Electric Charge Power

- Proton: positively charged - Rate at which electrical energy is converted to

- Electron: negatively charged another form such as motion, heat, or an
- Same Charge = Repel electromagnetic wave.
- Different Charge = Attract
- Charge of an electric charge is too small
- SI unit of charge is Coulumb
- 1 electron = -1.602x10-19coulumb
- 1 proton = 1.602x10-19coulumb
Conventional Current
- Power absorb by an electric component is the
- Positive to negative
product of voltage and current.
Electron Flow - 746 Watts = 1hp
- Negative to positive
Electric Current

- Results from movement of electric charge flow

of electrons.
- SI unit is Amperes. - If P is positive, component aborbs power.
- If P is negative, component produces power, it
is a source of energy.
Efficiency

Direct Current

- Current that flows in one direction all the time.

Ohms Law

Alternating Current

- Current that flows in alternating direction.

Voltage

- Like pressure, pushes the electrons.

- More voltage, more electrons flow.
- Cables and components can only handle a
certain amount of electrons passing through
them. Conductance
- 1N = 0.225lb - Inverse of resistance G = 1/R
- 1lb = 4.45N - SI unit is Siemens with symbol S
Resistivity Circuit

- Open Circuit: an open circuit exists when there

is a break or gap in the circuit.
- Close Circuit: a closed circuit condition exists
when a circuit is complete allowing current to
flow.
- Short Circuit: a short circuit exists when the
- Depends on material
original path of current flow is altered and a
‘shorter‘ than normal path for current flow
exists.
Series Circuit

- Components are connected in series if they

carry same current.
- Good conductors have a resistivity close to 10-8 - In a series circuit, all components are
- Insulators have a resistivity greater than 1010 connected end-to-end, forming a single path
- Semiconductors have resistivities in the range for current flow.
of 10-4 to 10-7
Parallel Circuit
Conductivity
- Components are connected in parallel if they
carry same voltage.
- In a parallel circuit, all components are
connected across each other, forming exactly
two sets of electrically common points.
Branches

- A “branch“ in a parallel circuit is a path for

Resistor electric current formed by one of the load
components (such as resistor).
- Voltage-current relation for a resistor that
obeys ohms law is a linear resistor. Node
- Every resistor has a power rating/wattage
- Is the point of connection between two or more
rating, maximum power the resistor can absorb
branches.
without overheating.
Loop

- Any closed path in a circuit.

- Branches = Independent Loop + Node – 1
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law and Series DC
Nominal Values and Tolerance
Circuit

1. Algebraic sum of the voltage drops is zero.

2. Algebraic sum of the voltage rises is zero.
3. Algebraic sum of the voltage drops equals the
algebraic sum of the voltage rises.
 - Because some of the molecules tend to remain
Kirchoff’s Current Law and Parallel
in the aligned position, every magnetic
DC Circuits
substance retains a slight amount of magnetism
1. Algebraic sum of the currents leaving a closed after having been magnetized, this produces a
surface is zero. small amount of residual magnetism in the
2. Algebraic sum of the currents entering a closed substance.
surface is zero.
Soft Iron
3. Algebraic sum of the currents leaving equals
the algebraic sum of the currents entering. - Iron that has a low carbon content and is easily
magnetized and demagnetized, used to make
the cores of solenoids and other electrical
equipment.
Solenoid

Magnetism

- Magnetism is one of the fundamental forces

involved in the use of electricity.
- Polarizing of electrons (meaning they are built
with an electron structure that can attract either
positively or negatively charged particles).
- Phenomenon produced by the motion of electric
charge, resulting in attractive and repulsive
forces between objects. Electromagnet
Magnet - The material becomes magnet when an electric
- An abject which attracts such magnetic current passes through.
substances as iron or steel. Permanent Magnet
- It produces a magnetic field external to itself
- Certain substances such as hard steel, are more
which reacts with magnetic substances.
difficult to magnetize than soft iron because of
- A permanent magnet is one which maintains an
the internal friction among the molecules. If
almost constant magnetic field without
such a substance is placed in a strong magnetic
application of any magnetizing force. Some
field and is struck several blows with a
magnetized substances show practically no loss
hammer, the molecules become aligned with the
of magnetic strength over a period of several
field. When the substance is removed from the
years.
magnetic field, it will retain its magnetism;
Magnetic Field hence it is called a permanent magnet.
- Assumed to consist of invisible lines of force
Domain
which leave the north pole of a magnet and
enter the south pole. - There are groups of billions of atoms in
magnetic substances, each group having its
Curie Temperature atoms aligned to give the group a polarity.
- Temperature at which the heat will destroy the These groups are called domains and are
polarization of the material. apparently arranged in accordance with the
- External magnetic field is applied. crystalline structure of the material.

