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 Cambridge
International AS & A Level

Physics
Third edition

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This page intentionally left blank
 Cambridge
International AS & A Level

Physics
Third edition

Mike Crundell and Geoff Goodwin

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 Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press,
Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is
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© Mike Crundell and Geoff Goodwin 2020
First published in 2008
Second edition published in 2014
This edition published in 2020 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
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Typeset in ITC Berkeley Oldstyle Book 10.5/12.5 by Aptara Inc
Printed in the UK
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
ISBN 9781510482807

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 Contents
Introduction ix

AS LEVEL

Topic 1 Physical quantities and units

1.1 Physical quantities 2
1.2 SI quantities and base units 2
1.3 Errors and uncertainties 9
1.4 Scalars and vectors 18

Topic 2 Kinematics
2.1 Equations of motion 29

Topic 3 Dynamics
3.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion 52
3.2 Non-uniform motion 58
3.3 Linear momentum and its conservation 61

Topic 4 Forces, density and pressure

4.1 Turning effects of forces 73
4.2 Equilibrium of forces 75
4.3 Density and pressure 78

Topic 5 Work, energy and power

5.1 Energy conservation 87
5.2 Gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy 93

Topic 6 Deformation of solids

6.1 Stress and strain 100
6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour 104

Topic 7 Waves
7.1 Progressive waves: transverse and longitudinal waves 110
7.2 Doppler effect 119
7.3 Electromagnetic spectrum 121
7.4 Polarisation 122

Topic 8 Superposition
8.1 Superposition and interference of waves 133
8.2 Superposition and stationary waves 140
8.3 Diffraction and the diffraction grating 149
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 Topic 9 Electricity
Contents

9.1 Electric current 161

9.2 Potential difference and power 164
9.3 Resistance and resistivity 166

Topic 10 D.C. circuits

10.1 Practical circuits 177
10.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 181
10.3 Potential dividers 185

Topic 11 Particle physics

11.1 Atoms, nuclei and radiation 196
11.2 Fundamental particles 208

AS Level review exercise 216

A LEVEL

Topic 12 Motion in a circle

12.1 Radian measure and angular displacement 223
12.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force 225

Topic 13 Gravitational fields

13.1 Gravitational field 231
13.2 Gravitational force between point masses 233
13.3 Gravitational field of a point mass 237
13.4 Gravitational potential 239

Topic 14 Temperature
14.1 Thermal equilibrium 243
14.2 Temperature scales 244
14.3 Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat 247

Topic 15 Ideal gases

15.1 The mole 253
15.2 Equation of state 254
15.3 Kinetic theory of gases 257

Topic 16 Thermodynamics
16.1 Internal energy 264
16.2 The first law of thermodynamics 266

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 Topic 17 Oscillations

Contents
17.1 Simple harmonic oscillations 272
17.2 Energy in simple harmonic motion 277
17.3 Damped and forced oscillations, resonance 279

Topic 18 Electric fields

18.1 Electric fields and field lines 286
18.2 Uniform electric fields 290
18.3 Electric force between point charges 293
18.4 Electric field of a point charge 295
18.5 Electric potential 296

Topic 19 Capacitance
19.1 Capacitors and capacitance 302
19.2 Energy stored in a capacitor 307
19.3 Discharging a capacitor 309

Topic 20 Magnetic fields

20.1 Concept of a magnetic field 315
20.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor 317
20.3 Force on a moving charge 320
20.4 Magnetic fields due to currents 326
20.5 Electromagnetic induction 330

Topic 21 Alternating currents

21.1 Characteristics of alternating currents 340
21.2 Rectification and smoothing 345

Topic 22 Quantum physics

22.1 Energy and momentum of a photon 350
22.2 Photoelectric effect 351
22.3 Wave–particle duality 356
22.4 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra 358

Topic 23 Nuclear physics

23.1 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 365
23.2 Radioactive decay 372

Topic 24 Medical physics

24.1 Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis 382
24.2 Production and use of X-rays 388
24.3 PET scanning 397

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 Topic 25 Astronomy and cosmology
Contents

25.1 Standard candles 402

25.2 Stellar radii 405
25.3 Hubble’s law and the Big Bang theory 408

Topic 26 Practical work 414

List of formulae and data 436

Answers 438
Glossary 450
Acknowledgements 458
Index 460

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 Introduction
Welcome to the third edition of Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics.
This textbook has been revised to comprehensively cover the Cambridge International
AS & A Level Physics syllabus (9702) for first examination in 2022.
This textbook is part of a suite of resources, which includes a Practical Skills Workbook,
Teacher’s Resources and a Study and Revision Guide.

How to use this book

This textbook, endorsed by Cambridge Assessment International Education, has been
designed to make your study of Physics as successful and rewarding as possible.

