Peacefulatom 2009

Advanced Reactors
& Applications

ESTD. 1988

Editors
I.V. Dulera
Dilip Saha
P.K. Vijayan

Coordinator
S.K. Sinha
 For further details contact:

A.V.R. Reddy
Secretary, Technical Committee
International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy – 2009
and
Head, Analytical Chemistry Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA

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Foreword

Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, founder of the Indian Atomic Energy programme has recognized very
early the need for harnessing energy from the nucleus to meet the long term energy needs of the
country. He also emphasized the importance of indigenous Research & Development for
achieving the total technology of nuclear power generation, its related fuel cycle and various
non-power applications of nuclear energy. He believed that development of complete
technology in the nuclear energy sector is possible only if a solid foundation is laid in the basic
research. With that in view, he founded Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) which is
considered the cradle of nuclear energy development in the country. Subsequently, Atomic
Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET) [later rechristened as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC)] was set up with a mandate to develop a self-reliant nuclear power programme, to
utilize radiation and isotope technologies for healthcare, agriculture and industrial
applications, and to develop several advanced technologies related to accelerators, lasers,
advanced materials, etc. This entire activity was organized under one umbrella of the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) which was created in 1954, Dr. Homi J. Bhabha being its
first Secretary. In view of the modest uranium availability and the very large thorium resource in
the country, Dr. Bhabha formulated the Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme. India was
committed to the closed fuel cycle right from the inception of the atomic energy programme. The
first stage of the Indian Nuclear Power Programme is centered around the development of
PHWR technology and achieving a mastery of the entire fuel cycle. The second and third stages
aim at development of Fast Breeder Reactor Technology and large scale utilization of thorium in
the nuclear power generation. Through the deployment of the Three Stage programme, it is
feasible to make this country self-reliant in energy for a long time to come. Dr. Homi Bhabha’s
vision has become extremely relevant today in the backdrop of global climate change and the
requirement of a rapid growth in energy production for improvement of the quality of life of our
one billion plus population. Because of the technological isolation under which India has to
grow its nuclear programme, it has been particularly important for us to establish the relevant
Science & Technology base in various DAE institutions. In 2009, when India was celebrating
the birth centenary of Dr. Homi Bhabha, it was felt necessary to showcase all these
developments made in the country to the international audience. This was considered the best
tribute that the country could pay to Dr. Bhabha, the principal architect of Indian Atomic Energy
programme. With this aim, an International Conference on ‘Peaceful uses of Atomic Energy’
was organized from September, 29 to October 1, 2009 at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi as part of a
year long Homi Bhabha Centenary celebrations.

The Indian Nuclear Society (INS) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
joined Department of Atomic Energy in organising this important International Conference.
Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh inaugurated the Conference and Finance
Minister of India Shri Pranab Mukherjee released Bhabha birth centenary commemorative
coins. Technical programme of the conference consisted of a number of plenary lectures by
eminent personalities, expert lectures in nine “side events” comprising focused themes and
three round table panel discussions. In addition, there were about 300 contributed papers that
were presented in posters. Two pre-proceeding volumes were published containing extended
abstracts of the contributed papers, plenary lectures and side event talks. They were divided into
nine themes: Resources, Reactor Systems, Advanced Reactors, Nuclear Fuel Cycle, Reactor
Materials, Fast Reactors & Accelerator Driven Systems, Food & Agriculture, Radiotherapy &
Medicine and Nuclear Instrumentation. Lively discussions that followed the presentations
prompted the organisers to publish these nine thematic volumes comprising full length texts of
the contributed papers, plenary lectures and side event talks. It was also decided to request
experts to contribute articles if there are any gap areas in any of the themes. Editing each
thematic volume was coordinated by a team of experts, as shown below, who had worked hard to
prepare the volumes.

Resources R. Gupta, R.N. Jayaraj, Anjan Chaki, A.L.N. Rao,

G.K. Vithal and J. Nageshri
Reactor Systems and Applications S.P. Dharne, Sameer Hajela and R.R. Sahaya
Advanced Reactors and Applications Dilip Saha, P.K. Vijayan and I.V. Dulera
Nuclear Fuel Cycle H.S. Kamath, T.R.G. Kutty, R. Natarajan,
S.D. Misra, D.S. Rana, S.K. Munshi and
P.R. Vasudeva Rao
Reactor Materials A.K. Suri, C.S. Viswanadham and R.N. Singh
Fast Reactors and ADSS S.C. Chetal, P.K. Nema, D.K. Mohapatra and
P. Singh
Food and Agriculture A.K. Sharma and S.F D’Souza
Radiotherapy and Medicine Sandip Basu, R. Sarin and Meera Venkatesh
Nuclear Instrumentation P.K. Mukhopadhyay and Debasish Das

I am sure that these volumes will be a good reference material useful for students,
researchers and practitioners of nuclear technology. I complement the authors and editors for
their efforts. Members of Secretariat of Peacefulatom 2009 who contributed towards achieving
overall uniformity in editing and composing deserve special appreciation. I am confident that
readers would find these volumes as useful reading and reference material.

(Srikumar Banerjee)
Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission
Mumbai
and Secretary, Department of Atomic Energy
January 13, 2011.
Editorial

It gives us great pleasure to bring out this thematic volume on “Advanced reactors and their
applications” which assumes special significance in the context of current and future energy
technology scenarios.

The world population has almost doubled over the last three decades and will continue to
increase. As per the current estimates population would be about 8 billion by 2020 with nearly
90% of the population increase taking place in developing countries. In these countries, current
electricity consumption per capita, which may be used as an indicator of standard of living, is
very low, one or two orders of magnitude lower than in the industrialised countries effecting the
socio-economic development. Environmental concerns about the effects of burning fossil fuels
for energy production have stimulated interest in low-polluting energy sources in developed
countries also. Usually energy is consumed finally in different forms: as electricity, for
transport, or as heat. Among the different energy supply alternatives, nuclear energy represents
one of the few options that provide a means to produce energy in all forms, i.e. as electricity, low
and high temperature process heat, energy supply for production of hydrogen for transport
sector, both economically and under environmentally acceptable conditions. Further
development and deployment of nuclear power may thus appear an attractive option for
contributing to a long term, safe and reliable energy supply.

One alternative for meeting future energy needs is to gradually increase the deployment of
nuclear energy by introducing advanced designs into the energy supply systems throughout the
world. In this context, it may be noted that an advanced design is characterised as a plant design
of current interest or merit but which has not yet been constructed or operated; such advanced
designs, in turn, can be divided into evolutionary and innovative designs. An evolutionary design
is a descendent from an existing plant design featuring design improvements and modifications
based on feedback of experience and incorporating new technological achievements. A strong
emphasis is put on maintaining proven design to minimise technological risks. An evolutionary
plant design at most requires engineering and confirmatory testing prior to commercial
deployment. An innovative design, on the other hand, will incorporate radical conceptual
changes in design approaches or system configuration in comparison with existing practice. It
may need substantial R&D, feasibility tests, and may also require construction of a
demonstration plant and/or prototype plant prior to large-scale commercial deployment.

