edger, the grinding chamber is flushed
checking eyesize setting accuracy:
with water so that excess glass or plastic sludge is
1. Choose a round or easily measured pattern. flushed down into the coolant tank for removal. A small
2. Measure the pattern. hose run from a faucet or other source is most effective.
C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N 317

The coolant tank must not run over while the chamber water often is used by itself. If a coolant is added to
is flushed. An alternative to a hose is to use a water-filled water, it should help to keep particles of ground
spray bottle. The bottle is kept next to the edger and material in suspension. This prevents sludge build-up
used to clean out the inside of the grinding chamber on the wheel and in the grinding chamber. Commercial
several times during the course of the day. coolant also serves as a rust inhibitor.
If it has been a while since any of this has been done, With a water-only coolant system, with some edgers
the sludge will have hardened and will have to be the use of a defoamer may be helpful to prevent the
brushed or scraped off. Therefore it is best to clean the coolant tank from foaming up and overflowing.
edger lightly at the end of each day by rinsing off excess
sludge and wiping the exterior with a damp cloth. The
machine should be cleaned thoroughly at least once a
CHANGING THE COOLANT
week, or as often as the coolant is changed, whichever The coolant tank may be designed for the edger or
occurs more frequently. To clean the edger thoroughly, simply be a 5-gallon bucket. The tank can be pulled out
the following steps are performed: from under the edger and the liquid drained off, which
leaves sludge in the plastic bag liner. The sludge-filled
1. Remove all glass or plastic sludge from the chamber
liner is removed and tied at the top for disposal. (See
by rinsing and wiping.
Chapter 18 on Safety and Environmental Concerns
2. Clean the exterior thoroughly.
regarding disposal of coolant liquids and solids.)
3. If the edger requires greasing, wipe grease from the
Before new coolant is added, the coolant pump is
gears or moving parts and regrease. If thorough
cleansed and any residue is rinsed from drains and
greasing is not carried out when indicated, glass or
electrical cords. If this is done regularly, it is easy
plastic sludge can creep into moving parts, which
to do. If not, residues become increasingly difficult to
causes excessive wear and possible freeze-up.
remove.
4. Oil those areas indicated in the manual, such as
Coolants come in varying concentrations that are
hinges and springs, using a light machine oil like
added to fresh water. Coolant replacement is the last in
those suitable for sewing machines. (Some areas
a series of maintenance procedures. Some procedures
require oiling only once every few months. These
that may precede coolant changes are the following:
maintenance requirements are recorded on a master
maintenance sheet.) 1. Stoning (dressing) the diamond wheel
2. Cleaning the coolant chamber
3. Lubricating the edger
Edger Coolants
Because the coolant pump is located inside and
Some system of cooling the lens and flushing the abraded toward the top of the coolant tank, coolant level should
lens material off of the wheel is absolutely essential be checked to ensure that the pump remains covered.
during the conventional edging operation with use of Water may be added to raise the coolant back up to the
diamond wheels. The most basic coolant is water and required level to compensate for evaporation.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? Focusing the lensmeter eyepiece 2. Which of the following is not normally
allows the instrument to compensate for either recommended for cleaning lenses in an optical
the lack of accommodation or for a refractive instrument?
error on the part of the operator. This means two
individuals may well require two different eyepiece a. AR lens cleaners
settings. Failure to refocus the eyepiece before b. Camel’s hair brush
using the instrument may cause discomfort to the c. Ammonia
operator, but it in no way affects the accuracy of d. Canned compressed air
the reading.
318 C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N

3. True or False? It is possible to use ordinary stamp 8. Both left and right lenses are correctly inserted
pad ink in the lensmeter marking device when into a metal frame with their blocks still intact.
plastic lenses are being marked. Assuming the frame is properly manufactured, if
the block on the right lens marking cross is
4. Which of the following lens shapes is best used to turned to a 10-degree axis and the block on the
check edger axis accuracy? left marking cross is turned to a 170-degree axis,
which of the following might describe the problem?
a. Round
b. Square a. The edger axis may be out of adjustment.
c. Oval b. The lens marker stamp may be rotated.
c. The pattern may have been cut off axis.
5. In which of the following instances is it most d. Any of the above could have caused the problem.
helpful to have a flat edge on test lenses?
9. While checking the edger for eyesize accuracy, it is
a. When checking edger eyesize discovered that the wheel differential is also in
b. When checking lensmeter accuracy need of adjustment. Which of the following
c. When checking edger axis should normally be corrected first?

6. When verifying completed work in the finishing a. Eyesize

laboratory and using the same lensmeter as was b. Wheel differential
used in marking up the lenses, errors in axis are
discovered as follows: 10. Which of the following describes the wheel
differential?
LENS ORDERED CURRENT REALITY
R: +2.00 –1.00 X 180 +2.00 –1.00 X 8 a. Difference in the width of the wheel edge
L: +2.25 –1.25 X 5 +2.25 –1.25 X 13
R: –3.75 –2.00 X 48 –3.75 –2.00 X 56 between roughing and finishing wheels
L: –4.00 –1.75 X 136 –4.00 –1.75 X 144 b. The ratio between the speed of rotation of the
lens drive motor and the speed of rotation of
All lenses are edged for metal frames. The lenses the edger wheel itself
are straight in the frame. Which of the following c. The wheel speed of the edger in question as
piece(s) of equipment may be responsible for the compared to a standard wheel speed
errors? d. The size difference a lens has after being rough
edged on the roughing wheel in comparison to
1. Lensmeter the size it has after being edged on the
2. Centration device finishing wheel
3. Edger e. The difference between the wheel speed as
measured at the edge of the roughing wheel in
a. 1, 2, 3 comparison to the speed as measured at the
b. 1, 2 edge of the finishing wheel
c. 2, 3
d. 1 11. An edger is checked for accuracy of eyesize. An
accurate pattern with a “set –12” size is used. The
7. Both left and right lenses are correctly inserted edger dial is set for 45. Which of the following
into a metal frame with their blocks still intact. identifies the lens A dimension measure when it is
Assuming the frame is properly manufactured, if cut?
the blocks on the right and left lenses are both at
a 10-degree angle instead of at 180 degrees, which a. 45
of the following might describe the problem? b. 33
c. 57
a. The edger axis may be out of adjustment. d. 36.5
b. The centration device may be off. e. None of the above is correct.
c. The pattern may have been cut off axis.
d. Any of the above could have caused the
problem.
C H A P T E R 1 6 M A I N T E N A N C E A N D C A L I B R AT I O N 319

12. A sizing pattern that has an A dimension of 46.5 is 14. Place the following edger maintenance jobs in
used to check the edger for correctness in cutting their optimum order, from first job to be carried
eyesize. The edger is set on 45 and a trial lens is out, to last.
edged. When removed and measured, the lens is
found to be 54.5 mm. To reset the edger, the 1. Cleaning the grinding chamber
thumb screw is loosened and the sizing dial knob 2. Changing the coolant
turned. The thumb screw is then retightened. The 3. Stoning the wheel
edger should now cut a lens correctly. Which of 4. Lubricating the edger
the following identifies the new, correct edger
setting? a. 1, 3, 4, 2
b. 4, 3, 2, 1
a. 45 c. 2, 1, 3, 4
b. 54 d. 3, 1, 4, 2
c. 54.5 e. 1, 4, 2, 3
d. 44.5
e. 55.5

13. To check for edger eyesize accuracy, a “set –15”

pattern is used. When edged, the lens measures
49.2 instead of the 49.0 mm that was called for by
the dial setting. To correctly calibrate the edger,
its eyesize dial is loosened. To which of the
following measures should it be turned to be
recalibrated correctly?

a. 49.2
b. 48.8
c. 33.8
d. 34.2
e. None of the above is correct.
 Edger Wheels
17 and Cutters

A number of diamond wheels are marketed

through a variety of sources. Knowledge of
wheel construction and variable factors is important for
comparison of wheels. In addition, diamond wheel care
varies according to type. Even if a wheel is chosen with
care, if it is not properly maintained, it will not give
optimum service.

Four Construction Factors

Four main variable factors exist in the construction of
diamond wheel surfaces and include grit size, diamond
concentration, depth of the diamond layer, and type of
bond used to hold the diamond to the wheel.

GRIT SIZE
A diamond abrasive works in much the same manner as
does ordinary sandpaper. Coarse grade sandpaper
contains large chunks of abrasive and removes surface
material rapidly. A surface coarsely sanded shows visible
grooves and feels rough to the touch. On the other
hand, fine grade sandpaper gives a smooth, clean finish.
However, because it can abrade away only small
amounts of material, it is inappropriate for anything
but a fine finish. The same is true for diamond wheels.
If the main task of the wheel is to grind away large
quantities of material, large, chunky diamond particles
are appropriate.
Wheels having a coarse grit grind rapidly but leave
ragged edges. Large grit diamond particles are used for
making roughing wheels. Finer particle sizes are used
for finishing wheels and, although slower, produce
TABLE 17-1
smooth edges. Diamond polishing wheels have diamond
particles that are finer still. Diamond Concentrations
Because they are used as industrial abrasives, diamond CONCENTRATION CARATS*/ CARATS/ % DIAMOND
particles are sorted by size. If a screening process were NUMBER CUBIC CUBIC BY VOLUME
used for this, progressively finer mesh would be used to INCHES CENTIMETERS
trap larger particles. If a diamond particle is small 100 72 4.4 25
enough to fall through one screen but is stopped by the 75 54 3.3 18.75
next, then its size is between the two screen sizes. 50 36 2.2 12.5
Because screens are measured by the number of wires 25 18 1.1 6.25
or fibers per unit area, diamond grit numbers are based
on this system. Therefore the higher the diamond code *One carat of diamond is 0.2 g.
number, the smaller the diamond particle size.
When grit size is extremely small, the diamond material
takes on a flourlike consistency and is referred to as
Grit size
diamond powder.
Bonding
Two or more different grit sizes may be used in com- material
bination on the same wheel. In this manner a better Concentration
(per cubic unit)
cutting speed can be achieved while producing a more
acceptable edge finish.
Grit size also becomes a factor in how well a wheel Depth of layer
holds its form. The finer the grit used in a wheel, the
faster it will be worn away during the edging process. As
would be expected, V-bevels and hidden bevels lose
their configuration as the wheel wears. Therefore a
compromise results between how smooth and flake-free
the bevel will be, in contrast to how long the wheel will
cut distinct edges before retruing is needed.

CONCENTRATION FIGURE 17-1 Important factors in specifying wheel type

include concentration (particles per cubic unit of area), grit
The second factor in diamond wheel evaluation is the size (how big the abrasive particles are), bonding material
amount of diamond per cubic unit. A wheel having only (what is used to hold the abrasive particles in place), and
a small amount of diamond in comparison with the depth of layer (how thick the abrasive particle layer is).
bonding material that holds it is of low concentration.
The highest concentration wheel normally used in
the optical industry contains 25% diamond and 75%
bonding material. This concentration is designated by
DEPTH OF LAYER
volume and is given a code number of 100, as is Table
17-1. A high concentration wheel is not necessarily the Were a wheel to have a good concentration of the
best wheel for all situations. proper grit diamond material, it would still have no
Roughing wheels having a high concentration of lasting value if the depth of layer were too thin (Figure
diamond are excellent for edgers with a heavy head 17-1). A wheel is only useful while abrasive material
pressure, but a high concentration wheel on a low- remains on the core. Once this layer has worn thin, the
pressure edger cuts poorly. wheel must be replaced.
As would be expected, high concentration wheels
wear slower. Therefore they are the correct choice for
TYPE OF BONDING
finishing wheels made to cut distinct edge shapes. If a
medium or low concentration of diamond were to be Diamond material must be bound solidly to the core of
used, sharp bevel angles would soon begin to round. the wheel and simultaneously allow exposure of sharp

321
322 CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS

diamond edges. Bonding usually is accomplished in generally a result of (1) a “glazed” wheel or (2) diamonds
one of two ways: that have become dull.
1. Metal-bonded or impregnated wheels are made by
mixing diamond material with powdered metal. This GLAZED WHEEL
mixture is placed in a mold containing the core of
When the empty spaces between exposed diamond
the wheel. The filled mold is heated in a furnace
particles begin to fill up with ground lens material, the
until the metal begins to melt. When cooling takes
diamonds are unable to dig or bite into the lens as
place, the diamond grit is bound to the core of the
deeply. This condition is known as glazing. A glazed
wheel with solidified metal.
wheel looks smooth and feels relatively smooth to the
2. Electroplated or electrometallic wheels are made by
touch. When a wheel becomes glazed, it must be cleaned
electrolytically depositing metal onto the wheel. During
by dressing.
this process diamond particles are encompassed
by a thickening layer of metal that is transferred
electrolytically from the ion-laden plating solution.
Generally, metal-bonded wheels are used to grind
glass lenses, although they also may be used for plastic
lenses. Electroplated wheels, though, are used almost
exclusively for plastic lenses. Some wheel types are shown
in Figure 17-2. Edging a hard glass lens on an
electroplated wheel causes an extreme reduction in
wheel life because diamond particles are torn easily
from the electroplated metal.
Although the edging of plastic lenses on metal-
bonded roughing wheels that are intended primarily for
glass is acceptable, results are satisfactory only up to a
point because the wheel clogs with plastic between the
diamonds. In other words, the wheel glazes.
During the finishing cycle, excellent results may be
obtained for plastic lenses using either an electroplated
or a metal-bonded wheel. Figure 17-3 summarizes the
process.

Dressing Diamond Wheels FIGURE 17-2 The wheel on the left is an electroplated
roughing wheel. The center wheel is a metal-bonded
From time to time a diamond wheel begins to lose some finishing wheel, and the wheel on the right is an extremely
of the sharp cutting ability that it had when new. This is fine grit metal-bonded wheel for polishing.

Roughing Wheels Finishing Wheels

Customary Common
Plastic lenses Electroplated Electroplated

Acceptable Common

Acceptable
Glass lenses Metal-bonded Metal-bonded
Required Required

FIGURE 17-3 Types of wheels and sequence used in the edging of glass and plastic
lenses. This figure represents possible paths plastic (dashed lines) and glass lenses (solid
lines) may take in the edging process.
CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS 323

DRESSING THE WHEEL

Wheels may lose their cutting ability because their
exposed diamonds have dulled through use.
If the outermost diamonds can be removed to allow
exposure of ones slightly deeper in the bond, cutting
integrity can be restored. The outer surface of the metal
bond that holds the diamond in place is attacked. This
is referred to as dressing or stoning. The procedure involves
holding an abrasive stick against the spinning wheel.
Figure 17-4 shows the abrasive stick, most often made
up of aluminum oxide or silicone carbide grit formed
into a squared stick and held together with a soft bonding
material. When the abrasive stick is held against the
wheel, exposed diamonds easily furrow through the
loosely bonded stick surface. This allows the stick to rub FIGURE 17-4 Dressing sticks for diamond wheels are
against the bonding material surrounding the diamond themselves abrasive. Coarse sticks are used for roughing
particles. The bonding is ground down far enough that wheels and fine sticks for finishing wheels.
old, dull diamonds no longer are embedded in enough
bonding material to hold them and so they drop off. As
in Figure 17-5, other diamonds embedded more deeply Dressing stick
in the bonding are exposed, which gives a fresh, sharp (Attacks bonding)
cutting surface.
Dressing of an edger wheel should be done before
changing coolant. In this manner, the spent abrasive
material from stick and wheel is not left to recirculate
in the coolant, which increases the risk of scratching
lens surfaces during edging. The proper sequence is as
follows:
1. Dress the wheel.
2. Cycle the machine empty to flush abrasive material
from the wheel.
3. Rinse or clean the grinding chamber.
4. Change the coolant.

Dressing wheel
Dressing Metal-Bonded Roughing Wheels (Diamond attacks
Only metal-bonded wheels are to be dressed because stick)
attempts to dress an electroplated wheel only causes the
soft bonding material to glaze over the diamonds, which FIGURE 17-5 The dressing stick attacks the softer
decreases wheel effectiveness. bonding material, which allows worn diamonds to drop out
The procedure for dressing a metal-bonded roughing and expose fresh, new diamond particles.
wheel begins by soaking a correctly chosen abrasive
stick in coolant. A coarse grit is the appropriate choice
and most sticks are recognizable by color. If the stick is
not soaked, no lubricating effect occurs. In summary, to dress metal-bonded roughing wheels,
Then the edger coolant pump is disconnected and perform the following:
the wheel turned on. Because roughing wheels should 1. Soak a coarse-grit abrasive stick in coolant.
not be dressed at full speed the power is turned off and 2. Disconnect the edger pump.
the abrasive stick pressed firmly against the wheel until 3. Turn the wheel on full speed.
rotation is halted. This is repeated until the stick is 4. Turn the wheel off.
rapidly and easily consumed by the wheel, indicating 5. Stop the wheel quickly with the stick.
exposure of fresh cutting surfaces. The stick should not 6. Repeat this process until the stick is consumed quickly.
be dragged laterally across the wheel even if the stick is
324 CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS

narrower than the width of the wheel. The stick is lifted

off the wheel each time and one section of the wheel is
done at a time.

Dressing Metal-Bonded Finishing Wheels

Finishing wheels require dressing when their cutting
speed slows. (Dressing is also needed if the edger uses
an older free-float method and no longer properly situates
the bevel even when the machine is level.) Finishing
wheels should not be dressed unless clearly needed.
Just because one wheel needs dressing does not mean
that all wheels in the laboratory should be done as a
preventive measure. A wheel should not be dressed
until it needs it.
To dress a finishing wheel, the operator begins with
a pumice or fine grit stick that has been soaked in
coolant. (Extreme caution is exercised in dressing
finishing wheels because bevel configuration can be
ruined if improper procedures are followed.) A round
pattern is placed on the edger and the size setting
increased to a maximum so that the edger head is out
of the way. For finishing wheels the coolant is left on
and the wheel runs at full power. Power is not turned off FIGURE 17-6 In dressing the finishing wheel, the power
during dressing. In this way the rapidly spinning and coolant flow are turned on and the stick pressed lightly
exposed diamonds tend to protect the bonding from against each surface of the wheel. In this photo the right side
excessive erosion and loss of bevel form. of the bevel groove is being dressed.
With both coolant and power on, the stick is pressed
lightly against the wheel for a few seconds. All portions
of both flat and V portions should be touched, one after lens material will be ground from the front than the
the other (Figure 17-6). When dressing is complete, no rear. This places the bevel apex toward the back of the
shiny portions should be left on the wheel. The entire lens, which, of course, is undesirable. However, by
surface should have an even, matte appearance. selectively dressing only portions of the edger wheel, the
bevel apex can be moved either forward or backward.
Changing the Lens Bevel Location For example, an edger consistently is edging lenses
For manual edgers with a free-float beveling system, with the bevel either exactly in the middle or somewhat
selectively dressing a finishing wheel is possible to farther back. It is desirable to place the bevel apex
change the way the bevel is positioned on the lens edge. more at the one-third/two-thirds location. (That is,
Because dressing an edger wheel causes it to cut faster, one third of the lens edge is ahead and two thirds are
if only one side of a finishing wheel groove were behind the apex of the bend.) This may be done by
dressed, it seems the dressed side would cut faster. If selectively dressing the rear (minus) surface of the
this is the side corresponding to the front bevel, more groove. Thus the minus side of the lens is cut away
faster; the lens shifts back toward the dressed half of the
groove; and the bevel apex moves forward. See Figure
17-7 for a summary of the procedure.
In summary, to dress metal-bonded finishing wheels, Bevel apex location also can be shifted by selectively
perform the following: dulling one section of the finishing wheel. Dulling serves
1. Soak a fine-grit abrasive stick in coolant.
to draw the bevel apex toward the dulled side, just as
2. Place a round pattern on the edger. sharpening shoves the apex sharp side. The location of
3. Set the edger to a large eyesize. the bevel apex is controlled as listed in Table 17-2.
4. Turn the wheel and coolant on. (Do not turn them Selectively dulling one portion of the edger wheel
off!) may be accomplished using a tungsten carbide tool, a
5. Lightly press the stick against the wheel for a few carbide chip, or even an Allen wrench. Without coolant
seconds. and with the wheel at full power, the tool is lightly
touched to the side of the groove. To make certain that
CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS 325

Lens shifts
TABLE 17-2
Controlling Bevel Apex Location
Apex moves
DESIRED OUTCOME ACTION

To move the bevel apex Dull the front (plus) side of the
forward groove
Surface stoned OR
Sharpen (dress) the rear
(minus) side of the groove
To move the bevel apex Sharpen the front (plus) side of
back on the lens the groove
OR
Dull the rear (minus) side of
the groove

combination with a scrubbing kitchen cleanser. Any

attempt to dress an electroplated wheel will result in
further glazing because the soft bonding material will
be forced over the diamond cutting surfaces.

FIGURE 17-7 Dressing the right-hand side of the wheel Truing Diamond Wheels
causes it to cut more aggressively. Therefore the rear surface When edger wheels no longer cut to the proper confi-
of the lens bevel is ground away more rapidly. This moves guration despite careful attention to proper machine
the bevel apex forward. maintenance and correct dressing of wheels, then the
wheel must be trued.
The truing process itself consists of recutting a new
In summary, to position the bevel apex, perform the
surface on the wheel that duplicates the shape of the
following: original surface. This is done at the factory rather than
in the laboratory. After truing, the wheel surface is
1. Dress the metal-bonded finishing wheel. shaped like new, but the diamond layer is thinner and
2. Run the test lens.
the wheel radius is slightly smaller than it was originally.
3. If the bevel is still positioned improperly, dull the side
toward which the bevel apex is to be drawn, as
follows: RETRUING ROUGHING WHEELS
a. Turn off the coolant.
b. Turn on the power to the wheel. Retruing of roughing wheels is of questionable value
c. Lightly hold the dulling tool against the pre- and should be done only after all other options have
determined side of the groove. been tried. Most edgers have a system of setting the lens
4. Run the test lens, again turning the coolant back on. down on the roughing wheel in slightly different areas
5. If the bevel apex has moved too far in the desired each time. This gives a more even wear to the wheel.
direction, dress both groove sides simultaneously. Because the roughing wheel does not give the lens
edge its final configuration, the fact that the wheel has
become grooved is not a major consideration. Truing
the desired result has been obtained, a test lens may be would be considered only if it were felt that the uneven
run. If the bevel apex has moved too far, the surface edge shape produced on the lens after roughing was
may be resharpened a bit by holding the proper abrasive creating too much wear in one location on the finishing
stick against both sides of the groove simultaneously. wheel. Usually, however, excessive finishing wheel wear
is a result of failure to compensate for a worn down
Cleaning Electroplated Wheels roughing wheel by resetting the wheel differential.
If electroplated wheels show a tendency to become glazed, When a roughing wheel is factory retrued, all of the
they must be cleaned rather than dressed. Cleaning diamond surface that extends above the lowest level of
may be accomplished by using a stiff bristle brush in the worn part of the wheel will be removed.
326 CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS

Finishing wheels should not be allowed to deteriorate

excessively between retrues. Excessive deterioration
necessitates removing a great deal of diamond material
to bring the wheel back to its correct shape, thus reducing
the number of times a wheel may be trued. The alternative
results in consistent high-quality workmanship and more
retrues from each wheel.
When feasible, having an extra finishing wheel is
best. If two finishing wheels can be interchanged, a
freshly trued wheel always will be available when wear
begins to manifest itself as a reduction in quality. With
a spare wheel on hand, the temptation to forestall the
process “just a while longer” is reduced.

Cutter Blades
Dry cut edgers use rotating blades to edge plastic and
polycarbonate lenses (see Figure 8-23). These blades
a b c
have a long, flat area on the blade where the lens is cut
FIGURE 17-8 Failure to retrue finishing wheels often down to the correct shape. This corresponds to the
enough results in loss of sharp, distinct edges (a and b) or a roughing cycle for edgers with diamond wheels. At one
rutting out of the groove apex of the V-bevel (c). end of the blade is a notched-out V shape. This is where
the lens is taken down the last few millimeters in size
while the bevel is being applied.
Cutter blades are fast and versatile. They can be shaped
to produce a variety of edges and include beveling,
modified Hide-a-Bevel, grooving, faceting, and shelving.
FINISHING WHEEL RETRUING
Each option uses a different cutter blade.
Finishing wheels should be retrued when it is noted Cutter blades dull over time but can be returned for
that bevels are formed poorly. This could manifest itself retruing. Carbide steel blades give excellent results for
as rounded bevel apices or loss of a sharp demarcation both plastic and polycarbonate lenses. Although diamond-
between bevel and hidden-bevel ledge, as shown in edged cutter blades increase the number of lenses that
Figure 17-8. Failure of lenses to fit well in metal can be edged before changing the blade, the quality
frame eyewires also can be an indication for a needed and smoothness of the edge is not considered to be as
retrue. high as with use of carbide blades.

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. How does a diamond wheel having a coarse grit 3. A diamond wheel described as having a
cut in comparison to one with a fine grit? concentration of 50 contains which of the
following percentages of diamond by volume?
a. At a faster speed
b. At a slower speed a. 75%
c. At the same speed b. 50%
c. 25%
2. The numbers used in classifying diamond grit size d. 12.5%
for optical grinding wheels become which of the e. None of the above because percent always is
following? specified by weight.

a. Larger as the particle size becomes smaller.

b. Larger as the particle size becomes larger.
CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS 327

4. Metal-bonded diamond wheels are made by which 10. True or False? When dressing an edger wheel, the
of the following processes? stick is dragged across the wheel laterally until the
stick is consumed rapidly and easily by the wheel.
a. Bonding diamonds to the wheel through an
electrolytic process 11. Which of the following types of dressing stick
b. Fusing a powdered metal and diamond particle should be used to dress an electroplated finishing
mixture together at a high temperature wheel?

5. Glass is edged using which of the following? a. White (fine grit) used wet
b. White (fine grit) used dry
a. A metal-bonded wheel c. Brown (80 grit) used wet
b. An electroplated wheel d. Brown (80 grit) used dry
c. A milling cutter e. Electroplated finishing wheels should not be
d. A router blade dressed.
e. Any of the above is acceptable, although some
methods are better than others. 12. True or False? Wheels should be dressed only
when they show signs of needing it and not as part
6. In ophthalmic use, for which of the following lens of a regular maintenance schedule.
types are electroplated wheels used more often?

a. Photochromic glass lenses Matching

b. Crown glass lenses
c. High-index glass lenses For Questions 13 through 17, an answer may be used
d. CR-39 plastic lenses more than one time.

7. In reference to ophthalmic lens grinding wheels, 13. Which type of wheel is dressed when it is running
which of the following best defines the term glazing? under full power?

a. Dressing of the wheel with an abrasive stick 14. Which type of wheel is dressed after turning
b. Accumulation of lens material between abrasive power off?
particles on the edger wheel surface
c. Turning of the wheel so that it spins in the 15. Which type of wheel is dressed with coolant
opposite direction running?
d. Dulling of a portion of the groove with a hard,
blunt instrument, for purposes of controlling 16. Which type of wheel is dressed with coolant off?
bevel placement
17. Which type of wheel is not dressed?
8. True or False? A small number of crown glass
lenses may be regularly edged on electroplated a. Metal-bonded (impregnated) roughing wheel
wheels designed for plastic lenses, as long as the b. Metal-bonded (impregnated) finishing wheel
wheel is properly dressed afterwards. c. Electroplated roughing wheel
d. None of the other responses is appropriate.
9. Which of the following lists the proper sequence
for the performance of each job listed? 18. Dressing only the front side of a finishing wheel
groove causes the bevel apex to do which of the
1. Rinse or clean the grinding chamber. following?
2. Change the coolant.
3. Dress the wheel. a. Move forward toward the front surface of the
4. Cycle the machine empty. lens
b. Move backward toward the back surface of the
a. 3, 1, 2, 4 lens
b. 2, 4, 1, 3 c. Become somewhat more pointed
c. 2, 3, 1, 4 d. Move forward for plus lenses and backward for
d. 3, 4, 1, 2 minus lenses
328 CHAPTER 17 EDGER WHEELS AND CUTTERS

19. If the effect of dulling one side of the finishing 22. Which of the following is the best statement about
wheel groove has caused the bevel position to the truing of metal-bonded diamond
move too far in the desired direction, the best
correction procedure is to do which of the a. Metal-bonded roughing wheels should be trued
following? regularly to prevent grooving of the surface.
b. Roughing wheels should be trued when
a. Resharpen just the dulled side with an abrasive grooving first appears.
stick. c. Retruing of metal-bonded roughing wheels is of
b. Dull the opposite side of the groove slightly. questionable value.
c. Resharpen both sides of the groove with an d. Metal-bonded roughing wheels cannot be
abrasive stick simultaneously. retrued.

20. In the event that an electroplated diamond wheel 23. True or False? The roughing wheel on a diamond
shows a tendency to become glazed, it may be edger is dressed with the wheel running at full
corrected by which of the following? RPM.

a. Using a pumice abrasive stick

b. Using a coarse grit abrasive stick
c. Using a stiff bristle brush and scrubbing
cleanser

21. Which type of wheel requires the most frequent

retruing?

a. A metal-bonded roughing wheel

b. A metal-bonded finishing wheel
c. Electroplated roughing wheel
d. Electroplated finishing wheel
 Safety and
18 Environmental
Concerns

L ike any place of business that employs people,

including eye care practices and optical
dispensaries, the optical laboratory also is subject to
federal, state, and local regulations. Some of those
regulations involve worker safety.
Worker safety includes physical safety from injury,
such as the necessity for eye protection in situations
that involve dangers of eye injury. Worker safety also
includes safety from chemicals or substances that may
not cause immediate injury but that are hazardous to a
person’s health, even if the effects may not be evident
for several years. A well-known example is the danger
that asbestos poses to the long-term health of individuals
exposed to it. The federal agency that oversees worker
safety issues is the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA).
Some of the substances that might or might not be
harmful to workers may be harmful to the environment.
The federal agency responsible for regulations that
protect the environment is the EPA or Environmental
Protection Agency. State and local regulations determine
what is or is not permissible regarding worker safety
and the environment.
Disclaimer: The information presented in this chapter
should not be considered all-inclusive. It is meant as an aid for
the optical laboratory in establishment of a safe and healthy
work environment and as a beginning for complying with
appropriate federal, state, and local requirements. It is not a
laboratory action plan. Regulations change. Even if this writing
were all-inclusive, it could be superceded at the time of publication.
In short, this chapter is meant as help in establishing policy
but should not be taken as policy.

329
330 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

Occupational Safety and Health standards, but states with approved plans may have
Administration different and independent standards.4

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) was created in 1971. Since its creation,
occupational deaths have been cut in half and injuries An Employer’s Responsibility
have declined by 40%.1 under OSHA
OSHA regulations are sometimes called “Employee
Right To Know” laws. In addition to having specific rules The OSH Act that established OSHA makes employers
on workplace safety, OSHA requires employers to “make responsible for a safe workplace. A multitude of possible
their employees aware of potential hazards in the work- work situations exist, each with different workplace
place and to provide their employees with appropriate hazards. OSHA requirements therefore have general
training in how to handle hazardous material and what and specific aspects. In certain industries hazards are
to do in case of an emergency.”2 An employer must common and protection from them is standardized.
provide documented training on subjects relating to These industries have specific OSHA standards.
hazardous materials. Other industries are smaller and more individualized.
It is not possible to make detailed standards for every
industry. Therefore the requirements are more general
Environmental Protection Agency for these industries.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) makes

regulations that govern how a company that generates
OSHA STANDARDS AND THE ‘GENERAL
materials classified as “hazardous” must store, transport,
DUTY CLAUSE’
and dispose of such materials. “A business or organization In general, standards require that employers do the
that generates waste is responsible for that waste until it following5:
has been disposed of at a licensed facility and notification
• Maintain conditions or adopt practices reasonably
has been received that it has been properly disposed
necessary and appropriate to protect workers on the
of.”3
job
In other words, just paying someone to haul off
• Be familiar with and comply with standards applicable
hazardous waste does not absolve the “waste generator”
to their establishments
of responsibility should that waste be improperly
• Ensure that employees have and use personal
disposed of and create an environmental hazard later
protective equipment when required for safety and
on. Hazardous wastes must be disposed of by a licensed
health
contractor in a regulated site.
• Comply with the OSH Act’s “general duty clause” in
situations for which no specific standards exist
Where no specific standards exist, the guiding factor
Agencies Overseeing OSHA is OSHA’s “general duty clause.” The general duty clause,
Requirements or Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, requires that each
employer “furnish…a place of employment which is
A total of 23 states operate their own job safety and free from recognized hazards that are causing or are
health programs in place of the federal OSHA program. likely to cause death or serious physical harm to
This practice is encouraged as long as the state plans employees.”6
provide standards and enforcement programs that are Overall responsibilities under OSHA are listed in
either identical to or “at least as effective as” the federal Appendix 18-1, What Are My Responsibilities under the
OSHA program. Most state plans are similar to federal OSH Act?, found in the back of the chapter.

4
All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
1
About OSHA: frequently asked questions (webpage), Washington, (revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
DC, accessed June 2001, US Department of Labor, Occupational Administration, p 9.
5
Safety and Health Administration (http://www.osha.gov/as/opa/ All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
osha-faq.html). (revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
2
Moody DP: What to do when they come for you, Vision Monday, 1995, Administration, p 15.
6
p 7. All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
3
Moody DP: What to do when they come for you, Vision Monday, 1995, (revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
p 7. Administration, p 15.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 331

HAZARDS ADDRESSED BY OSHA employees do not have to keep a Log and Summary of
OSHA issues standards covering a wide variety of work- Occupational Injuries and Illnesses nor a Supplementary
place hazards, including the following7: Record of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses.
OSHA is expected to be responsive to questions by
• Toxic substances
small businesses and have a penalty reduction for small
• Harmful physical agents
businesses. For information specific to small businesses,
• Electrical hazards
the OSHA Handbook for Small Businesses (OSHA
• Fall hazards
publication 2209) is helpful.
• Hazardous waste
• Infectious diseases
• Fire and explosion hazards DEVELOPING A SAFETY PROGRAM
• Dangerous atmospheres
OSHA recommends that every safety program should
• Machine hazards
have the following five elements10:
Many of these are only secondarily applicable to the
1. Management leadership and employee participation:
optical laboratory. Certain hazards, such as electrical
Employers and employees work together to make
hazards, are common to many work situations.
safety and health a priority. Employer and employee
involvement and communication on workplace
OSHA INSPECTIONS safety and communication on workplace safety and
health issues are essential.
OSHA enforces workplace standards by conducting
2. Workplace analysis: A worksite analysis means that you
inspections. Inspections are unannounced. The four
and your employees analyze all worksite conditions
stages of a typical OSHA inspection are the following8:
to identify and eliminate existing or potential hazards.
• Presentation of inspector credentials This should be done on a regular and timely basis. A
• Opening conference current hazard analysis should be performed for all
• Inspection walkaround jobs and processes that all employees know and
• Closing conference understand.
3. Hazard prevention and control: The next part of a good
Ordinarily OSHA chooses the most hazardous work-
safety and health program means that you continually
places to inspect. They inspect under the following
review your work environment and work practices to
conditions9:
control or prevent workplace hazards.
• Imminent danger 4. Safety and health training and education: It is important
• Catastrophes and fatal accidents resulting in the that everyone in the workplace be properly trained,
death of an employee or the hospitalization of three from the floor worker to the supervisors, managers,
or more employees contractors, and part-time and temporary employees.
• Employee complaints 5. Program evaluation: Program evaluation is done by
• Referrals from other agencies either requesting an OSHA program evaluation
• Planned or programmed inspections in high-hazard through the OSHA Consultation Service or having a
industries knowledgeable third party to evaluate the program
• Follow-ups to previous inspections developed.

DIFFERENT TREATMENT FOR SMALL AND

LARGE BUSINESSES The Chemical Hazard
Small businesses are exempt from certain OSHA require- Communication Standard
ments. For example, most firms with less than 11
One of the important standards that applies to the
7
workplace, including the optical laboratory, is the
All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
(revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Chemical Hazard Communication Standard (HAZCOM).
Administration, p 15. This standard has specific requirements that must be
8
All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
(revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
10
Administration, p 27. Q’s and A’s for small business employers [website], OSHA 3163,
9 Washington, DC, US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000
(revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Health Administration, accessed March 2003 (http://www.osha.gov/
Administration, p 26. Publications/osha3163.pdf).
332 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

individually tailored for the firm. It includes the A sample of a written Hazard Communication
following: Program is included as Appendix 18-2 in the back of
the chapter. It is a template published by OSHA as part
• A written portion
of their Hazard Communication Compliance Kit but is
• A list of all hazardous chemicals in the workplace
not meant as a fill-in-the-blanks form. It is a good starting
• Material Safety Data Sheets
point in the process of creating a written Hazard
• Labels on all containers of hazardous materials
Communication Program.
• Employee training.
This is an important section of every safety program
and has specific, verifiable elements:
LIST OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
Preparation of an effective employee training program
OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is based
on a simple concept—that employees have both a need relies on knowledge of those chemicals that would be
and a right to know the hazards and identities of the hazardous in the form of liquids, solids, gases, fumes, or
chemicals they are exposed to when working. They also mists.13 Not all chemicals are hazardous. Only those
need to know what protective measures are available to that are hazardous need to go on a Hazardous Chemicals
prevent adverse effects from occurring. OSHA designed List (see Appendix 18-3). This includes materials such
the HCS to provide employees with the information they as those that are flammable or poisonous, cause skin
need to know.11 irritation, and are carcinogenic. A list of some types of
potentially hazardous chemicals is shown in Box 18-1.
A WRITTEN HAZARD COMMUNICATION 13
Neary J: Can you pass an OSHA inspection? Optometric Management,
PROGRAM December 1997, p 41.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s

BOX 18-1
Hazard Communications Standard requires all employers
to provide their employees with information and training Potentially Hazardous Chemicals
about any possible exposure to hazardous chemicals in
the workplace.12 Information is to be in written form The following list identifies some types of potentially
and should explain workplace policy on protection hazardous chemicals that may be present in the
from hazards. workplace:
The written program is not necessarily a compendium Acids Insecticides
Adhesives Herbicides
of safety procedures but rather a set of guidelines on
Aerosols Janitorial supplies
what an employee can expect the organization to do in Battery fluids Kerosene
providing information and training. It is written for the Benzene Lacquers
employee. Catalysts Lead
At a minimum, the following should be included in Caustics Lye
the written program: Cleaning agents Oxalic acid
Coal tar pitch Paints
• A current file of Material Safety Data Sheets Coatings Pesticides
• A list of the hazardous chemicals in each work area Degreasing agents Plastics
• A description of the means the employer will use to Detergents Process chemicals
inform employees of those issues required by OSHA Dusts Resins
to comply with the Hazardous Communications Etching agents Sealers
Standard Fiberglass Shellacs
• Information regarding labels on hazardous chemicals Flammables Solders
Foaming resins Solvents
The written hazard communication program, Fuels Strippers
consisting of all of the parts described in this section, Fungicides Surfactants
including a list of hazardous chemicals and the MSDS Gasoline Thinners
sheets about those chemicals, must be readily accessible Glues Varnishes
to employees. Greases Water treatments
Industrial oils Wood preservatives
11
Hazard communication guidelines for compliance, OSHA publication Inks Xylene
3111, Washington, DC, 2000 (reprinted), US Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, p 1. From Hazard communication: a compliance kit, OSHA Publication 3104,
12
OSHA office guidelines, Indianapolis, Indiana Optometric Association, Washington, DC, 1988, US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
accessed March 2003, (http://www.ioa.org/members/osha.htm). Health Administration, p D-2.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 333

Information must be available to employees about

LABELS ON ALL CONTAINERS
each substance that is considered hazardous. This infor-
mation is made available to employees in the form of a All containers must be properly labeled. Hazardous
Material Safety and Data Sheet (MSDS). chemicals must be labeled with the following:
Materials are listed on the Hazardous Chemical List
1. The name of the hazardous chemical
by the name of the chemical as it appears on the MSDS
2. A hazard warning
and on the label on the container and by other names
as well. The entire workplace may have one master list, A hazard warning can be any type of message, words,
or separate lists may be generated for each work area. pictures, or symbols that convey the hazards of the
Everything on this list must have a corresponding chemical in the container.15 The label can be directly
MSDS for employee reference. on the container, or on a tag attached to the container.
According to OSHA’s website:
Material Safety Data Sheets If the hazardous chemicals are transferred into unmarked
OSHA requires certain information about materials. That containers, these containers must be labeled with the
information is collected on what is called a Material required information, unless the container into which the
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Although OSHA does not chemical is transferred is intended for the immediate use
mandate a standard format for an MSDS, most use the of the employee who performed the transfer.16
standardized form as shown in Appendix 18-4. The
following are some important points about MSDSs:
EMPLOYEE TRAINING
• An MSDS should be maintained and available in the
Employee safety training is a necessity. However, no
laboratory for every potentially hazardous material
established training standards exist17 because each
or chemical.
work situation is unique. However, OSHA does provide
• All employers are required to set up and maintain
information on safety training and periodically conducts
MSDSs for their employees to reference. Most keep
regional “Training Institutes” appropriate for general
these posted in the form of a loose-leaf notebook or
industry. One piece of useful information on training is
on a bulletin board in a readily accessible place.
found in OSHA publication 3104, Hazard Communication:
• MSDSs may become outdated if new information
a Compliance Kit, in the “Training Guidelines” section.
about the effects of the material becomes known.
Following are some areas to include in an employee
Employers are expected to replace outdated sheets
personal safety training program18:
with the most recent ones available.
• MSDSs should include physical and chemical charac- • How the hazard communication program will be
teristics, known acute and chronic health effects, implemented in the workplace
exposure limits, precautionary measures, and • How to read and interpret information on labels and
emergency and first aid procedures. on MSDS forms
• Possible materials that would have MSDSs in the • How an employee can obtain and use the available
optical laboratory include alcohol, acetone, heat hazard information.
transfer fluid for tint units, lens neutralizer, and dyes. • What the hazards of the chemical in the work area
• Management must request MSDSs from the are
manufacturer of the substance, whose responsibility • How an employee may protect themselves from
it is to supply it. It is advisable to document when workplace hazards
these were requested and any follow-up required to • How to follow specific procedures put into effect by
obtain them. That way if a delay occurs, documen- the employer to provide protection, such as work
tation exists that a good-faith effort is being made to practices and the use of and care for personal
comply.14 protective equipment
• One of the responsibilities of an employer is to make
sure that employees have a basic understanding of
how to find information on a Material Safety Data 15
OSHA office guidelines, Indianapolis, Indiana Optometric Associa-
Sheet, and how to use that information. tion, March 2003, (http://www.ioa.org/members/osha.htm).
16
What are the container labeling requirements under HAZCOM?: frequently
asked questions: hazard communication (HAZCOM) [website], Washington,
DC, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, accessed March
2003 (http://www.osha-slc.gov/html/faq-hazcom.html).
17
Hill RS, Lamperelli K: Safety first, Eyewear, July1998, p 52.
14 18
Neary J: Can you pass an OSHA inspection? Optometric Management, OSHA office guidelines, Indianapolis, Indiana Optometric Association,
December 1997, p 41. accessed March 2003 (http://www.ioa.org/members/osha.htm).
334 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

• Methods and observations, such as visual appearance

BOX 18-2
or smell, that workers can use to detect the presence
of a hazardous chemical Hazardous Communication Checklist
Training in the above areas should include how 1. Is there a list of hazardous substances used in your
exposure to specific chemicals may aggravate certain workplace?
medical conditions. Training also should include infor- 2. Is there a written hazard communication program
mation on the proper way to work with each type of dealing with Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS),
hazardous chemical or substance present in the work labeling, and employee training?
environment. 3. Is each container for a hazardous substance (i.e., vats,
Box 18-2 shows a checklist to use to ensure all elements bottles, storage tanks) labeled with product identity
of the Chemical Hazard Communication Standard have and a hazard warning (communication of the specific
been addressed. health hazards and physical hazards)?
4. Is there a Material Safety Data Sheet readily available
for each hazardous substance used?
5. Is there an employee training program for hazardous
An Effective Safety Program substances?
6. Does this program include the following:
A safety program includes more than just compliance a. An explanation of what an MSDS is and how to
with regulations on hazardous chemicals. The following use and obtain one?
are some elements that should be included in an b. MSDS contents for each hazardous substance or
effective safety program. These elements are explained class of substances?
further in the next few sections of the chapter. (Some c. Explanation of “Right to Know”?
of the items [5 through 7] have been covered already in d. Identification of where an employee can see the
the Chemical Hazardous Communications section of employers written hazard communication
program and where hazardous substances are
the chapter.)
present in their work areas?
1. Having clear management support for the program e. The physical and health hazards of substances in
by the following: the work area and specific protective measures to
a. Appointing someone to implement and oversee be used?
the program f. Details of the hazard communication program,
including how to use the labeling system and
b. Asking employees for help in finding problems
MSDSs?
c. Correcting identified problems quickly 7. Are employees trained in the following:
2. Cleaning up your place of business a. How to recognize tasks that might result in
3. Identifying and implementing OSHA requirements occupational exposure?
for safety by posting signs and properly labeling b. How to use work practice and engineering
containers of hazardous materials controls and personal protective equipment and
4. Providing employees with personal protective to know their limitations?
equipment c. How to obtain information on the types selection,
5. Correcting identified hazards proper use, location, removal handling,
6. Having written safety policies decontamination, and disposal of personal
7. Training employees in safety issues protective equipment?
d. Whom to contact and what to do in an
8. Keeping documentation on the following:
emergency?
a. Training of employees
b. Accidents and injuries
From Self-Inspection Checklists Hazard Communication [website], Washington,
c. Communication with government officials and DC, US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
others relating to environmental and safety issues. March 2003, (http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/smallbusiness/chklist.html#HAZCOM).