Residual Magnetism

- When a piece of soft iron is placed in a

magnetic field, almost all the molecules in the
iron align themselves with the field; but as soon
as the magnetizing field is removed, most of the
molecules return to their random positions and
the substance is no longer magnetized.
Magnetic Field Sources Left-Hand Rule for Coils

- The field of force existing between the poles of - When a coil is grasped in the left hand with the
a magnet. fingers pointing in the direction of current flow,
that is, from negative to positive, the thumb will
point toward the north pole of the coil.
Solenoid

- Commonly used to operate switches, valves,

circuit breakers, and several types of
mechanical devices.
Magnetic Flux - The chief advantage of solenoids is that they
- Magnetic force is said to travel from north to can be placed almost anywhere in an airplane
south in invisible lines. and can be controlled remotely by small
- The external field of a magnet is distorted switches or electronic control units.
when any magnetic substances is placed in that Relays
field because it is easier for the lines of force
- Electrically operated switches are often called
to travel through the magnetic substance than
relays.
through the air.
- These may be simple switches of the single-
throw type or more complex switches of the
double-throw type.
- The part of the relay attracted by the
electromagnet to close the contact points is
called armature.
Induction

- The transfer of electric energy from one circuit

to another without the aid of electric
Permeability connections.
- When electric energy is transferred by means
- The ease with which a substance carries
of a magnetic field, it is called electromagnetic
magnetic lines of force.
induction.
Reluctance - Electromagnetic induction occurs whenever
- The opposition of a material to magnetic flux. there is a relative movement between a
conductor and a magnetic field, provided that
Law of Magnetic Circuits the conductor is cutting across magnetic lines of
force and is not moving parallel to them.
- It‘s similar to Ohm‘s Law for Electric Circuits.
- The relative movement may be caused by a
- The force which causes magnetic flux to flow
stationary conductor and a moving field or by
through a substance is called magnetomotive
a moving conductor with a stationary field. A
force, abbreviated as mmf, and may be
moving field may be provided by a moving
compared to emf.
magnet or by changing the value of the current
- Mmf is measured in gilberts and the symbol is
in an electromagnet.
F.
- The intensity of the flux is represented by the
Generator Action
Greek letter phi (Φ).
- The law for magnetic circuits may be stated as - As the conductor is moved through the field, a
follows: 1 gilbert establishes a flux of 1 line of voltage is induced in it.
force through a material when the reluctance
Transformer Action
of the material is 1.
- The maxwell is the unit of magnetic flux and - The coil which produces the magnetic field and
represents 1 line of force. When there is a the coil in which the voltage is induced are both
magnetic flux of 1 maxwell per square stationary. The movement of the magnetic field
centimeter (cm2) of cross-sectional area, the is produced by varying the strength of the
flux density is 1 gauss. current in the coil which produces the field.
 - Resistance of a semiconductor falls as sits
Self-Inductance
temperature rises.
- The magnetic property of a coil or wire which - Most common are silicon, germanium, selenium.
causes it to induce an opposing emf within the
Semiconductor Devices
same circuit.
- Electronic components that exploit the electronic
Spark Coil
properties of semiconductor materials.
- Also known as induction coil.
- Used extensively to produce spark necessary
for the ignition of fuel.
- Special type of transformer.
- The low voltage of a battery is stepped up to
several thousand volts so that it will jump the
gap of a spark plug and create a spark.
Magneto

- Magnetic field is provided by a permanent Electric Measuring Instruments

magnet.
- Most common electric measuring instruments
Capacitor are ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter and
wattmeter.
- A capacitor consists of two conductors
separated by an insulating medium which is Ammeter
capable of holding an electric charge.
- Instrument for
- Air, or other insulating material is called
measuring either
dielectric.
direct current or
Fixed Capacitor alternating current in
amperes.
- Constructed with the plates and dielectric placed
- Usually connected in series.
firmly together and covered with a protecting
material such as waxed paper, plastic, ceramic Voltmeter
material, or an insulated metal case. Because
- Used for measuring
of its construction, the capacitance of a fixed
potential difference
capacitor cannot be changed.
between two points.
Variable Capacitor - Connected in parallel.
- Normally have fixed plates and movable plates
Ohmmeter
arranged in such a manner that the dielectric
effect between the plates may be changed by - Measure electrical
varying the distance between the plates or by resistance.
moving one set of plates into or out of the other
set.
- Capacitance value can be altered either
electrically or mechanically.