Over the past three decades, thousands of reactor-years of operating experience have been
accumulated with current economic and reliable nuclear energy systems. New generations of
nuclear power plants have been, or are being, developed, building upon this background of
success and applying lessons learned from the experience of operating plants; hence, the new,
advanced designs are anticipated to become even more safe, economic and reliable than their
predecessors.

Advanced designs generally incorporate improvements of the safety concepts, including,

among others, features that will allow operators more time to perform safety actions, thus
providing even more protection against any possible releases of radioactivity to the
environment. Upgraded designs may also include introduction of passive safety features that are
based on natural forces, such as convection and gravity, making safety functions less dependent
on active systems and components like pumps and valves. Great attention is paid to making new
plants simpler to operate, inspect, maintain and repair. In the event of disturbances and
accidents, largely digitalised control, monitoring and protection systems will automatically
bring the plant back to normal conditions or to a safe shutdown state, without operator action.
Typical design objectives imply that safety actions by the operators shall not be needed within at
least 30 minutes, leaving them time to assess the situation carefully before acting. Increased
thermal inertia in the reactor system and reduced core power densities are two such design
related factors. With respect to passive safety features, their function will normally be
independent of power supply, and they will be governed by laws of nature, such as density
differences, gravity etc.

This thematic volume on advanced reactor designs and their applications has been broadly
divided into three major categories:

1. Thorium utilisation

2. Advanced reactors
a. Advanced heavy water reactor
b. Compact high temperature reactor

3. Application of advanced reactors

a. Nuclear desalination
b. Nuclear hydrogen production

Thorium Utilisation

In Indian context utilisation of thorium is very important, due to large available reserves. In
general thorium is three times more abundant in nature compared to uranium and occurs mainly
as ‘fertile’ 232Th isotope. In recent years, there has been renewed and additional interest in
thorium world wide because of:
232
1. The intrinsic proliferation resistance of thorium fuel cycle due to the presence of U and
its strong gamma emitting daughter products.
2. Better thermo-physical properties and chemical stability of ThO2, as compared to UO2
which ensures better in-pile performance
3. Lesser long lived minor actinides than the traditional uranium fuel cycle,
4. Superior plutonium incineration in (Th, Pu)O2 fuel as compared to (U, Pu)O2
However, there are several challenges in the front and back end of the thorium fuel cycles.
Irradiated ThO2 and spent ThO2-based fuels are difficult to dissolve in HNO3 because of the
inertness of ThO2. The high gamma radiation associated with the short-lived daughter products
of 232U, which is always associated with 233U, necessitates remote reprocessing and
refabrication of fuel.

This section deals with most of the above mentioned issues of thorium fuel cycle.

Advanced Reactors

The third stage of the three-stage Indian power programme aims at the development of
reactors based on 233U obtained from irradiated Thorium. To expedite transition to
thorium-based systems, an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) has been designed and
developed at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. A comprehensive theoretical and experimental
programme has been carried out to study various phenomena involved. Studies have also been
conducted on a variant of AHWR based on low enriched uranium in thorium matrix. This reactor
called AHWR300-LEU, addresses satisfactorily the challenges of very high level of safety and
security, high degree of fuel use efficiency, superior waste disposal options, and
non-proliferation properties.

Nuclear energy assisted hydrogen production is attractive as a long-term sustainable

alternate to fossil fuel for transport applications. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is
developing technologies for high temperature reactors and hydrogen production processes. The
current R&D activities target technologies for high temperature nuclear reactors, capable of
supplying process heat at 1000°C. A Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR) is being
developed as a technology demonstrator. This reactor will have a refuelling interval of around
15 years and will have several advanced passive safety features to enable its operation as
compact power pack in remote areas not connected to the electrical grid.

This section deals with various aspects of design of AHWR and AHWR300-LEU and their
fuel cycle as well as CHTR.

Applications of Advanced Reactors

Desalination of water is one of the key drivers under non-power applications of Atomic
Energy Program in India. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) has been engaged in
development and deployment of desalination and water purification technologies for a wide
range of applications. BARC is actively involved in nuclear desalination activities and have set
up a number of desalination facilities attached to nuclear reactors.

Other important application for advanced reactors is nuclear hydrogen production.

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is developing technologies for nuclear hydrogen
production processes. Besides conventional electrolysis process, the current R&D activities
target technologies for development of high efficiency hydrogen production processes such as
thermo-chemical and high temperature steam electrolysis.

This section deals with developmental and demonstration activities related to nuclear
desalination and some of the developmental activities related to hydrogen production by
thermo-chemical process.

This volume has been a modest effort to bring to the readers an insight into Indian activities
related to development of advanced reactors as well as their applications. We are sure that the
readers of this volume will find the papers interesting and get provoked to explore further in this
area.

D. Saha
I.V. Dulera
Acknowledgement

We are extremely grateful to Dr. Srikumar Banerjee, Chairman, Atomic Energy

Commission and Secretary to the Government of India, for conceiving the idea of “side events”
with focused themes and publication of thematic volumes while finalizing the scope of the Fifth
International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy -2009 (Peacefulatom 2009) that
was held during September 29-October 01, 2009 in Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi. Full length texts
of the contributed papers, plenary lectures and side event talks were categorised into nine
thematic volumes namely: Resources, Reactor Systems, Advanced Reactors, Nuclear Fuel
Cycle, Reactor Materials, Fast Reactors and ADSS, Food and Agriculture, Radiotherapy and
Medicine, and Nuclear Instrumentation. Intense and sustained efforts of editorial teams and
members of Conference Secretariat resulted in obtaining manuscripts of all the papers that were
presented in the Peacefulatom 2009 as well as articles from experts to fill in the gaps so as to
present a thematic sequence of articles. Above all, cooperation of the authors is greatly
acknowledged for submitting the manuscripts in time. Grateful acknowledgement to editorial
teams for going through each and every article, and making necessary changes in consultation
with the authors. Our thanks are due to all of them who have contributed in making these
thematic volumes.
We are thankful to Dr. Anil Kakodkar, former Chairman, AEC for his continuous
encouragement. Dr. S.K. Jain, CMD, NPCIL, has been a source of support for the publications
of these thematic volumes and we thank him for the same.We are grateful to Prof. P. Rama Rao,
President, Indian Nuclear Society for encouragement and sponsoring the publication of these
volumes.
These volumes could be published due to excellent efforts of members of the Secretariat,
Peacefulatom 2009 who co-ordinated, composed and strived to bring uniformity in the style of
presentation. Administrative colleagues of Analytical Chemistry Division, Radiochemistry and
Isotope Group, Office of Director, BARC and AEC Chairman’s office are acknowledged for
their continued cooperation.