9. Reviewing appropriate OSHA checklists. (An

extensive set of checklists may be found in OSHA
Publication 2209, OSHA Handbook for Small enforcement, and a willingness to correct problems, a
Business.) safety plan can become an effective program.

Implementation and Oversight

CLEAR MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Even with the best plan on paper, a safety program may
Success of a safety plan relies on management support. not happen if no strategy is in place for putting it into
By appropriate delegation, staff involvement, a plan of effect. Specific steps must be mapped out ahead of time
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 335

to ensure agreement upon action and a follow-up is Poor housekeeping is a major contributor to low morale
necessary to enforce action. and sloppy work in general, even if it is not usually the
One of the best ways to implement a safety program cause of major accidents. Most safety action programs start
is to appoint someone capable of effectively implementing with an intensive clean-up campaign in all areas of
business.
the program and work toward active, ongoing employee
Get rid of rubbish that has collected; make sure proper
involvement.
containers are provided; see that flammables are properly
stored; make sure that exits are not blocked; if necessary,
Employee Involvement mark aisles and passageways; provide adequate lighting,
Interested employee involvement is best. Otherwise a etc.20
safety plan can be an aggravation to employees and
difficult to carry out. If employees recognize that their
input is taken seriously, implementation is much easier.
REQUIREMENTS FOR POSTING AND
A positive way to help ensure ongoing employee
LABELING
involvement is to form a safety committee. If a safety For labeling of hazardous chemicals, see the “HAZCOM”
committee is formed, minutes of the meetings should section on labeling.
be kept. The best safety plans are ones that ensure an The following sections describe a few types of signs
open line of communication with employees about safety and pieces of information required in almost all work
issues and that document everything.19 settings. The list should not be considered all-inclusive.

Correcting Employee-Identified Problems OSHA Poster

Quickly OSHA issues a poster that informs employees of what
If a safety problem is identified, it should be corrected OSHA expects and therefore what employees should
quickly for several reasons, as follow: expect from their employers. (The poster is available
for viewing or download at http://www.osha.gov/
• If employees identify a problem that they consider
Publications/osha3165.pdf and may also be requested
hazardous and the problem is ignored, they will feel
from OSHA.) It should be put up on a bulletin board
that management does not value their input and is
or posting area where required information is visible to
not concerned for their safety.
all. Display of this poster will be verified if an OSHA
• Once a problem is identified, failure to correct the
inspection occurs. Poster requirements can be expected
problem before a mishap occurs would lead to
to change, and new requirements should be checked
greater liability.
periodically.
• Uncorrected problems that are reported, yet left
uncorrected, provide reason for a disgruntled
Safety Signs
employee to contact OSHA with a complaint, which
Safety signs should be posted in the areas of the
is likely to trigger an inspection.
laboratory where personal safety equipment is required.
For example, a sign stating “Safety Eyewear Required”
An Enforcement Plan should be in those areas where machinery is operated.
Without some type of enforcement, a safety plan is not An area with loud equipment should post a “Hearing
likely to succeed. For example, just as many people still Protection Required” sign (Figure 18-1).
do not wear seat belts while driving, not everyone wears
safety glasses voluntarily. If something takes extra time Exit Signs
or is an inconvenience, even in safety matters, not Exit signs should be posted on all exits. Exit signs should
everyone will comply unless required to do so. be either glow-in-the-dark or lighted with backup power
in case of power failure.
CLEANING UP THE WORKPLACE
‘No Smoking’ Signs
OSHA’s Handbook for Small Business recommends Many buildings are completely no-smoking facilities.
beginning a safety program by cleaning up the place of However, if smoking is not generally banned, then “No
business. A neat, clean establishment makes a better Smoking” signs should be posted in the laboratory
impression in the event of an inspection than a sloppy because of any flammable chemicals.
one. The Handbook provides the following direction:
20
OSHA handbook for small business, Safety Management Series, OSHA
19
Brauner A: OSHA—the good, the bad, and the ugly, Frames, July 2209, Washington, DC, 1996 (revised), US Department of Labor,
1994. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, p 9.
336 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

posted each year from February 1 through April 30.

(This does not include minor injuries requiring only
first aid.)

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The employer is usually responsible for providing most
personal protective equipment. However, what is or is
not the employer’s responsibility may vary, depending
on what the equipment is and negotiated agreements
between management and employees. Personal protective
equipment would include such things as safety glasses,
hearing protection, and latex gloves, as follow:
• Safety glasses should be worn in the optical laboratory.
• If a noise hazard is present, hearing protection should
be worn. Continuous noise levels that exceed 85 dBA
are problematic.23
• Latex gloves should be worn if the hands are to come
into contact with dyes or similar product.
• A mask that filters air should be used if there is plastic
FIGURE 18-1 Safety signs are to be displayed where dust in the air when edging polycarbonate lenses.24
appropriate.

Safety Equipment for Chemical Tempering

Chemical hardening of glass lenses involves heating salt
Emergency Telephone Numbers to the molten state, also known as chemtempering. If
Emergency telephone numbers should be posted. employees are exposed to this hazard, they require
Numbers should be posted on an appropriate bulletin heat-resistant protective equipment such as gloves,
board and near the phone. These would include fire, aprons, or other body protection.
police, and medical emergency numbers.
MAINTAINING DOCUMENTATION
Fire Evacuation Route
One of the requirements for OSHA is an evacuation From an internal standpoint, accurate, complete docu-
route in case of fire. This should be done even if the mentation is essential. Good documentation decreases
exit is obvious. For example, it may be possible to go misunderstanding and discord.
out the laboratory door, turn left or right, and end up From an external standpoint, documentation is the
outside. It seems unnecessary to have an evacuation only thing that gives evidence of an ongoing, compliant
route in such a case, but it is required. If other possible program. Inspecting agencies consider anything not
disasters such as tornado or hurricane could occur, documented as not done.25
disaster plans should be posted for these, too.
Documenting Training
Posting Requirements for Businesses with 11 or Documentation is important when attempting to comply
More Employees with governmental regulations. With this in mind, each
If the business has 11 or more employees, a written employee must sign a form or a roster stating that he
Emergency Action Plan must be in place in case of a disaster or she has been advised about possible hazards in the
like a fire, tornado, or personal injury. Also required is laboratory and how to prevent harm. An outline summary
a written record of work-related illness or injury.21 Even if no of the material covered is an appropriate method of
injuries or illnesses have occurred, that record must be documenting training.
kept up-to-date.22 This is summarized on OSHA Form
300, Log of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses, and must be 23
OSHA handbook for small business, Safety Management Series, OSHA
2209, Washington, DC, 1996 (revised), US Department of Labor,
21
This is reported on Forms 300, Log of Work-Related Injuries and Occupational Safety and Health Administration, p 33.
24
Illnesses, and 301, Injury and Illness Incident Report. DeFranco LM: Environmental concerns in the lab, Eyecare Business,
22
Bruneni J: In-office labs must face up to legal problems too, Eye July 2000, p 40.
25
Quest Magazine, 3(5):18, 1993. Hill RS, Lamperelli K: Safety first, Eyewear, July 1998, p 52.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 337

All training may not be done at one time. In this case • 21 Pages of checklists for specific areas starting with
appropriate documentation is necessary for each section “Employer Posting” and ending with “Tire Inflation”
of training that has occurred. Documentation should are found in OSHA’s publication 2209, Handbook for
state specifically what was included in that training. The Small Business.27 Though most of the items listed
employee should sign a roster or individual form for have little to do with the optical laboratory, some
each section completed. will. A checklist is a quick way to be certain nothing
is overlooked.
Documenting Accidents and Injuries
As mentioned earlier, documentation of accidents and
INSURANCE
injuries must be kept for firms with 11 or more
employees. This documentation is as follows26: The laboratory is a manufacturer and must have product
liability insurance. Professional liability insurance for
1. A report on every injury requiring medical treatment
either a doctor’s office or an optical dispensary that
(other than first aid)
includes an optical laboratory will probably not cover
2. A record of each injury on OSHA Form No. 200. The
product liability. Anyone doing any laboratory work is
annual Form No. 200 summary must be posted for
considered a manufacturer—even if it is only tinting.28
the month of February
3. A supplementary record of occupational injuries and
illnesses for recordable cases either on OSHA Form A FEW SPECIFICS
No. 101 or on worker’s compensation reports giving
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to list every
the same information
potential hazard or every necessary hazard prevention.
4. These records must be kept for at least 5 years
Such a list becomes quickly outdated. Only a few specifics
that are common to most laboratories are mentioned.
Documenting Conversations
Another aspect of documentation is important but is
Fire Extinguishers
not a legal requirement. This optional but prudent
Fire extinguishers should be placed appropriately. In
documentation is of conversations with federal, state,
most cases the dry chemical extinguisher (red in color)
and local officials regarding safety issues. In addition,
is most appropriate for the optical laboratory.29
records should be kept of all conversations with regu-
latory agencies and with any private contractors that
First-Aid Kit
might be assisting in the setting up or ongoing oversight
A first-aid kit should be available. If an eyewash station
of safety and environmental program concerns. These
is not available, then sterile solution should be on hand
are important in showing an ongoing effort and are
for splash injuries (Figure 18-2).
helpful if disagreements arise.
Wet and Slippery Hazards
REVIEWING APPROPRIATE CHECKLISTS Other potential hazards exist to employees that may
not be readily apparent. One such example would be
There are any number of possible workplace hazards.
areas that are or could be wet, slippery, and hazardous.
Therefore how is it possible to know which hazards
For example, the area near the tint unit in a laboratory
exist in the laboratory? One quick way of screening for
could fit this description. In this case, nonslip mats are
possible hazards or OSHA requirements is to use
advisable, which make the floor slip-safe and, in some
checklists. Following are some applicable checklists that
cases, easier to stand on for extended periods of time
range from general to specific:
(Figure 18-3).
• Responsibilities of management under the OSH Act.
Appendix 18-1 is a list of employer and employee Electrical Hazards
responsibilities set forth by the OSHA. (This was Common sense rules about electricity apply in the work-
referenced previously.) place. Safety requirements are what would be expected.
• General areas in which possible problems may exist. Some examples follow:
A general “Self-Inspection Scope” checklist is shown
in Box 18-3. 27
OSHA handbook for small business, Safety Management Series, OSHA
2209, Washington, DC, 1996 (revised), US Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, pp 15-36.
26 28
OSHA handbook for small business, Safety Management Series, OSHA Bruneni J: In-office labs must face up to legal problems too, Eye
2209, Washington, DC, 1996 (revised), US Department of Labor, Quest Magazine, 3(5):18, 1993.
29
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, p 6. Hill RS, Lamperelli K: Safety first, Eyewear, July 1998, p 54.
338 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

BOX 18-3
Self-Inspection Scope

The scope of your self-inspections should include the following:

• Processing, receiving, shipping and storage: equipment, job planning, layout, heights, floor loads, projection of
materials, materials-handling and storage methods, and training for material handling equipment
• Building and grounds conditions: floors, walls, ceilings, exits, stairs, walkways, ramps, platforms, driveways, and aisles
• Housekeeping program: waste disposal, tools, objects, materials, leakage and spillage, cleaning methods, schedules, work
areas, remote areas, and storage areas
• Electricity: equipment, switches, breakers, fuses, switch-boxes, junctions, special fixtures, circuits, insulation, extensions,
tools, motors, grounding, and national electric code compliance
• Lighting: type, intensity, controls, conditions, diffusion, location, and glare and shadow control
• Heating and ventilation: type, effectiveness, temperature, humidity, controls, and natural and artificial ventilation and
exhaust
• Machinery: points of operation, flywheels, gears, shafts, pulleys, key ways, belts, couplings, sprockets, chains, frames,
controls, lighting for tools and equipment, brakes, exhausting, feeding, oiling, adjusting, maintenance, lockout/tagout,
grounding, work space, location, and purchasing standards
• Personnel: experience training, including hazard identification training; methods of checking machines before use; type of
clothing; personal protective equipment; use of guards; tool storage; work practices; and methods of cleaning, oiling, or
adjusting machinery
• Hand and power tools: purchasing standards, inspection, storage, repair, types, maintenance, grounding, use, and
handling
• Chemicals: storage, handling, transportation, spills, disposals, amounts used, labeling, toxicity or other harmful effects,
warning signs, supervision, training, protective clothing and equipment, and hazard communication requirements
• Fire prevention: extinguishers, alarms, sprinklers, smoking rules, exits, personnel assigned, separation of flammable
materials and dangerous operations, explosive-proof fixtures in hazardous locations, and waste disposal
• Maintenance, including tracking and abatement of preventative and regular maintenance: regularity, effectiveness,
training of personnel, materials and equipment used, records maintained, method of locking out machinery, and general
methods
• Personal protective equipment: type, size, maintenance, repair, storage, assignment of responsibility, purchasing methods,
standards observed, training in care and use, rules of use, and method of assignment
• Transportation: motor vehicle safety, seat belts, vehicle maintenance, and safe driver programs
• Review: evacuation routes, equipment, and personal protective equipment

From OSHA handbook for small business, Safety Management Series, OSHA publication 2209, Washington, DC, 1996 (revised), US Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

• Overloading electric circuits with equipment that

pulls more power than the circuit is designed to
handle is inappropriate.
• Frayed cords should be replaced, not just wrapped
with electrical tape.
• Use of multiple adapters and overloading a plug-in
are unsafe.
• Outlets that are not grounded with a third prong
ground wire need to be changed.
• Ground fault interrupters are required if an electrical
outlet is within 6 feet of a sink. These are the same
type of outlet as routinely found in bathrooms.
• Emergency lights in case of power failure are needed
so that easy exiting is possible (Figure 18-4).

The Need for Proper Ventilation

If ventilation for tint units is inadequate, or if state
FIGURE 18-2 A first-aid kit should be available in case of regulations require, it may be necessary to vent the unit
minor injuries. outside. Dry cut edgers are normally not a problem
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 339

ronmental issue is how to dispose properly of generated

waste without harming individuals or the environment.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH WASTE

MANAGEMENT IN THE LABORATORY
Optical laboratories should be sure that the waste
materials they are generating are being disposed of
properly. First of all, waste management regulations vary
across the country. States differ in what is considered
hazardous waste, and so do cities. For example, one
sewage treatment facility may be capable of handling
certain types of liquid waste, whereas another in a
nearby town may not. Therefore what is permissible
depends on the individual geographic location of the
optical laboratory.
According to Moody in Vision Monday:
“A business or organization that generates waste is
responsible for that waste until it has been disposed of at a
licensed facility and notification has been received that it
has been properly disposed of.”30

This means that a business cannot hire a shoddy or

dishonest waste handler and be absolved of all respon-
sibility for hazardous wastes generated just because
FIGURE 18-3 Where surfaces are often wet or continually those wastes have been picked up and are off the
wet and could cause falls, a nonslip mat increases safety. It premises. Responsibility extends to the point at which
also makes standing for long periods of time easier. the business can be assured that hazardous waste has
been fully taken care of.
Ignorance of waste disposal requirements will not
prevent a citation for violations.

Three Rules
The following are three rules to consider to make waste
disposal easier31:
1. No chemical is brought into the laboratory without
figuring out how to dispose of it.
2. Only as much of a chemical is kept on hand as
needed.
3. Products that do not generate hazardous wastes
FIGURE 18-4 An example of emergency lights that come should be used.
on when the power goes off.
All liquid wastes that cannot be filtered and then
disposed of in the sewer system must be removed by an
unless the vacuum is blowing plastic dust back into the approved waste contractor.
room. Fortunately only a limited number of waste manage-
ment problems exist in a finishing laboratory. Existing
problems are manageable with a bit of foresight. The
Environmental Concerns
30
Employee safety concerns and environmental concerns Moody, DP: What to do when they come for you, Vision Monday,
are linked closely. When considering an overall safety 1995, p 7.
31
Hill RS: Hazardous-waste management in the optical laboratory, Lab
plan, it is logical to tie in a plan for addressing environ- Talk, May 1994, pp 12, 14; Hill RA: How to OSHA-proof your lab, part
mental concerns at the same time. The primary envi- 1 of 2, Lab Talk, 26(24):16, 1998.
340 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

following are a few areas within the finishing laboratory Sometimes containers may be disposed of in a
that should be watched. household hazardous waste facility in the community.
Rags or tissues used with certain compounds may be
Edger and Hand Edger Coolant flammable and could present a fire hazard if not handled
Filters may be a part of the edger system and catch lens properly.
debris as it leaves the edging chamber. Some systems do
not use coolant at all but rather plain water, which is Chemical Tempering Products
filtered but not recycled. It becomes waste water after Chemical tempering salts are corrosive oxidizers and
filtering. If the edger coolant and defoaming agents thus classified as hazardous. Used chemtempering salts
being used are water based and biodegradable, the may or may not be accepted by trash handlers in an
solids may be filtered out and put in the trash, and the individual area. If not, it may be possible to see if the
filtered liquid poured down the drain. supplier will take back the used product. Otherwise a
Even though it may be appropriate to pour edger licensed hazardous waste hauler must remove it.
coolant down the drain with some types of coolant in
some areas, it cannot be assumed that this is universally Alloy Finish Blocking Wastes
permissible for all coolants in all areas. Some coolants, The only justifiable reason for using metal alloy
especially oil-based coolants, are in violation if disposed blocking in the finishing laboratory is if the finishing
of in the sewer. A licensed waste hauler must remove laboratory is connected to a surfacing laboratory that
these. also uses alloy blocking. In that case a system would
have to be already in place for appropriate waste disposal.
Lens Tinting Fluids This would include filtering the mop water used in the
A number of fluids are used in the tinting process. These area of the alloy blocking system. The best solution is to
include dyes, heat transfer fluid, lens conditioner, and not use an alloy blocking system in lens finishing.
neutralizers. The MSDS for tint unit dyes and heat Instead a different system entirely should be used.
transfer fluids commonly state, “Dispose of waste in
accordance with all local, state and federal regulations.”32 Spill Cleanups
Dyes and ultraviolet (UV) liquid should not be consid- Certain procedures are to be followed if a hazardous
ered suitable for sewer disposal unless all regulations chemical is spilled. Chemical spills are to be cleaned up
are checked, even though many dyes are biodegradable by trained personnel. If hazardous chemicals are
and may be poured down the drain. However, because present in the finishing laboratory, someone needs to
of their color, even biodegradable dyes may interfere be trained in spill cleanup. A suitable emergency spill
with some types of monitoring equipment used in local kit should be on hand.
sewage treatment facilities. If unsure of whether dyes
may be disposed of down the drain, laboratory manage-
OVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS
ment personnel should check with local authorities.
Neutralizers generally are not suitable for sewer The following are some overall recommendations to
disposal. consider.
Heat transfer fluids contain their original chemical
make-up, in addition to lens dye and UV liquids from ‘Good Faith Effort’
boilovers. Heat transfer fluid may be a hazardous waste, It is difficult to know and implement every rule for
depending upon the brand of transfer fluid and the every potential hazard. When a laboratory is chosen for
products with which it is contaminated. inspection it is possible that not everything will have
been done that should have been. One of the things
Lens Cleaning and Other Cleaning Products that inspectors will be looking for is whether or not they
The best strategy for disposal of cleaning products is think that management is making an effort to comply
to only buy products as they are needed, buy products with safety and environmental regulations. If evidence
that are nontoxic whenever feasible, and then use the exists that the organization is making a “good faith effort,”
product completely. Even so, there may be an issue with then any violations are less likely to be penalized to the
some of the empty containers or the rags or tissues used same degree than if inspectors feel that management
in the process.33 has a negative attitude toward safety and environmental
concerns.

32
BPI Material Safety Data Sheet Book, BPI, Inc., Miami. ‘Engineering Out the Hazard’
33
SG2, Processing Manual, Bellingham, Wash, 1996, Seagreen, p 53. It is easier to “engineer out the hazard” than it is to try
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 341

to protect employees from a hazard.34 If some chemicals The following is the introduction to the OSHA-
are not hazardous, use those instead of hazardous ones. funded consultation service, as explained on the OSHA
If a piece of equipment is dangerous, it should be website38:
replaced. In the long run it may be far better to replace Using a free consultation service largely funded by the U.S.
equipment that requires protective work-arounds with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
something that does not even present the hazard. employers can find out about potential hazards at their
If a process requires a chemical or hazardous sub- worksites, improve their occupational safety and health
stance, the process may be replaced with one that does management systems, and even qualify for a one-year
not even use the same material. For example, if a exemption from routine OSHA inspections.
finishing laboratory were still using a metal alloy finish The service is delivered by state governments using well-
blocking system, it would cost considerably more to trained professional staff. Most consultations take place
protect against a heavy metal hazard than it would cost on-site, though limited services away from the worksite are
to replace that system with an adhesive pad blocking available.
Primarily targeted for smaller businesses, this safety and
system.
health consultation program is completely separate from
the OSHA inspection effort. In addition, no citations are
issued or penalties proposed.
Additional Information It’s confidential, too. Your name, your firm’s name, and
any information you provide about your workplace, plus
Some businesses cater specifically to the area of OSHA any unsafe or unhealthful working conditions that the
and EPA compliance. How extensive this help needs to consultant uncovers, will not be reported routinely to the
be and how much it costs varies. OSHA inspection staff.
Interested laboratory personnel may go directly to Your only obligation will be to commit yourself to
the government agency responsible for oversight for correcting serious job safety and health hazards — a
advice about how to comply with regulations. The advice commitment which you are expected to make prior to the
actual visit and carry out in a timely manner.
is free. OSHA posts phone numbers and addresses for
state branch consulting services on its OSHA website.35 Before the decision is made to hire a consultant or
This service is run as a separate agency from OSHA help is requested from OSHA, laboratory personnel
and, unless there is a direct refusal to comply, infor- should simply start out and try to get as far with a
mation obtained by the consulting agency of OSHA is program as possible with what is already known. Many
said to be kept confidential.36 Keep in mind, however, steps will become obvious in the process and will have
that if you ask, you should certainly be prepared to to be done sooner or later anyway. Doing as much as
implement any recommendations made.37 possible with what is already known may end up making
the job easier in the end. Going as far as possible to
bring about a safe, environmentally responsible policy
34
Hill RA: How to OSHA-proof your lab, part 1 of 2, Lab Talk, will simplify matters, making the task more understand-
26(24):16, 1998.
35
The web address at the time of this publication is http://www.osha.
able and easier to maintain in the long run.
gov/oshdir/consult.html. Although it is possible that the specific web
address may change, the website should still be possible to locate with
an appropriate search.
38
36
Jacob JA: Even small doctor offices can face OSHA inspections, OSHA’s consultation service: consultation office directory [website],
American Medical News, July 31, 2000, p 2. Washington, DC, accessed March 2003, US Department of Labor,
37
Hill RA: How to OSHA-proof your lab, part 1 of 2, Lab Talk, 26(24): Occupational Safety and Health Administration (http://www.osha.
16, 1998. gov/oshprogs/consult.html).
342 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

P r o f i c i e n c y Te s t Q u e s t i o n s
1. True or False? Some states operate their own job 9. Which of the following statements is true?
safety and health programs in place of the federal
OSHA program. a. Employers must have either a Hazardous
Chemicals List or a Material Safety Data Sheet
2. The OSH Act makes which of the following for each hazardous chemical.
responsible for a safe workplace? b. A Material Safety Data Sheet must exist for
every chemical listed on the Hazardous
a. OSHA Chemicals List.
b. Employers c. A Material Safety Data Sheet must exist for
c. Workers every chemical found in the laboratory.
d. All of the above d. Material Safety Data Sheets are not required if
e. The OSH Act does not make anyone the container label includes all information
responsible. It simply was an act of Congress that would otherwise be found on the MSDS.
that established OSHA.
10. True or False? Never, under any circumstances,
3. True or False? Both small and large businesses are may a hazardous chemical be transferred to an
treated alike under OSHA. Worker safety and unlabeled container.
company size are unrelated.
11. With which of the following steps does OSHA’s
4. OSHA recommends five elements for every Handbook for Small Business recommend beginning
safety program. Which of the following is not a safety program?
specifically listed as one of those five
recommendations? a. Forming an employer/employee safety
committee
a. Management leadership and employee b. Contacting OSHA’s independent advisory
involvement agency
b. Workplace analysis c. Devising an enforcement policy
c. Employee safety committees d. Hiring a consultant
d. Hazard prevention and control e. Cleaning up your place of business
e. Safety and health training and education
f. Program evaluation 12. True or False? Every place of employment must
have a written “Emergency Action Plan” in case of
5. True or False? OSHA’s Hazard Communication a disaster such as a fire, tornado, or personal
Standard is based on the premise that employees injury.
need to know what chemicals they are working
with, what the hazards of those chemicals are, 13. In which business situation must there be a
and how to protect themselves from those written record of work-related illness or injury
hazards. using appropriate OSHA forms?

6. True or False? One of the requirements of a. In every business, but the record does not ever
HAZCOM is that employers have a written have to be posted
workplace policy on protection from hazards. b. In every business with 11 or more employees,
but the record does not ever have to be posted
7. True or False? A written safety program is simply a c. In every business, and the record must be
collection of safety procedures. posted from February 1 through April 30
d. In every business with 11 or more employees,
8. True or False? A safety program requires a and the record must be posted from February
“Hazardous Chemicals List.” Such a list must 1 through April 30
include all chemicals found in the workplace. e. No requirements exist for keeping a written
record of work-related illness or injury.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 343

14. True or False? Personal protective equipment for 18. True or False? If the edger coolant and defoaming
workers is always the employer’s responsibility. agents being used are water based and
Employees never have to pay for their own biodegradable, the solids may be filtered out and
personal protective equipment. put in the trash and the filtered liquid poured
down the drain.
15. True or False? Professional liability insurance
carried by an optometrist, optician, or 19. True or False? It may safely be assumed that
ophthalmologist also, by definition, covers them biodegradable lens dyes may be poured down the
for product liability if they have an edging drain.
laboratory on the premises.
20. True or False? Chemical tempering salts are
16. True or False? Waste management standards are similar to ordinary table salt and may be disposed
uniform across the United States and are under of by placing those salts in the normal trash
the jurisdiction of the Environmental Protection pickup.
Agency.

17. True or False? A business or organization that

generates waste is responsible for that waste only
until it has been picked up by a licensed
hazardous waste handler.
344 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

Appendix 18-1
What Are My Responsibilities under the OSHA Act?

If you are an employer under the OSHA Act, you must • Provide employees, former employees, and their
do the following: representatives access to the OSHA Form 300 at a
reasonable time and in a reasonable manner.*
• Meet your general duty responsibility to provide a
• Provide access to employee medical records and
workplace free from recognized hazards.
exposure records.
• Keep workers informed about OSHA and safety and
• Cooperate with OSHA compliance officers.
health matters with which they are involved.
• Not discriminate against employees who properly
• Comply in a responsible manner with standards, rules,
exercise their rights under the OSHA Act.
and regulations issued under the OSHA Act.
• Post OSHA citations and abatement verification notices
• Be familiar with mandatory OSHA standards.
at or near the worksite involved.
• Make copies of standards available to employees for
• Abate cited violations within the prescribed period.
review upon request.
• Evaluate workplace conditions. If you are an employee under the OSHA Act, you
• Minimize or eliminate potential hazards. should:
• Make sure employees have and use safe, properly
• Read the OSHA poster at the job site.
maintained tools and equipment (including appro-
• Comply with all applicable OSHA Standards.
priate personal protective equipment).
• Follow all employer safety and health rules and
• Warn employees of potential hazards.
regulations, and wear or use prescribed protective
• Establish or update operating procedures and com-
equipment while engaged in work.
municate them to employees.
• Report hazardous conditions to the supervisor.
• Provide medical examinations when required.
• Report any job-related injury or illness to the employer,
• Provide training required by OSHA standards.
and seek treatment promptly.
• Report within 8 hours any accident that results in a
• Cooperate with the OSHA compliance officer
fatality or the hospitalization of three or more
conducting an inspection.
employees.
• Exercise your rights under the OSHA Act in a
• Keep OSHA-required records of work-related injuries
responsible manner.
and illnesses (on Forms 300, Log of Work-Related Injuries
and Illnesses, and 301, Injury and Illness Incident Report),* Although OSHA does not cite employees for
unless otherwise specified (see page 19). violations of their responsibilities, each employee must
• Post a copy of the OSHA Form 300A, Summary of follow all applicable standards, rules, regulations, and
Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses, for the prior year orders issued under the OSHA Act. OSHA, however, does
each year from February 1 through April 30 unless not expect employees to pay for guardrails, floor cleaning,
otherwise specified (see page 20).* equipment maintenance, respirators, training, or other
• Post, at a prominent location within the workplace, safety and health measures.
the OSHA poster (OSHA 3165) informing employees
of their rights and responsibilities.†

Modified from All about OSHA, OSHA publication 2056, Washington, DC, 2000 (revised), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
p 10.
*These sections are updated to reflect a change in forms required, effective January 1, 2002.
†The poster number has been changed to reflect a change in OSHA’s numbering.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 345

Appendix 18-2
Sample Hazard Communication Program

In 1983 OSHA established a standard for protecting chemicals under normal working conditions or during
workers from harmful exposure to hazardous chemicals. an emergency situation.
The rule, called “Hazard Communication,” now applies The safety and health (S&H) manager, Robert Jones,
to both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing sectors is the program coordinator, acting as the representative
of industry. To comply with that standard, employers of the plant manager, who has overall responsibility for
must communicate the dangers of hazardous substances the program. Mr. Jones will review and update the
to their employees. One form of required communi- program, as necessary. Copies of the written program
cation is a written document. This appendix contains may be obtained from Mr. Jones in Room SD-10.
an example of a Hazard Communication Program Under this program, you will be informed of the
document and is taken from the following source: contents of the Hazard Communication Standard, the
U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
hazardous properties of chemicals with which you work,
Health Administration safe handling procedures, and measures to take to
Directive CPL 2-2.38D protect yourselves from these chemicals. You will also
Inspection Procedures for the Hazard Communication be informed of the hazards associated with nonroutine
Standard tasks, such as the cleaning of reactor vessels, and the
Standard Number 1910.1200 hazards associated with chemicals in unlabeled pipes.
Information date: March 20, 1998
Appendix E: Sample Hazard Communication Programs
LIST OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
The safety and health manager will make a list of all
hazardous chemicals and related work practices used in
Sample Hazard Communication the facility, and will update the list as necessary. Our list
Program (B) of chemicals identifies all of the chemicals used in our
10 work process areas. A separate list is available for
INTRODUCTION each work area and is posted there. Each list also
The Hazard Communication Standard requires you to identifies the corresponding MSDS for each chemical.
develop a written hazard communication program. A master list of these chemicals will be maintained by
The following is a sample hazard communication and is available from Mr. Jones’ office, Room SD-10.
program that you may use as a guide in developing your
program.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDSs)
MSDSs provide you with specific information on the
chemicals you use. The safety and health manager, Mr.
Jones, will maintain a binder in his office with an MSDS
Our Hazard Communication on every substance on the list of hazardous chemicals.
Program The plant manager, Jeff O’Brien, will ensure that each
work site maintains MSDSs for the hazardous chemicals
GENERAL COMPANY POLICY in each work area. MSDSs will be made readily available
The purpose of this notice is to inform you that our to you at your work stations during your shifts.
company is complying with the OSHA Hazard The safety and health manager, Mr. Jones, is
Communication Standard, Title 29 Code of Federal responsible for acquiring and updating MSDSs. He
Regulations 1910.1200, by compiling a hazardous will contact the chemical manufacturer or vendor if
chemicals list, by using MSDSS, by ensuring that additional research is necessary or if an MSDS has not
containers are labeled, and by providing you with been supplied with an initial shipment. All new
training. procurements for the company must be cleared by the
This program applies to all work operations in our safety and health manager. A master list of MSDSs is
company where you may be exposed to hazardous available from Mr. Jones in Room SD-10.
346 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

LABELS AND OTHER FORMS OF The training program will emphasize these items:
WARNING
• A summary of the standard and this company’s written
The safety and health manager will ensure that all
program.
hazardous chemicals in the plant are properly labeled
• The chemical and physical properties of hazardous
and updated, as necessary. Labels should list at least the
materials (e.g., flash point, vapor pressure, reactivity)
chemical identity, appropriate hazard warnings, and
and methods that can be used to detect the presence
the name and address of the manufacturer, importer
or release of chemicals (including chemicals in
or other responsible party. Mr. Jones will refer to the
unlabeled pipes).
corresponding MSDS to assist you in verifying label
• The physical hazards of the chemicals in your work
information. Containers that are shipped from the plant
area (e.g., potential for fire, explosion, etc.).
will be checked by the supervisor of shipping and receiv-
• The health hazards, including signs and symptoms
ing to make sure all containers are property labeled.
of exposure, of the chemicals in work area and any
If there are a number of stationary containers within
medical condition known to be aggravated by exposure
a work area that have similar contents and hazards, signs
to these chemicals.
will be posted on them to convey hazard information.
• Procedures to protect against chemicals hazards (e.g.,
On stationary process equipment, regular process
required personal protective equipment, and its proper
sheets, batch tickets, blend tickets, and similar written
use and maintenance; work practices or methods to
materials will be substituted for container labels when
ensure appropriate use and handling of chemicals;
these documents contain the same information as labels.
and procedures for emergency response).
These written materials will be made readily available to
• Work procedures to follow to assure protection when
you during your work shift.
cleaning hazardous-chemical spills and leaks.
If you transfer chemicals from a labeled container
• The location of the MSDSs, how to read and
to a portable container that is intended only for your
interpret the information on labels and MSDSs, and
immediate use, no labels are required on the portable
how employees may obtain additional hazard
container. Pipes or piping systems will not be labeled
information.
but their contents will be described in training
sessions. The safety and health manager or his/her designee
will review the employee training program and advise
the plant manager on training or retraining needs.
NONROUTINE TASKS
Retraining is required when the hazard changes or
When you are required to perform hazardous non- when a new hazard is introduced into the workplace. It
routine tasks (e.g., cleaning tanks, entering confined will be company policy to provide training regularly in
spaces, etc.), a special training session will be conducted safety meetings to ensure the effectiveness of the
to inform you of the hazardous chemicals to which you program. As part of the assessment of the training
might be exposed and the precautions you must take to program, the safety and health manager will obtain
reduce or avoid exposure. input from employees regarding the training they have
received, and their suggestions for improvement.
TRAINING
Everyone who works with or is potentially exposed to
hazardous chemicals will receive initial training on the
CONTRACTOR EMPLOYERS
Hazard Communication Standard and the safe use of The safety and health manager, Robert Jones, upon
those hazardous chemicals. The safety and health notification by the responsible supervisor, will advise
manager will conduct these training sessions. A program outside contractors, in person, of any chemical hazards
that uses both audiovisual materials and classroom-type that may be encountered in the normal course of their
training has been prepared for this purpose. Whenever work on the premises, the labeling system in use, the
a new hazard is introduced, additional training will be protective measures to be taken, and the safe handling
provided. Regular safety meetings will also be used to procedures to be used. In addition, Mr. Jones will notify
review the information presented in the initial training. these individuals of the location and availability of
Foremen and other supervisors will be extensively MSDSs. Each contractor bringing chemicals on-site must
trained regarding hazards and appropriate protective provide Mr. Jones with the appropriate hazard infor-
measures so they will be available to answer questions mation for these substances, including MSDSs, labels,
from employees and provide daily monitoring of safe and precautionary measures to be taken when working
work practices. with or around these chemicals.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 347

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
All employees, or their designated representatives, can
obtain further information on this written program, the
hazard communication standard, applicable MSDSs,
and chemical information lists at the safety and health
office, Room SD-10.
348 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

Appendix 18-3
List of Hazardous Chemicals and Index of MSDSs

HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS OPERATION/AREA USED (OPTIONAL) MSDSs ON FILE

From Hazard communication: a compliance kit, OSHA publication 3104, Washington, DC, 1988, US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, p D-2.
C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S 349

Appendix 18-4
Material Safety Data Sheet

Material Safety Data Sheet U.S. Department of Labor

May be used to comply with Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard, (Non-Mandatory Form)
29 CFR 1910.1200. Standard must be Form Approved
consulted for specific requirements. OMB No. 1218-0072

IDENTITY (As Used on Label and List) Note: Blank spaces are not permitted. If any item is not applicable, or no
information is available, the space must be marked to indicate that.
SECTION I
Manufacturer’s Name Emergency Telephone Number

Address (Number, Street, City, State, and ZIP Code) Telephone Number for Information

Date Prepared

Signature of Preparer (optional)

SECTION II — Hazardous Ingredients/Identity Information

Other Limits
Hazardous Components (Specific Chemical Identity, Common Name[s]) OSHA PEL ACGIH TLV Recommended % (optional)

SECTION III — Physical/Chemical Characteristics

Boiling Point Specific Gravity (H2O – 1)

Vapor Pressure (mm Hg) Melting Point

Vapor Density (AIR –1) Evaporation Rate

(Butyl Acetate – 1)
Solubility in Water

Appearance and Odor

SECTION IV — Fire and Explosion Hazard Data

Flash Point (Method Used) Flammable Limits LEL UEL

Extinguishing Media

Special Fire Fighting Procedures

Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards

(Reproduce locally) OSHA 174, Sept. 1985

Continued
350 C H A P T E R 1 8 S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S

SECTION V — Reactivity Data

Stability Unstable Conditions to Avoid

Stable

Incompatibility (Materials to Avoid)

Hazardous Decomposition or Byproducts

Hazardous May Occur Conditions to Avoid

Polymerization
Will Not Occur

SECTION VI — Health Hazard Data

Route(s) of Entry: Inhalation? Skin? Ingestion?