Conductor

- Allows the flow of charge known as current. Wattmeter

- Mostly metals like silver, gold, copper, steel, and
- Measuring the electric
sea water.
active power in watts of
Insulator any given circuit.
- Material that does not allow electric current to
pass through like rubber, glass, oil, diamond,
and dry wood.
Semiconductor

- Conductivity value between a conductor and an

insulator.
Multimeter Shunt Wound

- Also called multitester. - It has the field winding and armature circuits
- Measure various electrical connected in parallel.
parameters such as - The shunt motors are constant speed motors.
voltage, current, and • Where speed is required to remain constant
resistance. form no-load to full load.
•Used in lathes, drills, sharpers, spinning and
weaving machines, boring mills etc.
Motor Compound Wound

- Any class of rotary electrical motor that - A DC motor in which both the series field and
converts electrical energy into mechanical shunt field are combined is known as
energy. compound wound DC motor.
- AC and DC. • Short-Shunt Compound Motor
Generator
• Long-Shunt Compound Motor

- Generator converts mechanical energy to Long-Shunt Compound Motor

electrical energy. - When the shunt field winding is connected in
parallel with the series combination of
DC Motor
armature winding and the series field winding.
- Described in part by the type of internal
Short-Shunt Compound Motor
winding they have.
- Shunt field winding is directly connected in
Field Winding parallel with the armature winding.
- The insulated currentcarrying coils on a field - The differentially-compound motors are rarely
magnet that produce the magnetic field needed used due to their poor torque characteristics.
to excite a generator or motor. However, the cumulatively-compound motors
- Electromagnet. are used in the constant speed applications with
irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy
Armature
loads like presses, reciprocating machines and
- The winding of an electric machine which shears etc.
carries alternating current.
AC Motor
- The armature windings conduct AC even on DC
machines, due to the commutator action (which - An electric motor driven by an alternating
periodically reverses current direction) or due current (AC).
to electronic commutation, as in brushless DC - Consists of a stator with a coil that is supplied
motors. with alternating current to convert electric
current into mechanical power.
Series Wound
- One of the main advantages of the ac power
- It has the field winding and armature winding system is that it provides more power for less
connected in series. weight.
- The series DC motors are variable speed
motors i.e., their speed is low at high torque and Universal

vice-versa. - Universal motor is identical with a d-c motor

- Although, at no-load or light load, the motor and may be operated on either alternating or
attains dangerously high speed. The series direct current.
motors have high starting torques. - Motor will turn steadily in one direction
• Used where large starting torque is required regardless of the type of current applied.
like in elevators, electric tractions, cranes, etc.
Induction
• Used where load is subjected to heavy
fluctuations and the speed is required to be - Essential parts
automatically regulated according to load • Stator - stator produces a rotating magnetic
requirements. field
• Also used in air compressors, vacuum • Rotor - receives its power from the stator
cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines etc. • Single Phase - there is a single phase supply.
 • Polyphase - can be two or three phase and Long Shunt Compound DC Generator
are similar to single phase motors in how they
operate - The shunt windings are parallel with both series
field and armature.
Synchronous
Short Shunt Compound DC Generator
- The rotation of the shaft is at the same
- An armature is parallel with the shunt field
frequency as the current supply.
windings.
- The synchronous speed is constant and at
which the motor generates electromotive force. AC Generator

AC Advantages - Also called alternator.

- Converts mechanical energy into alternating
- Lower startup power demands.
current electricity.
- Better control over starting current levels and
acceleration. DC Generator Advantage
- Broader customizability for different
- Have less fluctuations in their outputs and are
configuration requirements and changing
suitable for big machines.
speed and torque requirements.
- Greater durability and longevity. DC Generator Disadvantage

DC Advantages - Cannot be used with a transformer.

- May experience voltage drops.
- Simpler installation and maintenance
requirements. Alternator Advantages
- Higher startup power and torque.
- The voltage of a-c power may be changed at
- Faster response times for start/stop and
will by means of transformers. This makes it
acceleration.
possible to transmit power at a high voltage with
- Wider variety for different voltage
low current, thus reducing the size and weight
requirements.
of wire required.
- Alternating current can be produced in a three-
Generator
phase system, thus making it possible to use
- Machine which changes mechanical energy to motors of less weight for the same amount of
electrical energy. power developed.
- Mechanical energy may be supplied by any - A-c machinery, such as alternators and motors,
one of many devices such as gasoline engines, do not require the use of commutators; hence
steam engines, diesel engines, steam or water service and upkeep are greatly reduced.
turbines, wind-driven propellers, gas-turbine
engines.
- On airplanes, generators are usually driven by
the airplane engine.
DC Generator

- Mechanical energy into direct current

electricity.
- Three types are series, shunt, and compound.
- Shunt wound and compound wound generators
are used on aircraft.
Series Wound Generator

- The field winding is in series with armature

conductors.
Shunt Wound Generator

- Field windings are connected in parallel

through the armature conductors.
Compound Wound Generator

- Includes both series and shunt field wounding.