Our special thanks are due to the following members

Composing Sharad D. Nalavade, Vishal N. Koli and Prakash Panwalkar.
Cover page Vilas Sangurdekar, Anand Bhatt and K.H. Gharat
Over-all K.Venkatesh, Vimalnath Nair, K.K. Swain, S.K. Thulasidas, S.K. Sinha,
coordination P.P. Kelkar and Nicy Ajith.
Administration Vishal N. Koli, Vaishali N. Wade, S.D. Shinde, Anil Kumar, P. Rajeev,
R. Sudha, G.J. Kutty, Krishna Kumar, S. Jayalakshmi, V. Padmanabhan,
P.K.S. Pillai, K. Sudhakar, R. Jagannathan

A.V.R. Reddy, V. Venugopal and R.K. Sinha

 Table of Contents

1. Thorium Utilisation
1.1 Thorium Fuel Cycle – Status and Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
P.K. Dey
1.2 Studies on the Determination of Burn-up of Irradiated Thoria by
Thermal Ionisation Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
S.K. Aggarwal, P.G. Jaison, V.M. Telmore, R.V. Shah, V.L. Sant, K. Sasibhushan,
A.R. Parab, D. Alamelu and V. Venugopal
1.3 Compositional characterization of uranium-thorium oxide of AHWR
fuel composition by EDXRF and TXRF at Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC . . . . . . . . 20
N.L. Misra, Sangita Dhara, S. Sanjay Kumar, S. Kannan, S.K. Aggarwal, V.
Venugopal
1.4 Microsphere Impregnation Technique for the Fabrication of Dense
(Th,U)O2 Pellets for AHWR: Reproducibility of Product Composition . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Rajesh V. Pai, J.V. Dehadraya and S.K. Mukerjee
1.5 Xe Release from Irradiated ThO2 Matrix an Important issue in Nulcear
Fuel Performance Analysis in relation to Peaceful Use of Thoria based Fuels. . . . . . . . 34
Siddhartha Kolay, A.N. Shirsat, M. (Ali) Basu, D. Das
1.6 Thermo Physical Properties of Thoria Based Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
A. K. Sengupta, J. Banerjee, R. K. Bhagat, Arun Kumar and H. S. Kamath
1.7 Understanding Response of Thorium under High Temperatures and High
Pressures using ab-initio Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
K.D. Joshi, Satish C. Gupta and S. Banerjee

2. Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

2.1 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Dilip Saha and Ratan Kumar Sinha
2.2 Facilitating Large Scale Nuclear Power Deployment through Technological
Innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Ratan Kumar Sinha
2.3 Design of A Thorium Fuelled Advanced Heavy Water Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
P.D. Krishnani
2.4 Thoria Based Fuel Cycle for AHWR - An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V.Shivakumar, K. Anantharaman, Arun Kumar, A.K. Gupta, D.S. Rana
2.5 Fuel Cycle Flexibility in Advanced Heavy Water Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Arvind Kumar, P.D. Krishnani and R. K. Sinha
2.6 Fuel Handling System for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
R.J. Patel, P. Halder, M.P. Kulkarni, S. Roy, S. Bansal, K.K. Jha, M. Chaturvedi,
G. Sharma
2.7 Probabilistic Safety Assessment of AHWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
V. Gopika, D. Mukhopadhyay, B. Chatterjee, V. Verma, I. Thangamani,
M. Hari Prasad, V.V.S. Sanyasi Rao, H. G. Lele, A. K. Ghosh
2.8 Critical Facility for AHWR & PHWRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Samiran Sengupta, S. B. Chafle, S. Mammen, K. Sasidharan, V. K. Raina
2.9 (Th,LEU) MOX: Alternate Fuel in AHWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Neelima Prasad Pushpam, Anek Kumar, Umasankari Kannan, Arvind Kumar,
P.D. Krishnani

3. Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR)

3.1 High Temperature Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
I.V. Dulera, R.K. Sinha and D. Saha
3.2 Physics Design of Compact High Temperature Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
D.K. Dwivedi, Anurag Gupta, Ashok Kumar, P.D. Krishnani

4. Nuclear Desalination
4.1 Nuclear Desalination Activities in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
P. K. Tewari
4.2 Thermodynamic Advantages of Nuclear Desalination through Reverse Osmosis . . . . . 157
K.P.Bhattacharyya, S.Prabhakar and P.K. Tewari
4.3 Nuclear Desalination Utilising Waste Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A. Raha, I.S. Rao, V.K. Srivastava and P.K. Tewari
4.4 Analysis of Lost Shaft Work Calculation by DEEP for Nuclear Desalination
Plant Considering Different Thermodynamic Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A.K. Adak, V.K. Srivastava and P.K. Tewari
4.5 Development of Carbon Aerogel based Multifarad Electrodes for Desalination
using Capacitive de-Ionization Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
R.K. Khardekar, D.K. Kohli, Rashmi Singh, M.K. Singh, P. Ramshankar
and P.K. Gupta

5. Nuclear Hydrogen Production

5.1 Nuclear Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
C.S.R. Prasad and I.V. Dulera
5.2 Application of transition metal ferrites AFe2O4 (A= Co, Ni, Cu) for the
catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acid involved in Sulfur-Iodine
Thermochemical Cycle for Nuclear Hydrogen production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
A. M. Banerjee, M. R. Pai, A. K. Tripathi and S. R. Bharadwaj
5.3 Catalytic Decomposition of Sulfuric Acid: An Important Step in
Sulfur-Iodine Thermochemical Cycle for Generation of Hydrogen Using
Compact High Temperature Nuclear Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
A.M. Banerjee, A.R. Shirole, M.R. Pai, A.K. Tripathi, V.S. Kamble, S.R. Bharadwaj,
D. Das and P.K. Sinha
Bio-data of the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Thorium Utilisation 1

Thorium Fuel Cycle – Status and Developments

P.K. Dey
Fuel Reprocessing Division, Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay,
Mumbai 400 085, INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Basic studies were initiated in the late sixties of the last century and flow sheet conditions were
established for the recovery of 233U alone or both 233U and thorium using acid THOREX
process with laboratory scale mixer settlers. Since in the initial phase recovery of 233U alone
was envisaged, 5% TBP-n-paraffin based solvent extraction was tested on pilot scale. A pilot
plant was setup in the early 1970s to demonstrate the validity of the flow sheet conditions
established in the laboratory. Thoria/Thorium irradiated in the reflector region of CIRUS, a
research reactor, was dissolved in concentrated HNO3 containing 0.03 M fluoride and 0.1 M
aluminium nitrate. The feed was contacted with 5% TBP in Shel sol-T in a mixer settler.
Co-extracted thorium and fission products were scrubbed back with nitric acid and the product
uranium was stripped with dilute nitric acid. Tail end purification of 233U was carried out by
anion exchanger in 8 M HCl medium. The recovered 233U was used in many physics
experiments and also in the core of KAMINI reactor, a unique reactor running on 233U fuel, for
neutron radiography of irradiated fuel. The years following the successful recovery of 233U
from irradiated thoria was used in process development to overcome some of the shortcomings
encountered in the pilot plant. In 2002, an engineering facility for 233U separation, Uranium
Thorium Separation Facility, has been designed, commissioned and operated successfully at
Trombay for the recovery of 233U from CIRUS irradiated thoria rods. Another facility named
Power Reactor Thoria Reprocessing Facility is being constructed at Trombay for processing
the irradiated zircaloy clad thoria bundles, from the initial flux flattening of PHWRs, to
separate 233U.
Keywords: Reprocessing, Thorium, Solvent Extraction, Ion exchange, thoria dissolution