Health Hazards (Acute and Chronic)

Cardnogenicity: NTP? IARC Monographs? OSHA Regulations?

Signs and Symptoms of Exposure

Medical Conditions
Generally Aggravated by Exposure

Emergency and First-Aid Procedures

SECTION VII — Percautions for Safe Handling and Use

Steps to Be Taken in Case Material is Released or Spilled

Waste Disposal Method

Precautions to Be Taken in Handling and Storing

Other Precautions

SECTION VIII — Control Measures

Respiratory Protection (Specify Type)

Ventilation Local Exhaust Special

Mechanical (General) Other

Protection Gloves Eye Protection

Other Protection Clothing or Equipment

Work/Hygienic Practices

Page 2
 A P P E N D I X A

Standards of
Lens and Frame
Measurement

Standardization for measuring frames and lenses is Therefore in the datum system the smallest measurable
essential. The method used in most of the English- distance between the two lenses (regardless of the level
speaking world is based upon “boxed” lens size at which this minimum occurs) is called the minimum
measurements and is called the boxing system. The once- between lenses (MBL). The datum MBL is the same as the
popular datum system seldom is used. boxing system’s DBL.
In the boxing system the eyesize or lens size is deter- When patterns are being manufactured, the center
mined by the horizontal distance between two vertical of rotation is positioned to correspond to the central
tangents that enclose the lens on the left and right reference point of the lens shape. Because the boxing
(Figure A-1). The point halfway between these vertical center is not located at the same point for a given shape
tangents and also halfway between horizontal tangents as the datum center, a pattern drilled for the boxing
that enclose the lens in a box is the primary reference system will not work if the datum system is used to
point. This is known as the boxing center because it is the calculate lens decentration, and vice versa.
center of the box enclosing the lens. It is referred to Decentration calculations are made in exactly the
alternately as the geometrical center because after the lens same manner, regardless of the system being used.
is edged, it is the geometrical center point. (The term However, the results are not interchangeable.
geometrical center usually must be qualified because the For example, a frame has the following dimensions
geometrical center of an uncut lens blank will not be at when measuring using the boxing system:
the geometrical center of the lens once it has been Boxing eyesize (A) = 52
edged.) Boxing DBL = 15
The datum system (Figure A-2) defines the lens or
eyesize as being the width of the lens along the datum When the same frame is measured in the datum system,
line. The datum line is a horizontal line halfway between the dimensions are as follows:
the two horizontal tangents that border the top and Datum length = 49
bottom of the lens. This measure corresponds to the so- Datum DBL = 19
called C dimension of the boxing system and is known as Wearer’s PD = 63 mm
the datum length, or simply the eyesize. The datum eyesize
Decentration when using the boxing system is as follows:
is not necessarily the same size as the boxing eyesize.
The central reference point in the datum system is (Eyesize + DBL) – PD (52 +15) – 63
=
halfway across the lens as measured along the datum 2 2
line and is called the datum center. Decentration = 2 mm per lens
The distance between lenses (DBL) is measured
Decentration when using the datum system is as follows:
differently between the two standards as well. The datum
system measures this along the datum line. As can be (Eyesize + DBL) – PD (49 + 19) – 63
=
seen from Figure A-2, this distance between lenses may 2 2
not necessarily be the smallest distance between lenses. Decentration = 2.5 mm per lens

351
352 A P P E N D I X A S TA N D A R D S O F L E N S A N D F R A M E M E A S U R E M E N T

Boxing DBL or
bridge size
A
Boxing or Lens size
geometrical Eyesize
center

Xº 180 – Xº
180º

180º
0º

0º
B
C

ED

(Same as DBC)

Distance between center (DBC)

or
Geometrical center distance (GCD)
or
Frame PD

FIGURE A-1 In the boxing system, ED is the abbreviation for effective diameter, which
is twice the longest radius of the shape as measured from the boxing (geometrical) center.
The angle from the 0-degree side of the 180-degree line to the effective diameter axis is X
for the right lens. Effective diameter is used to determine the minimum lens blank size and
to calculate how thin lenses may be ground when surfacing the lens. DBL, Distance
between lenses; PD, interpupillary distance.

Datum length
or eyesize

MBL
Datum Mid-datum depth
center

Datum line

Datum
DBL

Datum center distance

(Same as
datum center distance)

FIGURE A-2 The datum system. DBL, Distance between lenses; MBL, minimum between
lenses.
A P P E N D I X A S TA N D A R D S O F L E N S A N D F R A M E M E A S U R E M E N T 353

This underscores the importance of correct measure-

TABLE A-1
ment of the eye and bridge sizes. Measuring the frame
using the datum system but using a pattern made for Comparison of Standard Terms
the boxing system results in an incorrect decentration. BOXING SYSTEM DATUM OR BRITISH STANDARD
The finished distance between the lens optical centers
does not correspond to the wearer’s PD. In the example A —
given, the distance between the two lens optical centers B —
is 1 mm larger than ordered. C Datum length
Boxing DBL MBL
Differences and similarities in boxing and datum
— Datum DBL
systems are summarized in Figure A-3. Corresponding
— Datum center distance (DCD)
boxing and datum system terms are listed in Table A-1.
Similarities and differences between boxing and datum Distance between centers —
multifocal placement terminology are summarized in (DBC)
(Geometrical center
Figures A-4 and A-5.
distance [GCD])
(“Frame PD”)
(Boxing center distance)
— Mid-datum depth
Horizontal midline Datum line
Major reference point (MRP) Distance centration point
Prism reference point (PRP) (DCP) or simply centration
point

DBL, Distance between lenses; MBL, minimum between lenses; PD, inter-
pupillary distance.

A Boxing DBL

C and datum length

Datum
Boxing or
center
geometrical
center Mid-datum depth

MBL
B

Datum
DBL
Distance between center (DBC)

Datum center distance (DCD)

FIGURE A-3 Diagrammatical comparison of boxing and datum systems. The datum
center will not always be outset with respect to the boxing center. For example, for an
upswept harlequin shape the datum center will be inset in comparison to the location of
the boxing center. DBL, Distance between lenses; MBL, minimum between lenses.
354 A P P E N D I X A S TA N D A R D S O F L E N S A N D F R A M E M E A S U R E M E N T

Total inset
Decentration
Segment inset (distance)

MRP
Segment drop
Segment
Segment width
height Segment
depth

FIGURE A-4 Accepted boxing system multifocal placement terminology. Decentration is

sometimes referred to as inset. This must not be confused with segment inset or total inset.
MRP, Major reference point.

Distance centration point (DCP)

Geometrical inset

Datum center

Segment
Segment depth Segment height
drop

Segment
diameter

FIGURE A-5 Accepted datum system multifocal placement terminology. (A right lens is
shown in this diagram, whereas a left lens was shown in Figure A-4.)
 A P P E N D I X B

ANSI Z80.1
Prescription
Ophthalmic
Lenses—
Recommendations

Before the standards are outlined in this section, one Optical Laboratories Association
point should be clarified. Unlike ANSI standards for P.O. Box 2000
safety eyewear, standards for dress prescription eyewear Merrifield, VA 22116-2000
are not requirements, but recommendations. “The
standard remains a recommendation. Therefore, it is
the intent of the Z80 Committee that this standard not
be used as a regulatory instrument.”* Meridian of Highest Absolute
The information summarized here in Tables B-1 Power
through B-10 is not meant to be all-inclusive. For com-
plete information the original document should be To be able to understand the “meridian of highest abso-
consulted: Z80.1-1999 American National Standard for lute power” as referenced in Table B-1, the following
Ophthalmics—Prescription Ophthalmic Lenses—Recommen- must be considered:
dations. This standard may be obtained from the
• The power of one major meridian is the sphere
following address:
power.
• The power of the other major meridian equals the
sphere power plus the cylinder power.
*Z80.1-1999 American National Standard for ophthalmics–prescription • Of these two meridians, the meridian having the
ophthalmic lenses–recommendations, Merrifield, Va, 2000, Optical highest numerical value (plus or minus) is the
Laboratories Association, p ii. meridian of highest absolute power.

TABLE B-1
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Distance Refractive Power Tolerances

From ANSI Z80.1-1999 American National Standard for ophthalmics–prescription ophthalmic lenses–recommendations, Merrifield, Va, 2000, Optical Laboratories
Association, p ii.
355
356 A P P E N D I X B A N S I Z 8 0 . 1 P R E S C R I P T I O N O P H T H A L M I C L E N S E S — R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

TABLE B-2
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Tolerances for Cylinder Axis
CYLINDER POWER STATED EXACTLY CYLINDER POWER STATED IN AXIS TOLERANCE IN DEGREES FOR
QUARTER DIOPTER STEPS THE STATED CYLINDER POWER

Up to and including 0.37 0.25 ±7

>0.37 up to and including 0.75 0.50 and 0.75 ±5
>0.75 up to and including 1.50 1.00, 1.25 and 1.50 ±3
>1.50 1.75 and above ±2

Note: When measuring for cylinder axis, the lens should be checked at the distance reference point. The distance reference point is that point on a lens at which,
according to the manufacturer, the distance power is to be measured. The distance reference point may not correspond to the prism reference point, as in the case
of progressive addition lenses.

TABLE B-3
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Tolerances for
Addition Power
ADD POWER TOLERANCE

Up to and including 4.00 ±0.12

>4.00 ±0.18

TABLE B-4
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Determining Tolerances for Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism
Using “Method 1;” Single Vision and Segmented Multifocal Lenses Mounted in the Frame
PRISM AND PRP* PLACEMENT TOLERANCE

Vertical prism or PRP placement 1/3 prism diopter

or
1.0-mm difference between left and right PRP (prism reference point) heights in
high-powered prescriptions with no prism ordered
Note: The prescription must fail both of the above tolerance limits to be considered
out of tolerance for unwanted vertical prism.
Horizontal prism or PRP placement 2/3 prism diopter (total from both lenses combined)

or
±2.5-mm variation from the specified distance PD for high-powered prescriptions
Note: The prescription must fail both of the above tolerance limits to be considered
out of tolerance for unwanted horizontal prism.

PRP, Prism reference point.

*The PRP is that point on a lens where prism power is to be verified. It also has been referred to as the major reference point (MRP).
A P P E N D I X B A N S I Z 8 0 . 1 P R E S C R I P T I O N O P H T H A L M I C L E N S E S — R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S 357

TABLE B-5
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Determining Tolerances for Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism
Using ‘Method 2;’* Single Vision and Segmented Multifocal Lenses Mounted in the Frame
PRISM TOLERANCE

Vertical Prism
For lenses of ±3.375 D or below in the vertical meridian Unwanted vertical imbalance shall not exceed 0.33Δ
For lenses stronger than ±3.375 D in the vertical meridian The vertical differences between prism reference points may not
be greater than 1.0 mm

Horizontal Prism
For lenses of ±2.75 D or below in the horizontal meridian Unwanted horizontal prism for both eyes combined shall not
exceed 0.67Δ
For lenses stronger than ± 2.75 D in the horizontal meridian The horizontal difference from the ordered PD and the actual
measured distance between the prism reference points shall not
be greater than 2.5 mm

*Both methods 1 and 2 yield exactly the same tolerance results.

TABLE B-6
ANSI Z80.1-1999 Tolerances for Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism; Edged But
Unmounted Single Vision and Segmented Multifocals and Uncut Multifocals
Both Horizontal and Vertical Prism
• The tolerance must be within 1/3 Δ the ordered prism power.
or
• The PRP placement must be within ±1.0 mm of the ordered position.
Note: The prescription must fail both of the above tolerance limits to be considered out of tolerance.

PRP, Prism reference point.

TABLE B-7
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Tolerances for Progressive Addition Lens Fitting Cross Location
CROSS LOCATION TOLERANCE

Vertical Fitting Cross Heights

A single unmounted lens Actual fitting cross height must be within ±1.0 mm of the ordered fitting
A pair of unmounted lenses cross height
A pair of mounted lenses Also, both fitting cross heights should be within 1 mm of each other
relative to their ordered heights

Horizontal Fitting Cross Location

A single unmounted lens Actual monocular interpupillary distance must be within ±1.0 mm from
A pair of unmounted lenses the monocular interpupillary distance specified
A pair of mounted lenses

Horizontal Tilt*
Mounted lens 2 degrees

*As measured using the hidden reference “circles.”

358 A P P E N D I X B A N S I Z 8 0 . 1 P R E S C R I P T I O N O P H T H A L M I C L E N S E S — R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

TABLE B-8
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism Tolerances for Progressive
Addition Lenses
Vertical Prism
When prism thinning is used to reduce lens thickness, the vertical thinning prism is considered as if it were prescribed prism.
• For lenses of ±3.375 D or below in the vertical meridian, vertical prismatic imbalance shall not exceed 0.33Δ.*
• For lenses stronger than ±0.33Δ in the vertical meridian, the combined vertical variation from each PRP must not exceed 1 mm.

Horizontal Prism
• For lenses of ±3.375 D or below in the horizontal meridian, the combined unwanted horizontal prismatic effects must not exceed
0.67Δ at the PRPs.
• For lenses stronger than ±3.375 D in the horizontal meridian, the horizontal variation from the ordered prism reference point
location† must not be greater than ±1.0 mm for either lens.

PRP, Prism reference point.

*For lens pairs with different cross heights, finding unwanted vertical prism is not as simple as dotting the stronger lens and sliding the spectacles across to read
the other lens vertical prismatic effect. If the two lenses have differing cross heights, the second PRP will be at a different ordered height.
†The horizontal PRP location is the same as the monocular PD.

TABLE B-9
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Tolerances for Multifocal Segment Location and Tilt
SEGMENT LOCATION AND TILT TOLERANCE

Vertical (Segment and Fitting Cross Heights)

One unmounted lens Actual height should be within ±1.0 mm from the ordered segment height
A lens pair (mounted or unmounted) Actual height should be within ±1.0 mm from the ordered segment height
and
both lens segments in the pair should be within 1 mm of each other

Horizontal Segment Location* (Near PD)

Mounted lens pair Near PD should be within ±2.5 mm of the ordered near PD
Inset should appear symmetrical and balanced unless specified monocularly

Segment Tilt†
Mounted lens 2 degrees

PD, Interpupillary distance.

*For an E-line (Franklin style) bifocal, the center of the segment is located at the thinnest point on the segment ledge.
†The amount that the flat top of a segment line deviates from the horizontal.

TABLE B-10
ANSI Z80.1-1999: Miscellaneous Tolerances
CHARACTERISTIC TOLERANCE

Thickness (measured at the prism reference point) ±0.3 mm (when thickness is specified on the order)
Warpage 1.00 D (not applicable for points within 6 mm of the eyewire)
Base curve ±0.75 D (when specified on the order)
Impact resistance Capable of withstanding the impact of a 5/8-inch steel ball dropped from
50 inches*
*For more information, see Appendix C.
A P P E N D I X B A N S I Z 8 0 . 1 P R E S C R I P T I O N O P H T H A L M I C L E N S E S — R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S 359

Determining whether Refractive EXAMPLE B-2

Power is within Tolerance Following is an example of a prescription where the
The following text outlines a cookbook method that may meridian of highest absolute power is not the sphere
be used to see if the refractive power of a prescription power. Determine whether or not the prescription
is within ANSI standards. passes ANSI refractive power tolerances.

EXAMPLE B-1
Following is an example of a prescription in which the
meridian of highest absolute power is also the sphere
power. Determine whether or not the prescription
passes ANSI refractive power tolerances.

Example B-1
METHODOLOGY EXAMPLE

1. Note the refractive power of the ordered prescription. + 4.25 – 1.75 × 180
2. Measure the refractive power of the ordered + 4.37 – 1.62 × 178
prescription.
3. Find the power in the meridian of highest absolute power for
a. the ordered prescription a. + 4.25
and
b. the measured prescription b. + 4.37
4. Using Table B-1, determine the following:
a. What is the tolerance for the meridian of highest absolute a. Tolerance for a 4.25 D power is ± 0.13 D, giving a
power? possible range of from +4.12 D to + 4.38 D.
b. Is the meridian of highest absolute power within b. The + 4.37 D measured power is within the
tolerance? tolerance range.
5. Using Table B-1 determine the following:
a. What is the tolerance for the cylinder power? a. Tolerance for a 1.75 D cylinder is ± 0.13 D, giving
a possible range of from –1.62 to –1.88 D.
b. Is the cylinder power within tolerance? b. The –1.62 measured cylinder power is within
the tolerance range.
6. Using Table B-2 determine the following:
a. What is the tolerance for the cylinder axis? a. Axis tolerance for a 1.75 D cylinder is ± 2 degrees. This
gives a possible range of between 178 and 2 degrees.
b. Is the cylinder axis within tolerance? b. The measured axis is 178 degrees and thus within the
tolerance range.
Conclusion: The prescription passes.

Example B-2
METHODOLOGY EXAMPLE

1. Ordered power – 5.00 – 2.00 × 174

2. Measured power – 5.12 – 2.12 × 174
3. Power of meridian of highest absolute power for
a. The ordered prescription a. 冨- 5.00 – 2.00 冨 = 7.00
b. The measured prescription b. 冨- 5.12 – 2.12 冨 = 7.24
4. a. Tolerance for the meridian of highest absolute power a. 2% of 7.00 is 0.02 × 7 = 0.14 D. This gives a possible
range of from – 6.86 D to – 7.14 D.
b. Is the meridian within tolerance? b. The measured power in this meridian is – 7.24. This is
well outside of ANSI standards.
Conclusion: The prescription does not pass.
 A P P E N D I X C

FDA Policy

The material in this appendix has been reproduced patient, directs in writing the use of other lenses, and
from the following federal publication: gives written notification thereof to the patient.
(2) The physician or optometrist shall have the
Code of Federal Regulations
option of ordering glass lenses, plastic lenses, or
Title 21, Volume 8, Parts 800 to 1299
laminated glass lenses made impact resistant by any
Revised as of April 1, 2000
method; however, all such lenses shall be capable of
From the U.S. Government Printing Office via GPO
withstanding the impact test described in paragraph
Access
(d)(2) of this section.
Cite: 21CFR801.410
(3) Each finished impact-resistant glass lens for
Pages 24-26
prescription use shall be individually tested for impact
resistance and shall be capable of withstanding the
impact test described in paragraph (d)(2) of this section.
Raised multifocal lenses shall be impact resistant but
Title 21—Food and Drugs need not be tested beyond initial design testing. Prism
Services—(Continued) segment multifocal, slab-off prism, lenticular cataract,
iseikonic, depressed segment one-piece multifocal,
PART 801—LABELING—TABLE OF bi-concave, myodisc and minus lenticular, custom
CONTENTS laminate, and cemented assembly lenses shall be impact
Subpart H—Special Requirements for Specific resistant but need not be subjected to impact testing.
Devices To demonstrate that all other types of impact-resistant
Sec. 801.410: Use of impact-resistant lenses in lenses, including impact-resistant laminated glass lenses
eyeglasses and sunglasses. (i.e., lenses other than those described in the three
(a) Examination of data available on the frequency preceding sentences of this paragraph [c][3]), are
of eye injuries resulting from the shattering of ordinary capable of withstanding the impact test described in
crown glass lenses indicates that the use of such lenses this regulation, the manufacturer of these lenses
constitutes an avoidable hazard to the eye of the wearer. shall subject to an impact test a statistically significant
(b) The consensus of the ophthalmic community is sampling of lenses from each production batch, and
that the number of eye injuries would be substantially the lenses so tested shall be representative of the
reduced by the use in eyeglasses and sunglasses of finished forms as worn by the wearer, including
impact-resistant lenses. finished forms that are of minimal lens thickness and
(c)(1) To protect the public more adequately from have been subjected to any treatment used to impart
potential eye injury, eyeglasses and sunglasses must be impact resistance. All nonprescription lenses and
fitted with impact-resistant lenses, except in those cases plastic prescription lenses tested on the basis of statis-
where the physician or optometrist finds that such lenses tical significance shall be tested in uncut-finished or
will not fulfill the visual requirements of the particular finished form.

361
362 APPENDIX C FDA POLICY

(d)(1) For the purpose of this regulation, the impact at the Office of the Federal Register, 800 North Capitol
test described in paragraph (d)(2) of this section shall St., NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC.) The diameter or
be the “referee test,” defined as “one which will be uti- contour of the lens support may be modified as
lized to determine compliance with a regulation.” The necessary so that the 1–18 - by 1–18 -inch neoprene gasket
referee test provides the Food and Drug Administration supports the lens at its periphery.
with the means of examining a medical device for (e) Copies of invoice(s), shipping document(s),
performance and does not inhibit the manufacturer and records of sale or distribution of all impact resist-
from using equal or superior test methods. A lens ant lenses, including finished eyeglasses and sunglasses,
manufacturer shall conduct tests of lenses using the shall be kept and maintained for a period of 3 years;
impact test described in paragraph (d)(2) of this section however, the names and addresses of individuals pur-
or any equal or superior test. Whatever test is used, the chasing nonprescription eyeglasses and sunglasses
lenses shall be capable of withstanding the impact test at the retail level need not be kept and maintained by
described in paragraph (d)(2) of this section if the the retailer. The records kept in compliance with this
Food and Drug Administration examines them for paragraph shall be made available upon request at all
performance. reasonable hours by any officer or employee of the
(2) In the impact test, a –58 -inch steel ball weighing Food and Drug Administration or by any other officer
approximately 0.56 ounce is dropped from a height of or employee acting on behalf of the Secretary of Health
50 inches upon the horizontal upper surface of the and Human Services and such officer or employee shall
lens. The ball shall strike within a –58 -inch diameter circle be permitted to inspect and copy such records, to make
located at the geometric center of the lens. The ball such inventories of stock as he [or she] deems neces-
may be guided but not restricted in its fall by being sary, and otherwise to check the correctness of such
dropped through a tube extending to within approx- inventories.
imately 4 inches of the lens. To pass the test, the lens (f) In addition, those persons conducting tests in
must not fracture; for the purpose of this section, a lens accordance with paragraph (d) of this section shall
will be considered to have fractured if it cracks through maintain the results thereof and a description of the
its entire thickness, including a laminar layer, if any, and test method and of the test apparatus for a period of
across a complete diameter into two or more separate 3 years. These records shall be made available upon
pieces, or if any lens material visible to the naked eyes request at any reasonable hour by any officer or em-
becomes detached from the ocular surface. The test ployee acting on behalf of the Secretary of Health and
shall be conducted with the lens supported by a tube Human Services. The persons conducting tests shall
(1-inch inside diameter, 1–14 -inch outside diameter, and permit the officer or employee to inspect and copy the
approximately 1-inch high) affixed to a rigid iron or records, to make such inventories of stock as the officer
steel base plate. The total weight of the base plate and or employee deems necessary, and otherwise to check
its rigidly attached fixtures shall be not less than 27 the correctness of the inventories.
pounds. For lenses of small minimum diameter, a (g) For the purpose of this section, the term
support tube having an outside diameter of less than 1–14 “manufacturer” includes an importer for resale. Such
inches may be used. The support tube shall be made of importer may have the tests required by paragraph (d)
rigid acrylic plastic, steel, or other suitable substance of this section conducted in the country of origin but
and shall have securely bonded on the top edge a 1–18 - by must make the results thereof available, upon request,
1–18 -inch neoprene gasket having a hardness of 40 ± 5 as to the Food and Drug Administration, as soon as
determined by ASTM Method D 1415-88, “Standard practicable.
Test Method for Rubber Property—International (h) All lenses must be impact-resistant except when
Hardness” a minimum tensile strength of 1200 pounds, the physician or optometrist finds that impact-resistant
as determined by ASTM Method D 412-97, Standard lenses will not fulfill the visual requirements for a
Test Methods for Vulcanized Rubber and Thermo- particular patient.
plastic Rubbers and Thermoplastic Elastomers— (i) This statement of policy does not apply to
Tension and a minimum ultimate elongation of 400 contact lenses.
percent, as determined by ASTM Method D 412-68. [41 FR 6896, Feb. 13, 1976, as amended at 44 FR
(Both methods are incorporated by reference and 20678, Apr. 6, 1979; 47 FR 9397, Mar. 5, 1982; 65 FR
are available from the American Society for Testing 3586, Jan. 24, 2000]
Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, Effective Date Note: At 65 FR 3586, Jan. 24, 2000, Secs.
Philadelphia, PA 19428, or available for inspection at 801.410 was amended in paragraph (d)(2) by removing
the Center for Devices and Radiological Health’s “ASTM Method D 1415-68 Test for International Hardness
Library, 9200 Corporate Blvd., Rockville, MD 10850, or of Vulcanized Rubber,” and adding in its place “ASTM
APPENDIX C FDA POLICY 363

Method D 1415-88, Standard Test Method for Rubber Register, 800 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 700,
Property— International Hardness”; by removing “ASTM Washington, DC 20408” and adding in its place “100 Barr
Method D 412-68 Tension Test of Vulcanized Rubber,” and Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, Philadelphia, PA 19428,
adding in its place “ASTM Method D 412-97, Standard Test or available for inspection at the Center for Devices and
Methods for Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Radiological Health’s Library, 9200 Corporate Blvd.,
Rubbers and Thermoplastic Elastomers—Tension”; and by Rockville, MD 10850, or at the Office of the Federal
removing “1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103, or Register, 800 North Capitol St., NW, Suite 700,
available for inspection at the Office of the Federal Washington, DC,” effective June 7, 2000.
 ANSWER KEY FOR PROFICIENCY TEST QUESTIONS

Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

1. False 1. c 1. 67 mm 1. d
2. a 2. d 2. a. 4 total in 2. False
3. c 3. d b. 8 total in 3. a
4. True 4. c c. 1 total in 4. True
5. True 5. e 3. b 5. R: 3 mm inset
6. c 6. b 4. R: 3 mm in 6 mm raise
7. b 7. False L: 1.5 mm in L: 1 mm inset
8. d 8. a 5. R: 1.5 mm in 5 mm raise
9. c L: 2 mm in 6. R: 4 mm inset
10. c 6. e 4.5 mm raise
Chapter 2 11. e 7. e (The answer to this L: 2.5 mm inset
12. True problem is the same 4.5 mm raise
1. True 13. True as the previous 7. R: 2 mm inset
2. a 14. 45 mm problem because the 1 mm hidden circle
3. b 15. a major reference point drop
4. b 16. b that included Rx L: 1.5 mm inset
5. e 17. 2.5 mm prism already has 0 mm hidden circle
6. a and c 18. 5.5 mm been found during raise or drop
7. False 19. d the spotting.) 8. R: 2.5 mm inset
8. d 20. a 8. +3 mm 1 mm hidden circle
9. a 21. c 9. 2 mm in and 2 mm up drop
10. c 22. 2 mm in, 1.5 mm 10. 1.5 mm in and L: 3.5 mm inset
11. False down 4.5 mm up 2 mm hidden circle
12. c 23. e 11. d raise or drop
13. True 24. b 12. b 9. False
14. True 25. b 13. d 10. False
15. c 26. a 14. a 11. For the lower portion
16. d 27. d 15. a of the lens, the
17. d 28. d 16. a powers will be:
18. c and d 29. f 17. a. 0.6D base out R: +2.00 –0.50 × 170
19. True 30. e b. 1.5D base in L: +2.25 –0.75 × 5
20. True 31. True c. 1.725D base out For the upper portion
21. d 32. d 18. d of the lens, the
22. True 19. b powers will be:
23. b 20. c R: pl –0.050 × 170
24. False 21. 1 mm out L: +0.25 –0.75 × 5
25. True 22. 4 mm to the left of 12. For the lower portion
26. True and 2 mm above the of the lens:
27. e cross R: +2.00 –0.50 × 170
28. b L: +2.25 –0.75 × 5
29. d For the upper portion
30. a of the lens:
31. c R: +0.75 –0.50 × 170
32. a and b (unless the L: +1.00 –0.75 × 5
lens is polarized, in 13. b
which case the only
answer is B)
33. b
34. c

365
366 ANSWER KEY FOR PROFICIENCY TEST QUESTIONS

Chapter 6 Chapter 8 Chapter 10 Chapter 12

1. c 1. a. 0 1. b 1. True
2. a b. 50 2. a 2. False
3. 3 mm in and 3 mm c. 46.5 3. e 3. False
down d. 38 4. True 4. b, d, and e
4. 2.5 mm above, 1.5 e. 44.5 5. e 5. b
mm out f. –8 6. b 6. c
5. c g. 52 7. a 7. False
6. b h. –8 8. b 8. True
7. b i. 0 9. True 9. e
8. a j. 50 10. True
9. a k. 62 11. c Chapter 13
10. b l. 41.5 12. c
11. b m. –15 13. a 1. False
12. b n. 35 14. a 2. False
13. a o. –13.5 15. d 3. a
14. b p. 38.5 16. a and b 4. b
15. b 2. d 17. True 5. b
16. a 3. b 18. b 6. b
17. b 4. a 19. False 7. d
18. c 5. c 8. c
19. d 6. d Chapter 11 9. e
20. d 7. b 10. b
1. c
21. b and c 8. c 11. d
2. False
22. b 9. a 12. c
3. a and c
23. b 10. True 13. a
4. b
24. a 11. a 14. True
5. d
25. a 12. False 15. False
6. c
26. b 13. d 16. True
7. a
27. e 14. c
8. a
28. a 15. e Chapter 14
9. c
29. a 16. c and d
10. b
30. False 17. b 1. a
11. False
31. a 18. d 2. False
12. d
32. d 19. c, e, b, g 3. b
13. b
33. b, d, and e 20. d 4. True
14. True
34. a 21. False 5. True
15. e
35. c 22. d 6. a
16. d
36. c and d 23. True 7. a
17. b
37. b and d 24. False 8. a:2, b:1, c:3
18. c
38. d 25. True 9. True
19. False
26. True 10. b
20. True
Chapter 7 27. False 11. a
21. False
12. c
Chapter 9 22. d
1. a 13. c
23. c
2. c 14. d
1. c 24. b
3. c 15. b
2. False 25. c
4. c 16. c
3. False 26. False
5. c 17. False
4. c 27. c
6. True
5. False 28. False
7. e
6. False 29. e
8. f
30. d
9. b
ANSWER KEY FOR PROFICIENCY TEST QUESTIONS 367

Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18

1. d 1. False 1. a 1. True
2. e 2. c 2. a 2. b
3. b 3. True 3. d 3. False
4. c 4. b 4. b 4. c
5. c 5. c 5. a 5. True
6. False 6. c 6. d 6. True
7. c 7. a 7. b 7. False
8. d 8. c 8. False 8. False
9. d 9. b 9. d 9. b
10. False 10. d 10. False 10. False
11. c 11. c 11. e 11. e
12. b 12. d 12. True 12. False
13. c 13. d 13. b 13. d
14. a 14. d 14. a 14. False
15. a 15. b 15. False
16. d 16. a 16. False
17. False 17. c 17. False
18. False 18. b 18. True
19. c 19. c 19. False
20. c 20. c 20. False
21. False 21. b
22. c
23. False
 GLOSSARY
@ Symbol for at, or in the same meridian as. alignment, vertical Lack of deviation of the two spec-
Δ Symbol for prism. When following a number, it tacle lenses from the vertical plane (one being neither
denotes the units known as prism diopters. further forward nor backward than the other).
()

Symbol for in combination with. allowance, grinding Synonym for wheel differential.
180-degree line A synonym for horizontal midline. allowance, vertex power The amount by which the
front surface curvature of a lens must be flattened to
compensate for a thickness-related gain in power.
A American endpiece See endpiece, American.
American National Standards Institute An industry-
A The horizontal dimension of the boxing system based, nongovernmental standards-setting association.
rectangle that encloses a lens or lens opening. The American National Standards Institute is an
Abbé value See value, Abbé. agency that addresses standards throughout all of
aberration The resulting degradation of an image industry, of which the ophthalmic industry is only a
that occurs when a point source of light does not small part. ANSI sets standards for aspects of the
result in a single-point image after going through the ophthalmic industry that includes lenses, frames, and
lens or lens system. contact lenses.
aberration, chromatic The type of aberration that Amethyst Contrast Enhancer (ACE) A selectively
causes light of different wavelengths (colors) to be absorbing glass developed by Schott that is said to
refracted differently through the same optical system. enhance contrast and be advantageous for target and
aberration, lateral chromatic An aberration that trap shooting, hunting, computer terminal viewing,
produces images of slightly different sizes at the focal skiing, and bird watching. The lens allows highest
length of the lens, depending upon the color of the transmission around the blue, green, and red regions
light. (Synonym: chromatic power.) of the spectrum.
aberration, longitudinal chromatic Occurs when a point analyzer, lens A trade name for an automated
light source that is composed of several wavelengths lensmeter.
(like white light) forms a series of point images along angle of deviation The difference between the angle
the optical axis. Each of these images is a different of incidence and the angle of refraction.
color and each has a slightly different focal length. angle, apical The angle formed by the junction of two
aberration, monochromatic An aberration that is nonparallel prism surfaces.
present even when light is made up of only one angle, crest The angle from the tip to the top of the
wavelength (one color). nose (between the eyes) compared with a vertical
aberration, spherical An aberration that occurs when plane roughly parallel to the brows and cheeks.
parallel light from an object enters a large area of a angle, effective diameter The angle from the 0-
spherical lens surface and peripheral rays focus at degree side of the 180-degree line to the axis of the
different points on the optic axis than do paraxial rays. effective diameter. The angle is referred to by the
absolute refractive index See index, absolute refractive. letter X and is measured using the right lens.
accurate sag formula See formula, accurate sag. angle, frontal 1. The angle with which each side of
actual power See power, actual. the nose deviates from the vertical. 2. The angular
add See addition, near. amount the nosepad face deviates from the vertical
add, nasal The modification of an existing lens shape when the frame is viewed from the front.
by allowing more lens material to remain in the angle, pantoscopic 1. In standard alignment that angle
inferior, nasal position than would be indicated other- by which the frame front deviates from the vertical
wise for the purpose of creating a better frame fit. (lower rims farther inward than upper rims) when the
addition, near The power that a lens segment has in spectacles are held with the temples horizontal. 2. In
addition to that power already present in the main fitting, that angle that the frame front makes with the
portion of the lens. frontal plane of the wearer’s face when the lower rims
alignment, horizontal A lack of deviation of the two are closer to the face than the upper rims (opposite-
datum lines in a pair of spectacles from a single retroscopic angle). (Synonym: pantoscopic tilt.)
horizontal plane (neither lens higher than the other angle, retroscopic That angle that the frame front
when viewed from the front). makes with the frontal plane of the wearer’s face when
alignment, standard An impersonal standard, inde- the lower rims are farther from the face than the
pendent of facial shape, for the alignment of upper rims (opposite-pantoscopic angle). (Synonym:
spectacle frames. retroscopic tilt.)