Organisation
The book is divided into two parts. Topics 1–11 cover the Cambridge International
AS Level Physics syllabus content and Topics 12–25 cover the extra content required
by students studying the full Cambridge International A Level Physics course. The
titles of the topics in this book exactly match those in the syllabus. In almost all cases,
the subheadings within the topics also match those used in the syllabus. Topic 26 is a
standalone chapter and provides information about practical work.
Numerical answers to questions are included at the back of the book.

Features to help you learn

Each topic contains a number of features designed to help you effectively navigate the
syllabus content.
At the start of each topic, there is a blue box that provides a summary of the syllabus
points to be covered in that topic. These are the exact learning outcomes listed in the
syllabus.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this topic, you will be able to: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi (c),
deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T)
1.1 Physical quantities
1 understand that all physical quantities 1.3 Errors and uncertainties
consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit 1 understand and explain the effects of
2 make reasonable estimates of physical systematic errors (including zero errors) and
quantities included within the syllabus random errors in measurements
2 understand the distinction between precision
1.2 SI units
and accuracy
1 recall the following SI base quantities and
3 assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity
their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
by simple addition of absolute or percentage
current (A), temperature (K)
uncertainties
2 express derived units as products or
quotients of the SI base units and use the 1.4 Scalars and vectors
derived units for quantities listed in this 1 understand the difference between scalar
syllabus as appropriate and vector quantities and give examples of
3 use SI base units to check the homogeneity of scalar and vector quantities included in the
physical equations syllabus
4 recall and use the following prefixes and their 2 add and subtract coplanar vectors
symbols to indicate decimal submultiples or 3 represent a vector as two perpendicular
multiples of both base and derived units: components

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 Each topic also has a number of Starting points, key bits of information that it may be
Introduction

useful to remind yourself of before you begin to read.

Starting points
★ Accurate measurement is very important in the development of physics.
★ Physicists begin by observing, measuring and collecting data.
★ The data items are analysed to discover whether they fit into a pattern.
★ If there is a pattern and this pattern can be used to explain other events, it
becomes a theory.
★ The process is known as the scientific method (see Figure 1.1).

Key points and definitions are highlighted in blue panels throughout the book so that
they can be easily identified and referred back to.

Every object continues in its state of rest, or with uniform velocity, unless acted on
by a resultant force.

There are also a number of boxes labelled Maths Note to guide you through some of the
mathematical skills required.

MATHS NOTE
There are actually two solutions to the defining equation of simple harmonic motion,
a = − ω 2 x, depending on whether the timing of the oscillation starts when the
particle has zero displacement or is at its maximum displacement. If at time t = 0
the particle is at its maximum displacement, x = x0, the solution is x = x0 cos ω t (not
shown in Figure 17.5). The two solutions are identical apart from the fact that they
are out of phase with each other by one quarter of a cycle or π/2 radians.
The variation of velocity with time is sinusoidal if the cosinusoidal displacement
solution is taken:
v = − v0 sin ω t when x = x0 cos ω t

Each topic features a number of Worked Examples, which show you how to answer the
kinds of questions you may be asked about the content contained within that topic.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1A
Calculate the number of micrograms in 1.0 milligram.

Answer
1.0 g = 1.0 × 103 mg
and 1.0 g = 1.0 × 106 micrograms (μg)
so, 1.0 × 103 mg = 1.0 × 106 μg
and 1.0 mg = (1.0 × 106)/(1.0 × 103) = 1.0 × 103 μg

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 Practice questions are included to give you opportunities to test your understanding of

Introduction
the topic and to use the skills and techniques demonstrated in the Worked Examples.

Questions Use the information in Tables 1.1 and 1.6 to determine the base units of the following
quantities.
8 density = mass/volume
9 pressure = force/area

Material that goes beyond the requirements of the Cambridge International AS & A Level
Physics syllabus, but which may be of interest, especially to those of you planning to
study Physics at a higher level, is clearly labelled in Extension boxes.

EXTENSION
In astronomy, the wavelength tends to be measured rather than the frequency. If the
measured wavelength of the emitted light (see Topic 25) is less than that measured
for a stationary source, then the distance between the source (star) and detector is
decreasing (blue shift). If the measured wavelength is greater than the value of a
stationary source, then the source is moving away from the detector (red shift).
The blue and red shifts are referred to in this way as red has the longest wavelength
in the visible spectrum and blue the shortest.

At the end of each topic, there is a Summary of the key points that have been covered.