Introduction achieve this objective. Thorium fuel cycle is

more or less an Indian fuel cycle as other
Unlike natural uranium, thorium exists
countries have access to richer uranium ores
mostly as a mono isotopic form in nature and
and will continue to latch on to uranium cycle
cannot be used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor
for a few more decades. Thus right from the
without mixing with a fissile counterpart.
beginning of nuclear energy programme due
Thus the Indian nuclear energy programme,
attention was given to all-round development
which has a heavy reliance on thorium
of thorium fuel cycle right from ore processing
utilisation in its third and final stage, needs to
to reprocessing and waste management.
accumulate enough fissile inventory to initiate
thorium cycle in a big way. The first and Even at the beginning, the challenges
second stages are designed optimally to offered by thorium fuel cycle were well

Advanced Reactors and Applications

2 Thorium Utilisation

known. Most of these issues have a direct of thoria and the corrosion behavior of
bearing on reprocessing, waste management fluoride.
and associated fuel re-fabrication processes.
In order to gain all round experience in
The first and foremost is the difficulty in the
thorium fuel cycle and also to exploit the
dissolution of thoria fuel. This necessitates the
expertise accumulated over the past 40 years
presence of fluoride catalyst which in turn has
in design and operation of PHWRs, an
to be complexed to protect the dissolver and
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is
other related equipment from corrosion. The
designed to extract maximum power from
other requirement is the mandatory cooling of
thorium in the interim period using both
more than 200 days to decay all the 233Pa to
233 (Th-Pu)O2 and (233U-Th)O2 in a single fuel
U else the radiation dose in the feed will be
cluster. Closing the fuel cycle of this reactor
very high due to its high specific activity. A
will address almost all issues and challenges
very long cooling will increase the
of thorium fuel cycle with an additional
high-energy gamma component due to decay
challenge of three component separation of in
of the rather short-lived 232U isotope formed
bred 233U and residual Pu from bulk thorium.
along with 233U. This will make the recovered
thorium highly radioactive making it R&D Studies in Thoria Reprocessing
necessary to cool for over 20 years to decay to
Extensive research and development
natural background else the entire product
studies have been carried out for more than a
handling and refabrication will have to be
decade in the field of thoria based spent fuel
remotised. Recovered 233U will always be
reprocessing and waste management fields
contaminated with 232U and the contamination
including the issues related to the closing of
will depend on the neutron spectrum at the
AHWR fuel cycle. The major areas addressed
irradiation location. Another issue is the
are (i) Optimisation of solvent extraction and
separation of uranium from thorium. Unlike
scrubbing stages to improve the product purity
Pu in uranium cycle, Th does not have a
of 233U recovered with 5% TBP, (ii) Tail-end
valancy state with low affinity to Tri-butyl
purification of 233U, (iii) Studies on the
phosphate (TBP). The difference in the
dissolution of thoria, (iv) Development of
selectivity has to be optimised to meet the
matrix to immobilize radioactive waste,
desired separation. Third phase formation
(v) Study on compatibility of materials of
with TBP at higher thorium loading is also a
construction in reprocessing and waste
process constraint as it can impede with the
management operations (vi) matrix
process. High level radioactive liquid waste
development for vitrification.
generated during reprocessing of thoria based
spent fuels is expected to contain thorium, Studies to Improve the Decontamination of
aluminum and fluoride in addition to the host the 233U Product
of fission products, corrosion products and During the operation of pilot facility,
actinides present in the PUREX high level because of various constraints encountered
waste (HLW). Presence of these elements while processing, uranium product obtained
adds a few additional challenges with respect often-contained significant amounts of
to vitrification in view of the refractory nature thorium as contaminant necessitating

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 3

additional steps for further purification. 0.3-3 g/L uranium at an acidity of 0.5 M HNO3
Laboratory data relevant to solvent extraction was used in the experiment. 1 or 2 M HNO3
equilibrium were collected further covering was used as preferential eluent depending on
thorium concentration from 50 to 250 g/L, the thorium loading. When 60% of the column
uranium from 0.5 to 15 g/L and acidity from 1 capacity was used up by thorium, the elution
to 4 M HNO3[1] . These data were used in the of uranium with 1 M HNO3 gave satisfactory
evaluation of a number of theoretical stages product. However, when less than 30% of the
for given flow sheet conditions. The column capacity was used up by thorium, the
programme envisaged recovery of only 233U elution with 1 M HNO3 required larger
and thorium was to be stored for recovery at a volumes, giving a dilute product. Under such
later stage. The scheme was tested with 20 situation, elution with 2 M HNO3 gave more
stage air pulsed mixer settlers. The acidity of concentrated product.
the feed was kept at 4 M as against scrub
The 233U product strip solution with low
acidity of 2 M. The extraction scheme had
acidity from the solvent extraction could be
12-14 stages for extraction of uranium and 6-8
directly passed through this column for final
stages for scrubbing the co-extracted thorium.
purification, the processing rate would depend
The flow ratios of aqueous feed:org:Aq.scrub
more on the thorium content of the solution.
for these two schemes were varied. Using this
Routine column operation would require rigid
scheme, it was possible to get loaded organic
control on thorium loading pattern and acidity,
containing uranium with only 5 to 10%
which might vary from batch to batch. After
thorium contamination, when the aqueous
washing out uranium preferentially, bulk of
feed contained 200 g/L thorium with 0.12% U.
the thorium from the column was finally
By increasing the number of scrub stages, it
eluted with 3-4 M HNO3. Complete removal
was possible to improve the product purity.
of thorium from the column with nitric acid
Tail End Purification of 233U alone was rather difficult. This problem was
solved by the use of 4% cross-linked resin [3].
A cation exchange procedure was studied
This procedure due to its adaptability for
in detail which involves the preferential
routine remote operation was chosen for plant
sorption of thorium from 0.5 M HNO3 feed
scale application.
containing 233U and thorium[2]. The
procedure yields an effluent and preferential Thoria Dissolution Studies
elution(wash) stream containing more than
The use of standard Thorex dissolvent, 13
99% 233U which is almost free from thorium.
M HNO3+0.025 to 0.05 M HF + 0.1 M
Satisfactory separation of uranium from
Al(NO3)3, for dissolving thoria in absence of
thorium is achieved in this technique by
zircaloy is well known. Numerous
careful manipulation of feed and elution
investigations of thoria dissolution in
acidities and also by controlling the thorium
HF-HNO3 mixtures had also been made with
loading to with in 60-80% of the total column
and without aluminium with thoria pellets of
capacity. An 8% crosslinked sulphonic acid
different preparative history. The study
type cation exchanger was used. A feed
conducted in the laboratory was restricted to
solution containing 1 g/L thorium and
two dissolvent mixtures 13 and 8 M HNO3