369
370 GLOSSARY

angle, splay 1. That angle formed by the side of the instead of a single point. (Synonyms: radial astigma-
nose with a straight anterior-posterior surface that tism, marginal astigmatism.)
would bisect it vertically (also called transverse angle). astigmatism, radial See astigmatism, oblique.
2. The angle the face of a nosepad makes with a plane ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials.
perpendicular to that of the frame front when viewed autolensmeter A lensmeter that measures the power
from above. and prismatic effect of the lens in an automated
angle, temple fold The angle formed when a temple fashion.
is folded to a closed position. axis meridian See meridian, axis.
angle, vertical When viewed from the side, that angle axis of a cylinder An imaginary reference line used
formed between the plane of the lenses and the long to specify cylinder or spherocylinder lens orientation
axis of the adjustable nosepads. and corresponding to the meridian perpendicular to
anisometropia A condition in which one eye differs that of maximum cylinder power.
significantly in refractive power from the other. axis, optical That line which passes through the center
ANSI Abbreviation for American National Standards of a lens on which the radii of curvature of the front
Institute. and back surfaces fall.
antireflection coating See coating, antireflection. axis, prism The base direction of an ophthalmic
antiscratch coating See coating, antiscratch. prism, expressed in degrees.
aperture 1. An opening or hole that admits only a
portion of light from a given source or sources. 2.
The central, optically correct portion of a lenticular B
lens.
aperture, lens The portion of the spectacle frame that B The vertical dimension of the boxing system
accepts the lens. (Synonym: lens opening.) rectangle that encloses a lens or lens opening.
apex The junction point at which the two non- back base curve See curve, back base.
parallel surfaces of a prism meet. back vertex power See power, back vertex.
aphake A person whose crystalline lens has been Balgrip mounting See mounting, Balgrip.
removed. bar See arm.
apical angle See angle, apical. barrel The housing for a screw on a pair of glasses.
AR An abbreviation for antireflection coating. barrel distortion See distortion, barrel.
arm Also called bar, browbar; in a semirimless mount- base In a prism, the edge of maximum surface sepa-
ing, the metal reinforcement that follows the upper ration opposite the apex.
posterior surface of a spectacle lens and joins the base curve See curve, base.
centerpiece to the endpiece. base down Vertical placement of prism such that the
arms, guard A synonym for pad arms. base is at 270 degrees on a degree scale.
arms, pad Metal pieces that connect adjustable nose- base in Horizontal placement of prism such that the
pads to the front of a frame. (Synonym: guard arms.) base is toward the nose.
aspheric A nonspherical surface. base out Horizontal placement of prism such that the
aspheric lenticular See lenticular, aspheric. base is toward the side of the head.
aspheric, full-field An aspheric lens that continues in base up Vertical placement of prism such that the
its asphericity in an optically usable manner all the base is at 90 degrees on a degree scale.
way to the edge of the lens blank. basic impact See impact, basic.
astigmatic difference See difference, astigmatic. BCD Boxing center distance. See distance, boxing center.
astigmatic error See error, astigmatic. bent-down portion See earpiece.
astigmatism The presence of two different curves on best form lens See lens, corrected curve.
a single refracting surface on or within the eye. This bevel The angled edge of the spectacle lens.
causes light to focus as two line images instead of as a bevel, hidden An edged lens configuration that
single point. attempts to reduce the appearance of thickness by
astigmatism, marginal See astigmatism, oblique. creating a small bevel with the rest of the lens edge
astigmatism, oblique 1. An astigmatic eye condition remaining flat.
whereby the major meridians of the correcting lens bevel, mini A lens edge configuration that has a bevel
are at an oblique angle, between 30 and 60 degrees and an angled ledge.
or 120 and 150 degrees. 2. The lens aberration that bevel, pin Synonym for safety bevel.
occurs when rays from an off-axis point pass through bevel, safety 1. To remove the sharp interface
a spherical lens and light focuses as two line images between lens surface and bevel surface and the sharp
GLOSSARY 371

point at the bevel apex. 2. The smoothed interface blended myodisc See lens, blended myodisc.
between lens surface and bevel surface and the block That which is attached to the surface of a lens
smoothed lens bevel apex. to hold it in place during the surfacing or edging
bevel, V A lens edge configuration having the form of process.
a V across the whole breadth of the lens edge. blocker The device used to place a block on the lens
bicentric grinding See grinding, bicentric. to hold the lens in place during the surfacing or
bifocal A lens having two areas for viewing, each with edging process.
its own focal power. Usually the upper portion of the blocker, layout A centering device with the capability
lens is for distance vision, the lower for near vision. of also blocking the lens. The layout blocker does not
bifocal, blended A bifocal lens constructed from one mark the lens first, nor does it have a conversion
piece of lens material and having the demarcation line capacity to allow marking of the lens
smoothed out so as not to be visible to an observer. blocking, finish The application of a holding block to
bifocal, curved-top A bifocal lens having a segment an ophthalmic lens so that it may be edged to fit a
that is round in the lower portion and gently curved frame.
on the top of the segment. blocking, surface The application of a holding block
bifocal, Executive American Optical’s trade name for to an ophthalmic lens so that one side may be ground
the Franklin-style bifocal. to the correct curvature and polished.
bifocal, flat-top A bifocal with a segment that is round Boley gauge See gauge, Boley.
in the lower half but flat on the top. box, light A box with a white, translucent piece of
bifocal, Franklin A bifocal having a segment that plastic on top and a full spectrum bulb inside. When
extends the entire width of the lens blank. used in the optical laboratory, the white, illuminated
bifocal, minus add A bifocal with a large, round seg- background serves as a backdrop for comparison of
ment at the top of the lens. The segment is powered two lens colors.
for distance viewing and the rest of the lens for near boxing center See center, boxing.
viewing. (Synonym: minus add bifocal.) boxing center distance See distance, boxing center.
bifocal, Panoptik A bifocal lens resembling a flat-top Boxing system See system, boxing.
bifocal, but having a segment that has a slightly Box-o-Graph A flat device containing grids and slides,
curved upper edge with rounded corners. used in the measurement of pattern and edged lens
bifocal, Rede-Rite See bifocal, minus add. size.
bifocal, ribbon A bifocal with a segment that bridge The area of the frame front between the
resembles a circle with the top and bottom lenses.
removed. bridge, comfort A clear plastic saddle-type bridge that
bifocal, round seg A bifocal with a segment that is is used on a metal frame.
perfectly round. The width of the segment is usually bridge, keyhole The top, inside area of a keyhole
22 mm, but may be larger (usually 38 mm). bridge is shaped like an old-fashioned keyhole. From
bifocal, upcurve See bifocal, minus add. the top, it flares out slightly, resting on the sides of
binocular PD See PD, binocular. the nose but not on the crest of the nose.
blank geometric center See center, blank geometrical. bridge, metal saddle A metal bridge that arches across
blank seg drop See drop, blank seg. in a thin band, sitting directly on the crest of the
blank seg inset See inset, blank seg. nose. (Synonym: W bridge.)
blank, finished lens A lens that has front and back bridge, saddle A frame bridge that is shaped like a
surfaces ground to the desired powers but not yet saddle in a smooth curve and follows the bridge of
edged to the shape of the frame. the nose smoothly.
blank, pattern A predrilled, flat piece of plastic from bridge, semisaddle A bridge that looks much the
which a pattern may be cut. same as a saddle from the front but has permanent,
blank, rough A lens-shaped piece of glass with nonadjustable nose pads attached to the back of the
neither side having the finished curvature. Both sides bridge. (Synonym: modified saddle bridge.)
must yet be surfaced to bring the lens to its desired bridge, skewed That misalignment that occurs when
power and thickness. one lens in a pair of spectacles is higher than the
blank, semifinished lens A lens with only one side other yet neither lens is rotated.
having the desired curvature. The second side must bridge-narrowing pliers See pliers, bridge-narrowing.
yet be surfaced to bring the lens to its desired power bridge-widening pliers See pliers, bridge-widening.
and thickness. browbar See arm.
blended bifocals See lens, blended bifocal. build-up pads See pads, build-up.
372 GLOSSARY

C chamfering The word chamfer means to bevel. In lens

finishing, chamfering is taken to mean the act of
C size The circumference of an edged lens. smoothing off or safety beveling the sharp edges of a
C The horizontal width of a lens or lens opening hole, slot, or notch drilled in a spectacle lens to
as measured at the level of its geometrical center. prevent the chipping of the hole, slot, or notch when
(Synonym: datum length.) the spectacles are worn. Note: In British terminology,
cable temple See temple, cable. chamfering and safety beveling are synonymous.
caliper, vernier A hand-held width measuring device chemical tempering See tempering, chemical.
with a short graduated scale that slides along a longer chemtempering See tempering, chemical.
graduated scale allowing a measure of fractional parts chord A straight line that intersects two points of an arc.
or decimals. chromatic aberration See aberration, chromatic.
carrier The outer, nonoptical portion of a lenticular chromatic power See aberration, lateral chromatic.
lens. circumference gauge See gauge, circumference.
cataract A loss in clarity of the crystalline lens of the C-Lite lens See lens, Corlon.
eye, which results in reduced vision or loss of vision. clock, seg Designed like a conventional lens measure
cellulose acetate A material extracted from cotton or except that the three points of contact are closely
wood pulp and used extensively for making spectacle spaced.
frames. coating, antireflection A thin layer or series of layers
center, blank geometrical The physical center of a of material applied to the surface of a lens for the
semifinished lens blank or an uncut finished lens purpose of reducing unwanted reflections from the
blank. The blank geometrical center is the center of lens surface and thus increasing the amount of light
the smallest square or rectangle that completely that passes through to the eye.
encloses the lens blank. coating, antiscratch A thin, hard coating applied to
center, boxing The midpoint of the rectangle that plastic lens surfaces to make them more resistant to
encloses a lens in the boxing system. scratching.
center, cutting Synonym for mechanical center. coating, color A coating applied to the surface of a
center, datum The midpoint of the datum length (C lens for the purpose of reducing light transmission.
dimension) of a lens along the datum line. coating, edge Application of color to the edge of a
center, edging Synonym for mechanical center. lens for the purpose of decreasing edge visibility.
center, geometrical 1. The boxing center. 2. The coating, mirror A coating applied to a lens causing it
middle point on an uncut lens blank. to have the same properties as a two-way mirror.
center, mechanical The rotational center of a pattern coating, scratch resistant A synonym for antiscratch
found at the midpoint of the central hole. (Synonyms: coating.
cutting center, edging center) collar See shoe.
center, optical That point on an ophthalmic prescrip- colmascope An instrument that utilizes polarized light
tion lens through which no prismatic effect is to show strain patterns in glass or plastic. (Synonym:
manifested. polariscope.)
center, reading That point on a lens at the reading color coating See coating, color.
level that corresponds to the near PD. color, reflex The residual color of an antireflection
center, rotational The point on a pattern around coated lens.
which it rotates during edging. coma The lens aberration that occurs when the object
center, seg optical That location on the segment of a point is off the axis of the lens causing a difference in
bifocal lens that shows zero prismatic effect when no magnification for rays passing through different
refractive power is in the distance portion of the lens. zones of the lens. Instead of forming a single, point
centerpiece The portion of a rimless mounting image off the optic axis, the image appears shaped
consisting of bridge, pad arms, pads, and strap area. like a comet or ice cream cone.
centrad (⵱) A unit of measurement of the displace- combination frame See frame, combination.
ment of light by a prism. One centrad is the prism comfort bridge See bridge, comfort.
power required to displace a ray of light 1 cm from comfort cable temple See temple, cable.
the position it would otherwise strike on the arc of a compensated power See power, compensated.
circle having a 1-m radius. compensated segs See segs, R-compensated.
centration The act of positioning a lens for edging compounding (of prism) The process of combining
such that it will conform optically to prescription two or more prisms to obtain the equivalent prismatic
specifications. effect expressed as a single prism.
GLOSSARY 373

concave An inward-curved surface. when compared with the center of the lens. For a flat
conditioner, lens A specially formulated solution into object, this results in a curved image. (Synonym:
which a plastic lens is immersed before being tinted. power error.)
The purpose of lens conditioner is to prepare the curve, back base The weaker back-surface curve of a
lens for a fast and even uptake of dye. minus cylinder-form lens. When the lens is a minus
conjugate foci See foci, conjugate. cylinder-form lens, the back base curve and the toric
contour plot See plot, contour. base curve are the same.
convergence 1. An inward turning of the eyes, as curve, base The surface curve of a lens that becomes
when looking at a near object. 2. The action of light the basis from which the other remaining curves are
rays traveling toward a specific real image point. calculated.
convertible temple See temple, convertible. curve, countersink For the manufacture of fused-glass
convex An outward-curved surface. semifinished bi- and trifocal lenses, the countersink
coolant A liquid used to cool and lubricate the curve is that curve that is ground into the main lens
lens/grinding wheel interface during the grinding in the area where the segment is to be placed. The
process. countersink curve matches the back curve of the bi-
coquille The thin nonpowered demonstration lens that or trifocal segment. When the segment is placed on
comes in a spectacle frame to hold the shape of the the countersink curve of the main lens, the two may
frame as intended and to more realistically simulate then be fused together.
the appearance of the frame for the prospective curve, cross The stronger curve of a toric lens
wearer. (Synonyms: dummy lens, demo lens.) surface.
Corlon lens See lens, Corlon. curve, nominal base A 1.53-index-referenced number
corrected curve lens See lens, corrected curve. assigned to the base curve of a semifinished lens. For
cosine For a right triangle, the ratio of the side adja- moderately powered crown-glass lenses the needed
cent the angle considered, to the hypotenuse. back surface tool curve may be found by subtracting
the nominal base curve from the prescribed back
Adjacent
Cosine = vertex power.
Hypotenuse
curve, tool The 1.53-index-referenced surface power
cosine-squared formula See formula, cosine-squared. of a lap tool used in the fining and polishing of
countersink curve See curve, countersink. ophthalmic lenses.
cover lens See lens, cover. curve, true base Synonym for true power.
CR-39 A registered trademark of Pittsburgh Plate Glass cut, nasal The removal of an inferior, nasal portion of
Co. for an optical plastic known as Columbia Resin the lens shape to create a better frame fit.
39. It has been the standard material from which cutting line See line, cutting.
conventional plastic lenses are made. cylinder A lens having a refractive power in one meri-
crazed The cracked appearance of a lens with a dian only and used in the correction of astigmatism.
damage or defective coating.
crest angle See angle, crest.
cribbing The process of reducing a semi-finished lens D
blank to a smaller size to speed the surfacing process
or reduce the probability of difficulty. D An abbreviation for diopter of refractive power. See
cross curve See curve, cross. diopter, lens.
cross, fitting A reference point 2 to 4 mm above the datum center See center, datum.
prism reference point on progressive-addition lenses. datum center distance See distance, datum center.
The fitting cross is positioned in front of the pupil. datum line See line, datum.
cross, power A schematic representation on which datum system See system, datum.
the two major meridians of a lens or lens surface are DBC Distance between centers.
depicted. DBL Distance between lenses.
crown glass See glass, crown. DCD Datum center distance.
curl See earpiece. decentration 1. The displacement of the lens optical
Curvature The reciprocal of the radius of curvature center or major reference point away from the
of a curved surface, quantified in reciprocal meters boxing center of the frame’s lens aperture. 2. The
(m–1), and abbreviated by R. displacement of a lens optical center away from the
curvature of field The lens aberration that causes the wearer’s line of sight for the purpose of creating a
spherical power of the lens to be off in the periphery prismatic effect.
374 GLOSSARY

decentration, effective The distance from the axis eyewire grooves across the bridge area at the
of a decentered cylinder to the point from which narrowest point (usually synonymous with bridge size).
decentration began. distance reference point See point, distance reference.
demand, dioptric The inverse of the reading distance distance, boxing center Synonym for distance
in meters, independent of actual bifocal addition between centers.
power. distance, datum center The distance between the
demo lens See coquille. datum centers in a frame or pair of glasses.
depth, mid-datum The depth of the lens measured distance, frame center Synonym for distance between
through the datum center. centers.
depth, reading The vertical position in the lens distance, geometric center The distance between the
through which the wearer’s line of sight passes when boxing (geometrical) centers of a frame.
reading. distance, interpupillary (PD) The distance from the
depth, sagittal (sag) The height or depth of a given center of one pupil to the center of the other when
segment of a circle. either an infinitely distant object is being viewed
depth, seg The longest vertical dimension of the lens (distance PD) or a near object is being viewed (near
segment before the lens has been edged. PD).
deviation, angle of See angle of deviation. distance, near centration The distance between the
diameter, effective Twice the longest radius of a geometrical centers of the near segments.
frame’s lens aperture as measured from the boxing distance, vertex The distance from the back surface
center. Abbreviated ED. of the lens to the front of the eye.
difference, astigmatic The linear distance between distortion The lens aberration that causes the image
the two line foci that occurs in oblique astigmatism. to appear warped when compared with the object.
When expressed in diopters, this difference is called distortion, barrel The type of distortion normally
the oblique astigmatic error. caused by a plus lens that results in the image of a
difference, frame In the boxing system, the difference square object taking on a barrel-shaped appearance.
between frame A and frame B dimensions, expressed distortion, pattern The loss of correct edged lens
in millimeters. shape resulting from use of a pattern that is too large
difference, pattern In the boxing system, the differ- or small in comparison with the lens size being
ence between pattern A and B dimensions, expressed edged.
in millimeters. distortion, pincushion The type of distortion normally
differential, wheel The difference in millimeters caused by a minus lens that results in the image of a
between the size of lens produced in roughing and square object taking on a pincushion-shaped appear-
finishing operations during edging ance.
diopter, lens (D) Unit of lens refractive power, equal divergence The action of light rays going out from a
to the reciprocal of the lens focal length in meters. point source.
diopter, prism (⌬) The unit of measurement that double gradient tint See tint, double gradient.
quantifies prism deviating power; one prism diopter double-D lens See lens, double-D.
(1Δ) is the power required to deviate a ray of light double-segment lens See lens, double-segment.
1 cm from the position it would otherwise strike at a dress eyewear See eyewear, dress.
point 1 m away from the prism. dress To reshape the cutting surface of a grinding
dioptric demand See demand, dioptric. wheel.
dispersion, mean The quantity (nF - nC )—the index drop-ball test See test, drop-ball.
of blue light minus the index of red light—that helps drop, blank seg The vertical distance from the blank
to define the chromatic nature of a lens material. geometric center to the top of the multifocal segment.
dispersive power See power, dispersive. drop, seg 1. The vertical distance from the major
dissimilar segs See segs, dissimilar. reference point (MRP) to the top of the segment
distance between centers (DBC) In a frame or when the segment top is lower than the MRP. 2. The
finished pair of glasses, the distance between the vertical distance from the horizontal midline to the
boxing (geometrical) centers. (Synonym: geometrical top of the segment when the segment top is lower
center distance.) than the horizontal midline (laboratory usage).
distance between lenses (DBL) In the boxing system, (Antonym: seg raise.)
the distance between the two boxed lenses as DRP An abbreviation for distance reference point.
positioned in the frame. It is the shortest distance See point, distance reference.
between a lens pair measured from the inside nasal dummy lens See coquille.
GLOSSARY 375

E endpiece, turn-back An endpiece design in which the

frame front bends around and meets the temple end-
ear That portion of the strap area on a rimless to-end.
mounting that extends from the shoe, contacting the English endpiece See endpiece, English.
surface of the lens. (Synonym: tongue.) equation, Fresnel The formula for determining the
earpiece That part of the temple that lies past the amount of light that will be reflected from an un-
temple bend. (Synonym: curl.) coated lens surface, based on the index of refraction
ED Effective diameter. of the lens material.
edge coating See coating, edge. Equithin A term used by the Varilux Corporation when
edge, rolled A lens edge configuration that reduces referring to the use of yoked prism for thickness
minus lens edge thickness by rounding out the back reduction on a pair of Varilux progressive-addition
surface edge of the lens. lenses. See also prism, yoked.
edger The piece of machinery used to physically grind equivalent, spherical The sum of the spherical
the uncut lens blank to fit the shape of the frame. component and one half of the cylinder component
edger, hand A grinding wheel made especially for of an ophthalmic lens prescription.
changing a lens shape or smoothing a lens edge by error, astigmatic Unwanted cylinder power found
hand. primarily in the inferior peripheral areas of a
edger, patterned A lens edger that uses patterns to progressive addition lens.
produce the correct lens shape error, oblique astigmatic The “astigmatic difference”
edger, patternless An edger that uses an electronic that occurs in the aberration of oblique astigmatism
tracing of a lens shape, rather than a physical pattern. as expressed in diopters.
effective decentration See decentration, effective. error, power See curvature of field.
effective diameter See diameter, effective. Executive bifocal See bifocal, Executive.
effective diameter angle See angle, effective diameter. extractor, screw A device that resembles a screwdriver
effective power See power, effective. but has a barbed tip instead of a blade. The barbed
electrometallic wheel See wheel, electrometallic. tip digs into a damaged screw head or the remaining
electroplated wheel See wheel, electroplated. tip of a broken-off screw and is turned to remove the
ellipse, Tscherning The elliptical-shaped graph that damaged or broken screw.
shows the best lens form(s) a lens can have for eyesize In the boxing system, the A dimension. (The
eliminating oblique astigmatism. horizontal dimension of the lens opening of a frame,
emmetrope A person without refractive error. which is bounded by two vertical lines tangent to the
emmetropia The absence of refractive error. left and right sides of that lens opening.)
endpiece angling pliers See pliers, endpiece angling. eyewear, dress Eyewear designed for everyday use.
endpiece One of the two outer areas of the frame eyewear, safety Eyewear designed to be worn in
front to the extreme left and right where the temples situations that could be potentially hazardous to the
attach. eyes and thus must meet higher standards of impact
endpiece, American An older classification of metal resistance than conventional eyewear.
endpiece that has a stop protruding from the single eyewear, sports Eyewear designed to protect the eyes
barrel on the temple, preventing the temple from and/or enhance vision in specific sports situations.
opening out too far. What is appropriate will vary dramatically, depending
endpiece, butt-type An endpiece construction in upon the sport.
which the front is straight and the temple butt is flat, eyewire The rim of the frame that goes around the
and both meet at a 90-degree angle. lenses.
endpiece, English An older classification of metal eyewire forming plier See plier, eyewire forming.
endpiece that has a “stop” or “knuckle” that comes eyewire shaping plier Eyewire forming plier.
out around the hinge barrels and prevents the
temples from opening out too widely.
endpiece, French An older classification of metal F
endpiece in which the temple is slotted between the
two barrels and the stop is on the frame front as an F Often used in equations to denote lens refractive
extension of the single barrel. power in diopters. Alternative symbol for F is D.
endpiece, mitre-type An endpiece construction in face form See form, face.
which the frame front contact area and temple butt facet An edge configuration resembling the appear-
meet at a 45-degree angle. ance of beveled glass that is sometimes used with
376 GLOSSARY

high-minus lenses to reduce edge thickness and when the value of the cylinder is expressed as a
weight. negative number.
farsightedness See hyperopia. form, plus cylinder The form a prescription takes
FDA Food and Drug Administration. when the value of the cylinder is expressed as a
Figure 8 liner See liner, figure 8. positive number.
file, pillar A general purpose file used in dispensing. former British equivalent of pattern.
file, rat-tail Used in dispensing on drilled lenses, to formula, accurate sag The formula used to find
reduce lens thickness in an area to allow for proper sagittal depth, which states that
lens strap grasp or to smooth the edges of the drilled
s = r - (r2 – y2)
lens hole.
file, ribbon See file, slotting. where r is the radius of curvature of the surface and y
file, riffler Spoon-shaped file used in dispensing, is the semidiameter of the chord.
good for getting at small, hard-to-reach areas. formula, cosine-squared A formula used to obtain
file, slotting Used for reslotting screws or making a the “power” of an oblique cylinder, usually in the
slot where none previously existed. 90-degree meridian.
file, zyl Used in dispensing to file plastic parts of a formula, lensmaker’s A formula used to find the
frame. dioptric power of a surface or radius of curvature.
Filtron A laser-absorbing lens series made by Gentex. The formula states that
finger-piece pliers See pliers, finger-piece. (n′ - n)
D=
fining In surfacing, the process of bringing a r
generated lens surface to the smoothness needed so where D is the lens refractive power in diopters, n′ is
that it will be capable of being polished. the refractive index of the lens, and n is the refractive
finished lens See lens, finished. index of the media surrounding the lens.
finishing The process in the production of spectacles formula, sine-squared A formula used to obtain the
that begins with a pair of uncut lenses of the correct “power” of an oblique cylinder, usually in the 180-
refractive power and ends with a completed pair of degree meridian.
spectacles. four-point touch See touch, four-point.
first focal length See length, first focal. frame center distance See distance, frame center.
first principal focus See focus, first principal. frame center distance See distance, geometrical center.
fitting cross See cross, fitting. frame difference See difference, frame.
flash Synonym for swarf. frame PD Synonym for distance between centers or
flat surface touch test See test, flat surface touch. geometrical center distance.
flat-top bifocal See bifocal, flat-top. frame tracer See tracer, frame.
focal point See point, focal. frame, combination 1. A frame having a metal chassis
focal power See power, focal. with plastic top rims and temples. 2. A frame having
foci, conjugate Object and image points for a lens or some major parts of plastic construction and some of
lens system that correspond. Rays originating at one metal.
point will be focused at the other. frame, shell An older expression referring to a plastic
focimeter Synonym for lensmeter. frame. Derived from when tortoise shell was used as a
focus, first principal The point at which an object frame material.
may be placed so that the lens will form its image Franklin bifocal See bifocal, Franklin.
at infinity. For positive lenses this is a real object French endpiece See endpiece, French.
position, for negative lenses, a virtual object Fresnel equation See equation, Fresnel.
position. Fresnel lens See lens, Fresnel.
focus, second principal That point at which parallel Fresnel prism See prism, Fresnel.
light entering a lens is brought to focus. For positive front vertex power See power, front vertex.
lenses the focal point is real, for negative, virtual. front That portion of the spectacles that contains the
fork, centering A forklike device used to hold a lens lenses.
in position for blocking or for placing a lens in an front, wave The outer border formed by rays
older-style edger at a specific orientation. diverging from their point of origin.
form, face An expression of the extent to which the frontal angle See angle, frontal.
curve in the frame front varies from the classical four- front-to-bend (FTB) Temple length expressed as the
point touch position. distance from the plane of the frame front to the
form, minus cylinder The form a prescription takes bend of the temple.
GLOSSARY 377

FTB See front-to-bend. H

full-field aspheric See aspheric, full-field.
half-eyes Frames made especially for those who need
a reading correction but no correction for distance.
G They are constructed to sit lower on the nose than
normal and have a vertical dimension that is only half
g Symbol for the GOMAC system equivalent of the the size of normal glasses.
datum center distance. hand edger See edger, hand.
gauge, Boley A gauge used to measure width of lenses hand stone See stone, hand.
or frame lens apertures. HAZCOM Hazard Communication Standard (HCS).
gauge, circumference A device used to measure the The Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
distance around the outside of a previously edged tion’s Hazard Communications Standard requires all
lens or a coquille for the purpose of more accurately employers to provide their employees with informa-
duplicating the size of an existing lens when edging a tion and training about any possible exposure to
new lens. hazardous chemicals in the workplace. Information is
GCD Geometrical center distance. to be in written form and should explain workplace
generating The process of rapidly cutting the policy on protection from hazards.
desired surface curvature onto a semifinished lens heat treating See treating, heat.
blank. height, seg The vertically measured distance from the
geometrical center See center, geometrical. lowest point on the lens or lens opening to the level
geometric center distance See distance, geometrical of the top of the segment.
center. Hide-a-Bevel Originally a trade name for an edge-
geometrically centered pattern See pattern, geometrically grinding system that produces a shelf effect behind
centered. the bevel on thick-edged lenses. Now Hide-a-Bevel
German silver See nickel silver. refers to this type of lens edge configuration in
glare control lenses See lenses, glare control. general.
glass, crown A commonly used glass lens material high impact See impact, high.
having an index of refraction of 1.523. high-index lens See lens, high-index.
glazed lens See lens, glazed. high mass impact test See test, high mass impact.
glazing 1. The insertion of lenses into a spectacle high velocity impact test See test, high velocity impact.
frame. 2. The clogging of empty spaces between the hollow snipe-nosed pliers See pliers, hollow snipe-nosed.
exposed abrasive particles of an abrasive wheel, horizontal alignment See alignment, horizontal.
resulting in reduced grinding ability. horizontal midline See midline, horizontal.
GOMAC system See system, GOMAC. hyperope A person with hyperopia.
GOMAC Groupement des Opticiens du Marche hyperopia The refractive condition of the eye where-
Commun. (A committee of Common Market opti- by light focuses behind the retina. Plus lenses are
cians formed for the purpose of establishing required to correct for hyperopia. (Synonyms: hyper-
European optical standards.) metropia and farsightedness.)
gradient lens See lens, gradient.
gradient tint See tint, gradient.
grayness A lens surface defect caused by incomplete I
polishing.
grind, bicentric Synonym for slabing-off. Ilford mounting See mounting, Balgrip.
grinding allowance Synonym for wheel differential. image jump See jump, image.
grinding, bicentric Grinding a portion of a lens so as image, real An image formed by converging light and
to add a second optical center. Often used to create able to be focused on a screen.
vertical prism in the lower portion of one lens for the image, virtual An image formed by tracing diverging
purpose of alleviating vertical imbalance at near. rays leaving an optical system back to a point from
(Synonym: slabbing-off.) which they appear to originate.
groover, lens The piece of equipment used to place a imbalance, vertical A differential vertical prismatic
groove around the outer edge of a spectacle lens for effect between the two eyes. At near this can be induced
the purpose of holding the lens in the frame with a by right and left lenses of unequal powers when the
nylon cord or thin metal rim. wearer drops his or her eyes below the optical centers
guard arms See arms, pad. of the lenses.
378 GLOSSARY

impact, basic The ANSI requirements for impact invisible bifocals See lens, blended bifocal.
resistant safety eyewear that includes a minimum iseikonic lenses See lenses, iseikonic.
thickness requirement of 3.0 mm unless lenses are isocylinder line See line, isocylinder.
+3.00 D of power or higher in the highest plus
meridian. In this case a 2.5 mm minimum edge
thickness is permissible. Glass lenses are permissible. J
Lenses must be capable of withstanding the impact of
a 1-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches. jig Also called “third hand.” A jig consists of adjust-
impact, high The ANSI requirements for impact able clips mounted on a base. It is used to hold a
resistant safety eyewear that allows a minimum frame in place while soldering.
thickness of 2.0 mm when the lens material is capable jump, image The sudden displacement of image as
of withstanding the impact of a 1/4 -inch steel ball the bifocal line is crossed by the eye.
traveling at 150 feet/second.
implant, intraocular lens A plastic lens placed inside
the eye as a replacement for the eye’s natural crystal- K
line lens. An intraocular lens implant is commonly
used to replace a crystalline lens that has lost its keyhole bridge See bridge, keyhole.
clarity because of a developing cataract. knife-edge A plus lens ground to an absolute min-
impregnated wheel See wheel, impregnated. imum thickness such that the edge of the lens is so
index, absolute refractive The ratio of the speed of light thin that it has a knifelike sharpness to it, that is, an
in a vacuum to the speed of light in another medium. edge thickness of zero.
index, refractive The ratio of the speed of light in a
medium (such as air) to the speed of light in another
medium (such as glass). L
index, relative refractive The ratio obtained by divid-
ing the speed of light in a certain medium (usually ᐉ Symbol for the GOMAC system eyesize measure. It is
air) by its speed in another medium. equal to the boxed length of the lens (A dimension).
index, UV A measure of the amount of ultraviolet laminated lens See lens, laminated.
radiation present on a given day. lap A tool having a curvature matching that of the
infrared Invisible rays having wavelengths longer curvature desired for a lens surface. The lens surface
than those at the red end of the visible spectrum yet is rubbed across the face of the tool and, with the aid
shorter than radio waves. of pads, abrasives and polishes, the lens surface is
inset The amount of lens decentration nasally from brought to optical quality.
the boxing center of the frame’s lens aperture. lateral chromatic aberration See aberration, lateral
(Antonym: outset.) chromatic.
inset, blank seg The horizontal distance from the law, Snell’s Concerning the passage of light from one
blank geometrical center to the center of the medium to another, and stating that
multifocal segment.
n sin i = n′ sin i ′
inset, geometrical The lateral distance from the
distance centration point to the geometrical center of where n and n′ are the refractive indices of the two
the segment. (Synonym: seg inset.) materials, i is the angle of incidence, and i′ is the
inset, net seg The amount of additional seg inset (or angle of refraction.
outset) required to produce a desired amount of layout blocker See blocker, layout; marker/blocker.
horizontal prismatic effect at near, added to the layout The process of preparing a lens for blocking
normal seg inset required by the near PD. and edging.
inset, seg The lateral distance from the major refer- LEAP A 3M Company adhesive pad blocking system.
ence point to the geometrical center of the segment. length, datum The horizontal width of a lens or lens
inset, total The amount the near segment must move opening as measured along the datum line.
from the boxing center to place it at the near PD length, first focal For a thin lens, the distance from
(near centration distance). the lens to the first principal focus.
intermediate The area of a trifocal lens between the length, overall temple The length of a spectacle lens
distance viewing portion and the near portion. temple as measured from the center of the hinge
interpupillary distance See distance, interpupillary. barrel, around the temple bend, to the posterior end
intraocular lens implant See implant, intraocular lens. of the temple.
GLOSSARY 379

length, second focal For a thin lens, the distance from prismatic effect that duplicates the refractive effect of
the lens to the second principal focus. a powered spectacle lens.
length-to-bend (LTB) Temple length measured from lens, glare control Present usage of the term denotes
the center of the hinge barrel to the middle of the a lens that absorbs wavelengths toward the blue end
bend. of the spectrum, reducing glare from scattered short,
lens analyzer See analyzer, lens. visible wavelength light.
lens conditioner See conditioner, lens. lens, glazed 1. A prescription or nonprescription lens
lens groover See groover, lens. mounted in a frame. 2. The thin plastic demonstra-
lens measure See measure, lens. tion lens that comes in a pair of spectacle frames.
lens opening See opening, lens. (Synonyms: dummy lens, coquille.)
lens protractor See protractor, lens. lens, gradient A lens having a tinted upper portion
lens size See size, lens. that gradually lightens toward the lower portion of
lens washer See washer, lens. the lens.
lens, aspheric lenticular A lenticular lens whose lens, hand-flattened lenticular A negative lenticular
optically usable central portion has a front surface lens with the lenticular produced on a hand edger
with a changing radius of curvature. The farther from and hand polished.
the center of the lens, the longer the front surface lens, high-index A lens with an index of refraction
radius of curvature becomes. that is at the upper end of the range of available
lens, best form See lens, corrected curve. indices of refraction for lenses, yielding a lens that is
lens, blended bifocal Bifocal lenses with a segment thinner than other lenses of the same size and power.
area that is not visible to the observer. Blended bifo- lens, laminated An ophthalmic lens that is made up
cals are usually round-segment lenses that have the of more than one layer. Examples include polarized
demarcation line between the distance portion and lenses, lenses that have a glass front and a polyure-
the bifocal portion smoothed away. thane back surface, and plastic bifocal lenses made
lens, blended myodisc A minus lens, lenticular in from front and back sections to bypass conventional
design, with the edges of the bowl blended so as to surfacing procedures.
improve the cosmetic aspects of the lens. lens, lenticular A high-powered lens with the desired
lens, Corlon A glass lens that has been laminated on prescription power found only in the central portion.
the back with a thin layer of polyurethane plastic. The outer carrier portion is ground so as to reduce
(Synonym: C-Lite lens.) edge thickness and weight in minus prescriptions and
lens, corrected curve A lens whose surface curvatures center thickness and weight in plus prescriptions.
have been carefully chosen with the intent of reducing lens, meniscus A lens having a convex front surface
those peripheral lens aberrations that are trouble- and a concave back surface.
some to the spectacle lens wearer. (Synonym: best form lens, mineral Synonym for glass lens.
lens.) lens, minus cylinder form A lens ground such that it
lens, cover A thin lens that is temporarily glued to obtains its cylinder power from a difference in surface
the surface of a semifinished blank to protect the curvature between two back surface meridians.
surface of the lens and facilitate accurate grinding, as lens, minus lenticular A high-minus lens that is lenti-
in the case of a slab-off grind on a glass lens. cular in design, having a central area containing the
lens, demo See coquille. prescribed refractive power and a peripheral carrier
lens, double-D A multifocal lens with a flat-top that is plus in power for maximum edge thinning.
bifocal-style segment in the lower portion of the lens lens, multidrop A high-plus, full-field aspheric lens in
and an inverted flat-top bifocal-style segment in the which the surface power drops rapidly as the edge of
upper portion of the lens. the lens is approached.
lens, double-segment A multifocal lens that has two lens, multifocal A lens having a sector or sectors
segments, one in the lower and one in the upper where the refractive power is different from the rest
portion of the lens. of the lens, such as bifocals or trifocals.
lens, dummy See coquille. lens, myodisc 1. Traditional definition: a high-minus
lens, finished A spectacle lens that has been surfaced lens that is lenticular in design, having a central
on both front and back to the needed power and area containing the prescribed refractive power and a
thickness. A finished lens has not been edged for a peripheral carrier that is plano in power. The front
spectacle frame but is still in uncut form. curve is either plano in power or very close to plano.
lens, Fresnel A lens made from a thin flexible plastic 2. General usage: any high-minus lens that is lenti-
material, having concentric rings of ever-increasing cular in design.
380 GLOSSARY

lens, negative lenticular A high-minus lens that has lenticular A high-powered lens with the desired pres-
had the peripheral portion flattened for the purpose cription power found only in the central portion. The
of reducing weight and edge thickness. (Synonym: outer carrier portion is ground so as to reduce edge
myodisc.) thickness and weight in minus prescriptions and
lens, Percival form A lens design that concentrates on center thickness and weight in plus prescriptions.
the elimination of power error instead of oblique lenticular lens See lens, lenticular or lenticular.
astigmatism. lenticular, aspheric A lenticular lens whose optically
lens, photochromic A lens that changes its trans- usable central portion has a front surface with a
mission characteristics when exposed to light. changing radius of curvature.
lens, plus cylinder form A lens ground so that it lenticular, hand-flattened A negative lenticular lens
obtains its cylinder power from a difference in surface with the lenticular portion produced on a hand edger
curvature between two front surface meridians. and hand polished.
lens, point focal A lens design that concentrates on the lenticular, negative A high-minus lens that has had the
elimination of oblique astigmatism instead of power peripheral portion flattened for the purpose of redu-
error. cing weight and edge thickness. (Synonym: myodisc.)
lens, polarizing A lens that blocks light polarized in lenticular, spheric A lenticular lens whose optically
one plane, such as light reflected from a smooth, non- usable central portion has a front surface that does
diffusing surface. not vary in curvature but is entirely spherical.
lens, prism segment A 10-mm deep ribbon-style level, reading A synonym for reading depth. See depth,
segment containing a prismatic effect for near. The reading.
ribbon segment extends to the nasal edge of the lens library temple See temple, library.
blank. light box See box, light.
lens, progressive-addition A lens having optics that vary line, 180-degree A synonym for horizontal midline.
in power gradually from the distance to near zones. line, cutting the 180-degree line marked on a lens after
lens, quadrafocal A multifocal lens that has a flat-top it has been properly positioned for cylinder axis
trifocal segment in the lower portion of the lens and orientation and decentration. It is used for reference
an inverted flat-top bifocal-type segment in the upper in blocking and edging a lens.
portion of the lens. line, datum A line drawn parallel to and halfway
lens, reverse-slab A slab-off lens that has base-down between horizontal lines tangent to the lowest and
prism below the slab line, instead of base-up. Reverse- highest edges of the lens. (Synonyms: horizontal
slab lenses are usually precast plastic. midline, 180-degree line.)
lens, single-vision A lens with the same sphere and/or line, isocylinder One of the lines on the contour plot
cylinder power throughout the whole lens, as of a progressive addition lens denoting the location
distinguished from a multifocal lens. of unwanted cylinder of a given dioptric power.
lens, spheric lenticular A lenticular lens whose opti- line, mounting 1. The horizontal reference line that
cally usable central portion has a front surface that intersects the mechanical center of a lens pattern. 2.
does not vary in curvature but is entirely spherical. On metal or rimless spectacles the line that passes
lens, stock A lens that is premade and does not have through the points at which the guard arms are
to be custom surfaced. attached, and that serves as a line of reference for
lens, uncut A lens that has been surfaced on both horizontal alignment.
sides but not yet edged for a frame. liner, figure-8 A liner that that fits into the top eyewire
lens, X-Chrom A red contact lens used in an attempt channel of some nylon cord frames.
to improve color vision for certain red-green color longitudinal chromatic aberration See aberration,
defectives. longitudinal chromatic.
lens, Younger seamless Trade name for a blended LTB The length-to-bend measure of a frame temple.
bifocal made by Younger Optics.
lenses, iseikonic A lens pair with their curvatures and
thicknesses specially chosen in order to produce a M
difference in image magnification between the left
and right eyes. Also known as size lenses. major reference point See point, major reference.
lensmaker’s formula See formula, lensmaker’s. marginal astigmatism See astigmatism, oblique.
lensmeter The instrument used for finding power marker A centering device used to accurately position
and prism in spectacle lenses. a lens and stamp it with horizontal and vertical
lensometer A trade name for a type of lensmeter. reference lines for use in accurate lens blocking.
GLOSSARY 381

marker/blocker A device used to accurately position monocular PD See PD, monocular.

a lens and either stamp it with horizontal and vertical mounting 1. The name for a spectacle lens frame
reference lines for use in accurate lens blocking, or when the lenses are held in place without the aid of
block it directly while still in the device; that is, a an eyewire as with rimless or semi-rimless mountings.
centering device with stamping and blocking 2. The attaching of lenses to a rimless or semi-rimless
capability. spectacle frame.
Material Safety and Data Sheet A single sheet of mounting line See line, mounting.
paper containing information about potentially mounting, Balgrip A mounting (frame) that secures
hazardous chemicals found in the workplace. MSDS the lens in place with clips attached to a bar of tensile
sheets should include physical and chemical character- steel that fits into a nasal and a temporal slot on each
istics, known acute and chronic health effects, expo- side of the lens.
sure limits, precautionary measures, and emergency mounting, Ilford Synonym for Balgrip mounting.
and first-aid procedures. mounting, numont A lens mounting that holds the
MBL Minimum between lenses lenses in place only at their nasal edge. The lenses
MBS Minimum blank size. See size, minimum blank. are attached at the bridge area and the temples are
mean dispersion See dispersion, mean. attached to a metal arm that extends along the poste-
measure, lens A small, pocket-watch–sized instrument rior surface temporally. Thus each lens has only one
for measuring the surface curve of a lens. Also called point of attachment.
a lens clock or lens gauge. mounting, rimless A mounting that holds the lenses
meniscus lens See lens, meniscus. in place by some method other than eyewires or nylon
meridian, axis The meridian of least power of a cylin- cords. Usually the method of mounting is by screws
der or spherocylinder lens; for a minus cylinder the through the lenses. (Synonym: three-piece mounting.)
least minus meridian, for a plus cylinder the least plus mounting, semirimless Mountings similar to the
meridian. rimless, except for a metal reinforcing arm, which
meridian, major One of two meridians in a cylinder or follows the upper posterior surface of the lens and
spherocylinder lens. These meridians are 90 degrees joins the centerpiece of the frame to the endpiece.
apart and correspond to the maximum and minimum mounting, Wils-Edge A lens mounting (frame) that
powers in the lens. secures the lens in place by means of a grooved arm
meridian, power The meridian of maximum power that grips the top of the lens.
of a cylinder or spherocylinder lens; for a minus MRP An abbreviation for major reference point. See
cylinder the most minus meridian, for a plus cylinder point, major reference.
the most plus meridian. MSDS Abbreviation for Material Safety and Data Sheet.
metal bonded wheel See wheel, metal bonded. multidrop lens See lens, multidrop.
metal saddle bridge See bridge, metal saddle. multifocal A lens having a sector or sectors where the
mid-datum depth See depth, mid-datum. refractive power is different from the rest of the lens,
midline, horizontal In the boxing system of lens such as bifocals or trifocals.
measurement, the horizontal line halfway between multifocals, segmented Multifocal lenses having a
the upper and lower horizontal lines bordering the visible, clearly demarcated bi-or tri-focal area.
lens shape. (Synonym: 180-degree reference line.) Nonsegmented multifocals would be progressive
mini-bevel A lens edge configuration that has a bevel addition lenses.
and an angled ledge. myodisc See lens, myodisc.
minimum between lenses The datum system equiva- myope A person with myopia.
lent of the boxing system’s distance between lenses myopia The refractive condition of the eye whereby
(DBL). light focuses in front of the retina. Minus lenses are
minus add bifocal Bifocal, minus add. required to correct for myopia. (Synonym: nearsighted-
minus cylinder form See form, minus cylinder. ness.)
minus cylinder form lens See lens, minus cylinder form.
minus lenticular lens See lens, minus lenticular.
mirror coating See coating, mirror. N
Monel A whitish, pliable, nicely polishing metal frame
material that is made from nickel, copper, and iron; nasal The side of a lens or frame that is toward the
it also contains traces of other elements. nose (inner edge).
monochromatic aberration See aberration, monochro- nasal add See add, nasal.
matic. nasal cut See cut, nasal.
382 GLOSSARY