SUMMARY
» When a force moves its point of application in the » Power = force × velocity
direction of the force, work is done. » Potential energy is the energy stored in an object
» Work done = Fx cos θ, where θ is the angle between due to its position or shape; examples are elastic
the direction of the force F and the displacement x. potential energy and gravitational potential energy.
» Energy is needed to do work; energy is the ability » When an object of mass m moves vertically through
to do work. a distance ∆h in a uniform gravitational field, then
» Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only the change in gravitational potential energy is given
be converted from one form to another. by: ∆Ep = mg∆h where g is the acceleration of free
» Efficiency = useful energy output/total energy input fall.
» Power is defined as the rate of doing work or work » Kinetic energy is the energy stored in an object
done per unit time: due to its motion.
power = work done/time taken, P = W/t. » For an object of mass m moving with speed v, the
1
» The unit of power is the watt (W). kinetic energy is given by: Ek = 2 mv2 .
1 watt = 1 joule per second

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 Finally, each topic ends with a set of End of topic questions, some are exam-style questions
Introduction

written by the authors, others are taken from Cambridge International AS & A Level
Physics (9702) past examination papers.

END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS

1 State how the centripetal force is provided in the following examples:
a a planet orbiting the Sun,
b a child on a playground roundabout,
c a train on a curved track,
d a passenger in a car going round a corner.
2 NASA’s 20-G centrifuge is used for testing space equipment and the effect of
acceleration on humans. The centrifuge consists of an arm of length 17.8 m,
rotating at constant speed and producing an acceleration equal to 20 times the
acceleration of free fall. Calculate:
a the angular speed required to produce a centripetal acceleration of 20g,
b the rate of rotation of the arm (g = 9.81 m s–2).

Assessment
If you are following the Cambridge International AS Level Physics course, you will take
three examination papers:
» Paper 1 Multiple-choice (1 hour 15 minutes)
» Paper 2 AS Level Structured Questions (1 hour 15 minutes)
» Paper 3 Advanced Practical Skills (2 hours)

If you are studying the Cambridge International A Level Physics course, you will take
five examination papers: Papers 1, 2 and 3 and also:
» Paper 4 A Level Structured Questions (2 hours)
» Paper 5 Planning, Analysis and Evaluation (1 hour 15 minutes)

Command words
The table below, taken from the syllabus, includes command words used in the
assessment for this syllabus. The use of the command word will relate to the subject
context. Make sure you are familiar with these.

command word what it means

calculate work out from given facts, figures or information
comment give an informed opinion
compare identify/comment on similarities and/or differences
define give precise meaning
determine establish an answer using the information available
explain set out purposes or reasons/make the relationships between things
evident/provide why and/or how and support with relevant evidence
give produce an answer from a given source or recall/memory
identify name/select/recognise
justify support a case with evidence/argument
predict suggest what may happen based on available information
show (that) provide structured evidence that leads to a given result
sketch make a simple freehand drawing showing the key features
state express in clear terms
suggest apply knowledge and understanding to situations where there are a
range of valid responses in order to make proposals
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 Notes for teachers

Introduction
Key concepts
These are the essential ideas that help learners to develop a deep understanding of the
subject and to make links between the different topics. Although teachers are likely to
have these in mind at all times when they are teaching the syllabus, the following icons
are included in the textbook at points where the key concepts particularly relate to the
text:

Models of physical systems

Physics is the science that seeks to understand the behaviour of the Universe.
The development of models of physical systems is central to physics. Models simplify,
explain and predict how physical systems behave.

Testing predictions against evidence

Physical models are usually based on prior observations, and their predictions are tested
to check that they are consistent with the behaviour of the real world. This testing
requires evidence, often obtained from experiments.

Mathematics as a language and problem-solving tool

Mathematics is integral to physics, as it is the language that is used to express physical
principles and models. It is also a tool to analyse theoretical models, solve quantitative
problems and produce predictions.

Matter, energy and waves

Everything in the Universe comprises matter and/or energy. Waves are a key mechanism
for the transfer of energy and are essential to many modern applications of physics.

Forces and fields

The way that matter and energy interact is through forces and fields. The behaviour of
the Universe is governed by fundamental forces with different magnitudes that interact
over different distances. Physics involves study of these interactions across distances
ranging from the very small (quantum and particle physics) to the very large (astronomy
and cosmology).

The information in this introduction and the learning outcomes throughout the book
are taken from the Cambridge International syllabus for examination from 2022. You
should always refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the year of your students’
examination to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus document is
available on the Cambridge International website at www.cambridgeinternational.org.

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 Additional support
Introduction

A number of other Hodder Education resources are available to help teachers deliver the
Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics syllabus.
» The Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics Practical Skills Workbook is a
write-in resource designed to be used throughout the course and provides students
with extra opportunities to test their understanding of the practical skills required
by the syllabus.
» The Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics Teacher’s Resources include an
introduction to teaching the course, a scheme of work and additional teaching
resources.
» The Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics Study and Revision Guide is a
stand-alone resource that is designed to be used independently by students at the
end of their course of study as they prepare for their examinations. This title has not
been through the Cambridge International endorsement process.

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