Advanced Reactors and Applications

4 Thorium Utilisation

with 0.1 M Al(NO3)3 and two concentrations 100

of HF, 0.03 M and 0.05 M. In subsequent work
80

% Th di ssolution
NaF was tried instead of HF since it is easier to
60
use and is reported to have enhanced Th2
dissolution rate. During chop leach process, 40 Th1

because of the presence of fluoride ions, some 20

dissolution of zircaloy fines can also be 0

expected. The aim of the study was to establish 0 50 100 150 200 250
Tim e, hours
the lowest acidity and fluoride ion
concentration for dissolving thoria fuels at an Th1=13 M HNO3+0.03 M HF+ 0.1 Al(NO3)3
acceptable rate with a view of minimizing the Th2=8 M HNO3+0.03 M HF+0.1 Al(NO3)3
feed adjustment for subsequent solvent Volume of Dissolvent = 250 mL;
extraction cycle in Thorex process and also to Temp. = 115 °C
study the corrosion rates of SS and zircaloy in Weight of pellets (3 Nos.)= 75 g
various dissolvent mixtures. Thoria used for
study was sintered pellets (1680oC), green Fig. 1 Thoria dissolution at different nitric
pellets and MgO doped (0.5 to 2.5%) sintered acid concentrations
pellets. In order to study uniform corrosion,
intergranular corrosion, weldments and stress The dissolution studies with MgO doped
corrosion of SS304L, SS coupons of standard pellets were conducted with 8 M HNO3
along with coupons of zircaloy-2 tube containing 0.03 HF.
cladding were placed in the dissolvent mixture More than 95% of the dissolution was
during dissolution [4,5]. completed in 13 M HNO3+ +0.03 M HF +0.1
The laboratory tests simulated the plant M Al(NO3)3 mixture in 92 hours, while the
conditions as closely as possible. Dissolutions time taken for the same in 8 M HNO3+ 0.03 M
were carried out in one litre vessels fitted with HF +0.1 M Al(NO3)3 mixture was 172 hours
water-cooled reflux condensers to minimize (Fig. 1) In comparison studies conducted with
the loss of dissolvents by evaporation. The 0.03 M of NaF and 0.03 M HF, the dissolution
sintered pellets with 95% theoretical density rate with NaF was found to marginally higher
(TD) were used. The vessels were heated to in the initial stages of dissolution compared to
the boiling temperature by electrothermal HF and leveled out at 82% for both after 40
mantle, which produced agitation through out hours of refluxing. But the time taken for
the solution while boiling. The volume of the complete dissolution in both cases was the
dissolvent was 250 mL. Approximately 75 g same. Studies with HF and NaF at 0.05 M
of thoria was added to have a final thorium instead of 0.03 M showed some enhancement
concentration of about 1 to 1.1 M. Appropriate in the rate of dissolution. It was observed that
quantities of HF/NaF/Al(NO3)3 were added to increasing the fluoride concentration above
make dissolvent of desired strength. The 0.03 M had only marginal effect on
temperature of refluxing was about dissolution rate. Studies with MgO doped
110-115oC. Samples were drawn at regular sintered pellets were conducted with 8 M
intervals to monitor progress of dissolution. HNO3+0.03 M HF + 0.1 M Al(NO3)3. It was

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 5

300 commissioned at Trombay for the processing

and recovery of 233U from CIRUS irradiated
Time of dissolution, hours

200 thoria rods on a regular basis. The

modifications felt necessary from the pilot
100 plant experiences of both Trombay and
IGCAR facilities and from development
0 studies have been incorporated in the design of
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
MgO content in pellet (%)
equipment and in the choice of process flow
sheets. Specially designed CALMSU
Dissolvent = 8 M HNO3+0.03 M HF+0.1 (Combined Airlift Mixer Settler Unit) have
Al(NO3)3 been chosen as contactors. The scrub section
Temperature = 115°C has been extended sufficiently to provide for
Sintered thoria pellets = 49-50 g adequate removal of thorium from the
uranium loaded organic. The flow sheet
Fig. 2 Thoria dissolution as a function of employed for the process is shown in Fig. 3.
MgO in the pellet
A facility named Power Reactor Thoria
found that its dissolution behaviour was better Reprocessing Facility (PRTRF) is being
compared to plain pellets. As compared to constructed at Trombay for processing the
sintered thoria pellets, the time taken for irradiated zircaloy clad thoria bundles from
233
dissolution of MgO doped pellets went on PHWR, to separate U. Thoria
decreasing with increasing MgO content as subassemblies from power reactors such as,
shown in Fig. 2. 1.5% has been found to be the KAPS-1&2, MAPS-1, RAPS-3&4,
optimum addition. KAIGA-1&2 will be reprocessed at PRTRF.
This facility would provide rich experience as
Corrosion rates of plain SS, welded,
several new technologies are being adopted in
stressed and ring coupons were within
the plant. The process flow sheet involves
acceptable limits in both the cases. In all cases
dismantling of the spent fuel bundle end plates
the corrosion rate of zircaloy cladding tube
for the first time by using a 150 Watt NdYAG
was measured. In the absence of aluminium
LASER mounted on computer numeric
nitrate and in presence of zircaloy tube, the
control. Individual pin from the bundle will be
corrosion rate of SS was very high. This
chopped into pieces in one stroke and fed into
showed that the dissolved zirconium was not
dissolver for leaching with nitric acid in the
enough to complex free fluoride ions and
presence of sodium fluoride-aluminium
presence of aluminiun nitrate is essential to
nitrate. 233U will then be selectively extracted
minimize the corrosion of SS.
using 5% TBP/NPH in CALMIX contactors
Engineering Facilities for Uranium Thorium and further purified by ion exchange prior to
Separation conversion to oxide. The thorium stream
In 2002, an engineering facility for 233U containing bulk of the fission products will be
Separation, UTSF (Uranium Thorium treated to separate thorium from fission
Separation Facility) was designed and products. The separated thorium will be stored
as thorium nitrate and the high level liquid

Advanced Reactors and Applications

6 Thorium Utilisation

NOMENCLATURE
MS1 MS1 MS1 CD - CONDIT IONER
A S C
SCRU ST RI 1AF - AQUEOUS FEED T ANK
B P
MS1A - MIXERSET T LEREXT RACT ION
MODULE
DISSOLVER
TANK MS1S - MIXERSET T LER SCRUB
1A
1AF 1 1 1 CW MODULE
C CD X
H
A C MS1S - MIXERSET T LERST RIP
D A D D MODULE
I R W W
S G
S I 1ADW - DILUENT WASH COLUMN
O N (RAFFINAT E )
1A X
L G
V 1AW -RAFFINAT E T ANK
E L
R I
1AX - ORGANIC FEED T ANK
M
B 1CP
1A W 1CDW - DILUENT WASH COLUMN
( PRODUCT )

1CP - AQUEOUS PRODUCT T ANK

1XF
WASH
1CW - LEANORGANIC T ANK

IXF - ION EXCHANGE FEED T ANK

1CP
IX - ION EXCHANGE COLUMN

IXW - IONEXCHANGE WASHT ANK

I
I XF X IXPE WE IXP - ION EXCHANGE PRODUCT T ANK
IXPE
CONC IXPE - ION EXCHANGE PRODUCT
EVAPORAT OR

IXPE CONC - ION EXCHANGE

CONCENT RAT EDPRODUCT T ANK
PRODUCT
WE -WAST E EVAPORAT OR

WT 1& WT 2-WAST E ST ORAGE T ANKS

WT F-WAST E T ANK FARMT ANKS

W T1 W T1

Aqueous stream
I XW I XP
Organic stream
Raffinate stream
WT2 WTF WT1

Fig. 3 Schematic flow sheet for 233U recovery from irradiated thoria rods

waste containing fission products will be

immobilized in suitable matrix.