NBC The abbreviation for nominal base curve. from the boxing center of the frame’s lens aperture.
near power See power, near. (Antonym: inset.)
near reference point See point, near reference. overall temple length See length, overall temple.
near Rx The net power resulting from the combina-
tion of the add power and the distance power.
nearsightedness See myopia. P
net seg inset See inset, net seg.
neutralize To determine the refractive power of a lens. p Symbol for the GOMAC system distance between
Most often this is done with the aid of a lensmeter. lenses. It is equal to the boxing DBL.
neutralizer A solution used to reduce the color in or pad arms See arms, pad.
remove the color from a previously tinted lens. pad-adjusting pliers See pliers, pad-adjusting.
nickel silver A whitish-appearing metal frame mate- pads, build-up Small nosepad-shaped pieces of plastic
rial containing more than 50% copper, 25% nickel, used to alter the fit of the bridge.
and the rest zinc. (Synonym: German silver.) Panoptik See bifocal, Panoptik.
nominal base curve See curve, nominal base. pantoscopic angle or tilt See angle, pantoscopic.
normal A line perpendicular to a reflecting or refract- pantoscopic angling pliers See pliers, pantoscopic
ing surface at the point of incidence. angling.
NRP An abbreviation for near reference point. See parallax The apparent change in position of an object
point, near reference. as the result of a change in viewing angle.
number, set The compensating number used with a paraxial rays See rays, paraxial.
pattern to arrive at a compensated eyesize setting for pattern difference See difference, pattern.
the edger. pattern A plastic or metal piece having the same shape
Numont mounting See mounting, Numont. as the lens aperture for a given frame. Used in lens
Numont pliers See pliers, Numont. edging as a guide for shaping the lens to fit the
nystagmus A condition characterized by a constant, frame.
involuntary back-and-forth movement of the eye. pattern, geometrically centered A pattern with
mechanical and geometrical centers on the same
horizontal plane.
O pattern, optically centered A pattern with its
mechanical center above boxing center.
oblique astigmatic error See error, oblique astigmatic. patterned edger See edger, patterned.
oblique astigmatism See astigmatism, oblique. patternless edger See edger, patternless.
OC Optical center. PD An abbreviation for interpupillary distance (see
Occupational Health and Safety Administration The distance, interpupillary).
U.S. government agency responsible for setting work- PD, binocular The measured distance from the center
place safety policy and ensuring worker safety. of one pupil to the center of the other pupil without
OD Latin, oculus dexter (right eye). regard to how each eye may vary in its distance from
OLA Abbreviation for the Optical Laboratories Asso- the center of the bridge of the frame.
ciation. PD, distance The wearer’s interpupillary distance
open temple spread See spread, open temple. specified for a situation equivalent to when the
opening, lens The portion of the spectacle frame that wearer is viewing a distant object.
accepts the spectacle lens. (Synonym: lens aperture.) PD, frame Synonym for geometrical center distance
optical axis See axis, optical. or distance between centers.
optical center See center, optical. PD, monocular Interpupillary distance specified for
Optical Laboratories Association A professional asso- each eye individually. The center of the frame bridge
ciation of optical laboratories. is the reference point from which measurements are
optically centered pattern See pattern, optically specified.
centered. PD, monocular The distance from the center of
Optyl The trade name for an epoxy resin material the frame bridge to the center of the wearer’s pupil
used to make spectacle frames. measured for each eye separately.
OS Latin, oculus sinister (left eye). PD, near The interpupillary distance as specified for
OSHA Occupational Health and Safety Administra- a near viewing situation.
tion. Percival form lens See lens, Percival form.
outset The amount of lens decentration temporally peripheral rays See rays, peripheral.
GLOSSARY 383

phoria The direction of the line of sight of one eye unwanted cylinder, attainable visual acuity, or vertical
with reference to that of the partner eye when fusion imbalance over the viewing areas of a progressive
is interrupted, as when one eye is covered. addition lens.
photochromic lens See lens, photochromic. plus cylinder form See form, plus cylinder.
photometer An instrument for measuring brightness. plus-cylinder-form lens See lens, plus cylinder form.
When used with lenses, the percent transmission of point One tenth of a millimeter of lens thickness.
the lens is measured in a given spectral area or areas. point focal lens See lens, point focal.
pillar file See file, pillar. point, distance centration The British equivalent of
pincushion distortion See distortion, pincushion. the major reference point.
planes, variant A form of vertical misalignment of a point, distance reference (DRP) That point on a lens
spectacle frame in which the lens planes are out of where, according to the manufacturer, the distance
coplanar alignment (one lens is further forward than power is to be measured. Distance power consists of
the other). sphere, cylinder and axis. DRP may not correspond to
plano (pl) A lens or lens surface having zero the prism reference point (PRP), as with progressive
refracting power. addition lenses.
pliers, bridge-narrowing Used to narrow the bridge of point, focal A point to or from which light rays
a plastic frame. converge or diverge.
pliers, bridge-widening Used to widen the bridge of a point, major reference (MRP) The point on a lens
plastic frame. where the prism equals that called for by the
pliers, chipping Pliers used to chip or break away the prescription.
outer portions of an uncut or semifinished glass lens point, near reference (NRP) That point on the lens
to either reduce its size or bring it into the rough where, according to the manufacturer, the power of
shape needed to approximate the finished shape. the near addition is to be measured.
pliers, endpiece angling Pliers used in the adjustment point, prism reference (PRP) The point on a lens
of rimless mountings. where prism power is to be verified. Also referred to
pliers, eyewire-forming Pliers with horizontally curved as the major reference point.
jaws used to shape or form the upper and lower eye- polariscope See colmascope.
wires of a metal frame to match the meniscus curve of polarizing lens See lens, polarizing.
the edged lens. polyamide A strong, nylon-based frame material that
pliers, fingerpiece Pliers used for adjustment of the allows a frame to be made thinner and lighter than it
temple-fold angle of plastic frames. Fingerpiece pliers would ordinarily be if made from cellulose acetate
have parallel jaws and were originally designed for frame material.
adjusting fingerpiece mountings. Also called Fits-U polycarbonate A 1.586-index lens material known for
pliers. its strength.
pliers, hollow snipe-nosed Thin-nosed pliers with a power cross See cross, power.
hollowed-out central jaw area. power meridian See meridian, power.
pliers, Numont Holding pliers specially designed for power, actual Synonym for true power.
use with Numont mountings. Numont pliers serve the power, back vertex The reciprocal of the distance in
same purpose for Numont mountings as endpiece air from the rear surface of the lens to the second
angling pliers do for standard rimless mountings. principal focus, which serves as a specific measure of
pliers, pad-adjusting These pliers have one cupped the power of a lens.
jaw to conform to the face-portion of an adjustable power, chromatic See aberration, lateral chromatic.
nosepad; the other jaw is shaped to allow the back of power, compensated Back vertex power that has been
the pad to be held securely while being angled. converted to a 1.53-index frame of reference. Used
pliers, snipe-nosed Pliers that taper to a small tip on for the purpose of finding a 1.53-index-referenced tool
both jaws, allowing use in tight places. Often used in curve for a lens with a different index of refraction.
the adjustment of pad arms. power, dispersive The following quantity
pliers, square-round Used to adjust pad arms, these
nF – nC
pliers have a small round section on one jaw and a
nD – 1
squared off section on the other.
pliers, strapping Pliers having two flat jaws. One jaw used for quantifying chromatic aberration of a given
extends beyond the other and then overlaps it. Used material. Dispersive power is abbreviated as the
to adjust straps of a rimless or semirimless mounting. Greek letter omega, or ω.
plot, contour A line diagram used to plot the areas of power, effective 1. The vergence power of a lens at a
384 GLOSSARY

designated position other than that occupied by the PRP An abbreviation for prism reference point. See
lens itself. 2. That power lens required for a new point, prism reference.
position that will replace the original reference lens
and yet maintain the same focal point.
power, focal A measure of the ability of a lens or lens
Q
surface to change the vergence of entering light rays.
quadrafocal See lens, quadrafocal.
power, front vertex The reciprocal of the distance in
air from the front surface of a lens to the first
principal focus. R
power, near The sum of the distance power and the
near add. (Synonym: near Rx.) radial astigmatism See astigmatism, oblique.
power, nominal An estimate of total lens power, calcu- raise, seg 1. The vertical distance from the major
lated as the sum of front and back surface powers. reference point to the top of the seg when the seg top
(Not to be confused with nominal base curve.) is higher than the MRP. 2. The vertical distance from
power, refractive The dioptric value that accurately the horizontal mid-line of the edged lens to the top of
describes the ability of a lens or lens surface to the seg when the seg top is higher than the horizontal
converge or diverge light. For a lens surface in air the midline (laboratory usage). (Antonym: seg drop.)
refractive power is expressed as rat-tail file See file, rat-tail.
n–1 rays, paraxial Those rays of light that pass through
F=
r the central area of the lens.
where n is the refractive index of the lens material rays, peripheral Those rays of light that enter the lens
and r is the radius of the surface expressed in meters. nearer the edge than the center.
power, true The 1.53-index-referenced curvature of R-compensated segs See segs, R-compensated.
the base curve of a lens. True power is found by using reading center See center, reading.
a lens clock or sagometer (sag gauge) that is 1.53- reading depth See depth, reading.
index referenced. reading level See level, reading.
precoat A spray or brush-on liquid that when applied real image See image, real.
to a lens, protects the surface during processing, Rede-Rite bifocal See bifocal, minus add.
and/or makes the adhesion of a block to the lens reduced thickness See thickness, reduced.
possible. reference point, distance See point, distance reference.
Prentice’s Rule See Rule, Prentice’s. reference point, near See point, near reference.
Prep, Lens A trade name for lens conditioner. reference point, prism See point, prism reference.
prism That part of an optical lens or system that reflex color See color, reflex.
deviates the path of light. refraction 1. The bending of light by a lens or optical
prism axis See axis, prism. system. 2. The process of determining the needed
prism diopter See diopter, prism. power of a prescription lens for an individual.
prism reference point See point, prism reference. refractive index See index, refractive.
prism, Fresnel A prism made from thin flexible mate- refractive power See power, refractive.
rial and consisting of small rows of equal-powered relative refractive index See index, relative refractive.
prisms resulting in the same optical effect as that of a resolving (of prism) The process of expressing a
conventional ophthalmic prism. single prism as two prisms whose base directions are
prism, Rx Prism in an ophthalmic lens prescription perpendicular to each other but whose combined
that has been called for by the prescribing doctor. effect equals that of the original prism.
prism, yoked Vertical prism of equal value ground on retroscopic angle or tilt See angle, retroscopic.
both right and left lenses of a progressive or Franklin- reverse-slab lens See lens, reverse-slab.
style lens for the purpose of reducing lens thickness. ribbon bifocal See bifocal, ribbon.
progressive-addition lens See lens, progressive-addition. ribbon file See file, slotting.
propionate The common name for the frame material riding-bow temple See temple, riding-bow.
cellulose aceto-propionate. Propionate has many of riffler file See file, riffler.
the same characteristics as cellulose acetate and is rim See eyewire.
better suited for injection molding. rimless Having to do with frames (mountings) that
protractor, lens A millimeter grid on a 360-degree hold lenses in place by some method other than
protractor used in the lens centration process for eyewires. Most rimless mountings have two points of
both surfacing and finishing. attachment per lens.
GLOSSARY 385

rimless mounting See mounting, rimless. the arc of a given surface and is used in calculating
Rimway mounting See mounting, semirimless. the sagittal depth of the surface.
rolled edge See edge, rolled. semifinished blank See blank, semifinished.
rolling A pulling of the eyewire such that it covers less semifinished lap tool See tool, semifinished lap.
of the front of the lens bevel than back or vice versa. semirimless mountings See mountings, semirimless.
round-seg bifocal See bifocal, round-seg. semisaddle bridge See bridge, semisaddle.
Rule, Prentice’s A rule that states that the decen- set number See number, set.
tration of a lens in centimeters times the power of the shell frame See frame, shell.
lens is equal to the prismatic effect: shield On a plastic frame, the metal piece to which
rivets are attached to hold the hinge in place.
Δ = cF
shields, side Protective shields attached to the spec-
rule, three-quarter The three-quarter rule states that tacle frame at the outer, temporal areas to protect the
for every diopter of dioptric demand, the optical eyes from hazards approaching from the side.
center of each reading lens, or the geometrical center shoe That part of the strap area of a mounting that
of each bifocal addition, should be inset 0.75 (three- contacts the edge of the lens, bracing it. Also called
quarters) mm. shoulder or collar.
Rx prism See prism, Rx. shop, back Synonym for surfacing laboratory.
shop, front Synonym for finishing laboratory.
shoulder See shoe.
side shields See shields, side.
S sine For a right triangle, the ratio of the side opposite
the angle considered, to the hypotenuse:
saddle bridge See bridge, saddle.
Opposite
safety bevel See bevel, safety. Sine =
Hypotenuse
safety eyewear See eyewear, safety.
sag A synonym or abbreviation for sagittal depth. See sine-squared formula See formula, sine-squared.
also depth, sagittal. single-vision lens See lens, single-vision.
sagittal depth See depth, sagittal. size lenses See lenses, iseikonic.
scratch A furrowed-out line that has jagged edges. size, lens In the boxing system, the A dimension of a
screw extractor See extractor, screw. lens or lens opening.
second focal length See length, second focal. size, minimum blank The smallest lens blank that
second principal focus See focus, second principal. can be used for a given prescription lens and frame
seg See segment. combination.
seg clock See clock, seg. sizer A frame chassis or frame front used exclusively
seg depth See depth, seg. for checking edged lens size accuracy.
seg drop See drop, seg. skewed bridge See bridge, skewed.
seg height See height, seg. skull temple See temple, skull.
seg inset See inset, seg. slab-off Grinding a portion of a lens so as to add a
seg optical center See center, seg optical. second optical center. Often used to create vertical
seg width See width, seg. prism in the lower portion of one lens for the
segment (seg) An area of a spectacle lens with power purpose of alleviating vertical imbalance at near.
differing from that of the main portion. sleek A furrowed-out line on a lens, which resembles a
segment, prism See lens, prism segment. scratch but whose edges are smooth instead of jagged.
segmented multifocals See multifocals, segmented. slotting file See file, slotting.
segs, dissimilar A method of correcting vertical smoothing, edge The process of bringing the bevel
imbalance at near that uses different bifocal segment surfaces of an edged lens to a finer, smoother finish.
styles for the right and left eyes. Snell’s law See law, Snell’s.
segs, R-compensated A method for correcting vertical snipe-nosed pliers See pliers, snipe-nosed.
imbalance at near that uses ribbon-style bifocal seg- solid tint See tint, solid.
ments that have been modified so that the segment spectrophotometer A device used to measure the
optical center for one lens is high in one segment transmission of each wavelength of light across the
and low in the other. spectrum.
semidiameter Diameter divided by 2. In ophthalmic sphere (sph) A lens having a single refractive power in
optics, semidiameter refers to half of the chord for all meridians.
386 GLOSSARY

spheric lenticular See lenticular, spheric. system, GOMAC A European Economic Community
spherical aberration See aberration, spherical. standard incorporating portions of both the boxing
spherical equivalent See equivalent, spherical. and datum systems.
spherocylinder The combination of sphere and
cylinder powers into a single lens.
splay angle See angle, splay. T
sports eyewear See eyewear, sports.
spotting The placing of spots on a lens with a lens- tables, sag A set of tables used for finding sagittal
meter in such a manner that the lens will be oriented depth when surface power and lens diameter are
correctly for axis and positioned for major reference known.
point and horizontal meridian locations. tables, surfacing Tables supplied by a lens manu-
spread, open temple That angle an open temple facturer for the purpose of helping the surfacing
forms in relationship to the front of the frame (also laboratory accurately determine the tool curves and
called let-back). lens thicknesses needed to grind lenses to the
square-round pliers See pliers, square-round. specified back vertex power. Surfacing tables are now
SRC An abbreviation for scratch resistant coating. largely replaced by computer software programs.
standard alignment See alignment, standard. tangent For a right triangle, the ratio of the side
stars Microchips at the lens surface/lens bevel opposite the angle considered to the side adjacent:
interface.
Opposite
stock lens See lens, stock. Tangent =
Adjacent
stock, lens 1. An inventory of lenses. 2. The material
from which a semifinished blank is made, as in the tap Consists of a chuck on a handle in which threaders
amount of stock removal required to bring the blank of varying size may be placed. It is used to restore
to its needed thickness. threading that has been damaged.
stone 1. An abrasive grinding wheel. 2. To sharpen tempering, chemical The process of increasing the
the cutting ability of a grinding wheel by honing it impact resistance of glass lenses by immersing them
with an abrasive stick. in a bath of molten salt. (Synonyms: chemtempering,
stone, hand Synonym for hand edger. chem hardening.)
strabismus The condition whereby one eye is pointed temple The part of a pair of spectacles that attaches
in a different direction than the other eye. to the frame front and hooks over the ears to hold
straight-back temple See temple, straight-back. spectacles in place.
strap Mechanism for holding drilled lenses in a temple, cable Cable temples are of metal construc-
rimless or semirimless mounting. tion with the curl, or postear portion, constructed
strapping pliers See pliers, strapping. from a flexible coiled cable. The postear portion
stria A streak seen in a lens caused by a difference in follows the crotch of the ear where the ear and the
the refractive index in the material. The streak causes head meet and extends to the level of the earlobe.
a distortion in the object viewed and is not a physical (Synonym: Relaxo.)
streak like a mark on or in the lens. (The plural of temple, comfort cable See temple, cable.
stria is striae.) temple, convertible Temples that are straight through
surfacing The process of creating the prescribed their entire length but are designed to be bent down
refractive power, prism, and major reference point to take on the form of a skull temple.
location on a lens by generating the required curves temple, library The type of spectacle frame temple
and bringing the surface to a polished state. that begins with average width at the temple butt and
swarf Fibrouslike lens material resulting from the increases in width toward the posterior end of the
grinding process for certain types of lens material, temple. Library temples are practically straight and
such as polycarbonate. hold the glasses on primarily by pressure against the
system, boxing A system of lens measurement based side of the head. (Synonym: straight-back temple.)
on the enclosure of a lens by horizontal and vertical temple, riding-bow Plastic temples with thin, round
tangents to form a box or rectangle. postear portions that curve around the ear, following
system, datum A system of lens measurement the crotch of the ear where the ear and the head meet
that defines the lens or eyesize as being the width of and extend to the level of the earlobe. They often are
the lens along the datum line and the bridge size used in children’s and safety frames and are the plastic
as the width of the bridge at the level of the datum version of the metal comfort cable temple.
line. temple, skull The type of spectacle frame temple that
GLOSSARY 387

bends down behind the ear and follows the contour toric base curve See curve, toric base.
of the skull, resting evenly against it. toric transposition See transposition, toric.
temple-fold angle See angle, temple fold. total inset See inset, total.
temporal The area of a lens or frame that is toward touch, four-point A check for vertical alignment
the temples (outer edge). carried out by placing a straight edge so that its edge
test, drop-ball A test to determine impact resistance goes across the inside of the entire front of the
of ophthalmic lenses whereby either a 5/8 - or 1-inch spectacles below the nosepad area.
steel ball is dropped onto the front surface of the lens tracer, frame An instrument used to physically trace
from a height of 50 inches. the inside groove of a frame’s lens opening or the
test, flat surface touch A test for temple parallelism in outside edge of a lens for the purpose of creating a
which the spectacles are positioned upside-down on a digitized shape. That shape is then transmitted to a
flat surface with temples open. patternless edger so that the shape can be duplicated
test, high mass impact A pointed, conical-tipped when the lens is edged.
projectile weighing 17.6 ounces is dropped from 51.2 Transitions A trade name for a brand of plastic
inches through a tube and onto the eyeglasses. The photochromic lenses.
lens must not break, nor come out of the frame. transmission The percent of light passing on through
(Note: A proposed change to this test modifies the a lens and out the back surface, compared to the
distance from 51.2 to 50 inches.) amount of light incident upon the first surface.
test, high velocity impact This test simulates a high- transposition, toric The process of transposing a
velocity, low-mass object. In the high velocity impact prescription from the form in which it is written to
test a series of 1/4 -inch steel balls traveling at 150 feet another form, such as from a plus to a minus cylinder
per second are directed at 20 different parts of the form.
frame with lenses in place. A new frame is used for treating, heat The process of hardening a glass lens
each impact. Neither the frame for the lens can by first heating it in a kiln, then quickly cooling by
break. Nor can the lens come out of the frame. blowing forced air against both front and back
thickness, reduced The thickness of a medium surfaces. (Synonyms: air hardening, heat hardening,
divided by its refractive index. heat tempering.)
three-quarter rule See rule, three-quarter. trifocals Lenses having three areas of viewing, each
tint, double gradient A lens tint that has two colors, with its own focal power. Usually the upper portion is
one at the top and a second at the bottom. The color for distance viewing, the lower for near, and the middle
at the top is darkest at the top and fades out towards or intermediate portion for distance in between.
the middle of the lens. The color at the bottom is triple gradient tint See tint, triple gradient.
most intense at the bottom and lighten toward the Trivex The brand name for a PPG Industries plastic
middle. lens material known for its high impact resistance
tint, gradient The variation in light transmission of a and ability to be processed in a manner similar to that
lens from a low transmission (dark) to high trans- of other plastic lenses.
mission (light) from one area of the lens to another. true 1. To bring a pair of glasses into a position of
Usually the lens is dark at the top and lightens at the correct alignment. 2. To reshape the cutting surface
bottom. of a worn grinding wheel so that it cuts at the angles
tint, solid A tint that has the same color and light and in the manner originally intended. 3. In surfacing,
transmission over the entire lens. when using a hand pan, a step following roughing
tint, triple gradient A lens with three colors. The color and smoothing, using a somewhat finer grade of
at the top is darkest at the top and fades out toward abrasive in order to bring the lens to an exact curve.
the middle of the lens. The color at the bottom is true base curve See curve, true base.
most intense at the bottom and lightens toward the true power See power, true.
middle. The third color is in the middle of the lens. trueing See true.
tongue See ear. Tscherning ellipse See ellipse, Tscherning.
tool, lap A tool used for fining and polishing lens turn-back endpiece See endpiece, turn-back.
surfaces. The tool used must have a surface identical
in curvature to that of the lens for which it is to be
used; that is, if the lens surface is convex, the tool U
must be concave.
toric A surface having separate curves at right angles ultraviolet Rays having a wavelength somewhat shorter
to one another. than those at the violet end of the visible spectrum.
388 GLOSSARY

uncut A lens that has been surfaced on both sides but wheel, impregnated Synonym for a metal-bonded
not yet edged for a frame. wheel.
upcurve bifocal See bifocal, minus add. wheel, metal-bonded Abrasive wheels made by mix-
UV index See index, UV. ing diamond material with powdered metal that is
heated in a mold until fusion of the metal occurs.
wheel, roughing An edger wheel that rapidly cuts a
V lens to near its finished size.
width, seg The size of a bi- or trifocal segment
value, Abbé The most commonly used number for measured horizontally across its widest section.
identifying the amount of chromatic aberration for a Wils-Edge mounting See mounting, Wils-Edge.
given lens material. The higher the Abbé value, the
less chromatic aberration present in the lens. Abbé
value is the reciprocal of ω (dispersive power) and is X
the symbolized by the Greek letter nu, or ν. In other
words: X-Chrom lens See lens, X-Chrom.
X-ing A vertical misalignment evidenced by a twisting
1
=ν of the frame front such that the planes of the lenses
ω
are out of coincidence with each other.
(Synonyms: nu value, constringence.)
variant planes See planes, variant.
V-bevel See bevel, V. Y
vertex distance See distance, vertex.
vertex power allowance See allowance, vertex power. yoked prism See prism, yoked.
vertical alignment See alignment, vertical. Younger blended myodisc See lens, blended myodisc.
vertical angle See angle, vertical. Younger seamless See lens, Younger seamless.
vertical imbalance See imbalance, vertical.
Vertometer Trade name for a type of lensmeter.
virtual image See image, virtual. Z

Z80.1 The identification number for the American

W National Standard for Ophthalmics–Prescription
Ophthalmic Lenses–Recommendations.
W bridge See bridge, metal saddle. Z87 The identification number for the American
washer, lens Also called lens liner, a plastic material National Standard Practice for Occupational and
that is inserted between a loose lens and the eyewire. Educational Eye and Face Protection, denoting safety
wave A defect in lens surface curvature causing a lenses and frames.
localized irregular variation in lens power. zero inset method See method, zero inset.
wave front See front, wave. zone, blended The blurred area between distance
wheel differential See differential, wheel. and near areas on an “invisible” bifocal. (Not to be
wheel, electrometallic Synonym for electroplated confused with the progressive zone of a progressive-
wheel. add lens.)
wheel, electroplated An abrasive wheel made by zone, progressive That portion of a progressive-
electrolytically depositing metal on the wheel in such addition lens between the distance and near portions
a manner as to encompass diamond particles. This where lens power is gradually increasing.
type of wheel is often used to grind plastic lenses zyl file See file, zyl.
wheel, finishing The wheel used in edging to bring zyl An abbreviation for the frame material zylonite.
the lens edge to its final configuration. Often used to refer to plastic frames in general.
wheel, hogging Synonym for roughing wheel.
Centration
Skills Series

T his series of exercises is designed to develop

proficiency in the layout of ophthalmic pres-
cription lenses. The exercises may be carried out on
real lenses and an actual centration device. However,
these may not be readily available with home study.
In this case use the Centration Skills Figures CSS-1
and CSS-2 on p. 438 to make a mock centration device.
To do this, photocopy Figure CSS-1 onto regular paper.
This is a simulation of the background grid in a
centration device. Photocopy Figure CSS-2 onto a sheet
of clear transparency material. This is the same material
as is used when making transparencies for an overhead
projector.
If finished uncut lenses are available, use these lenses
to do the exercises. If not, photocopy the lenses shown
in Figure CSS-3 on pp. 439–440 onto transparency
material and cut them out to serve as mock lenses.
Mock bifocal or trifocal lenses can be used for either
the left or right eye by simply turning the “lens” over.
Each series of problems builds upon the previous set.
When an instructor is available to check the accuracy
of each student’s work, the exercises may be used in a
more formalized learning situation. Otherwise,
students may check their own work by referring to the
Centration Skills Series Answer Key immediately
following these series of exercises.
A nonpermanent, water-soluble felt-tip marker such
as is used for overhead projectors should be used to
mark the real or mock lenses. Marks can be washed
away or wiped off with a damp cloth and the lenses
remarked.
The student should note that problems may contain
more information than is needed to solve the problem.

389
390 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

This is done intentionally to reflect everyday practice

situations, just as all prescription information is not
needed to carry out certain specific tasks.

All figures associated with the Centration Skills Series have been
placed at the end of the text, after the answer key for the last series of
exercises. The student is encouraged to photocopy them for use
during skills exercises. The legends for all of the figures associated
with the Centration Skills Series appear on p. 444.
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 391

SERIES 1

Single Vision Lenses

Choose the single vision lens from the kit and place three dots on the lens, as would
be applied ordinarily with a lensmeter. The center dot should appear at the center of
the lens, and the other two dots should be approximately 15 mm to either side of the
center dot.
1. (a) Place an R above the three dots on the back surface of your single vision lens
to make it a right lens. With the lens front side up, decenter it 3 mm inward.
Because inward is toward the nose, you must visualize whether the nose will be
to the right or to the left of the lens (Figure CSS-4, p. 441). Which way did you
move the lens to decenter it?

Reference: Pages 78, Figure 4-2, and 79, Box 4-1.

(b) Now mark the lens with a cross to indicate the correct position for blocking
(Figure CSS-5, p. 441). (This cross indicates what will become the geometrical
or boxing center of the lens once it has been edged.) Is the cross you drew to
the right or to the left of the center lensmeter spot?

Reference: Page 80.

2. Calculate the decentration required; place an L on the lens, and hand mark this
left lens with a cross for blocking. Place the lens convex (front) side up.
Frame A = 50
DBL = 18
Wearer’s PD = 64 mm
How much decentration per lens did you calculate? Was your marked cross to the
right or to the left of your center lensmeter spot?

Reference: Pages 76 and 82.

3. Mark the lens with an R, calculate the decentration required, and hand mark the
lens for blocking when the wearer has a PD of 67, the frame A dimension = 53,
and the DBL = 17.
For each of the following, calculate decentration, place the lenses convex side up
and mark the lenses to indicate the location of the center of the block. With the lens
still convex side up, is the marked cross to the right or left of your center lensmeter
spot?
4. Right lens
A = 52 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Wearer’s PD = 65 mm
5. Left lens
A = 49 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Wearer’s PD = 62 mm
392 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

6. Left lens
A = 48 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Wearer’s PD = 68 mm
7. Right lens
A = 53 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Wearer’s PD = 63 mm
8. Left lens
A = 57 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Wearer’s PD = 69 mm
9. Left lens
A = 53 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Wearer’s PD = 63 mm
10. Right lens
A = 54 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Wearer’s PD = 72 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 393

SERIES 2

Single Vision Lenses

CENTRATION FOR MONOCULAR PDS AND PRACTITIONER-
SPECIFIED MAJOR REFERENCE POINT HEIGHT
Reference: Page 96.

When interpupillary distances (PDs) are given monocularly, they must be calculated
separately for right and left lenses. For each of the exercises in this section, perform
the following steps:
• Dot the single vision lens with the three parallel lensmeter dots using your water-
soluble overhead transparency pen.
• Calculate the correct decentration.
• Lay out the lens for the calculated decentration.
• Mark the lens with a cross to show where the center of the block will be.
1. A = 48 mm
B = 45 mm
DBL = 15 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 26.5 mm; L = 28.5 mm
2. A = 56 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 30 mm; L = 29 mm
3. A = 57 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 29.5 mm; L = 31.5 mm
4. A = 54 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32 mm; L = 34 mm
5. A = 55 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31.5 mm; L = 32.5 mm
6. A = 60 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 14 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 34 mm; L = 31 mm
7. A = 54 mm
B = 51.5 mm
DBL = 14 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31.5 mm; L = 28.5 mm

Reference: Pages 78 through 81.

In most cases, the major reference point (MRP) of a lens is placed along the
horizontal midline so that the MRP falls halfway between the highest and lowest points
on the edged lens. This corresponds to the horizontal reference line in the centration
394 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

device. If the MRP is specified vertically, it is given in terms of its vertical distance from
the lowest portion of the inside groove of the lower eyewire. For layout, the vertical
decentration above or below the horizontal midline must be known. This is calculated
as follows:
B
Vertical decentration = MRP height –
2
For each of the exercises in this section, perform the following steps:
• Dot the single vision lens with the three parallel lensmeter dots.
• Calculate the correct horizontal decentration per lens.
• Calculate the correct vertical decentration per lens.
• Lay out the lens for the calculated horizontal and vertical decentration.
• Mark the lens with a cross to show the location of the lens block using your water-
soluble transparency marker.
8. A = 54 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 61 mm
MRP height = 27 mm
9. A = 56 mm
B = 54 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 64 mm
MRP height = 30 mm
10. A = 54 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 57 mm
MRP height = 26 mm
For the following exercises, calculate the horizontal decentration per lens for the
monocularly specified PDs and also vertical decentration. Mark the lens with a cross
to show the location of the lens block using a water-soluble transparency marker.
11. A = 50 mm
B = 45 mm
DBL = 22 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32 mm; L = 33 mm
MRP height = 26 mm
12. A = 54 mm
B = 51.5 mm
DBL = 15 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 27.5 mm; L = 30.5 mm
MRP height = 27 mm
13. A = 50 mm
B = 41.5 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 30.5 mm; L = 27.5 mm
MRP height = 22 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 395

SERIES 3

Single Vision Lenses

LENSES WITH PRESCRIBED PRISM
Reference: Pages 20 through 23.

Lenses with prescribed prism are decentered for prism during the spotting process
using the lensmeter. This places the three dots off the optical center of the single
vision lens. Yet once the lenses have been spotted, the centration process is identical
to the centration process for single vision lenses without prism.

HORIZONTAL PRISM
For the following exercises, place the three lensmeter dots 5 mm to the right of center,
as viewed from the front. Calculate the correct horizontal decentration and mark the
lenses with a cross to show where the center of the block will be located. In addition,
tell what the prism base direction would be, assuming the lenses are spheres.

Example
A right lens of minus power, spotted as described, will result in prism base
.
A = 46 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 60 mm
The lens will look like Figure CSS-6, A, (on p. 442) when spotted 5 mm to the right of
center and viewed from the front. The prism base direction may be thought through
by looking at a cross-section of the lens as shown in Figure CSS-6, B (on p. 442). As
seen in Figure CSS-6, B, the prism base direction is base in.
Horizontal (distance) decentration is as follows:
A + DBL – PD
Decentration per lens =
2
46 + 20 – 60
=
2
6
=
2
= 3 mm
In lens layout, the MRP is moved 3 mm to the right. So the center lensmeter dot
(where the MRP is) is 3 mm to the right of the marked cross, as in Figure CSS-6, C (on
p. 442).
1. A right lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 53 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 60 mm
2. A right lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 45 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 41 mm
396 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

3. A left lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism

base .
A = 45 mm
DBL = 21 mm
PD = 63 mm
4. A left lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 55 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 61 mm

VERTICAL PRISM
For the following exercises, place the three lensmeter dots 5 mm above the center
of the lens. This will result in vertical prism. Calculate the correct horizontal
decentration and mark the lenses with a cross to show where the center of the block
will be located. In addition, tell what the prism base direction will be, assuming the
lenses are spheres.
5. A right lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 56 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 66 mm
6. A left lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 44 mm
DBL = 15 mm
PD = 55 mm
7. A left lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 52 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 64 mm
8. A right lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism
base .
A = 55 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 58 mm

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PRISM

For the following exercises, place three lensmeter dots 5 mm to the left and 5 mm
below the geometrical center of the single vision lens, as viewed from the front of the
lens. Calculate the correct horizontal decentration and mark the lenses with a cross to
show where the center of the block will be located. In addition, tell what the prism
base direction will be, assuming the lenses are spheres.
9. A right lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism base
and .
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 397

A = 53 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 60 mm
10. A right lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism base
and .
A = 53 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 62 mm
11. A left lens of minus power spotted as described will result in prism base
and .
A = 51 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 64 mm
12. A left lens of plus power spotted as described will result in prism base
and .
A = 52 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 60 mm

UNDERSTANDING PRISM
For each of the following exercises, look at the lens power, then decide the
approximate position the three lensmeter dots would have after being spotted in a
lensmeter. Place the dots in this location using your water-soluble overhead
transparency marking pen. Calculate the correct horizontal decentration and mark
the lenses with a cross to show where the center of the block will be located.
13. R: + 5.00 D 1Δ base-up prism
A = 54 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 64 mm
14. R: -5.00 D 1Δ base-up prism
A = 56 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 58 mm
15. R: + 5.00 D 2Δ base-out prism
A = 50 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 55 mm
16. R: - 5.00 D 2Δ base-out prism
A = 56 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 60 mm
17. R: - 5.00 D 2Δ base-in prism
A = 51 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 61 mm
398 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 4

Progressive Addition Lenses: Using the Fitting Cross

Reference: Pages 99 through 102.

Although progressive addition lenses have a near portion that is invisible to the casual
observer, they should not be confused with invisible bifocals.
Invisible or blended bifocals are round-style segment lenses with the demarcation line
smoothed over to be indistinct.
Progressive addition lenses differ from blended bifocals in that they increase in power
gradually, beginning at the major reference point of the lens and gaining power the
farther downward into the near area the wearer looks.

LAYOUT USING THE FITTING CROSS

Lay out the following progressive add lenses for edging using the fitting cross system.
Carry out the proper layout procedures and mark the lens with a cross to show the
location of the block.
1. A = 53 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 30 mm; L = 29 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 27 mm; L = 27 mm
2. A = 48 mm
B = 41 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31 mm; L = 32 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 23 mm; L = 24 mm
3. A = 52 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32 mm; L: = 32 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 28 mm; L = 28 mm
4. A = 50 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 14 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31 mm; L: = 29 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 25 mm; L = 26 mm
5. A = 53 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 14 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32 mm; L: = 31 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 29 mm; L = 29 mm
6. A = 54 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31 mm; L: = 31 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 28 mm; L = 29 mm
7. A = 56 mm
B = 44 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 399

DBL = 18 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32.5 mm; L = 33.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 25 mm; L = 26 mm
8. A = 51 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 29 mm; L = 31 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 25 mm; L = 26mm
9. A = 50 mm
B = 45 m
DBL = 15 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 28 mm; L = 29 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 24 mm; L = 24 mm
400 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 5

Progressive Addition Lenses: Using Hidden ‘Circles’

Reference: Pages 102 through 105.

Laying out progressive lenses is possible using the hidden marks on a progressive lens
instead of the fitting cross. Hidden circles are permanent marks on the lens and are
not subject to error. Fitting crosses are removable marks placed on the lens using the
hidden “circles” as reference.
For the exercises in this section, use the hidden circles to lay out the lens instead of
the fitting cross and perform the following steps:
• Determine monocular distance decentration.
• Calculate hidden circle raise (or drop) based on the fitting cross height. (For these
exercises, assume that the fitting cross is 4 mm above the level of the PRP and
hidden “circles.”)
• Lay the lens out for edging.
• Mark the lens with a cross to indicate the location of the block.
1. A = 48 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32 mm; L = 32 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 24 mm; L = 24 mm
2. A = 44 mm
B = 32 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 30.5 mm; L = 31.0 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 19 mm; L = 19 mm
3. A = 49 mm
B = 34 mm
DBL = 21 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31.5 mm; L = 30.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 20 mm; L = 21 mm
4. A = 47 mm
B = 36 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32.0 mm; L = 31.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 24 mm; L = 23 mm
5. A = 40 mm
B = 30 mm
DBL = 24 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 30.0 mm; L = 31.0 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 19.5 mm; L = 20.0 mm
6. A = 50 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 33.0 mm; L = 32.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 23.5 mm; L = 25.0 mm
7. A = 49 mm
B = 39 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 34.0 mm; L = 32.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 26 mm; L = 27 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 401

8. A = 47 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31.5 mm; L = 32.5 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 23.5 mm; L = 24.5 mm
9. A = 44 mm
B = 37 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 32.5 mm; L = 31.0 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 21.5 mm; L = 22.0 mm
10. A = 46 mm
B = 39 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Monocular PDs: R = 31.0 mm; L = 30.0 mm
Fitting cross heights: R = 26.5 mm; L = 25.5 mm
402 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 6

Flat-Top Bifocals
TOTAL INSET AND DROP CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY
Reference: Pages 112 through 114.

For the following problems, lay out a flat-top bifocal lens for the correct bifocal height.
(For these exercises, do not be concerned about total inset.) Be concerned only with
the vertical position of the segment line.
1. Frame B = 42 mm
Segment height = 18 mm
2. Frame B = 42 mm
Segment height = 21 mm
3. Frame A = 48 mm
B = 38 mm
Segment height = 17 mm
4. Frame A = 50 mm
B = 43
Segment drop = –4 mm
(What is the segment height?)
5. Frame A = 52 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Segment raise = +1 mm
(What is the segment height?)
6. Frame A = 54 mm
B = 41 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Segment height = 17 mm
For the following prescriptions, assume that the segment top moves –3 mm
vertically for the segment drop. Position the lens for marking such that both the drop
and the total inset are correct. (The lens does not need to be “spotted” ahead of time
for this exercise.) The lens should be positioned front side up. Mark the lens with your
water-soluble marker for blocking.

7. Right lens
A = 48 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Near PD = 60 mm
8. Right lens
A = 51 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Near PD = 60 mm
9. Left lens
A = 50 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Near PD = 58 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 403

10. Right lens

A = 55 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Wearer’s PD = 66/62
11. Left lens
Lens power is +1.00 –0.75 × 180
A = 53 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Wearer’s PD = 64/60
12. Right lens
A = 52 mm
DBL = 17 mm
ED = 57 mm
Wearer’s PD = 62/59
404 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 7

Flat-Top Bifocals
TOTAL INSET AND DROP CONSIDERED SIMULTANEOUSLY
Reference: Pages 117 and 118.

For each of the following exercises, position the flat-top bifocal lens on the centration
device for the amount of total inset and segment drop given. Assume the lens to be
front side up and mark the lens for edging using your water-soluble overhead
transparency marking pen.
1. Total inset = 4 mm
Segment drop = –4 mm
2. Total inset = 5.5 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
3. Total inset = 7 mm
Segment drop = –2 mm
4. Total inset = 2.5 mm
Segment drop = –5 mm
5. Total inset = 4.5 mm
Segment raise = +1 mm
6. Total inset = 3 mm
Segment drop = –3.5 mm
7. Total inset = 5 mm
Segment drop = –6 mm
For each of the following problems, lay out a flat-top bifocal lens for both the correct
bifocal height and total inset. The lens should be positioned front side up for this
exercise and does not need to be “spotted” ahead of time. Mark the lens with a cross
with your water-soluble marking pen to indicate where the center of the block will be.
8. Right lens
A = 53 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Wearer’s PD = 65/61
Segment height = 18 mm
9. Right lens
A = 49 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 18 mm
Wearer’s PD = 65/62
Segment height = 18 mm
10. Left lens
A = 51 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 17 mm
Wearer’s PD = 61/58
Segment height = 19 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 405

11. Left lens

A = 54 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 16 mm
Wearer’s PD = 63/59
Segment height = 18 mm
12. Right lens
Lens power is +8.00 –1.00 × 17
A = 50 mm
B = 41 mm
DBL = 20 mm
Wearer’s PD = 66/61
Segment height = 20 mm
13. Left lens
Lens power is –7.75 –0.50 × 95
A = 48 mm
B = 43 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Wearer’s PD = 64/61
Segment height = 17 mm
14. Right lens
Lens power is +1.00 –3.00 × 18
A = 52 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Wearer’s PD = 61/57
Segment height = 23 mm
406 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 8

Curve-Top Bifocals
Reference: Pages 125 and 126.