Flow Sheet Development for Three

Component Separation for Irradiated
(Th,Pu)O2 Fuels from AHWR

AHWR employs both (Th, Pu)O2 and

233
(Th, U)O2 fuel pins in the same cluster as
shown in Fig. 4 [6]. This necessitates the
segregation of fuel pins prior to reprocessing Fig. 4 54 Fuel Pin Cluster of AHWR
to control the spread of TRU elements to only
one line of processing. This strategy will Well-developed flow sheets for reprocessing
minimize the waste volume containing the are available for the separation of two
minor actinides. Reprocessing of the spent components viz. Th-233U and U-Pu under the
(Th,Pu)O2 fuel pins offers challenge to the generic names THOREX and PUREX. But no
separation chemists. Since these pins have matured process exists for the separation of
in-bred 233U in addition to the residual Pu and U-Pu and Th from irradiated fuels. This
Th, a three component separation scheme has necessitates the integration of these two well
to be developed for fuel reprocessing. known processes in one way or the other.
Based on universal acceptance and our own

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 7

wide experience in using TBP/n-dodecane acidity were initiated at 1:1 aqueous to organic
solvent for reprocessing applications, it was phase ratio to study the extraction behavior.
selected for this task. During extraction runs third phase was
observed when the liquid in the mixer settler
During the initial THOREX campaign
unit was drained at the end of the run. Hence,
5% TBP/dodecane was used in the
in further studies only 5% TBP was used as
reprocessing of irradiated thoria from CIRUS
extractant as it is well established that this
reactor for the recovery of in-bred 233U alone
solvent will not lead to third phase formation
from feed solution containing ~200 g/L Th
at any loading condition.
and 100-200 mg/L 233U with 50-150 mCi/L
fission product activity from nitric acid After establishing batch extraction and
containing trace amounts of fluoride and scrubbing conditions, effectiveness of HAN
aluminium ions. Since AHWR fuels are as a partitioning agent was also established
having an average enrichment of 3.5% Pu, with the loaded organic phase from loading
10% TBP in n-dodecane was selected initially experiments. Back extraction of uranium from
for the extraction of plutonium and uranium partitioned plutonium solution and the final
leaving the bulk thorium in the aqueous phase. stripping of uranium from the organic phase
The concentration of thorium was kept around were also established in batch mode. Feed
100 g/L to limit the fissile content to less than solutions spiked with FP activities were used
ever safe concentration from criticality to estimate the decontamination factors (DFs)
viewpoint. Counter-current studies with feed with respect to FPs in the loaded organic
solutions containing 100 g/L thorium at 3.5M phase.

Recycle

LEAN ORG
5%
TBP

EXTRACTION SCRUB PARTITIONING U-STRIPPING

0.3M HAN +
0.2M N2H4 +
0.6M HNO3
RAFFINATE FEED SCRUB
U,Th,P 3M 0.01M
HNO3 HNO3

5% TBP
233
Th U

WAS H

Pu ~7M
HNO3

Fig. 6 Schematic flow sheet for three component separation from AHWR spent fuel

Feed composition: [Th] = 100.02g/L, [U] = 2.00g/L, [Pu] = 2.01g/L,

[Al3+] = 0.01M, [F-] = 0.03 M. [HNO3] = 3.66M

Advanced Reactors and Applications

8 Thorium Utilisation

Figure 6 shows the final process vitrification in view of the refractory nature of
flow-sheet proposed for three component thoria and the corrosion behavior of fluoride.
separation based on the extensive batch and Necessary modifications are needed in the Na-
counter-current extraction experiments. To borosilicate based matrix to improve the
test the proposed flow-sheet under near solubility of ThO2 in the glass. Presence of
realistic concentrations of uranium, aluminium in the waste necessitates higher
plutonium and thorium, laboratory scale pouring temperature due to increased
counter-current extraction, partitioning and viscosity. Efforts have been put in the
stripping runs were carried out in specially development of the melter technology for
designed glove-boxes using feed solution achieving temperature exceeding 1200ºC so
containing uranium (natural) and Pu in the as to realize higher waste loading in the
concentration range of ~2 g/L each and matrix. In view of the reactive nature of
thorium ~100 g/L at ~3.5M HNO3 in presence fluoride, material issues during vitrification of
of 0.1M Al(NO3)3 and 0.03M fluoride ions. HLW also assume importance. Some of the
Commercially available TBP and n-dodecane findings of the studies relating to material
were used to make 5% TBP in n-dodecane. 3M compatibility and matrix development during
HNO3 was used as scrub. The analysis of the vitrification of HLW from reprocessing of
products streams obtained using the proposed thoria based spent fuels are presented.
flow sheet is given in Table 1.
Material Compatibility
Table 1 - Product Stream Analysis after
Material issues associated with thorium
three component separation
fuel cycle assume importance in view of
Thorium Plutonium Uranium reactive nature of fluoride ions, which is used
to accomplish dissolution of thoria containing
Conc. (g/L) Conc. (g/L) Conc. (g/L)
spent fuel. Aluminium nitrate is also added
Th : 71.29 Pu : 0.8575 U : 4.42
during dissolution to complex the fluoride to
U : 0.001 U : 0.01 Pu : 0.004 control the corrosion of the equipment
Pu : 0.0048 Th : 0.18 Th : 0.109 because of fluoride ion attack. Studies were
conducted to see the interaction of fluoride
Note: Recovery of individual components is more than with SS304L, and Inconel 690 to understand
99.5% and if required each component can be further
purified using conventional methods. the compatibility of material for making
storage vessels, equipments and melters for
Waste Management in Thoria Fuel Cycle
treatment / conditioning of this type of waste.
High level radioactive liquid waste
Stainless steel coupons (17 mm x 8 mm x
generated during reprocessing of thoria based
1 mm) were cut from as received mill annealed
spent fuels is expected to contain thorium,
AISI 304 plate and were metallographically
aluminum and fluoride in addition to the host
polished using one-micron diamond plate.
of fission products, corrosion products and
These coupons were exposed to 50 mL of
actinides present in the PUREX HLW.
simulated waste (Table 2) (with and without
Presence of these elements adds a few
fluoride) at 90 ± 2oC for 120 to 648 hours
additional challenges with respect to
under static condition. Stainless steel vessels

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 9

Table 2 - Composition of the simulated Examinations of the coupons with un-aided

Waste eyes revealed that coupons exposed to
fluoride containing waste became more
Element Salts used Conc.
(g/L) shining compared to others, where black
coatings were developed. Back scattered and
Th Th(NO3)4.5H2O 12.29
secondary electron images (Fig. 7) of the
Cs CsNO3 0.064 exposed coupons revealed significant grain
Sr Sr(NO3)2 0.0684 boundary opening for the coupons exposed to
Fe Fe(NO3)3.9H2O 15.91 fluoride free solution in comparisons to
coupons with fluoride containing waste. This
Cr CrO3 1.0384
may be perhaps due to general corrosion
Ni Ni(NO3)2.6H2O 1.188
leading to material loss and surface polishing
Na in fluoride medium as compared to solution
NaF 0.68
F with out fluoride in which intergrannular
Al Al (NO3)3.9H2O 18.07 attack is more predominant

Ru Ru(NO3)3.xH2O 0.000426 Corrosion rates for coupons of SS304L,

Ce Ce (NO3)3.6H2O 0.00512 SS weld joints and Inconel 690 were
determined. The results presented in the
Molarity- Con. HNO3 3.3 M
(HNO3) (16 M) Table.3 did not indicate any significant
difference in the corrosion rates of the
different materials studied. Surface
with inner teflon linings were fabricated for characterization of the exposed coupons has
conducting the experiments. At the end of indicated formation of corrosion products like
each experiment the coupons were removed, CrF3 and FeF2 on the surface
dried and weighed. Surface characterizations
of the exposed coupons were carried out using
Electron Probe Micro Analyser (EPMA).

27 days with Fluoride 27 days without Fluoride

Fig. 7 Back scattered images of exposed coupons

Advanced Reactors and Applications

10 Thorium Utilisation

Table 3 - Corrosion rates of different materials

Sl. Specimen used Corrosion rate in mpy(Average of triplicate results)

No.
5 days 12 days 19 days 27 days
(120 hrs) (288 hrs) (456 hrs) (648 hrs)
1 SS- 304L 1.369 3.031 4.316 6.107
2 SS weld joint 3.397 5.575 5.823 6.429
3 Inconel- 690 3.966 6.912 7.430 8.116

Matrix Development for Waste network modifier. It is noted that barium

Immobilization borosilicate (BBS) glass matrix can contain up
Borosilicate glass matrix has been to 16 wt% (= three fold more than reported
adopted world-wide for management of HLW value) of thoria without phase separation.
[7-9]. In general, solubility of actinides in Beyond this limit, thorite and thorianite
silicate glass matrix is low. In case of Th, a separates out within the matrix.
maximum solubility of 2-5 wt% in XRD pattern of the barium borosilicate
borosilicate glasses has been reported [10]. In glass containing 16 wt% of ThO2 is shown in
a separate investigation, Sonavane et al. [11] Fig. 8a. It shows the presence of broad hump in
reported ~6 wt.% thoria solubility in sodium between 10 and 20o (2q), a typical
borosilicate glass. From the above data, it is characteristics of amorphous nature of the
clear that borosilicate glass matrix has low sample. XRD pattern of glasses containing
solubility of thorium and in all probability more than 16 wt% thoria showed presence of
may act as ‘waste loading’ limiting factor. In crystalline phases (Figure-8b) identified as
view of above, attempts were made to try thorianite (ThO2) (Powder Diffraction
various modifiers in sodium borosilicate glass Standards, Card No: 42-14626) and thorite
matrix to improve the solubility of thorium (ThSiO4) (Powder Diffraction Standards,
without impairing the desirable properties of Card No: 18-1371).
the conditioned product. Detailed study of the
structural aspects of these glasses using Typical optical and back-scattered
different techniques is also desirable to electron (BSE) image of the Th containing
understand the binding mechanism of Th4+ in barium borosilicate glass indicate
the borosilicate network and their thermal homogeneous nature of samples up to 16 wt%
stability. Magic Angle Spinning Nuclear thoria (Fig. 9 a-b). BSE images of samples
Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (MAS containing 23 wt% ThO2 (Figure-10)
NMR) technique was used to investigate the indicates phase separation within the glass.
change in the borosilicate network brought out MAS NMR and IR studies on the glasses
by the ThO2 incorporation using 29Si and 11B indicated that three dimensional polymeric
as probe nuclei. An extensive study in this borosilicate network is not affected by
direction has shown that solubility of ThO2 in incorporation of ThO2
borosilicate matrices increases with BaO as

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 11

Fig. 8 X-ray diffraction patterns ( CuKa) obtained for a) BBS glass with 16 wt% of ThO2 and (b)
BBS glass with 23.75 wt% thoria loading

Fig. 9 (a) Optical and (b) BSE images showing homogeneous microstructure of the BBS glass
sample with 16 wt% thoria

These investigations indicate that Th4+ get modified because of presence of fluoride.
ions are present at the network modifying sites Based on XRD studies on barium borosilicate
in the glass matrix along with Na+ ions, glasses containing different amounts of F-
thereby resulting in insignificant interaction ions, it is observed that fluoride ion
with borosilicate network [12]. Based on incorporation above 4 wt.% results in phase
above studies it is inferred that as high as 16 separation of the glass leading to the formation
wt% of ThO2 can be incorporated in barium of crystalline BaF2 phase. For glasses
borosilicate glass matrix without any adverse containing upto 4 wt.% a broad hump around a
effect on its thermo-physical properties. 2q value of 25° is observed, characteristic of
the amorphous borosilicate network.
Studies were extended to investigate the
However above 4 wt.% addition of F- ions in
effect of fluoride ion on glass network and to
the glass resulted in appearance of sharp peaks
find out how the thermo physical properties
around 2q values 24.93°, 28.83°, 41.2° and

Advanced Reactors and Applications

12 Thorium Utilisation

SO 2- -
4 , Th , F etc. with high waste loading and

adequate leach resistance [13]. In the present

study, the well-studied and adopted
borosilicate glass matrix was taken for
possible modifications to accommodate
Th-Al-F containing HLW.

Based on above detailed experimental

studies and gathered observation, efforts were
made to work out a few glass formulation with
a modest melt temperature of 1000oC, optimal
waste loading and desirable product
characterization, keeping process
Fig. 10 BSE images showing phase consideration and product acceptance criteria
separation in BBS glass sample with in mind. Accordingly, a few glass
23 wt% thoria. formulations based on sodium borosilicate
matrix with Li2O, BaO, TiO2 etc. as modifiers
48.75° characteristic of crystalline
are identified. Glass made from the glass
Frankdicksonite (BaF2) phase.
forming additives and simulated waste is also
Experiments were also performed to see characterized with respect to homogeneity
the effect of Al2O3 on product melt and preliminary screening for chemical
temperature and flow characteristics in terms durability. Detailed product characterizations
of viscosity. Studies carried out by us have for fluoride retention in glass, long term
shown that presence of Al2O3 increases pour chemical durability, thermal stability, thermal
temperature and viscosity. Use of mixed alkali conductivity, viscosity etc. are in progress.
as modifiers in glass matrix was found to be XRD patterns of barium borosilicate glasses
effective in modulating the temperature and containing up to 6 wt.% fluoride are shown in
viscosity. Fig. 11.

Alternatively phosphate based glasses Conclusions

were also attempted for vitrification of waste Based on the feed back from pilot scale
containing F-, Al3+, Th4+. They have low studies extensive research and development
formation temperature and good flow activities were initiated at the back-end of the
characteristics. The main demerits of nuclear power programme to close the
phosphate glasses are corrosive nature of thorium fuel cycle. With the induction of
melts, high volatility of P2O5 above 900ºC, AHWR, thorium fuel cycle will get the
high devitrification tendency, hygroscopic required momentum to test and validate the
nature and poor mechanical strength. processes evolved. This will help in
Iron phosphate glass are also reported as developing the much needed all round
the candidate matrices for immobilization of expertise to launch the final and the longest
HLW containing problematic elements like stage of the Indian nuclear energy programme.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 13

on variously cross linked Dowex 50W Resins,

BARC report BARC/1993/E/09(1993).
[4] K. Vijayan, S.S. Shinde, U. Jambunathan and A.
(c) Ramanujam Studies on the dissolution of sintered
thoria pellets in HNO 3 Al(NO 3 ) 3 mixtures
containing HF and NaF, INSAC-2000 on Power
Intensity (a.u)

from Thorium: Status, Strategies and Directions,

Mumbai, India, 2000, Vol. 2, p. 148.