Curve-top segments are positioned in a manner similar to that of flat-top bifocals. The
highest part of the curve is placed at the millimeter line coinciding with the required
drop. The outer segment corners must be on, or equidistant from, the same
horizontal line to ensure straightness upon completion.
Carry out the centration process with curve-top lenses, marking the lens with the
front-side-up. (Do not forget to mark whether the lens is the right or left.)
1. Right lens
A = 48 mm
B = 45 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 53/50
Segment height = 18 mm
2. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 45 mm
DBL = 22 mm
PD = 64/62
Segment height = 20 mm
3. Left lens
A = 58 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 68/64
Segment height = 18 mm
4. Right lens
A = 54 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 67/63
Segment height = 22 mm
5. Left lens
A = 57 mm
B = 53 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 65/62
Segment height = 23 mm
6. Left lens
A = 54 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 61/58
Segment height = 22 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 407

7. Right lens
A = 55 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 67/63
Segment height = 25 mm
8. Left lens
A = 46 mm
B = 39 mm
DBL = 22 mm
PD = 64/61
Segment height = 18 mm
9. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 65/61
Segment height = 19 mm
10. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 62/59
Segment height = 19 mm
11. Left lens
A = 58 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 67/65
Segment height = 22 mm
12. Right lens
A = 46 mm
B = 39 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 65/62
Segment height = 18 mm
408 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 9

Trifocal Lenses
Reference: Page 125.

Trifocal lenses are centered in exactly the same manner as their corresponding bifocal
styles. Always remember that the upper of the two segment lines is used for a segment
height reference point.
Using a flat-top trifocal positioned front side up, lay out and mark the lens for each
of the following.
1. Left lens
A = 46 mm
B = 37 mm
DBL = 22 mm
PD = 67/65
Segment height = 20 mm
2. Right lens
A = 50 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 52/49
Segment height = 20 mm
3. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 60/57
Segment height = 17 mm
4. Right lens
A = 54 mm
B = 51.5 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 67/64
Segment height = 21 mm
5. Right lens
A = 54 mm
B = 46 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 67/64
Segment height = 24 mm
6. Left lens
A = 54 mm
B = 46 mm
DBL = 24 mm
PD = 69/66
Segment height = 20 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 409

7. Right lens
A = 56 mm
B = 52 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 65/63
Segment height = 22 mm
8. Right lens
A = 48 mm
B = 41 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 58/56
Segment height = 24 mm
9. Left lens
A = 58 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 64/61
Segment height = 21 mm
10. Left lens
A = 57 mm
B = 53 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 65/63
Segment height = 25 mm
410 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 10

Flat-Top Bifocals
RELATING MAJOR REFERENCE POINT AND SEGMENT POSITIONS
Reference: Pages 117 through 121.

For each of the following exercises, perform the following steps:

• Find the total inset.
• Find the segment drop or raise.
• Lay out the lens front side up for blocking.
• Dot the location of the MRP as it should appear on the lens.
• Mark the lens with a cross to show where the center of the block should be. When
drawing the cross, skip over the MRP dot so as not to hide it from view.

Example
Right lens
A = 48 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 62/59
Segment height = 16 mm
The following exercises describe how the different parts of the problem are solved.
A. Total inset
[A + DBL] – Near PD
=
2
[48 + 20] – 59
=
2
68 – 59
=
2
9
=
2
= 4.5

B. Segment drop or raise

B
= Segment height –
2
38
= 16 –
2
= 16 – 19
= –3 mm drop
C. Layout for the lens is shown in Figure CSS-7 on p. 443.
D. Location of the MRP is at the distance decentration.
[A + DBL] – Distance PD
=
2
[48 + 20] – 62
=
2
68 – 62
=
2
6
=
2
= 3 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 411

The center lensmeter dot (MRP) is 3 to the right of the background grid center. Its
location also may be figured backward from the location of the segment, as
segment inset:
Distance PD – Near PD
Segment inset =
2
62 – 59
=
2
3
=
2
= 1.5 mm
So the center lensmeter dot is 1.5 mm to the left of the segment center (Figure
CSS-8, p. 443).
E. When the lens is marked with a cross to indicate the location of the center of the block, it will
appear as shown in Figure CSS-9 on p. 443.
1. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 38 mm
DBL = 22 mm
Wearer’s PD = 66/62
Segment height = 18 mm
2. Left lens
Lens power is –0.75 –0.25 × 65
A = 56 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Wearer’s PD = 67/63
Segment height = 22 mm
3. Right lens
Lens power is +1.25 –0.50 × 110
A = 48 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 24 mm
Wearer’s PD = 64/61
Segment height = 21 mm
4. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 19 mm
Wearer’s PD = 61/59
Segment height = 18 mm
5. Left lens
A = 53 mm
B = 51 mm
DBL = 15 mm
Wearer’s PD = 62/59
Segment height = 20 mm
412 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

6. Right lens
A = 51 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 14 mm
Wearer’s PD = 54/52
Segment height = 20 mm
7. Right lens
Lens power is plano with 2Δ base-out prism
A = 50 mm
B = 40 mm
DBL = 24 mm
Wearer’s PD = 71/68
Segment height = 19 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 413

SERIES 11

Round Bifocal Segment Lenses

Reference: Pages 126 through 131.

With round-segment lenses, first spot the lens to determine MRP location and, when
applicable, the correct axis orientation. These exercises simulate centration of
spheres. Therefore only the center dot of the three lensmeter spots is critical.
For this exercise, take the 22-mm round-segment bifocal lens and turn it so the
segment is at the bottom of the lens and exactly in the middle. Measure up from the
top of the segment an amount equal to the segment drop and place a dot on the lens
with your water-soluble overhead transparency marker pen.* Now lay out the lenses
according to the specifications given.
You may want to do some of the exercises using the blended bifocal and Ultex A
bifocal lens (38 mm round-segment).
For blended bifocals, total segment inset may be done using either the outer edges
of the segment or the center of the segment for reference.
1. Left lens
A = 55 mm
B = 46 mm
DBL = 15 mm
PD = 64/61
Segment height = 19 mm
2. Left lens
A = 54 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 63/59
Segment height = 24 mm
3. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 66/63
Segment height = 22 mm
4. Left lens
A = 51 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 59/56
Segment height = 18 mm

*This technique will allow you to determine a correct drop and MRP location after the lens is turned during
layout only because the differences between near and far PDs are small. Otherwise, the drop would
decrease. In practice, this is taken into account during surfacing.
414 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

5. Right lens
A = 50 mm
B = 43 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 58/54
Segment height = 21 mm
6. Right lens
A = 51 mm
B = 42 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 63/60
Segment height = 18 mm
7. Left lens
A = 50 mm
B = 43 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 63/60
Segment height = 18 mm
8. Right lens
A = 51 mm
B = 47 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 62/59
Segment height = 19 mm
9. Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 46 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 60/56
Segment height = 23 mm
10. Left lens
A = 56 mm
B = 54 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 65/61
Segment height = 22 mm
11. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 62/58
Segment height = 21 mm
12. Left lens
A = 54 mm
B = 51.5 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 59/57
Segment height = 19 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 415

SERIES 12

Franklin-Style Bifocals
Reference: Page 131.

Franklin-style lenses* can be surfaced with a variety of methods. Two methods are as
follows:
1. Drop, but no segment inset
With this method the lens is surfaced such that the optical center will be above the
segment line by an amount equal to the segment drop. The optical center is directly
above the geometrical center of the segment. It is the same as if a flat-top bifocal
were ground with equal distance and near PDs.
2. Adherence to both drop and segment inset amounts
In this method the optical center is ground above the segment geometrical center
by an amount equal to the drop and is outset by an amount equal to the segment
inset.† When ground in this manner, the optics of the Franklin-style lens duplicate
those of a large segment flat-top bifocal.
Regardless of how Franklin-style lenses are surfaced, the layout for edging process
is the same.
For purposes of these exercises, place three lensmeter dots on the lens such that
the center dot is exactly above the center of the segment line by an amount equal to
the calculated drop. The other two dots must parallel the segment line. (In practice,
the MRP may not be always in the center of the lens.)
1. Right lens
A = 56 mm
B = 46 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 69/66
Segment height = 21 mm
2. Right lens
A = 48 mm
B = 39 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 49/47
Segment height = 23 mm
3. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 50 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 60/57
Segment height = 22 mm

*Franklin-style lenses are known more commonly as Executive bifocals. Executive is AO Sola’s (Petaluma,
Calif.) trade name for the Franklin-style lens.
†Some Franklin-style lenses are produced in semifinished form with the near optics already inset by a given
amount. These semifinished lenses are marked for right and left eyes like flat-top lenses are.
416 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

4. Right lens
A = 50 mm
B = 43 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 64/62
Segment height = 15 mm
5. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 44 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 64/60
Segment height = 21 mm
6. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 49 mm
DBL = 17 mm
PD = 62/59
Segment height = 19 mm
7. Left lens
A = 57 mm
B = 48 mm
DBL = 19 mm
PD = 67/64
Segment height = 19 mm
8. Right lens
A = 50 mm
B = 40 mm
ED = 55 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 66/64
Segment height = 15 mm
9. Left lens
A = 56 mm
B = 48 mm
ED = 64 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 70/67
Segment height = 21 mm
10. Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 47 mm
ED = 59 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 60/57
Segment height = 16 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 417

11. Right lens

A = 54 mm
B = 51 mm
ED = 63 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 68/65
Segment height = 17 mm
418 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

SERIES 13

Centration Using Irregular Patterns

Reference: Pages 57 through 61.

Some “homemade” patterns have the central hole (mechanical center) slightly off
center. Unless compensation is made in the centration process, the major reference
point also will be displaced away from its intended location in the edged lens.

WHEN THE PATTERN CENTER IS OFF VERTICALLY

Unless otherwise indicated, for the following problems, assume that the MRP should
be placed on the horizontal midline. For each of the following exercises, perform
these steps:
• “Spot” the lens MRP.
• Calculate distance decentration.
• Calculate vertical compensation (how far the MRP must be dropped or raised to
have it come out right for the nonstandard pattern).
• Lay out the lens for the calculated horizontal decentration and vertical
compensation.
• Mark the lens with a cross to indicate where the center of the block will be.
1. The central pattern hole is 3 mm above the pattern boxing center.
Right lens
A = 56 mm
B = 47 mm
ED = 64 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 62 mm
2. The central pattern hole is 1 mm above the pattern boxing center.
Left lens
A = 48 mm
B = 42 mm
ED = 50 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 64 mm
3. The central pattern hole is 0.5 mm above the pattern boxing center.
Left lens
A = 55 mm
B = 46.5 mm
ED = 63.5 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 62 mm
4. The central pattern hole is 1 mm above the pattern boxing center.
Right lens
A = 53 mm
B = 45 mm
ED = 62 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 60 mm (Requested MRP height is 25 mm.)
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 419

5. The central pattern hole is 0.5 mm above the pattern boxing center.
Right lens
A = 58 mm
B = 47 mm
ED = 61 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 62 mm (Requested MRP height is 26 mm.)

WHEN THE PATTERN IS OFF HORIZONTALLY

When patterns are made in the finishing laboratory, they should be checked upon
completion to ensure that the hole is exactly in the center. If it is not, it can
nevertheless be used if compensation is made. For each of the prescriptions listed
below, mark the lens for blocking. For each of the following exercises, perform these
steps:
• Spot the lens with the three parallel lensmeter dots.
• Determine how much inset or outset is required to simply compensate for the
pattern error.
• Calculate normal inset per lens (or total inset, in the case of bifocals) as is normally
done.
• Compensate the normal inset from step 3 by the amount of compensation you
found in step 2.
• Mark the lens with a cross to indicate where the center of the block will be.
6. The central pattern hole is displaced 1 mm nasally.
Left lens
A = 44 mm
B = 23 mm
ED = 42 mm
DBL = 22 mm
PD = 60 mm
7. The central pattern hole is displaced 0.5 mm nasally.
Right lens
A = 50 mm
B = 40 mm
ED = 55.5 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 73 mm
8. The central pattern hole is displaced 0.5 mm nasally.
Right lens
A = 54 mm
B = 48 mm
ED = 60 mm
DBL = 14 mm
PD = 61/58 mm
Segment height = 20 mm
420 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

WHEN THE PATTERN IS OFF BOTH HORIZONTALLY AND

VERTICALLY
9. The central pattern hole is displaced 1 mm nasally and is 0.5 mm too low.
Left lens
A = 51 mm
B = 49.4 mm
ED = 65.4 mm
DBL = 16 mm
PD = 56 mm
10. The central pattern hole is displaced 0.5 mm temporally and is 1 mm too high.
Left lens
A = 52 mm
B = 48 mm
ED = 54 mm
DBL = 20 mm
PD = 58/55
Segment height = 18 mm
11. The central pattern hole is displaced 1.0 mm nasally and is 0.5 mm too low.
Right lens
A = 52 mm
B = 42 mm
ED = 57.5 mm
DBL = 18 mm
PD = 63/59
Segment height = 18 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 421

KEY SERIES 1

Single Vision Lenses

1. (a) To the right.
(b) Viewed from the front, the cross should be 3 mm to the left of the center spot.
2. 2 mm in. Viewed from the front, the marked cross should be 2 mm to the right of
the center dot.
3. The decentration per lens is 1.5 mm. When viewed from the front, the center dot
is to the right of the marked cross.
4. 1.5 mm in
To the left
5. 2.0 mm in
To the right
6. 0 mm
They are at the same location.
7. 4.5 mm in
To the left
8. 3 mm in
To the right
9. 3.5 mm in
To the right
10. 1 mm out
To the right
422 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 2

Single Vision Lenses

CENTRATION FOR MONOCULAR PDS AND PRACTITIONER-
SPECIFIED MAJOR REFERENCE POINT HEIGHT
Answer Format
• R lens horizontal decentration = a
(When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is a mm to the
right of the marked cross.)
• L lens horizontal decentration = b
(When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is b mm to the
left of the marked cross.)
1. a = 5 mm
b = 3 mm
2. a = 7 mm
b = 8 mm
3. a = 7 mm
b = 5 mm
4. a = 3.5 mm
b = 1.5 mm
5. a = 4 mm
b = 3 mm
6. a = 3 mm
b = 6 mm
7. a = 2.5 mm
b = 5.5 mm

Answer Format
• R lens horizontal decentration = a
R vertical decentration = b
(When viewed from the front, the center lensmeter dot is a mm to the right of and
b mm above the marked cross.)
• L lens horizontal decentration = c
L vertical decentration = d
(When viewed from the front, the center lensmeter dot is c mm to the left of and
d mm above the marked cross.)
8. a = 3.5 mm
b = +2 mm raise
c = 3.5 mm
d = +2 mm raise
9. a = 4.5 mm
b = +3 mm raise
c = 4.5 mm
d = +3 mm raise
10. a = 5.5 mm
b = +1 mm raise
c = 5.5 mm
d = +1 mm raise
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 423

11. a = 4 mm
b = +3.5 mm raise
c = 3 mm
d = +3.5 mm raise
12. a = 7 mm
b = +1.25 mm raise
c = 4 mm
d = +1.25 mm raise
13. a = +3 mm
b = 1.25 mm raise
c = +6 mm
d = 1.25 mm raise
424 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 3

Single Vision Lenses

LENSES WITH PRESCRIBED PRISM
Answer Format
• Prism base direction is base = a.
• Horizontal decentration = b.
(When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is b mm to the
c of the marked cross.)
1. a = in
b = 3.5 mm
c = right
2. a = out
b = 10.5 mm
c = right
3. a = out
b = 1.5 mm
c = left
4. a = in
b = 4 mm
c = left
5. a = up
b = 4 mm
c = right
6. a = up
b = 2 mm
c = left
7. a = down
b = 3 mm
c = left
8. a = down
b = 5.5 mm
c = right

Answer Format
• Prism base direction is base = a.
• Horizontal decentration = b.
(When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is b mm to the
c of the marked cross.)
9. a = out and down
b = 3.5 mm
c = right
10. a = in and up
b = 2.5 mm
c = right
11. a = in and down
b = 1.5 mm
c = left
12. a = out and up
b = 5 mm
c = left
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 425

Answer Format
When viewed from the front, the middle lensmeter dot is approximately a mm (above,
below, to the right of, or to the left of) b the geometrical center of the lens blank. This
same lensmeter dot should also be c mm to the d of the marked cross, since horizontal
decentration = c mm.
13. a = 2 mm
b = below
c = 4 mm
d = right
14. a = 2 mm
b = above
c = 8 mm
d = right
15. a = 4 mm
b = to the right of
c = 6 mm
d = right
16. a = 4 mm
b = to the left of
c = 6 mm
d = right
17. a = 4 mm
b = to the right of
c = 3.5
d = right
426 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 4

Progressive Addition Lenses: Using the Fitting Cross

1. Horizontal decentration
R = 4.5 mm
L = 5.5 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +2 mm
L = +2 mm
2. Horizontal decentration
R = 3 mm
L = 2 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +2.5 mm
L = +3.5 mm
3. Horizontal decentration
R = 2 mm
L = 2 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +3.5 mm
L = +3.5 mm
4. Horizontal decentration
R = 1 mm
L = 3 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +1 mm
L = +2 mm
5. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.5 mm
L = 2.5 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +4.5 mm
L = +4.5 mm
6. Horizontal decentration
R = 4.5 mm
L = 4.5 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +3.5 mm
L = +4.5 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 427

7. Horizontal decentration
R = 4.5 mm
L = 3.5 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +3 mm
L = +4 mm
8. Horizontal decentration
R = 5 mm
L = 3 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +4 mm
L = +5 mm
9. Horizontal decentration
R = 4.5 mm
L = 3.5 mm
Fitting cross raise:
R = +1.5 mm
L = +1.5 mm
428 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 5

Progressive Addition Lenses: Using Hidden ‘Circles’

1. Horizontal decentration
R = 2 mm
L = 2 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +1 mm
L = +1 mm
2. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.5 mm
L = 1.0 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = –1 mm
L = –1 mm
3. Horizontal decentration
R = 3.5 mm
L = 4.5 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = –1 mm
L = 0 mm
4. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.0 mm
L = 1.5 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +2 mm
L = +1 mm
5. Horizontal decentration
R = 2 mm
L = 1 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +0.5 mm
L = +1.0 mm
6. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.0 mm
L = 1.5 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +0.5 mm
L = +2.0 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 429

7. Horizontal decentration
R = 0.5 mm
L = 2.0 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +2.5 mm
L = +3.5 mm
8. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.5 mm
L = 0.5 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +0.5 mm
L = +1.5 mm
9. Horizontal decentration
R = 0.5 mm out
L = 1.0 mm in
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = –1.0 mm
L = –0.5 mm
10. Horizontal decentration
R = 1.5 mm
L = 2.5 mm
Hidden circle raise or drop:
R = +3.0 mm
L = +2.0 mm
430 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 6

Flat-Top Bifocals
TOTAL INSET AND DROP CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY
1. The segment line is 3 mm below the horizontal reference line.
2. The segment is exactly on the line.
3. The segment line is 2 mm below the horizontal reference line.
4. The segment line is 4 mm below the horizontal reference line. (Segment height
is 17.5 mm.)
5. The segment line is 1 mm above the horizontal reference line. (Segment height
is 22 mm.)
6. The segment line is 3.5 mm below the horizontal reference line.
7. The center of the bifocal segment line is 4 mm to the right of and 3 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
8. The center of the bifocal segment line is 4 mm to the right of and 3 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
9. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5 mm to the left of and 3 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
10. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5.5 mm to the right of and 3 mm below
the center of the marked cross.
11. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5 mm to the left of and 3 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
12. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5 mm to the right of, and 3 mm below
the center of, the marked cross.
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 431

KEY SERIES 7

Flat-Top Bifocals
TOTAL INSET AND DROP CONSIDERED SIMULTANEOUSLY
For problems 1 through 7, if the lens is marked as a right lens, the mark should be left-
of-segment-center by an amount equal to the total insert and above the seg top by an
amount equal to the segment drop. If the lens is marked as a left lens, the mark should
be right-of-segment-center by an amount equal to the total insert and above the seg
top by an amount equal to the segment drop.

8. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5 mm to the right of and 4 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
9. The center of the bifocal segment line is 2.5 mm to the right of and 1 mm below
the center of the marked cross.
10. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5 mm to the left of and 2 mm below the
center of the marked cross.
11. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5.5 mm to the left of and 4 mm below
the center of the marked cross.
12. The center of the bifocal segment line is 4.5 mm to the right of and 0.5 mm below
the center of the marked cross.
13. The center of the bifocal segment line is 3 mm to the left of and 4.5 mm below
the center of the marked cross.
14. The center of the bifocal segment line is 7 mm to the right of and 2 mm above the
center of the marked cross.
432 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 8

Curve-Top Bifocals
1. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –4.5 mm
2. Distance decentration = 5 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –2.5 mm
3. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Total inset = 5.5 mm
Segment drop = –5.5 mm
4. Distance decentration = 1.5 mm
Total inset = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = 0 mm
5. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Total inset = 5.5 mm
Segment drop = –3.5 mm
6. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –1.5 mm
7. Distance decentration = 2 mm
Total inset = 4 mm
Segment raise = +1 mm
8. Distance decentration = 2 mm
Total inset = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = –1.5 mm
9. Distance decentration = 3 mm
Total inset = 5 mm
Segment drop = –4.5 mm
10. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
11. Distance decentration = 5.5 mm
Total inset = 6.5 mm
Segment drop = –2 mm
12. Distance decentration = 0.5 mm
Total inset = 2 mm
Segment drop = –1.5 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 433

KEY SERIES 9

Trifocal Lenses
1. Distance decentration = 0.5 mm
Total inset = 1.5 mm
Segment raise = +1.5 mm
2. Distance decentration = 8.5 mm
Total inset = 10 mm
Segment drop = –1 mm
3. Distance decentration = 6 mm
Total inset = 7.5 mm
Segment drop = –4 mm
4. Distance decentration = 1.5 mm
Total inset = 3.0 mm
Segment drop = –4.75 mm
5. Distance decentration = 2 mm
Total inset = 3.5 mm
Segment raise = +1 mm
6. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
7. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Total inset = 4.5 mm
Segment drop = –4 mm
8. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Total inset = 5.5 mm
Segment raise = +3.5 mm
9. Distance decentration = 6.5 mm
Total inset = 8.0 mm
Segment drop = –4 mm
10. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Total inset = 5 mm
Segment drop = –1.5 mm
434 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 10

Flat-Top Bifocals
RELATING MAJOR REFERENCE POINT AND SEGMENT POSITIONS
1. The center of the bifocal segment line is 6 mm to the right of and 1 mm below the
center of the marked cross. The MRP is 4 mm to the right of the center of the
marked cross.
2. The center of the bifocal segment line is 6 mm to the left of and 3 mm below the
center of the marked cross. The MRP is 4 mm to the left of the center of the
marked cross.
3. The center of the bifocal segment line is 5.5 mm to the right of and on the same
level as the center of the marked cross. The MRP is 4 mm to the right of the center
of the marked cross.
4. The center of the bifocal segment line is 6 mm to the right of and 4 mm below the
center of the marked cross. The MRP is 5 mm to the right of the center of the
marked cross.
5. The center of the bifocal segment line is 4.5 mm to the left of and 5.5 mm below
the center of the marked cross. The MRP is 3 mm to the left of the center of the
marked cross.
6. The center of the bifocal segment line is 6.5 mm to the right of and 4 mm below
the center of the marked cross. The MRP is 5.5 mm to the right of the center of the
marked cross.
7. The center of the bifocal segment line is 3 mm to the right of and 1 mm below the
center of the marked cross. The MRP is 1.5 mm to the right of the center of the
marked cross.
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 435

KEY SERIES 11

Round Bifocal Segment Lenses

1. Distance decentration = 3 mm
Total inset = 4.5 mm
Segment drop = –4 mm
2. Distance decentration = 2.5 mm
Total inset = 4.5 mm
Segment drop = –1 mm
3. Distance decentration = 2 mm
Total inset = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = 0 mm
4. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Total inset = 5.5 mm
Segment drop = –6.5 mm
5. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –0.5 mm
6. Distance decentration = 2.5 mm
Total inset = 4 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
7. Distance decentration = 3 mm
Total inset = 4.5 mm
Segment drop = –3.5 mm
8. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Total inset = 5 mm
Segment drop = –4.5 mm
9. Distance decentration = 5 mm
Total inset = 7 mm
Segment drop = 0 mm
10. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Total inset = 6 mm
Segment drop = –5 mm
11. Distance decentration = 3 mm
Total inset = 5 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
12. Distance decentration = 5.5 mm
Total inset = 6.5 mm
Segment drop = –6.75 mm
436 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

KEY SERIES 12

Franklin-Style Bifocals
1. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = –2 mm
2. Distance decentration = 6.5 mm
Segment raise = +3.5 mm
3. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
4. Distance decentration = 2.5 mm
Segment drop = –6.5 mm
5. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = –1 mm
6. Distance decentration = 3.5 mm
Segment drop = –5.5 mm
7. Distance decentration = 4.5 mm
Segment drop = –5 mm
8. Distance decentration = 2 mm
Segment drop = –5 mm
9. Distance decentration = 0 mm
Segment drop = –3 mm
10. Distance decentration = 4 mm
Segment drop = –7.5 mm
11. Distance decentration = 0 mm
Segment drop = –8.5 mm
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 437

KEY SERIES 13

Centration Using Irregular Patterns

1. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 3 mm below
and 5 mm to the right of the marked cross.
2. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 1 mm below
and 2 mm to the left of the marked cross.
3. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 0.5 mm below
and 4.5 mm to the left of the marked cross.
4. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 1.5 mm above
and 3.5 mm to the right of the marked cross.
5. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 2 mm above
and 8 mm to the right of the marked cross.
6. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 2 mm to the
left of the marked cross.
7. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 2 mm to the
left of the marked cross.
8. When viewed from the front of the lens, the marked cross is 4.5 mm to the left of
and 4 mm above the center of the bifocal segment line.
9. When viewed from the front of the lens, the center lensmeter dot is 0.5 mm above
and 4.5 mm to the left of the marked cross.
10. When viewed from the front of the lens, the marked cross is 9 mm to the right of
and 7 mm above the center of the bifocal segment line.
11. When viewed from the front of the lens, the marked cross is 4.5 mm to the left of
and 2.5 mm above the center of the bifocal segment line.
438 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10

FIGURE CSS-1

35
28
25
22

FIGURE CSS-2
Single vision Flat-top 28

Curve-top Franklin-style (“Executive”)

22 Round Blended bifocal

FIGURE CSS-3
 Single vision Flat-top 35

7 × 28 Trifocal Double D

Progressive (visible marks) Progressive (hidden marks)

FIGURE CSS-3, cont’d

C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 441

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10

FIGURE CSS-4

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10

FIGURE CSS-5
442 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

Nose

MRP

A OC

3 mm

FIGURE CSS-6
C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S 443

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10
35
28
25
22

FIGURE CSS-7

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10
35
28
25
22

FIGURE CSS-8

10 10
5 5
0 0
5 5
10 10
35
28
25
22

FIGURE CSS-9
444 C E N T R AT I O N S K I L L S S E R I E S

FIGURE CSS-1 Photocopy this background grid on plain paper to use at home. To use
for demonstration purposes with an overhead projector, copy the background grid onto a
clear transparency.

FIGURE CSS-2 Photocopy these centering lines onto a clear transparency. Place it on
top of the basic background grid to simulate a layout marker/blocker.

FIGURE CSS-3 Photocopy these lenses onto clear transparencies to simulate lenses. As
shown, they are right lenses. Turn the transparency over to simulate a left lens.

FIGURE CSS-4 This right lens has been decentered 3 mm inward.

FIGURE CSS-5 This is how the lens in Figure CSS-4 would be marked with a cross to
indicate the correct position for blocking.

FIGURE CSS-6 A, This right lens has been spotted to include prescribed prism. Notice
that with prescribed prism, the optical center (OC) and major reference point (MRP) are
not the same. The MRP is where the correct amount of prescribed prism is found. B, This
lens is drawing schematically in cross-section as a minus lens. The eye will look through the
MRP. The base of the prism is toward the nose—base in. C, In this example, decentration
is 3 mm inward. The spotted MRP on this right lens is moved 3 mm to the right (inward).

FIGURE CSS-7 This flat-top 28 right lens has the proper centration for a total inset of
4.5 mm and a –3 mm drop.

FIGURE CSS-8 If the lens shown in Figure CSS-7 were properly surfaced and had been
spotted, the center lensmeter spot should appear as shown 3 mm to the right of the center
of the background grid or 1.5 mm to the left of the segment center. If this center lensmeter
spot is not where it should be, the lens may not pass ANSI Z80.1 standards for prescription
ophthalmic lenses.

FIGURE CSS-9 When the lens is marked to indicate the location of the center of the
block, it appears as shown.
 INDEX
1.25D power A dimension (Continued)
change, 106f relationship. See Distance between centers
range, 108 usage. See Edger settings
1.66 HyperIndex lenses, 226 Abrasive cone tool, usage, 255f
2-axis frame tracers. See Two-axis frame tracers Abrasive particles, holding, 321f
3-axis frame tracers. See Three-axis frame tracers Accidents, documentation, 337
3M. See Blue Chip lens protector Acetone replacer, 216
7x28 trifocals, 440f Adapter
+8.00 D base curve lens, 264f placement. See Frame tracers
8.00 D bevel, 171 usage. See Mounting
22 Round lenses, 439f Adhesion, breaking, 186f
90-degree meridians, 120 Adhesive blocking pad. See Double-sided adhesive
180 line, 41 blocking pad
180-degree alignment, 263f usage, 170
180-degree cutting line, horizontal orientation, 206f Adhesive pad
180-degree line, 54, 129. See also Spotted 180-degree line deblocker, 186f
0-degree side, angle, 41f heat/humidity, exposure, 142
block tilt, relationship, 313 holding area, relationship, 160f
conformance, 312f visual inspection, 145f
correspondence. See Holes Adhesive pad blocking, 138, 140-146
crossing, 20 components, 140f
dots, placement, 79f high adds, usage, 143-146
drawing, 263f process, 143-146
file marking. See Rimmed frame protective tape, usage, 146
flat-top bifocals, reference, 222f wide segments, usage, 143-146
marking, 29, 125f, 259f, 263 Adhesive pad blocks, 311
lensmeter usage, 119f placement, 143f
pattern tilt, 205 reedging, 168f
setting, 127 usage, 261
temporal hole, relationship, 265f Adhesive pad-blocked lenses, deblocking, 186-188
tilt, 124-125 Adhesive padded block, 67
relationship. See Segment top Adhesive-padded metal blocks, deblocking, 186-187
180-degree meridian, lens orientation, 222f Adhesive-padded plastic blocks, deblocking, 187-188
180-degree midline, 31 Air chucking, 159
180-degree mounting line, 222 Air space, 84
180-degree reference dots, 115 Air Titanium frame design, type, 267f
180-degree reference line, 252, 311 Air Titanium Optician’s Video, 263f
marking. See Horizontal 180-degree reference line Aligned dots, placement, 17f
180-line orientation, 57 Alignment. See Bridge; Standard alignment; Temple;
Vertical alignment
A Allen screws, usage. See Translucent background grids
A dimension Alloy block, dropoff, 186f
calculation, 316 Alloy finish blocking wastes, disposal, 340
definition, 40 Alloy-blocked lens, deblocking, 186f
measurement, 43f, 47f. See also Distance between American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 298
lenses OSHA, relationship, 298
prescription standards, 121
standards, 119. See also Safety frames
Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures; page numbers
followed by “t” indicate tables, page numbers followed by “b” indicate exceeding, 203
boxes. tolerances, 123

445
446 INDEX

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Axis (Continued)

(Continued) setting. See Lensmeter
Z80.1 prescription lens standards, 293 wheel, approach. See Major meridians
Z80.1-1999 standard, 92, 120-121, 202, 310
Z87 standards, 302 B
Z87.1, 298 B dimension, 159
lens marking requirements, 299t calculation, 49
American Optical Company, 161, 162 definition, 40
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute increase, 203. See also Frames
Antireflection (AR) coated lenses, 159, 201, 208 reduction, 206
back surface, protector disc application, 147f subtraction, 81f
cleaning process, 228 usage, 132, 133
heating, 237 B frames, blocks (usage). See Narrow B frames
light transmittance, 227 Back bevel surface, smoothing, 193f, 194
Antireflection (AR) coating, 3f, 6, 294-295 Back curves. See High-minus back curves
crazing, 257 Back edge
Antireflection (AR) spoilage, 170 grooving, 283-284
Antireflection-coated (AR-coated) lenses, 170 pin beveling, 200f. See also High-minus lens
dyeing, 227-228. See also Pre-AR coated lenses Back mold, 5f
edge polishing, 208 Back pin bevel, 199f
hand edging, 202 application. See High-minus lens
AO Technica, 107t Back surface, 283f
lens, design, 110f Back vertex power, verification. See Near power
Apex Background grids, 438f
location, controlling. See Bevel readjustment. See Translucent background grids
placement. See Hand-beveled lenses Back-lighted crossed polaroids, usage. See Lenses
automatic edger wheels, usage, 161 Back-to-back position. See Holding
AR. See Antireflection Balgrip Lens Groovers, 258
AR-coated. See Antireflection-coated Balgrip mountings, 248, 257
Aspheric form, usage, 171 Bar coding, 182f
Aspheric lenses, prism restrictions, 21 Base blocks, 141-142
Aspheric lenticular lenses, OC blocking. See High plus Base curve
aspheric lenticular lenses change, 171
Astigmatism, 5f determining, 3f
Atoric lenses, prism restrictions, 21 dotted line, indication. See Front surface base curve
Autolensmeters drilling, 263f
spotting flatness, 251
mechanism, 26f matching. See Lenses
numerical readout, 23-27 setting, 262
prescribed prism, inclusion, 23-27 steepness, 165f. See also High plus lens;
prescribed prism, noninclusion, 23 Wrap-around frames
usage, 225f. See also Spotting usage, 164f
Automated lensmeter usage, lens positioning. See variation, 165f
Spotting Base down prism
Automatic cycling, 152 addition, 101f
Automatic edger wheels, usage. See Apex usage, 101f
Automatic edging, ceramic wheels (usage), 151-152 Base electric stand drills, 249
Automatic polishing machine, 208 Base tints, 213
Axis. See Cylinder axis; Oblique axis Base up prism, amounts, 100
accuracy, checking. See Patterned edgers Base-in prism, 89
checking sequence. See Edgers Basic impact standard, 298
errors, sources, 315t Basic-impact lenses, warning labels, 299-300
orientation, 28f Basic-impact marking requirements, 298-299
position, lens rotation, 18 Basic-impact requirements. See Safety eyewear
INDEX 447

Basic-impact testing requirements, 298 Bifocal lenses (bifocals). See Invisible bifocals; Stock
Basic-impact thickness requirements, 298 finished bifocals
Basing groove location, 284f definition, 2
Batch testing height, 45f, 58
contrast. See Individual testing ledge, 145
performing, 294-295 mass production. See Finished bifocals
Bath temperature, laboratory thermometer (usage), 216f segment, 103. See also High bifocal segment; Tilted
Bend-down end positions. See Temple bifocal segments
Bending pliers size. See Flat-top bifocals
rotation, 244 spotting. See Blended bifocals; Flat-top bifocals
usage, 244f Binocular distance PD
Bevel indication, 90f
alignment, 237f usage. See Decentration per lens
insertion, importance, 236f Binocular PD, 51
appearance, 181f sufficiency, 106
configuration, ruining, 324 Blade slipping, 256f
cosmetic advantage. See Hidden bevel Blanks, 9f. See also Finished blanks; Semifinished blanks;
custom cut, 66f Uncut lens blank; Uncut minus lens blank
disengagement, 171 definition, 2
drop off, 62 proper size, ensuring, 83-92
edger, example. See Patterned bevel edger rotation. See Semifinished lens
following. See Frame curvature; Front edge selection, 5, 9-11, 163f
groove, 324f variety. See Patterns
location, 181f Blanks, size, 9f. See also Minimum blank size
changing, 324-325 addition. See Effective diameter
meniscus curvature, frame eyewire conformance, 239f adequacy, 87f, 88f
occupation. See Edges determining, 3f
placement, 152, 159-161, 165f effect. See Plus lenses
judgment, 175f minimum, 88f, 89f. See also Single vision minimum
preprogrammed settings, 178f blank size chart
positioning, 164f Blemished lenses, salvaging, 27-28
rear surface, 325f Blemished prism lenses, 27-28
shape, 65f Blemished sphere, 27
sharpness, 196f Blemished spherocylinder, 27
snapping. See Lower nasal part Blended bifocals, 129-131, 398, 439f. See also
style, 152 Factory-marked blended bifocal
surface border, remarking, 130f
edge smoothing. See Front bevel surface centration
smoothing, 192f. See also Back bevel surface dotted segment border, usage, 129
system. See Free-float bevel system; Guided bevel process, 130f
system segment center, usage, 129-131
tracking, 171f spotting, 35b
wheels, usage. See Hide-a-Bevel wheels; Mini-bevel total segment inset, usage, 413
wheels; V-bevel wheels Blended round-segment lenses, 30
Bevel apex, 178f Blended zone, outermost borders, 130f
forward movement, 160-161, 325f Blind holes/slots, 180
location, controlling, 325t Blocked lenses
pin beveling, 198f drilling, 262-263
placement, 324. See also Thick lenses; Thin lenses edging, 175f
positioning, 194, 325 Blockers. See Centration; WECO blocker
Beveled lenses, 6 alignment, 312f
Beveling. See Groove; Pin beveling checking, 312f
process, 166 grids, 181
Biconcave lenses, testing exemption, 294 usage, 146-147, 173f. See also Marker/blocker
448 INDEX

Blocking, 6, 138, 402. See also Adhesive pad blocking; Boxing system, 40f. See also Lenses
Chipped portion; Lenses; Metal alloy definition, 39
blocking; Precast FreeBlock blocking; Pressure measurement, 76
blocking usage, 53f. See also Eyesize; Horizontal decentration;
definition, 6 Vertical centration
lens positioning, 174f Box-o-Graph, 167
preparation, 143 pattern measurement, 48f
process, 31f, 272f usage, 60
proficiency test questions, 147-148 Bracing pliers, usage, 245
progressive addition lenses Bridge. See Skewed bridge
centering, hidden circles (usage), 105f alignment, 240-243
positioning, 103-105 horizontal/vertical preadjustments, 242
suction, usage, 139 size, 42, 173f
system. See Gerber-Coburn Step Two blocking measurements, 64
system Brown lens, visible spectrum, 218f
types, 138 Brown plastic lens, transmission curve, 219
usage. See Edging Buffing compound, usage. See Rag wheel
Blocks. See Base blocks; Metal blocks; Plastic blocks Bulb filament, examination, 11f
advantages. See Plastic lenses Bushing, 257. See also Plastic bushing
attachment. See Finishing Businesses
center, correspondence, 85f Emergency Action Plan, usage, 336
deblocking. See Adhesive-padded metal blocks; OSHA, impact. See Large businesses; Small
Adhesive-padded plastic blocks businesses
design, 152f By-hand lens tracing, laboratory requirements, 56-57
dropoff. See Alloy block
efficiency, 143f C
lens slippage, causes, 143b C dimension, 40f
location, showing, 394, 396, 397 definition, 40
matching. See Front lens curve C size. See Lens shapes
placement. See Adhesive pad blocks; Centration Calibration, 309. See also Edgers; Power
device checking, 82
pressing, 144f, 174f checks, 309
removal. See Plastic blocks proficiency test questions, 317-319
slippage, 314f Caliper
prevention, 141-142 line, 47f
usage, 140-141. See also Half-eye blocks; Half-eye usage, 47f
lenses; Narrow B frames Cast molding, 5f
Blue Chip lens protector (3M), 146 Cement assembly lenses, testing exemption, 294
Bolt head, placement, 257f Center. See Boxing center; Enclosing box; Geometrical
Bonded roughing wheels, 161 center
Bonding finding, pattern makers (usage), 62
material, 321f, 323 Center bevel placement. See Thick lenses
type, 321-322 Center dot, 50
Boxing Center thickness, determining, 3f
pattern size, 46 Centering. See Centration device; Trifocal lenses
Boxing center, 40f, 41, 64f. See also Edged lenses pin
definition, 80f locking. See Groover
determination, 63f usage, 284f
equivalence. See Mechanical center purpose, 75
measurement, 41f spring-connected coupling pins, positioning, 280f
mechanical center, relationship, 59f Central hole placement, 60f, 418
nonequivalence. See Mechanical center Central lensmeter dot, raising/lowering, 84f
position, 58 Central meridian, light color, 221
rotational center, relationship, 81 Centrally marked circles, 48f
INDEX 449

Centration. See Curve-top segments; Decentration; Centration skills series (CSS) (Continued)
Franklin-style lenses; Lens centration; series 11 (round bifocal segment lenses), 413-414
Monocular PD; Practitioner-specified MRP key, 435
height series 12 (Franklin-style bifocals), 415-417
blockers, 311-313 key, 436
calculation, boxing system (usage). See Horizontal series 13 (centration, irregular pattern usage),
decentration; Vertical centration calculation 418-420
chart, 104f key, 437
compensation, 59f Ceramic block, usage, 285f
completion, 124f Ceramic hand-edging wheel, retruing, 191f
definition, 50 Ceramic wheel hand edgers, 190
importance, 21f disadvantages, 191f
instrument, usage, 80f. See also Lens centration Ceramic wheels
irregular patterns, usage. See Centration skills series 90-degree angle, usage, 285
process, 31f, 50. See Curve-top lenses usage. See Automatic edging
reference, 102f Chamfering, 264, 269f. See also Drilled hole; Edges;
steps, protractor usage, 81b Holes
units Chase, George, 277, 296
ED circles, usage, 83 Checklists. See Hazardous communication checklist;
superimposed patterns, usage, 83-86 Insertion
Centration device review, 337
angled blocking, 313f Chemical Hazard Communication Standard
block, placement, 85f (HAZCOM), 331-334
concentric circles, usage, 86f Chemical spills, 340
example, 77 Chemical tempering, 303-305
horizontal reference line, 393-394 process, 304-305, 304f
lens centering, 144f products, disposal, 340
lens-blocking mechanism, inclusion, 82 safety equipment, usage, 336
movable vertical line, 131 Chippage, 152f
problem, 314f allowance, 88f
progressive addition lens positioning, 102 Chipped portion, marking/blocking, 27f
shadow projection, usage, 88f Chipping. See Holes; Patterned edging
usage. See Round-segment multifocals pliers, 150
Centration skills series (CSS), 389 variety, 151f
series 1 (single vision lenses), 391-392 risk, reduction, 244f
key, 421 Chips, removal, 205
series 2 (single vision lenses), 393-394 Chuck pressure, reduction. See Edgers
key, 422-423 Chucking, 145, 159f, 283. See also Air chucking;
series 3 (single vision lenses), 395-397 Electric chucking; Lenses; Manual chucking;
key, 424-425 Pneumatic chucking
series 4 (progressive addition lenses), 398-399 pressure, 145f-147f
key, 426-427 systems, 140f
series 5 (progressive addition lenses), 400-401 Circles, 103. See also Centrally marked circles;
key, 428-429 Diameter
series 6 (flat-top bifocals), 402-403 location/dotting. See Engraved circles
key, 430 Circular mires, crossing, 22f
series 7 (flat-top bifocals), 404-405 Circumference. See Round pattern
key, 431 chart. See Lenses
series 8 (curve-top bifocals), 406-407 usage. See Edging
key, 432 gauge, usage, 56f, 169f. See also Edging
series 9 (trifocal lenses), 408-409 knowledge, advantage, 168f
key, 433 tape, tightening, 169f
series 10 (flat-top bifocals), 410-412 usage. See Edger settings
key, 434 Clamp-down holding system, 261
450 INDEX

Clamping system, 263f Cone-shaped tool, 264, 269f

Clapper plate, position, 316 Construction factors. See Diamond wheels
Cleaning products, disposal, 340 Containers, labels, 333
Clipped screw, rough ends, 257f Contractor employers, 346
Clips Convergence, definition, 76
appearance, 271f Conversations, documentation, 337
cleaning, 264 Coolants. See Edgers
lengths, 271f change, 309, 317
parallelism, 270f concentration, variation, 317
spring-tension effect, 267f disposal. See Edgers; Hand edgers
usage, 263 flow, 176
width, adjustment, 270f maintenance, 168
Closure pliers. See Eyewires presence, 164
usage. See Lens size pump, disconnection, 323
Coating, 6 Coquille, usage, 204. See also Shape tracing;
Colmascope Three-piece mountings
crossed polarizing filter, 305f Cornea, limitation, 45f
definition, 167, 200 Correctional modifications, 205-206
usage, 168f, 305 Corridor
Color. See Solid tint length, 98
accuracy width. See Progressive corridor
checking, 217-218 CR-39. See Columbia Resin 39
ensuring, 217-220 Crackle-finish exteriors, 311
balance, 218 Crank handle, usage, 266f
balancing Crazing. See Antireflection coating; Crown glass
recommendations. See Dyes definition, 226
table, 220t Crib lenses, 3f
cross-contamination, prevention, 217 Cross-contamination, prevention. See Color
matching, 218-219 Crossed polaroids, usage, 167
forced matching, 219 Crossed-line-target lensmeter, usage. See Single
usage. See Tints vision sphere spotting; Spherocylinder
Color coding lens holders, 217f lenses
Color Primer, 216 Crossing point. See Cylinder lines; Sphere lines
Columbia Resin 39 (CR-39) (Pittsburgh Plate Glass Crown glass, 168
Co.) lenses
1.498 index, 227 crazing, 304f
lenses, 3f impact resistance, 305
plastic, 249 C-size, definition, 56
plastic lenses, 169, 226 CSS. See Centration skills series
AR coating, 228 Curing. See Lens-curing factor
light, transmittance, 227 definition, 215
trademark, 169 Curved cutting shears, usage, 55f
uncoated lenses, comparison, 295 Curved upper segment border, lateral corners, 126f
Company policy. See Hazardous communication Curved-rim frame, 179
program Curved-top segment, 126f
Computer lenses. See Specialty computer lenses Curve-top bifocals. See Centration skills series
Computer-assisted drills, 249, 265-266 Curve-top lenses, 439f
advantages/disadvantages, 271f centration process, 406
Computer-assisted patternless edgers, 315 Curve-top segments, 406
Concentration. See Diamond wheels centration, 125-126
factor, 321f Cushion coatings, benefit, 296
Cone tool Cutters, 151f, 320
absence, 255 blades, 326
usage. See Abrasive cone tool; Holes; Notches usage, 166f, 278f
INDEX 451

Cutters (Continued) Decentered pattern

matching, questions, 327-328 option, 62
proficiency test questions, 326-328 usage, 63f
wheels, 278 Decentering, 50, 64f, 87f. See also Minus lens
Cutting, 101f. See also Patterned edging Decentration, 20f, 50, 51f. See also Left decentration;
center, 49 Plano cylinder lenses; Reading glasses; Right
nib, 277 decentration; Total decentration; Vertical
plane, 193f segment decentration
pliers, usage, 257f amount, 88f, 311. See also Optical center
speed factors. See Hand edging addition, 89f
spoon, 150f, 151f calculation, 181
holding, position, 150f boxing system, usage. See Horizontal
wheels, 150f decentration
cleanliness/coolness. See Groover correction, 85f
usage. See Recessed metal rim determination, monocular interpupillary distances
Cylinder axis, 25f, 30f, 34f. See also 121-degree cylinder (usage), 76
axis; Prescribed cylinder axis; Required direction, 79b, 80f
cylinder axis inset, comparison, 115f
errors, 313f, 314f occurrence, 51f
incorrectness, 63f requirement, 63f
position, approach, 91 Decentration per lens, 76
tolerance, 30 binocular distance PD, usage, 52
Cylinder component, 30f Dehardening process, 202
Cylinder lenses, 28f Deionized water, usage, 213
decentration. See Plano cylinder lenses Demarcation line, visibility, 2, 166f
Cylinder lines, 15f Demo lenses, 158
crossing point, 22f tracing, 66f
definition, 12 Dental pick, usage, 286f
focusing, 15f Depressed-segment one-piece multifocals, testing
positioning, 20f exemption, 294
Cylinder power, 5f Diameter. See Effective diameter
increase, 91 lens circle, 90f
variation, 98f Diamond wheels
Cylinder values, 15f advantages, 191f
concentration, 321
D dressing, 322-326
Dab-on applicator, usage, 139 sticks, 323f
Datum line, definition, 41 hand edgers, 190-192
Daylight-type bulbs, usage, 218 layer, depth, 321
DBC. See Distance between centers surfaces, construction factors, 320-322
DBL. See Distance between lenses truing, 325
Deblocker, mounting. See Layout usage, 164
Deblocking, 3f, 6, 185. See also Adhesive pad; Adhesive Diamonds
pad-blocked lenses; Alloy-blocked lens; Metal amount, reduction, 191f
alloy-blocked lenses; Suction-blocked lenses; burr
Wax-blocked lenses absence, 255
definition, 6 usage, 254
laboratory towel, usage, 187f clogging, 161
methods, 188b concentrations, 321t
occurrence, 186f cutting surfaces, 325
proficiency test questions, 188-189 particles, 320
reblocking, combination, 187f exposure, 323f
Decals, usage, 35f, 104f spacing, 162f
Decenter (finding), pattern makers (usage), 62 powder, 321
452 INDEX

Diamond-wheel edgers, capability, 278f Dotted lines

Difference measures, 115f appearance, 203f
Direct plus cylinder power readings, 16 usage, 10f, 101f
Displacement compensation. See Patterns Dotted MRP, usage, 131
Distance between centers (DBC) Dotted segment border, usage. See Blended bifocals
definition, 43, 51 Dotting. See Lenses
determination, 51-52, 76 Double D lenses, 440f
A dimension, relationship, 44f Double gradients, 221f, 224
Distance between lenses (DBL), 42-43, 63f, 76. See also Double straps, distance, 273f
Frames Double-bevel appearance, 205
measurement, 43f, 54. See also Grooved frame Double-hole mountings, 260
Distance decentration, 105, 121, 129f. See also Left Double-padded nylon jaw pliers, usage, 245
lens Double-segment lenses, 131-132
calculation, 418 centration, 132-133
correction, 123f vertical lens area, sufficiency, 133f
usage, 123, 126 Double-sided adhesive blocking pad, 82, 117
Distance OC Double-sided adhesive pad, 140
location, 31f Double-sided adhesive tape, usage, 260
vertical placement, 32f Double-sided tape, usage, 140f. See also Drilling
Distance PD, 62f, 116 Double-strap area, adjustments, 268-269
alteration, 122b Double-strap mountings, usage, 266-273
amount, 118 Dress eyewear, requirements, 292-296
favoring, 121-124 Dress ophthalmic lenses, minimum thickness, 293
maintenance, 122b Dressing. See Diamond wheels
near PD, relationship, 121-122 sticks. See Diamond wheels; Finishing wheels;
Distance portion, MRP (checking). See Flat-top Roughing wheels
multifocals process, 323f
Distance power Drilled hole
amount, 100f chamfering, 255f
checking. See Major reference point smoothing, rat-tail file (usage), 256
completion, 5f Drilled lens, attachment. See Mountings
verification. See Progressive addition lenses Drilled mountings, 247
location, 99f bibliography, 273
Distance prescription, 109f proficiency test questions, 274-275
Distance reference point (DRP), 98, 99f Drill-guide, inclusion, 251
definition, 32, 98 Drilling. See Free hand drilling; Lens drilling; Nasal
location, 33f, 104f hole; Polycarbonate lenses; Temporal hole
Distances, variations, 44f bit, pressing, 269f
Distilled water chart, usage, 251f, 262, 267f
addition. See Dyes effect. See Impact resistance
usage, 213 guides. See Frames
Documentation. See Accidents; Conversations; Injuries; double-sided tape, usage, 261f
Training usage, 262f
maintenance, 336-337 sequence, template, 261f
Dots. See 180-degree reference dots; Center dot; setup. See Nasal side
Lensmeter dots system, 263f
circle, usage, 15f Drill-mounting, quality, 265
losing, 85f Drillrite Automatic Lens Drill, 262
placement. See 180-degree line; Aligned dots; Drills. See Computer-assisted drills; In-edger drill
Spherocylinder lenses bit
position, 129 lens, pressing, 266f
raising/lowering. See Central lensmeter dot pressing, 254f
reference usage, 105f historical note. See Hand drills
Dotted hidden circles, 105 improvements. See Electric drills
INDEX 453

Drills (Continued) Edge thickness. See Grooving; Rimless lenses

movement, ability, 262 dependence, 271f
small-millimeter gauge, inclusion, 253f determining, 3f
stand, table construction, 263 errors. See Plus lenses
types. See Lenses increase, 9
usage. See Lens drilling lens, feeling, 172-175
Driving, specialty lens (usage), 109f minimum, 285
Drop. See Segment drop rolled edge, effect, 166f
Drop ball test, 293-294 variation, 279f
timing, 294 Edged gradient lenses, 223
Drop-ball tester, usage, 294f Edged lenses, 31f
Drop-ball testing. See Glass lenses back-to-back holding, 313f
DRP. See Distance reference point boxing center, 51f, 81, 85f
Drum tool, usage. See Polishing front-to-front, holding, 30f
Dry cut edgers, 164-167, 326 geometrical center, 85f
emergency stops, 167 line, drawing, 252f
problems, 338-339 nasal half, 51f
size accuracy, checking, 167 scratches, appearance, 28f
Dry edging. See Polycarbonate lenses thickness, measurement, 175f
Dry-cut router-blade-type edger, usage, 277 Edger dials
Dummy lenses, 252-253 configuration, zero/plus-minus scale, 154-155
usage, 204 marking, 154-155
Duty to Inform program, 296-297 relationship. See Eyesize
Dyeing. See Antireflection-coated lenses; Hard-coated scales, combination, 155
lenses; High-index lenses; Nylon cords; Plastic Edger settings, accuracy
polarizing lenses; Simple gradient lens; adjustment
Ultraviolet dyeing circumference, usage, 316
process A dimension, usage, 316
lens coating, effects, 226-228 increasing, 155-157
lens material, effects, 226-228 Edger wheels, 320
Dyes, 213-215 matching, questions, 327-328
contamination, prevention, 214f proficiency test questions, 326-328
disposal, 340 usage. See Apex placement
distilled water, addition, 215f Edgers. See Dry cut edgers; WECO edger
distribution. See Polycarbonate lenses axis checking sequence, 313b
life span, 215 calibration, 313-316
maintenance, 214-215 chuck pressure, reduction, 170
manufacturer, color balancing recommendations, cleaning, 316-317
220t coolants, 318
preparation, 213-214 disposal, 340
smells, laboratory reduction, 229 cutting technique, 152
frame tracer
E combination, 173f
ED. See Effective diameter usage, 67
Edge polishing, 206-208. See also Antireflection-coated frosted appearance, 197
lenses; Glass lenses; High-index plastic; Plastic guided bevel system, usage, 171
lenses; Polycarbonate lenses lens placement, 152f
edger, usage, 207 lubrication, 316-317
Edge smoothing, 192-194. See also Front bevel manufacturer design, 139f
continuation, 199 pattern, placement, 62, 65f
lens, proper holding, 193-194 setting, 154f
practicing, 197 size, setting, 152-153
process, 193f, 199 sizing dial, 153
wheel, preparation, 192-193 stand-alone capabilities, 67
454 INDEX

Edgers (Continued) Effective diameter (ED) (Continued)

tracers, placement, 69f blank size, addition, 89f
types. See Hand edgers circles, usage. See Centration
usage. See Dry-cut router-blade-type edger; Edge definition, 41
polishing; Grooving; Pattern making determination. See Lens shapes
Edges. See Thin edges measurement, 41f, 42f
bevel, occupation, 160f showing, 83
beveling, 255f usage, 86f
chamfering, 255f Electric chucking, 159
configuration, destruction (avoidance), 192f Electric drills, improvements, 260-263
gauge, 261 Electric stand drills, usage. See Lens drilling
groove, positioning, 279-284 Electrical hazards, 331
grooving. See Back edge; Front edge; Middle edge; awareness, 337-338
Nylon cords Electrometallic wheels, 322
locations, appearance. See High-plus lenses Electronically controlled method, 162
marking, 261f Electroplated roughing wheels, 161
minimization. See Minus edges Electroplated wheels, cleaning, 325
moderate thickness, 269-272 Elongation, direction, 15f
padding, 187f Emergency Action Plan, usage. See Businesses
temporal side appearance, 178f Emergency lights, example, 339f
usage. See Polished edge; Rolled edges Emergency telephone numbers, display, 336
viewing screens, usage, 177-178 Employee
Edging, 3f, 6, 149, 159f. See also Blocked lenses; Glass involvement. See Safety program
lenses; Hand edging; Lenses; Patterned participation, 331
edging; Patternless edging; Plastic lenses; responsibilities, 344
Pre-edging; Wrap-around frames training, 333-334
blocking, usage, 83f Employee Right To Know laws, 330
center, 49 Employee-identified problems, correction, 335
ceramic wheels, usage. See Automatic edging Employers. See Contractor employers
circumference chart, 158t responsibility, OSHA impact, 330-331
completion, 154f, 175f Enclosing box, center, 41f
cycle, 315 Endpiece
dimensions, 179f bending, 242-243
errors, catching. See Flat-top multifocals gripping, 244f
laboratory, 2 holding, 245f
personnel, checking, 296 size, 245f
lenses, usage. See Wrap-around frames Engineering out the hazard. See Hazards
overall process, 161-167 Engraved circles, location/dotting, 34f
patternless systems, frame tracer (usage), 62-70 Engraving, 3f, 6
process, 322f. See also Patterned edging Environmental concerns, 329, 339-341
layout, 415 information, 341
pliers, usage, 240f proficiency test questions, 342-343
proficiency test questions, 182-184 recommendations, 340-341
selection. See Polycarbonate lenses Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 329, 330
size EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency
accuracy (increasing), circumference Errors. See Human error; Optical center; Parallax;
gauge/chart (usage), 157-159 Pattern errors
compensation, usage. See Frames amount, 205
special situations, 170-171 parallax, effect, 34
starting point, 195f compensation. See Horizontal OC error; Major
stress. See Polycarbonate lenses reference point
variations. See Lenses sources, 314f. See also Axis
Effective diameter (ED), 41-42. See also Frames Essilor. See Interview; Varilux
angle, 42 Etchings, marking, 34
INDEX 455

Executive bifocal, ledge, 171f FDA. See Food and Drug Administration
Executive lenses, 171, 201, 250, 439f File marks. See Horizontal meridian
positioning, 283 Fining, 3f
rotation, 284 Finished bifocals. See Stock finished bifocals
testing, exemption, 294 mass production, 2
Exit signs, display, 335 Finished blanks, 3f
Explosion hazards, 331 Finished lenses, 4f
Exposure limits, 333 record keeping requirements. See Partially finished
Eyeglass correction. See Spherical eyeglass correction lenses
Eyepiece sizes, 54
focusing. See Lensmeter terminology, 2-4
location, 12 Finished PD, 57
Eyes Finished surfaces, 4f
decentration, 204 Finishing
suppression, 90 cycle, 322
tracing, 64 laboratories, 1-2, 419
Eyesize, 44f. See also Frames lens block, attachment, 51f
adjustments. See Manual patterned edgers process, overview. See Lenses
change, effect. See Lens shapes Finishing wheels
definition, 40 dressing, 324f. See also Metal-bonded finishing
edger dial marking, relationship, 154 wheels
measurement, boxing system usage, 156f sticks, 323f
setting, 316 retruing, 326
Eyesize/pattern size ratio, 54 failure, 326f
Eyewear. See Safety eyewear; Sports eyewear usage, 161-162
categories, 292 wear, 325
requirements. See Dress eyewear Fire evacuation route, 336
Eyewires Fire extinguishers, availability, 337
closure pliers, 239f Fire hazards, 331
usage, 240f Fire prevention, 338
conformance. See Bevel First aid kit, availability, 337, 338f
forming pliers, 239f Fitting cross, 43-44, 98-99. See also Progressive addition
groove, 90f lenses
horizontal/vertical preadjustments, 242 drop, 205
inside groove, 394 height, 45f
nasal edge, 236 definition, 99f
nasal sides, equidistance, 241 information, 173f
screw, insertion/removal, 167f importance, 99
shape, change, 64 location, 102, 104f
touching. See Frames mismarking, 105f
upper/lower rims, preshaping, 237f raise. See Progressive lenses
system, usage. See Progressive lenses
F usage, 109, 398-399, 426-427. See also Layout
Fabrication process, 19f Fitting height. See Minimum fitting height
overview, 1 Five-layer AR-coated lenses, 295
proficiency test questions, 7 Flat edges, usage. See Rimless style eyewear
Face form, 241 Flat hand edger surface, disadvantage, 199f
Face hand edger, spherical section, 201f Flat surface touch test, 242
Facet, usage, 166 usage. See Parallelism testing
Faceted edge, usage. See Minus lens; Plus lenses Flat-beveled lenses, 201f. See also Plastic flat-beveled
Face-type hand edger, 190 lenses
effect, 191f Flat-front lenses, 179
Factory-marked blended bifocal, 130f Flat-top 28 lenses, 439f
Fault line, 296 Flat-top 35 lenses, 440f
456 INDEX

Flat-top bifocals, 222, 237. See also Centration skills series Frame tracers (Continued)
bifocal segment size, 145f layout blocker, integration, 70f
reference. See 180-degree line lens/adapter, placement, 68f
segment, 118, 125 placement. See Remote-site dispensary
spotting, 30f proficiency test questions, 71-74
Flat-top lenses, layout, 32 third dimension, advantage, 179-180
Flat-top lines, 222 usage, 67-70. See also Edgers; Edging; Off-site
Flat-top multifocal centration location; Order entry
device, usage, 118b Frames. See Safety frames
instrument, usage, 117 A + DBL, 240
lens protractor, usage, 114-116; 116b availability, 69f
Flat-top multifocals, 4f, 114-117 B dimension, 90f
distance portion, MRP (checking), 118-121 increasing, 204-205
historical background, 114-116 bridge, centering, 90f
incorrect segment inset, 121-124 centering. See Pattern makers
checking, 121 deformation, 177
lens edging, errors (catching), 117-125 dimensions, 103
mistakes, prevention, 124 ensuring, 70f
positioning, 127 distortion, 206f
spotting, 31b drilling guides, 260
Flat-top trifocals ED, 86
positioning, 125 edging, size compensation (usage), 157t
usage, 408 eyesize, 86f
Flat-top-segment multifocals, spotting, 29 eyewire
Flat-top-style multifocals, 4f conformance. See Bevel
Focimeter, 5 touching, 241f
Focused target, 15f flexibility, 245f
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) front, grasping, 244f
compliance, 294 groove
laboratory labeling requirements, 297 alignment, 237f
mandates, 293 temporal edge, 236
requirements, 297 heating, 240b
response, 296 horizontal alignment, 240
Forced hot air, usage, 239 horizontal/vertical measurements, difference, 48f
Forced matching. See Color humping up, 206f
Forming pliers. See Eyewires lens blank size, effect, 104f
Four-point touch, 240-241 lens opening, covering, 55f
checking, 241f lenses, snapping, 157
conformance, 241f liners, inclusion. See Nylon cord frames
Frame curvature materials
bevel, following, 181f requirements. See Patternless edging
edger, following, 181f usage, 176f
lens curve mismatch, 66f measurement system, 46f
Frame difference, 46f, 48f nasal rim, 203f
calculations, 48-49 old lens, usage, 253f
measurement, 46, 49 PD, 51-52
stabililty, 49f alignment/distance, 241f
Frame tracers, 6, 39. See also Three-axis frame tracers; placement, 90f
Two-axis frame tracers product introduction, 40f
advantages/disadvantages, 64-67 reshaping, 66f
challenge questions, 74 sample lens, usage, 253f
combination. See Edgers setup. See Pattern making
definition, 62 shape, 27
disadvantage, 68 three-dimensional tracing, 64-66
INDEX 457

Frames (Continued) Glass lenses (Continued)

size, 28f edging, 322f
thin metal rims, 277f hardening, 303-305
usage. See Semirimless mountings notes, 258-259
Frame’s lens pin bevel, 201f
hand edging, 202-203 sandblasting, 299
reedging, 202-203 stress, exhibiting, 167
shape, change, 203-205 Glass pin bevels, size, 201f
size, checking. See Metal frame lens size Glasses, defining. See Safety glasses
Franklin-style bifocals. See Centration skills series Glaze, definition, 169
Franklin-style lenses, 171, 250, 439f Glazed frame, 301
centration, 132f Glazed wheels, 322
hand edging, 201 Glazing, definition, 322
positioning, 283 Good faith effort, 340
rotation, 284 Gradient arm
surfacing, 415 setting, 221
Franklin-style multifocals, 131 usage, 222f
centration, 131 Gradient lenses. See Edged gradient lenses
Free hand drilling, 262f Gradient lines
Free-float bevel system, 162 achievement. See Level gradient line
Free-float method, usage, 324 horizontality, 222f
Freehand scoring, 150 straightness, 223f
Fresnel Equation, 227 Gradients. See Double gradients; Reverse gradient;
Front bevel Triple gradients
edge smoothing, 199 creation. See Smooth gradient
surface lens, dyeing. See Simple gradient lens
edge smoothing, 194 tints, 220-224; 221f
smoothing, 193f Graph paper, usage, 60f
Front edge Grinding
bevel, following, 180f allowance, checking, 315
grooving, 280-282 angles, comparison. See Hand edging
Front lens curve, block matching, 142f Grit. See Wheels
Front surface base curve, dotted line (indication), 165f size, 320-321
Front vertex powers, usage. See Near add factor, 321f
Front-to-front holding, 207f types/purposes. See Hand-edger wheels
Front-to-front placement, 119 Groove. See Bevel; Eyewire groove
centering, 286f
G cleaning, ultrasonic cleaner (usage), 282f
Gap, creation, 87f cutting, 280f
GCD. See Geometrical center distance depth, 155. See also Wheels
General duty clause, 330 location, 279f, 283. See also Basing groove location;
General-purpose-wear lens, 108f Right-hand lens groove location
Geometrical center, 40f, 41f. See also Edged lenses measurements, 43f
position, 84f mountings, 276
Geometrical center distance (GCD), 43, 82 proficiency test questions, 290-291
Gerber-Coburn Step Two blocking system, 186 positioning. See Edges
Glass. See Crown glass; High-index glass; Photochromic rims, tightening, 277f
glass safety beveling, 284-285, 285f
Glass lenses, 3f touchup, 284
cleaning, 208 usability, 283f
crazing. See Crown glass Groove position
drop-ball testing, 294 basing, setting, 283f
edge gloss, 207 control lever, turning, 283f
edge polishing, 206-207 lens type, effect, 284t
458 INDEX

Grooved Executive lenses, 283f Hand edging, 3f, 190, 202f. See also Antireflection-
Grooved frame coated lenses; Frame’s lens; Franklin-style
DBL, measurement, 43 lenses; Polycarbonate lenses
A dimension, measurement, 43 commencement, 196f
Grooved lens, mounting, 286-289 cutting speed factors, 197b
Grooved wheel grinding angles, comparison, 198f
design, 192f mistake, 196f
hidden bevel edge configuration, 202f parts, 192
Groover. See Santinelli groover pressure, monitoring, 194-195
centering pin, locking, 280f proficiency test questions, 209-211
chucks, placement, 281f rationale, 190
cutting wheel results, improvement rules, 194-197
cleanliness/coolness, 279f rules, summarizing, 197
flush placement. See Wheels steps, order, 199t
depth dial, 278 usage, 206f
settings, change, 281-282 wheel, listening, 195-197
setup, 278-279 Hand reduction. See Lens size
switches, 280 Hand tools, usage, 338
zero-adjuster knob, 278 Hand wheel, even wetting, 193f
Grooving. See Back edge; Front edge; Middle edge; Hand-beveled lenses, apex placement, 160-161
Polycarbonate lenses; Recessed metal rim Hand-edger wheels, 199
capability, 278f flat surfaces, usage, 200f
edge thickness, 277 grits
edger, usage, 286 fineness, 194
effect. See Impact resistance types/purposes, 192t
guide arms, lens positioning, 281f Hand-edging process, 194
lens preparation, 278-279 Hand-marking. See Lenses
methods, 277-286 Hard lenses, 215
process, commencement, 281f Hard-coated lenses, dyeing, 226
screen, 286f Hardened residue, 215f
Guide arms. See Spring-controlled guide arms Hardening, 3f, 6
lens positioning. See Grooving Hazard Communication Program, 332
lifting, 284 Hazard Communication Standard (HCS), 332,
Guide wheel, usage, 164f 345-346
Guided bevel systems, 162-164 Hazardous chemicals. See Potentially hazardous
usage, 171. See also Edgers chemicals
example, 165f list, 332-333, 345, 348
Guided scoring, 150 posting/labeling requirements, 335-336
presence, 334
H Hazardous communication checklist, 334b
Hairline cracks, 258 Hazardous communication program
Half-eye blocks, usage, 141f company policy, 345-347
Half-eye lenses, blocks (usage), 141 sample, 345-347
Half-mounted lens, 260 Hazardous waste, 331
Half-padded nylon jaw pliers, 288 Hazards
Half-padded pliers, usage, 244f. See also Nylon awareness. See Electrical hazards; Slippery hazards;
cords Wet hazards
Hand drills, historical note, 258-259 control, 331
Hand edgers. See Ceramic wheel hand edgers; correcting, 334
Diamond wheels engineering out, 340-341
coolant, disposal, 340 OSHA impact, 331
surface, disadvantage. See Flat hand edger surface prevention, 331
types, 190-192 standards. See Chemical Hazard Communication
V-bevel grooves, usage, 191-192 Standard
INDEX 459

Hazards (Continued) High-impact testing requirements, 300-301

warning, 333 High-impact thickness requirements, 300
written communication program, 332 High-index glass, 168-169
HAZCOM. See Chemical Hazard Communication High-index lenses, 168-169
Standard dyeing, 226-227
HCS. See Hazard Communication Standard High-index materials, 250
Health effects, 333 High-index minus lenses, thin centers, 277
Health hazard data, 350 High-index plastic, 169, 227, 250
Health training/education, 331 lenses, 3f
Heat sensitivities, 226 edge polishing, 208
Heat transfer fluids, disposal, 340 High-minus back curves, 199f
Heat treating, 6 High-minus lens, 179f, 251
Heat-tempered glass, 303 back edge, pin beveling, 201f
Heat-tempered lens, dehardening, 305 back pin bevel, application, 200f
Heat-treated lens, maltese-cross pattern identification, curvature, amount, 180f
305f rear surface, pin beveling, 199
Heat-treating process, 303 High-plus lenses, 179f
Heat-treating unit, 202 edge locations, appearance, 164f
Height. See Major reference point height; Segment High-velocity impact test
height firing, 301
Hex wrench, usage, 255, 257f survival, 300
Hidden bevel, 321 Hinges, angling, 243f
cosmetic advantage, 161f Holding
edge configuration. See Grooved wheel area, relationship. See Adhesive pad
edge shapes, 192f back-to-back position, 252, 313
Hidden circles, 103. See also Dotted hidden circles device, 18
location, 35f mechanism, 17f
raise, calculation, 400 pliers, usage, 244f, 245f
usage, 400-401, 428-429. See also Progressive proper technique. See Edge smoothing
addition lens centration; Progressive addition system, 261
lenses Holes. See Patterns
Hidden marks, 34. See also Progressive addition lenses 180-degree line, correspondence, 47f
Hidden-bevel lenses, 191-192 back side, chipping, 254f
lens size reduction, 201 chamfering/smoothing, 254-255
Hide-A-Bevel, 161 chipping, 255f
Hide-A-Bevel wheels cone tools, usage, 259f
placement, advice, 163f diameters. See Variable-hole diameters
usage, 162 drilling, 254f, 269f
High adds height, 261f
power, amount. See Plastic flat-top lenses location
usage. See Adhesive pad blocking marking. See Temporal hole
High base metal blocks, 141f specifications, transfer ability, 262
High bifocal segment, 32f placement. See Central hole placement
High impact standard, 298 Homemade patterns, 54, 418
High mass impact test, 301 Horizontal 180-degree reference line, marking, 252f
High minus lenses, 279f. See also Thick-edged high Horizontal alignment, MRP usage, 132f
minus lenses Horizontal bar. See Pattern makers
High near addition lens, creation, 123f Horizontal compensation, 60
High plus aspheric lenticular lenses, OC blocking, 62 Horizontal decentration, 82, 395
High plus lens calculation, 394, 396, 397
base curve steepness, 142f boxing system, usage, 50-52, 75-76
plus direction, 284f questions, 93
High-impact marking requirements, 301 Horizontal eye, increase, 48f
High-impact requirements. See Safety eyewear Horizontal lens size, 40
460 INDEX

Horizontal meridian Index mark, adjustment, 310

file marks, 224f Individual testing, batch testing (contrast), 294-295
usage, 124f Industrial abrasives, 321
Horizontal midline, 41, 113, 118 In-edger drill, 249, 266
definition, 41 Injuries, 338f
vertical decentration, 394 documentation, 337
Horizontal misalignment. See Pattern centers Inking
Horizontal MRP, location, 50f amount. See Lensmeter
Horizontal OC error, compensation, 91f mechanism, 17f
Horizontal pattern dimension, 61b Inserted lens, orientation, 238f
Horizontal prism, 395-397 Insertion, 3f, 235. See also Metal frames; Plastic frames
calculation. See Progressive addition lenses checklist, 236-237
Horizontal protractor line, usage, 78 definition, 6
Horizontal reference importance. See Bevel
line, 82, 126. See also Centration device plastic frame material differences, 238t
equidistance, 126f process, conclusion, 237f
marks. See Non-water-soluble horizontal reference proficiency test questions, 246
marks Inset. See Segment inset; Total inset
segment center usage, 116f comparison. See Decentration
Horizontally displaced pattern centers, compensation, Instrument grid, origin, 82
59 Insurance. See Liability insurance
Housekeeping program, 338 inclusion, 337
Hoya Desktop, 107t Intermediate viewing, 4f
Human error, 314f straight-ahead position, 106
Humphrey autolensmeter, upright design, 21 Intermediate/near progressive lenses
Humphrey Lens Analyzer, 23f, 24f, 219f advantages, 105-106
layout screen, 24f full range, usage, 110
usage. See Lenses layout, 106-109
Humping. See Nasal humping ordering, 106
HyperIndex lenses. See 1.66 HyperIndex lenses variations, 107t
Intermediate/near specialty progressives
I comparison. See Standard progressive
Identifying lens, 300 Internal lens stress, visibility, 167
Immediate distances, progressive addition lenses Internal stress
(usage), 105-110 control, 303f
Impact requirements. See Safety eyewear creation, 202
Impact resistance, 292 Interpupillary distance (PD), 51f, 87f. See also
drilling, effect, 296 Binocular distance PD; Binocular PD;
grooving, effect, 296 Finished PD; Monocular PD; Near PD
lens coatings, effect, 295-296 accuracy, 92
lens processing, effect, 295-296 ensuring, 122f
proficiency test questions, 306-308 definition, 43
reedging, effect, 296 favoring. See Distance PD; Near PD
surface scratches, effect, 296 incorrect distance, 89-92
test requirements, 293 combination. See Oblique cylinder distances
testing, 3f information, 173f
Impact-resistant lens material, 297 measurements, 182
Impact-resistant quality, increase, 296 pushing, 89-92, 95
Impregnated wheels, 322 setting, 63f
Incident light standards, 92
amount, 227 usage, 63f. See also 69/60 PD; Decentration per lens
reflection amount, 227 Interview (Essilor), 107t
Incorrect segment inset, checking. See Flat-top Inverted prism lens, usage, 18f
multifocals Invisible bifocals, 398
INDEX 461

Irregular patterns, usage. See Centration skills series Lens drilling (Continued)
Iseikonic lenses, testing exemption, 294 electric stand drills, usage, 253-255
guides/templates, 251-252
J option, 180
Jaw pliers. See Half-padded nylon jaw pliers Lens materials
effects. See Dyeing
K removal, 194
Kiln, usage, 303 requirements. See Patternless edging
Lens Prep, 216
L Lens protractor, 77
Labeling requirements. See Hazardous chemicals degree scales, 77
Labels, usage, 346 lens, positioning, 79f
Laboratory usage. See Flat-top multifocals; Layout; Lens
labeling requirements. See Food and Drug centration
Administration Lens shapes, 39
space, saving, 70f C size, 40f
thermometer, usage. See Bath temperature challenge questions, 74
waste management, problems, 339-340 change. See Frame’s lens
LAB-Tech DM-3 Drilling System, 262 covering, 42f
Laminate lenses, testing exemption, 294 determination, 6
Laminated layer, notches (usage), 29f ED, determination, 42f
Laminated lenses, 170 eyesize change, effect, 46-49
Large businesses, OSHA impact, 331 proficiency test questions, 71-74
Large-jawed plier, usage, 186 tilting, 63f
Larger-than-standard patterns, 153 viewing screen, usage, 177, 177f
Latex gloves, usage, 336 Lens size, 9, 287. See also Horizontal lens size; Vertical
Layout. See Edging; Intermediate/near progressive lenses
lenses accuracy, checking. See Dry cut edgers
blocker closure pliers, usage, 167f
deblocker, mounting, 187f checking. See Metal frames
integration. See Frame tracers edging, 168f
definition, 6 hand reduction, 199-202
fitting cross, usage, 398-399 information, 173f
lens protractor, usage, 77f limitation, 20f
mode, 24f reduction, 192f. See also Hidden-bevel lenses
mires, usage, 26f hand, bracing, 202f
verification, 34f Lens spotting, 5-6, 8. See also Polarizing lenses;
Ledge corners, 201 Round-segment lenses
Left decentration, 78f challenge questions, 37-38
Left lens prism
back view, 115f inclusion, 20-21
distance decentration, 118f noninclusion, 16-18
segment process, 124f
drop, usage, 118f proficiency test questions, 35-38
inset, usage, 118f Lens-curing factor, 215-216
total inset, 118f Lenses. See Antireflection-coated lenses; Laminated
Lens centration, 6 lenses; Plastic lenses; Polycarbonate lenses;
centration instrument, usage, 82 Slotted lenses
historical background, 76-78 analyzer, 5
instruments, 81-82 back-to-back placement, 314f
lens protractor, usage, 77-78 bevel. See Bevel
mechanics, 75 blank. See Blanks
Lens drilling, 251-257 size, effect. See Frames
charts, usage, 251-252 blocking. See Blocking
462 INDEX

Lenses (Continued) Lenses (Continued)

center thickness. See Minus lens center thickness measurement
checking, back-lighted crossed polaroids (usage), 168f boxing system, 39-44
chucking, 159 Humphrey Lens Analyzer, usage, 225f
classification. See Trivex measuring instrument, 14f
cleaning, 208-209. See also Glass; Plastic lenses; minus cylinder form, reading, 12-16
Polycarbonate lenses mounting. See Mounting
cleanup, 6 notching, 257-260
coating, effects. See Dyeing; Impact resistance milling bit, usage, 258
color. See Color off-center optical center, inclusion. See Stock lenses
conditioner, 216 opening, covering. See Frames
curvature optical center, 18-19
amount, 65f, 66f optics, effect. See Peripheral lens optics
mismatch. See Frame curvature orientation, 29f, 125f. See also 180-degree meridian;
deblocking. See Adhesive pad-blocked lenses; Metal Inserted lens; Prism
alloy-blocked lenses; Suction-blocked lenses; improvement, 252f
Wax-blocked lenses pair, salvaging, 207f
defect, 12f patterns. See Patterns
degree scale, 77 pin beveling, 198-199
designation, 18f placement, 19f, 77, 78f
different materials, edging variations, 167-170 plus cylinder form, reading, 16
dispensation. See Non-impact-resistant lenses positioning. See Lens protractor; Prismatic lens;
distance. See Distance between lenses Segment
dotting, 80f preparation. See Grooving; Tinting
drilling. See Blocked lenses prescription, 108f
drills, types, 249 prism inclusion, 18-20
dyeing. See Antireflection-coated lenses; verification. See Multifocal lenses
Hard-coated lenses; High-index lenses; Plastic prism restrictions. See Aspheric lenses; Atoric lenses
polarizing lenses; Polycarbonate lenses; processing
Pre-AR coated lenses effect. See Impact resistance
edges. See Edges sequence, 3f
edging. See Edging protector discs, application. See Antireflection
feeling. See Edge thickness coated lenses
finishing process, overview, 4-6 reedging. See Frames
flaws, visual inspection, 10-11 refractive characteristics, 13f
front base curve, matching, 142f removal, 245f, 287
front curve, 165f replacement, problems. See One-lens replacement
generator, control, 67 retightening. See Loose lens
grasping, 151f rotating pliers, 205
guide, application, 261f rotation. See Rotation
hand-marking, 80f, 312f ruining, 27f
hardening. See Glass lenses salvaging. See Blemished lenses; Off-axis lens
determination, 305 scratches, 28f
holders, 222f. See also Color coding lens holders appearance. See Edged lens
cleaning, 229 selection, 9-10
usage, 217f sizing, 287
holding. See Holding slippage, causes. See Blocks
impact resistance. See Impact resistance spoilage, reduction, 256f
insertion. See Insertion; Metal frames; Plastic frames standard alignment. See Standard alignment
insufficient size, 88-89 surface, standard cross mark placement, 116f
layout. See Layout table
marking, 251-257. See also Visible lens marking placement, 268f
requirements. See American National Standards repositioning, 267f
Institute terminology. See Finished lens; Semifinished lens
INDEX 463

Lenses (Continued) Lithium ions, usage, 303

testing. See Testing Lock-glue
thickness. See Thickness adherence, 270f
incompatibility. See Straps application, 270f, 271f
tinting. See Tinting Locking mechanism, loosening, 264, 269f
top, marking, 224 Loose lens, retightening, 289
tracing. See Tracing Low base metal blocks, 141f
type, effect. See Groove Low minus lenses, 279-280
usage. See Shape tracing Lower nasal part, bevel (snapping), 237f
verification, 6, 100 Low-minus-powered lenses, thinning, 101f
waviness, 13f Low-plus-powered lenses, 280
Lenses only order, 57f, 157 Low-powered lens. See Thin-edged low-powered lens
Lensmeter Lubrication, 309
accuracy, increasing, 83
aperture, 15f, 100f M
axis setting, 124f Machine hazards, 331
care, 310-311 Magnetic stirrers, usage, 214
exterior, cleaning, 311 Maintenance, 309
eyepiece proficiency test questions, 317-319
focusing, 11-12 schedules, 309
setting, 13f Major meridians, 11f, 19
inking, amount, 311 axis wheel, approach, 15
optics, cleanliness, 310-311 difference, 16
prism, accuracy, 310 Major reference point (MRP), 21f, 41f, 43-44
screen, representation, 24f centering, 51f
spotting mechanism. See Autolensmeters; Manual checking. See Flat-top multifocals
lensmeter definition, 19
target, 20, 23 disappearance. See Multifocal lenses
usage, 11-16, 146-147, 395. See also Single vision distance power, checking, 33f
sphere spotting; Spherocylinder lenses dot, positioning, 129f
zero reading, 310f importance, 99f
Lensmeter dots, 395-397 locating, dotting, 410
guide, 223f lowering, 61
placement, 415 marking, 27
position, 411 misplacement, 129f
raising/lowering. See Central lensmeter dot movement, 395
reference, usage, 252f placement, 119b, 393, 434, 442f
Lensmeter-measured imbalance, eliminates, 206 errors, compensation, 122b
Lensometer, 5 problem, 119f
Lenticular cataract lenses, testing exemption, 294 position, 410-412
Lenticular lenses, 63f checking, 122f
OC blocking. See High plus aspheric lenticular correction, 122f
lenses positioning, 46f, 58
Level gradient line, achievement, 221-223 relationship. See Optical center
Liability insurance, 337 segment positions, relationship, 115f
Light boxes setting, 127
definition, 220f spotting, 418
usage, 218 usage, 101f. See also Dotted MRP; Horizontal
Light scattering, 12f alignment; Prism
Limbus, definition, 45f vertical position, 43, 84f
Liners, inclusion. See Nylon cord frames vertical positioning, 90f
Lines, overlapping, 252f vertical specification, 394
Liquid resin, pouring, 5f Major reference point (MRP) height, 29, 44, 81f
Liquid wastes, removal, 339 centration. See Practitioner-specified MRP height
464 INDEX

Major reference point (MRP) height (Continued) Meridians (Continued)

conversion, 79 uniform power, 27
difference, 92 usage, 15f
specification, 113 Metal alloy blocking, 138, 139
Major reference point (MRP) location, 29, 49f, 85f. Metal alloy-blocked lenses, deblocking, 185-186
See also Horizontal MRP Metal blocks, 140. See also High base metal blocks; Low
accuracy, checking. See Spotted MRP base metal blocks; Regular base metal blocks
checking, 121 color-coded types, 141f
determination, 413 selection criteria, 142f
indication, 21 shape, molding, 140f
Maltese-cross pattern, identification. See Heat-treated Metal frames
lens indication, 176f
Management lens insertion, 239
leadership, 331 lens size, checking, 199-200
request. See Material Safety Data Sheet standard alignment, 243-246
support. See Safety program Metal rims. See Frames
Manual chucking, 159 grooving. See Recessed metal rim
Manual lensmeter, spotting mechanism, 26f Metal temple spread, 243-245
Manual patterned edgers, eyesize adjustments, 316 Metal-bonded finishing wheels, 322f
Manufacturer, defining, 295 dressing, 324
Marker/blocker, usage, 77 performance, 324
Marking. See Chipped portion; Etching; Lenses; Nasal Metal-bonded roughing wheels, 322
hole; Safety frames dressing, 323-324
alignment, 55 performance, 323
coquilles, usage. See Three-piece mountings Metal-bonded wheel (polishing usage), 322f
frames, usage. See Semirimless mountings Micro-cracking, 226
methods. See Safety lenses Middle edge, grooving, 279-280
pen, usage, 259 Milling bit
pins, 311 ability, 263-264
requirements. See American National Standards usage. See Lenses; Notching
Institute; Basic-impact marking requirements; Mini-bevel wheels, usage, 162
High-impact marking requirements examples, 164f
Marks. See Off-axis marks Minimum blank size (MBS), 41f, 86-88
overlapping. See Reference equation, 9
Masks, usage, 336 questions, 94
Matching. See Color; Uncuts Minimum fitting height, 98
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 332-333, 345 Minus cylinder form, 12
index, 348 reading. See Lenses
location, 346 Minus edges, minimization, 250
management request, 333 Minus lens
sample, 349-350 blank. See Uncut minus lens blank
Matte black background, 12f center thickness, 9
MBS. See Minimum blank size decentering, 91f
Mean fracture load, 295 faceted edge, usage, 166f
Measuring mode, 24f Minus lenticular lenses, testing exemption, 294
Mechanical center, 64f Mires
boxing center crossing. See Circular mires
equivalence, 50 usage. See Layout
nonequivalence, 52 Molten salt, 304f
positioning. See Pattern Monocular distance decentration, determination, 400
usage, 58 Monocular PD, 76, 99
Mechanically controlled method, 162 centration, 393-394, 422-423
Meridians. See Major meridians request, 107
light color. See Central meridian usage, 101. See also Decentration
INDEX 465

Mounting. See Balgrip mountings; Double-hole Nasal hole (Continued)

mountings; Drilled mountings; Groove; marking/drilling, 260f. See also Semirimless
Grooved lens; Notched mountings; Rimless mountings
mountings; Slotted mountings nasal edge, relationship, 265f
adapter, usage, 67f Nasal humping, 238f
definition, 6 Nasal lens straps, bending, 268
drilled lens, attachment, 255-257 Nasal rim. See Frames
flaws, detection, 257 Nasal side
line. See 180-degree mounting line drilling setup, 265f
marking matching, 65f
coquilles, usage. See Three-piece mountings Nasal slots, positioning, 263
frames, usage. See Semirimless mountings Nasalward segment rotation, 31f
system, 253 Near add (determination), front vertex powers
table, usage, 268f (usage), 100f
usage. See Double-strap mountings Near PD, 62f, 76
Movable line, 88f accuracy, 121
indication. See Single vision lenses alteration, 122b, 124
presetting, 85f favoring, 121-124
Movable vertical line. See Single vision lenses maintenance, 122b
usage, 82 relationship. See Distance PD
MRP. See Major reference point Near portion, placement, 102f
MSDS. See Material Safety Data Sheet Near power
Multifocal lenses (multifocals), 5f, 98. See also amount, 100f
Flat-top-style multifocals; Franklin-style back vertex power verification, 100f
multifocals; Segmented multifocal lenses Near reference point (NRP), 33f, 98
categories, 97-98 definition, 34, 98
difficulties. See Noncentered pattern location, 104f
heights, 46f Near segment, centering, 122f
order, 114 Near working distances, progressive addition lenses
preparation, 2 (usage), 105-110
prescription verification, 29-32 Neoprene gasket, usage, 293-294
segment portion, major reference point Neutralizer, 333
disappearance, 31-32 disposal, 340
spotting, 29-32. See also Flat-top multifocals process, 219
method. See Flat-top-segment multifocals; sensitivities, 226
Round-segment-multifocals usage. See Tints
usage, 18f No Smoking signs, display, 335
Multifocal prescription, pattern usage, 62f Non prismatic single vision lenses, 18f
Myodisc lenses, testing exemption, 294 Noncellular acetate, 237-239
Noncentered pattern, usage, 58-62
N consequences, 57-62
Narrow B frames, blocks (usage), 141 multifocal lenses, difficulties, 58
Nasal add, 203, 204 Nonelectric hand-held drills, 249
achievement, 204f Non-impact-resistant lenses, dispensation, 293
Nasal corner, placement, 289f Non-premarked progressive lenses, 34-35
Nasal cut, 203-204 Nonproportionality, 48
achievement. See Symmetrical nasal cut Non-routine tasks, 346
Nasal direction, 289f Nonslip mat, usage, 339f
Nasal edge. See Eyewires Non-water-soluble horizontal reference marks, 32,
relationship. See Nasal hole 34
Nasal flare, 204 Non-water-soluble marks, usage, 102
Nasal half. See Edged lenses Non-water-soluble progressive lens markings,
Nasal hole 34
horizontal zero point, 266f Normal-thickness lenses, 267
466 INDEX

Nosepads, 246 Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, 330, 337
Notched mountings, 247 responsibilities, 344
bibliography, 273 Off-axis lens, salvaging, 205
proficiency test questions, 274-275 steps, 206f
Notches Off-axis marks, 314f
beveling, 259f Off-axis pattern, 54
cone tools, usage, 259f Off-center optical center, inclusion. See Stock lenses
cutting, preparation, 266f Off-center target, compensation difficulty, 311f
usage. See Laminated layer Off-site location, frame tracer usage, 70f
Notching. See Lenses OLA. See Optical Laboratories Association
accuracy, 266f Old lens
milling bit, usage, 258f tracing, 66f
NRP. See Near reference point usage. See Frames; Shape tracing
Nylon cord frames, 57, 66, 248 One-lens replacement, problem, 58
liners, inclusion, 289-290 Open temple spread, 242
types, 287f Ophthalmic lenses, minimum thickness. See Dress
usage, 277f ophthalmic lenses
Nylon cords, 276 Optical center (OC). See Lenses; Sphere lenses
clipping, 287 accuracy amount, requirement, 92
cutting, 287f blocking. See High plus aspheric lenticular lenses
dyeing, 228 centering, 15f
mounting, edge grooving, 3f decentration, amount, 86
pressing, half-padded pliers (usage), 288f displacement, 21f
proficiency test questions, 290-291 error, compensation. See Horizontal OC error
removal, 286f location, 29, 31f, 442f. See also Distance OC
replacement, 288f MRP, relationship, 98, 127
sizing, 288f not in line of sight, 19-20
stretching, 288 placement, errors, 91f
tension, checking, 288-289, 290f positioning, 25f
threading, 287f, 289f vertical placement. See Distance OC
Nylon supras, 248 Optical clarity, variation, 98f
Optical endpoint, 27f
O Optical Laboratories Association (OLA), 249, 276-277
Oblique axis, 22f program, 297
Oblique cylinder distances, incorrect interpupillary Tech Topics, 296
distances (combination), 91-92 Optical laboratory, 1-2
OC. See Optical center Optics, cleanliness. See Lensmeter
Occupational progressives, 106 Order entry, 3f, 177
Occupational Safety and Health Administration area, frame tracer (usage), 67
(OSHA), 298, 329, 330 OSH Act. See Occupational Safety and Health Act
complaints, 335 OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health
Form 200, 337 Administration
Form 300A, 344 Overplussed straight-ahead gaze, 109f
Hazard Communication Standard, 345 Over-thinning, 101f
impact. See Employers; Hazards; Large businesses;
Small businesses P
inspections, 331 Paired spherocylinder lens, custom surfacing, 2
poster, display, 335 Pantoscopic angle, 242
relationship. See American National Standards change, 245f
Institute Parallax
requirements, 331, 334, 336 definition, 77
agencies, relationship, 330 effect. See Errors
standards, 330 error, 77
website, 341 prevention, 205
INDEX 467

Parallelism testing, flat surface touch test (usage), 242f Patternless edging (Continued)
Partially finished lenses, record keeping requirements, frame materials, requirements, 176-177
295 lens materials, requirements, 176-177
Pattern centers possibilities, 172-182
compensation. See Horizontally displaced pattern systems, 155
centers; Vertically displaced pattern centers input, 173f
displacement compensation, 61b technology, 165f
amount, determination, 61b Patterns, 39. See also Homemade patterns; Larger-than-
horizontal misalignment, 419 standard patterns; Lenses
horizontal/vertical misalignment, 420 blanks
vertical misalignment, 418-419 mounting, 57
Pattern errors variety, 55f
checking, 59-60 challenge questions, 74
direction/amount, determination, 60-62 creation, 419
vertical compensation, 81 cutter, usage, 56f
Pattern makers, 39 cutting, 55f
frame centering, 53f difference, 46
horizontal bar, 54f dimension. See Horizontal pattern dimension;
models, 53 Vertical pattern dimension
usage. See Center; Decenter distortion (prevention), larger patterns (usage),
Pattern making, 52-57 153
edgers, usage, 57 holes, 48f
frame setup, 53-54 measurements, 44-50. See also Box-o-Graph
lens tracing, usage, 54-57 system, 46f
matching, 55-56 mechanical center, 49-50
Pattern size, 46 positioning, 50-52
calculation, 84 relationship. See Boxing center
check, grid (usage), 60f placement. See Edgers
standard (36.5 mm), 153 proficiency test questions, 71-74
usage, 155f rotational center, 81
Patterned bevel edger, example, 165f roughness, smoothing, 56
Patterned edgers, 39 shadow system, 84
axis accuracy, checking, 313-315 stock, maintenance, 40f
definition, 6 system, function, 47-48
eyesize adjustments. See Manual patterned edgers terminology, 44-50
options, 180 usage, 49f, 54-55. See also Multifocal prescription;
Patterned edging, 149-171 Patternless edgers; Shape tracing
cutting/chipping, 150-151 consequences. See Noncentered pattern
historical background, 149 vertically displaced mechanical centers, usage,
process, 152-167 59f
Patternless edgers, 39. See also Computer-assisted PD. See Interpupillary distance
patternless edgers Peripheral lens optics, effect, 171
definition, 6 Personal protective equipment, 336
electronic link. See Tracers Photochromic glass, 168
features, 286 Photochromic lenses
laboratory interface, 181-182 temperature, importance, 304
options, 180 tempering, 303
patterns, usage, 172 Photochromic process, 305
capability, 69f Photochromic salt bath, 304f
questions, 176f Photometer, usage, 217, 218f
usage, 171-172 Pin beveling, 192, 197-199. See also Back edge; Bevel
viewing screens, 177-180; 177f, 178f apex; High-minus lens; Lenses; Rimless lenses
Patternless edging, 149, 171-182 breakage prevention, 197
electronic shape, 172 cosmetic considerations, 197
468 INDEX

Pin beveling (Continued) Polarizing lenses

reasons, 197-198 spotting, 28-29, 29f
wearer safety, 197-198 testing exemption, 294
Pins Polaroids, usage. See Crossed polaroids; Lenses
bevel. See Glass lenses; Plastic lenses Polished edges, usage, 166
movement. See Spring-coupled pins Polishing, 3f. See also Glass; Plastic lenses
usage. See Centering drum tool, usage, 208
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. See Columbia Resin 39 machine. See Automatic polishing machine
Plano cylinder lenses, decentration, 19 rag wheel, usage, 207-208
Plastic. See High-index plastic Polycarbonate lens edging, 166f
removal, 269f process, completion, 170
Plastic blocks, 140-141 stress, 170
removal, 188f wheels, usage, 162
Plastic bushing, 255 Polycarbonate lenses, 3f, 169-170
Plastic flat-beveled lenses, 201f classification, 277
Plastic flat-top lenses cleaning, 209
high add power, amount, 146f drilling, 258
segment amount, 146f dye distribution, 226
Plastic frames edge polishing, 208
lens insertion, 235-236; 236b edging process, 170
materials, differences. See Insertion grooving, 285
shape, retaining, 64 hand edging, 201-202
standard alignment, 239-243 stress, 170
stretching, 167 thin centers, 277
Plastic lenses, 169. See also Columbia Resin 39 tinting, 226
blocks, advantages, 141f suggestions, 227b
cleaning, 209 wet/dry edging, selection, 170
edges Polycarbonate material, curled threads, 202f
luster, ensuring, 208f Posting requirements. See Hazardous chemicals
polishing, 207-208 Potassium nitrate, usage, 303
edging, 166f, 322f Potentially hazardous chemicals, 332b
marking, 299 Power. See Cylinder power
pin bevel, 201f calibration, 310
regular bevel, 201f change, 106f
sandblasting, 299 cross, imagining/sketching, 124f
twist, 186f increase, 398
warping, 167, 200 range. See 1.25D power
Plastic polarizing lenses, dyeing, 228 reading. See Direct plus cylinder power readings
Plastic sludge, removal, 316-317 progressive zone changing power, impact, 100f
Plastic strap, usage, 290f tools, usage, 338
Plus cylinder form, 12 variation, 11
reading. See Lenses verification, 34f. See also Spheres; Spherocylinders
Plus cylinder power readings. See Direct plus cylinder crossed-line-target lensmeter, usage. See
power readings Spherocylinder lenses
Plus edges, thickness (amount), 250 wheel, turning, 13
Plus lenses Practitioner-specified MRP height, centration, 393-394,
blank size effect, 9-10 422-423
edge thickness errors, 250-251 Pre-AR coated lenses, dyeing, 228
faceted edge, usage, 166f Precast FreeBlock blocking, 138, 139-140
Plus-minus scale, 154. See also Edger dials Pre-edging, 161
zero setting, 155f Prefinished bifocals, spherocylinder lenses
Plus-minus-powered lenses, thinning, 101f (matching), 2
Pneumatic chucking, 159 Premarked line, scoring, 150f
Polariscope, usage, 305 Premarked progressives, verification, 32-34
INDEX 469

Prentice’s Rule, 19-20 Progressive addition lenses, 4, 32-35. See also Centration
usage, 120. See also Prism skills series; Occupational progressives;
Prescribed cylinder axis, 5f Specialty progressive addition lenses
Prescribed prism, 98-100, 127, 395, 424-425 conventional centration, 99-102
horizontal/vertical components, inclusion, 21 description, 98-105
inclusion. See Autolensmeters distance power, verification, 100f
noninclusion. See Autolensmeters fitting cross, 45f
Prescription (Rx), 23 vertical position, 44
accuracy, 310 hidden marks, 440f
ethical factors, 92 horizontal prism, calculation, 101
fabrication, 41f impact. See Upper distance portion
lens, manufacture/mounting, 66f marked 180-degree reference marks, 237
Pressure blocking, 138-139 mistake, 310
Primer coatings, benefit, 296 positioning. See Blocking; Centration
Prism. See Base-in prism; Yoked base down prism hidden circles, usage, 103
accuracy. See Lensmeter power, 33f
amount. See Base up prism reference points, 33f, 98-99
calculation, 91 usage. See Immediate distances; Near working
lens orientation, 26f distances
calculation. See Progressive addition lenses verification. See Premarked progressives
compensation devices, instrument checking, 311f vertical position, calculation, 102
correction. See Unwanted vertical prism vertical prism, 100-101
figuring, Prentice’s rule (usage), 124f visible marks, 440f
horizontal/vertical components. See Prescribed Progressive corridor, 33f
prism width, 98f
inclusion/noninclusion. See Lens spotting Progressive lenses. See Non-premarked progressive
induction, 19 lenses
lenses. See Blemished prism lenses fitting cross raise, 49f
usage. See Inverted prism lens fitting cross system, usage, 102f
restrictions. See Aspheric lenses; Atoric lenses markings. See Non-water-soluble progressive lens
segment multifocals, testing exemption, 294 markings
standards. See Unwanted prism Progressive zone, 33f, 101f
thinning, 34 changing power, impact. See Power
understanding, 397 Protective tape, usage. See Adhesive pad blocking
usage. See Base down prism Protractor. See Lenses
verification, MRP usage, 99f line. See Vertical protractor line
Prism reference point (PRP), 33f, 98 usage. See Horizontal protractor line
change, 98f usage. See Centration
definition, 19, 34, 98, 99f PRP. See Prism reference point
lens verification, 101f Pupil
location, 104f center, 45f
usage, 102f location, 51f
Prismatic effect, 22f, 120f vertical plane, 50f
change, 123
creation, 20f Q
verification, 101f Quality
Prismatic lens, positioning, 22f control, 12f
Program evaluation, 331 sacrificing, 27f
Progressive addition lens centration, 97
conventional steps, 102b R
hidden circles Radius, doubling, 42f
steps, 103b Rag wheel
usage, 102-105 buffing compound, usage, 208f
proficiency test questions, 110-111 usage. See Polishing
470 INDEX

Rainbow effect, 168f Rimmed frame, 180-degree line (file marking), 224f
Raised center type, 52 Rims
Raised multifocal lenses, testing exemption, 294 preshaping. See Eyewires
Rat-tail files, 255 tightening. See Groove
tapering, 256f Rodenstock Office, 107t
usage, 273. See also Drilled hole intermediate/near design specialty progressive lens,
Reactivity data, 350 comparison. See Standard progressive
Reader replacements, 106 Rolled edge
Reading glasses, decentration, 76 effect. See Edge thickness
Rear bevel, pressure application, 199 usage, 166
Reblocking, 187f Rotated lens, 240
combination. See Deblocking Rotation, 17f, 28f. See also Semifinished lens;
Recessed metal rim, grooving, 285-286 Spherocylinder lenses
cutting wheels, usage, 285-286 checking, 237
Reedging. See Frame’s lens direction, 196f
effect. See Impact resistance indication, 195f
Referee test, 293 speed, 194-195, 198
Reference usage, 194f
height, 45f Rotational center, 49. See also Patterns
line. See Horizontal reference; Vertical reference relationship. See Boxing center
marks, overlapping, 313f Rough file surface, 257f
points. See Distance reference point; Major Roughing wheels. See Bonded roughing wheels;
reference point; Near reference point; Prism Electroplated roughing wheels
reference point; Progressive addition lenses dressing. See Metal-bonded roughing wheels
scale, 77 sticks, 323f
Reflective screen, usage, 262 retruing, 325-326
Refraction, index, 227 usage, 161
Refractive power, limitation, 20f Roughness, smoothness. See Patterns
Regular base metal blocks, 141f Round bifocal segment lenses. See Centration skills series
Remote-site dispensary, tracer placement, 67-70 Round lenses. See 22 Round lenses
Replacement lens, 58 Round pattern, circumference, 316
Required cylinder axis, 125f Round-segment centration, process, 130f
Reshaping, hand (bracing), 202f Round-segment lenses, 126-129, 413. See also Blended
Respotting, 207f round-segment lenses; Spherically powered
Restringing, procedure, 286-289 round-segment lenses; Spherocylindrically
Reverse gradient, 224 powered round-segment lenses
Riffler file, usage, 257 centration
Right decentration, 78f centration instrument, usage, 127-129
Right lens, removal, 207f device, usage, 128
Right round-segment lens, total decentration, 128f spotting, 35b
Right-hand lens groove location, 156f total decentration. See Right round-segment lens
Rimless frames, 57, 66, 248 Round-segment multifocals
Rimless lenses centration device, usage, 128b
edge thickness, 250-251 spotting, 29-31
Rimless lenses, pin beveling, 199 alternative method, 32
Rimless mountings, 248f, 249f, 273f Round-style segment lenses, 398
defined, 247-249 Rubber mask
description, 255, 257 lens placement, 300
parts, 248-249 sandblasting, 300
types, 247-248 stenciling, 300
Rimless pattern, marking, 161 Ruler
Rimless style eyewear, flat edges (usage), 161 positioning, 156f
Rimless three-piece mounting, 248f usage, 80f. See also T-seg style ruler
Rimless use, materials comparison, 249 Ruler-wide markings, advantages, 156f
INDEX 471

S Screwdrivers, plastic sleeve (inclusion), 256f

Safety bevel, 269f Segment. See Curved-top segment; High bifocal
amount, 201f segment
Safety beveling, 192, 278. See also Groove amount. See Plastic flat-top lenses
Safety concerns, 329 border, lateral corners. See Curved upper segment
information, 341 border
proficiency test questions, 342-343 bordering lines, lens positioning, 128f
Safety equipment. See Chemical tempering center, usage, 130f. See also Blended bifocals;
Safety eyewear, 292, 298 Horizontal reference
basic-impact requirements, 298-300 centering. See Near segment
high-impact requirements, 300-301 centration. See Curve-top segments
impact requirements, 298 decentration. See Vertical segment decentration
regulation, 298 height, lowering, 61
Safety frames, 301-303 information, 173f
ANSI standards, 301 line, cracking/indenting/chipping, 145f
marking requirements, 302b movement, 129f
Z87-2 marking, 302 outlining, 130f
Z87-type, appropriateness, 305 distortion, circular area, 130f
Safety glasses, 336 positions, 410-412, 434
defining, 302 relationship. See Major reference point
sports eyewear, contrast, 305f raise, 49f, 112-113
Safety lenses calculation, 410
identifying marking, 300 segment height, conversion, 113
marking methods, 299 rotation. See Nasalward segment rotation
requirements, 301t size. See Flat-top bifocals
Safety program Segment drop, 30f, 49f, 112-113
effectiveness, 334-339 amount, 117, 404, 415
employee involvement, 335 calculation, 59f, 410, 413
enforcement plan, 335 position, calculation, 129f
implementation/oversight, 334-335 requirement, 130
management support, 334-335 segment height, conversion, 113
Safety program, development, 331 usage, 113f. See also Left lens
Safety signs, display, 335, 336f Segment height, 43-44, 49f, 112
Safety training/education, 331 achievement, 59f
Salt bath, usage, 239 allowance, 130f
Salt replacement, 304 amount, 62f
Sand particles, scratching, 300 judgment, 125
Sandblasting. See Glass lenses; Plastic lenses usage, 113f
Santinelli groover, 284f Segment inset, 30f, 114. See also Total segment
Sclera, limitation. See White sclera inset
Scored lenses, breakage, 151f amount, 415
Scored line, creation, 150f checking. See Flat-top multifocals
Scoring. See Freehand scoring; Guided scoring confusion, 115f
Scratched lenses, unacceptability, 10 increase/decrease, 101f
Scratches. See Lenses usage. See Left lens
appearance. See Edged lenses Segment top, 32f
location, 28f 180-degree line tilt, relationship, 125f
Scratching, prevention, 17f, 30f movement, 402
Scratch-resistant coatings, 146, 295 usage. See Vertical alignment; Vertical reference
Scratch-resistant-coated lenses, 295 vertical position, 113f
Screw Segmented multifocal lenses, 2, 97, 112-114
mechanism, usage, 262 centration, 112
placement, 257f proficiency test questions, 133-137
smoothing, 257f Self-diagnostics, calibrations, 180-181
472 INDEX

Self-inspections, scope, 338b Small-millimeter gauge

Semifinished blanks, 3f, 216 inclusion. See Drills
Semifinished lenses, 4f positioning/locking, 254f
blank, rotation, 101f Smart Drill, The, 261, 265f, 266f
definition, 2 Smooth gradient, creation, 223-224
terminology, 2-4 Smooth-finish exteriors, 311
Semirimless mountings, 248f, 260f. See also Spring Smoothing. See Back bevel surface; Bevel; Holes
tension semirimless mounting necessity, 54
marking, frame usage, 259-260 tasks, performing, 192
nasal hole, drilling/mounting, 260f Sodium ions, usage, 303
Set numbers, 153 Sodium nitrate, usage, 303
absolute value, addition, 84 Softening point, 303f
Shadow projection, usage. See Centration device Sola Access, 107t
Shape determination. See Lenses Sola Access intermediate/near specialty progressive,
Shape tracing, 57f comparison. See Standard progressive
coquille, usage, 66-67 Solid tint, color/transmission, 221f
old lens, usage, 66-67 Solids, 220
pattern, usage, 66-67 Space bar, usage, 263
Shapes, superimposition, 252f Specialty computer lenses, 110
Shoe Specialty progressive addition lenses, 105-110
contact, 269 Special-V bevel, 162
usage, 248 Spectrophotometer, usage, 217
Shoulder, usage, 248 Speed, control, 196f
Side shields, 302-303 Sphere lenses, OC, 28
removability, 302f Sphere lines
Sighting eye, positioning, 251f crossing point, 22f
Silhouette, usage, 260 definition, 12
Simple gradient lens, dyeing, 221 focusing, 15f
Simple gradient tint, 220-221 positioning, 20f
Single vision lenses, 2, 50f, 439f, 440f. See also Sphere/cylinder target intersection, 20
Centration skills series; Non prismatic single Spheres. See Blemished sphere
vision lenses power, 15f
centration, 75 verification, 16
challenge questions, 95-96 spotting, 16
general questions, 95-96 Spherical eyeglass correction, 13f
proficiency test questions, 93-96 Spherical lens, examination, 13
movable line, indication, 84f Spherically powered round-segment lenses, 35b
movable vertical line, 82 Spherocylinder lenses
spotting, 20-21 custom surfacing. See Paired spherocylinder lens
Single vision minimum blank size chart, 90f dots, placement, 30f
Single vision sphere spotting, crossed-line-target examination, 13-16
lensmeter (usage), 18b illuminated target, center, 22f
Single-use bottles, usage, 214f matching. See Prefinished bifocals
Skewed bridge, 240 power (verification), crossed-line-target lensmeter
Slab-off lenses, testing exemption, 294 (usage), 16b
Slippery hazards, awareness, 337 rotation, 101f
Slot centers spotting, crossed-line-target lensmeter (usage),
vertical/horizontal lines, intersection, 268f 18b
Slot centers, dotting, 267f verification, 16-18
Slotted lenses, 263-266 Spherocylinders. See Blemished spherocylinder
Slotted mountings, 247 power
bibliography, 273 requirements, 23
proficiency test questions, 274-275 verification, 16-18
Small businesses, OSHA impact, 331 spotting, 16-18
INDEX 473

Spherocylindrically powered round-segment lenses, Strain points, 168f

35b Strapping pliers, usage, 270, 273f
Spills, cleanup, 340 Straps
Spoon-shaped riffler file, usage, 257f angling, 272f
Sports eyewear, 292, 305 area
contrast. See Safety lenses adjustments. See Double-strap area
sample, 305f close-up, 249f
Spotted 180-degree line, 124, 124f distance. See Double straps
Spotted MRP, 115, 117, 121 lens thickness, incompatibility, 272-273
location accuracy, checking, 123f misrotation, 272f
Spotted point, 119 mountings, usage. See Double-strap mountings
Spotting. See Lens spotting; Major reference point; positioning, 272f
Multifocal lenses; Respotting; Single vision Stylus, definition, 64
lenses; Spheres; Spherocylinders Suction
autolensmeters, usage, 21-27 blocking, 138
automated lensmeter usage, lens positioning, 25f cup, adapter attachment, 139f
crossed-line-target lensmeter, usage. See Single usage. See Blocking
vision sphere spotting; Spherocylinder lenses Suction-blocked lenses, deblocking, 185
definition, 5 Surfaced lenses, stock lenses (contrast), 216
mechanism. See Autolensmeters Surfaces. See Finished surfaces
process, 395 cracking, 249
Spring tension semirimless mounting, 257 curvature, 5f
Spring water, problems, 213 deficiencies, 11
Spring-connected coupling pins, positioning. See generation, 3f
Centering irregularities, 11f
Spring-controlled guide arms, 280 scratches
Spring-coupled pins, movement, 282f effect. See Impact resistance
Stainless-steel stirring rod, rinsing, 214f prevention, 280
Stand drill, 253 Surfacing, 3f
Stand table, movement, 266f process, 77f
Standard alignment, 3f, 6, 235. See also Metal frames; Surfacing laboratories, 1-2, 32f, 99f
Plastic frames data, transferring, 67
definition, 6 functions, 3
proficiency test questions, 246 software programs, usage, 119
Standard cross mark, placement. See Lenses Symmetrical nasal cut, achievement, 203f
Standard progressive
intermediate/near specialty progressive, T
comparison, 106f Tap water, problems, 213
Rodenstock Office intermediate/near design Taps, usage, 272f
specialty progressive lens, comparison, 109f Target center, reference, 22f
Sola Access intermediate/near specialty progressive, Target clarity, degradation, 13f
comparison, 108f Tattooing, 299
Standard V-bevel wheels, 162 Technica. See AO Technica
Static load form testing, 295 Temple
Stationary vertical line, 121 bend-down end positions, 245
Stock finished bifocals, 2 ends, alignment, 243
Stock lenses opening, 272f
contrast. See Surfaced lenses parallelism, 242-243, 245-246
off-center optical center, inclusion, 28 re-angling, 245f
Stock removal, definition, 194 spread, 242, 244f. See also Metal temple spread;
Stock single vision lenses, 2, 4f Open temple spread
Straight-ahead gaze, 109f. See also Overplussed decrease, 244f
straight-ahead gaze reduction, 244f
Straight-ahead viewing, 109f Temple-fold angle, 243, 246
474 INDEX

Temporal edge. See Frames Tinting (Continued)

Temporal hole proficiency test questions, 231-234
drilling, 260f suggestions. See Polycarbonate lenses
location, marking, 260f temperatures, 215
relationship. See 180-degree line troubleshooting, 229t-231t
Temporal lens straps, bending, 268 Tints. See Base tints; Gradients; Simple gradient tint
Temporal movement, 289f color, usage, 217f
Temporal slots, positioning, 263 removal, neutralizer (usage), 219
Testing, 292. See also Impact resistance styles, 220-225
proficiency test questions, 306-308 tanks
requirements. See Basic-impact testing cleaning, 229
requirements; High-impact testing variety, 213f
requirements temperature, 229
Thick lenses, center bevel placement, 160f Top bar, connection, 248f
Thick-edged high minus lenses, 279f Total decentration, 52
Thick-edged plus lenses, edging, 163f Total drop
Thickness independent consideration, 402-403, 430
amount. See Plus edges simultaneous consideration, 404-405, 431
determining. See Center thickness Total inset, 114. See also Left lens
errors. See Plus lenses confusion, 115f
incompatibility. See Straps determination, 410
increase, 101f independent consideration, 402-403, 430
measurement. See Edged lenses simultaneous consideration, 404-405, 431
requirements, 41f. See also Basic-impact thickness Total segment inset, 114, 128
requirements; High-impact thickness usage. See Blended bifocals
requirements Toxic substances, 331
variation, 273f Tracers
Thin centers. See High-index minus lenses; patternless edger, electronic link, 172f
Polycarbonate lenses placement. See Edgers; Remote-site dispensary
Thin edges, 250-251 Tracing. See Demo lens; Eyes; Frame shape; OId lens;
Thin lenses, bevel apex placement, 160f Shape tracing
Thin metal rims. See Frames dimensions, 179f
Thin-edged low-powered lens, 279f laboratory requirements. See By-hand lens tracing
Thinning. See Low-minus-powered lenses; Over- lens, right/left distinction, 67f
thinning; Plus-minus-powered lenses process, 54f
Three-axis frame tracers, 66 usage. See Pattern making
Three-dimensional tracing. See Frames Training, 346
Three-piece mountings. See Rimless three-piece documentation, 336-337
mounting sessions, 346
marking, coquilles (usage), 252-253 Translucent background grids, readjustment (Allen
Tilted 180-degree line. See 180-degree line screws, usage), 312f
Tilted bifocal segments, 313f Translucent white plastic, back-lighting, 220f
Tilting ability, 261-262 Transmission. See Solid tint; Tinted lenses; Ultraviolet
Tint unit, 212-213 light; Visible light
availability, 213f accuracy, ensuring, 217-220
dial, marking, 216f areas, 218f
powering down, 228-229 curve, 219f. See also Brown plastic lens
Tinted lenses, transmission, 218f measuring, 217
Tinting, 3f, 6, 212, 216-217. See also Polycarbonate reading, 225f
lenses; Uncuts Tray up order, 3f
bibliography, 234 Trifocal lenses (trifocals), 4f. See also 7x28 trifocals;
fluids, disposal, 340 Centration skills series
lens preparation, 216 centering, 408
process, explanation, 212-216 definition, 2
INDEX 475

Trifocal lenses (trifocals) (Continued) Vertical decentration. See Horizontal midline

positioning. See Flat-top trifocals questions, 93-94
selection, 105 Vertical lens
Triple gradients, 221f; 224-225 area, sufficiency. See Double-segment lenses
Trivex, 249, 250 size, 40-41
lenses Vertical line. See Single vision lenses; Stationary vertical
classification, 277 line
materials, 258 centering, 438f
Truing, definition, 6 Vertical misalignment. See Pattern centers
T-seg device, usage, 155 Vertical pattern dimension, 61b
T-seg style ruler, usage, 156f Vertical placement, specification, 79-81
Two-axis frame tracers, 66 Vertical position. See Major reference point; Segment
top
U calculation. See Progressive addition lenses
Ultrasonic cleaner, usage, 280. See also Groove Vertical prism, 207f, 396-397. See also Progressive
Ultraviolet (UV) dyeing, 225-226 addition lenses
Ultraviolet (UV) light amount, 91
effect, 217 correction. See Unwanted vertical prism
transmission, 218f evaluation, 120f
Ultraviolet (UV) liquid, disposal, 340 usage, 206
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 225 Vertical protractor line, 116
Ultraviolet (UV) region, inclusion, 219f Vertical reference
Unblemished lens, 12f line, 88f
Uncut lens blank, 10f movement, 82
Uncut minus lens blank, 10f segment top, usage, 116f
Uncut-finished stage, testing, 294 Vertical segment decentration, 59
Uncuts, 2, 4f Vertically displaced mechanical centers, usage. See
drawing, 252f Patterns
tinting/matching, 219-220 Vertically displaced pattern centers, compensation,
Unwanted prism, standards, 92 58-59
Unwanted vertical prism, correction, 205-206 Vertometer, 5
Upper distance portion, progressive addition lenses V-grooved wheel, 191
(impact), 98f Viewing screens. See Patternless edgers
usage. See Edges; Lens shapes
V Visible lens marking, 34
Variable-hole diameters, 262 Visible light, transmission, 218f
Variant alignment, 241 Visible spectrum, inclusion, 219f
Variant planes, 241-242 Vision, area (increase), 106f
Varilux (Essilor), 104f Vision lenses. See Non prismatic single vision lenses;
V-bevel blade, 277 Stock single vision lenses
V-bevel grooves Vision Safety Notice, 297
apex, 326f
usage. See Hand edgers W
V-bevel wheels. See Standard V-bevel wheels Warning, forms, 346
usage, 162 Warpage, 209
V-bevels, 321 Waste
Ventilation, need, 338-339 disposal, ease (rules), 339-340
Vertical alignment, 240-241 generator, 330
segment top, usage, 132f management, problems. See Laboratory
Vertical centration removal. See Liquid wastes
calculation, boxing system (usage), 78-83 Waviness. See Lenses
ensuring, 90f checking, 13f
Vertical compensation, 60. See also Pattern errors Wax-blocked lenses, deblocking, 186
calculation, 418 Wearer safety issues, 249, 276-277
476 INDEX

WECO blocker, 266, 272f White sclera, limitation, 45f

WECO edger, 272f Wide segments, usage. See Adhesive pad blocking
Wet edging. See Polycarbonate lenses Workplace
Wet hazards, awareness, 337 analysis, 331
Wet sponge, usage, 279 cleanup, 335
Wet surfaces, danger, 339f hazards, 331
Wheel differential Work-related illness/injury, 336
adjustment, 316 Wraparound, 241
checking, 315 Wrap-around effect, 171
sequence, 315b Wrap-around frames
measuring, 315 base curve, steepness, 171
Wheels. See Bonded roughing wheels; Edger wheels; lenses, edging, 170-171
Electroplated roughing wheels; Glazed wheels
cleaning. See Electroplated wheels X
concentration. See Diamond wheels X coordinate, 179f
dome, groover cutting wheel (flush placement), X-ing, 241, 243
279f identification, 241f
dressing, 323-325. See also Diamond wheels; Metal-
bonded finishing wheels; Metal-bonded Y
roughing wheels Y coordinate, 179f
grits, 192 Yoked base down prism, 100
types/purposes. See Hand-edger wheel grits
groove depth, 161 Z
preparation. See Edge smoothing Z coordinate, 179f
retruing. See Ceramic hand-edging wheel; Roughing Z80 standards, questions, 94-95
wheels Z80.1-1999 standard. See American National Standards
rounded corner, usage, 200f Institute
sounds, 197 Z87.1 lens marking requirements. See American
surface, lens removal (frequency), 196f National Standards Institute
truing. See Diamond wheels Z87.1-1989 standards, 302b
types, 322f Z-axis dimension, 65
specification factors, 321f Zeiss RD, 107t
upward pull, advantage, 194f Zero scale. See Edger dials
usage. See Finishing; Hide-a-Bevel wheels; Mini-bevel Zero-adjuster knob. See Groover
wheels; Polycarbonate lens edging; Roughing
wheels; V-bevel wheels
wear, automatic recalibration, 155