(b) [5] K. Anantharaman, A. Ramanujam, H.S. Kamath,

S. Majumdar, V.N. Vaidya, M. Venkataraman,
T h o r i u m b a s ed F u e l R e p ro c e ss i n g &
Refabrication Technologies and Strategies,
INSAC-2000 on Power from Thorium: Status,
Strategies and Directions, Mumbai, India, 2000,
(a) Vol. 1, p. 107.
[6] R.K. Sinha and A. Kakodkar, Design and
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium
2q(o) fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, Nuclear
Engineering and Design, 236 (2006) 683.
Fig. 11 BSE images showing phase [7] M.I. Ojovan , O.K. Karlina, Radiochim. Acta, 34
separation in BBS glass sample with (1992) 97.
23 wt% thoria. [8] L.L. Hench, D.E. Clark, J. Campbell, Nucl. Chem.
Waste Manag., 5 (1984) 149.
[9] A. J. Freeman, G. H. Lander (Eds.), Handbook on
References the Physics and Chemistry of the Actinides,
[1] G.R. Balasubramaniam, R.T. Chitnis, A. Elsevier, 1987, pp. 271-312.
Ramanujam and M. Venkatesan,Laboratory [10] Francois Farges, Cosmochim. Acta, 55 (1991)
studies on the recovery of uranium233 from 3303.
irradiated thorium by solvent extraction using 5% [11] M. S. Sonavane, R. G. Yeotikar and S. S. Ali,
TBP Shell Sol-T as solvent, BARC report – 940, Indian Nucl. Soc. Symp Proc., Mumbai, India,
1977. 2003, p.168.
[2] R.T. Chitnis, K.G. Rajappan, S.V. Kumar and [12] R.K.Mishra, P. Sengupta, C.P Kaushik,
M.N. Nadkarni, Cation Exchange Separation of A.K.Taygi, G.B.Kale, Kanwar Raj, J. Nucl.
u r a n iu m f r o m t h o r iu m, BARC r e p o r t Mater., 360 (2007) 143.
BARC-1003(1979). [13] K . J o s e p h , K . V . G o v i n d an Ku tty, P .
[3] P.V. Achuthan, C. Janardanan, N. Vijayakumar, Chandramohan, P.R. Vaudeva Rao, J. Nucl.
P.V. E. Kutty, A. Mukherjee and A. Ramanujam, Mater., 384 (2009) 262.
Studies on the separation of thorium and uranium

Advanced Reactors and Applications

14 Thorium Utilisation

Studies on the Determination of Burn-up of Irradiated

Thoria by Thermal Ionisation Mass Spectrometry

S.K. Aggarwal, P.G. Jaison, V.M. Telmore, R.V. Shah, V.L. Sant, K. Sasibhushan,
A.R. Parab, D. Alamelu and V. Venugopal
Fuel Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Burn-up was determined experimentally for samples from two ThO2 bundles irradiated in
KAPS-2 using thermal ionization mass spectrometry. The method consisted of quantitative
dissolution of the irradiated fuel sample followed by separation and determination of Th, U and
a burn-up monitor in the dissolved fuel solution. Stable fission product 148Nd was used as the
burn-up monitor for determining the number of fissions. Isotope Dilution-Thermal Ionisation
Mass Spectrometry (ID-TIMS) using natural U, 229Th and enriched 142Nd as spikes or the
determination of U, Th and Nd, respectively, was employed. Atom% fission values of 1.25 ±
0.03 were obtained for both the samples. 232U content was determined to be close to 500 ppm in
233
U produced after irradiation of 232Th.
Keywords: Burn-up, Irradiated thoria, 232U content, Thermal ionisation mass spectrometry,
Isotope dilution, Neodymium, Thorium, Uranium

232
Introduction U content in 233U obtained from irradiation
of thoria as this decides the thickness of the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has
shielding facility during the fuel fabrication in
embarked upon the third stage of nuclear
view of the two gammas from 208Tl, which is a
power program based on thorium utilisation
daughter in decay chain of 232U. Experimental
for the long-term energy security of the
determination of burn-up of spent fuels is
country [1]. The implementation of thorium
required for the development and validation of
fuel cycle requires development of
theoretical codes [5]. This involves
methodologies for evaluating the performance
dissolution of the irradiated fuel in a shielded
of the fuel in the reactor. Burn-up is an
facility, separation and determination of major
important parameter for nuclear fuel
heavy elements and fission product(s) to be
development, fuel management and fuel
used as burn-up monitor. In the mass
performance analysis [2-4]. Burn-up is
spectrometry method, burn-up is determined
defined as the atom percent fissions or
by correlating the amount of a fission product
Fissions per Initial heavy Metal Atom (FIMA)
formed during irradiation with that of heavy
and it represents amount of energy released by
elements. This approach based on stable
a given amount of fuel during its life in a
fission product as a burn-up monitor provides
reactor. It is also important to determine the
the most reliable data for burn-up. This paper

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 15

deals with the determination of burn-up of two dissolved in 1 M HNO3. Aliquots from the two
samples from two thoria bundles irradiated in irradiated fuel dissolver solutions were
Kaiga Atomic Power Station (KAPS-2). transferred to a shielded fume-hood for further
Stable fission product 148Nd was chosen as a experiments.
burn-up monitor. Isotope Dilution Mass
IDMS methodology was employed for
Spectrometry (IDMS) was employed for the
the concentration determination of Nd, Th and
quantification of burn-up monitor and the
U in the dissolver fuel samples. Natural U
heavy elements. Mass spectrometry is the
(NIST-SRM-950a U3O8) and enriched
most precise quantification method since the
isotopes of 142Nd and 229Th were used as
results are not affected by incomplete
spikes for concentration determination of U,
recovery after equilibration of sample and
Nd and Th, respectively. 142Nd and 229Th spike
spike isotopes. [3,7].
solutions were calibrated by reverse ID-TIMS
Experimental against their respective (natural) chemical
assay standards. The spike solutions of 142Nd,
Two samples from thoria bundles viz. 229
Th and 238U were added individually to the
LY-263 and LY-274, irradiated in KAPS-2,
sample aliquot on weight basis. Triplicate
were provided by Post Irradiation
aliquots (0.2 to 0.5 g) from each of the
Examination Division (PIED), BARC for the
two-dissolved fuel samples were mixed with
determination of burn-up. The irradiation
appropriate amounts of the spike solutions.
histories as well as the details of the fuel
The aliquots were subjected to repeated
samples are given in Table 1. Dissolution of
treatment with Conc. HNO3 for ensuring
irradiated thoria samples was carried out in a
proper chemical exchange between the
facility housed in a shielded glove box.
sample and the spike isotopes. Unspiked
200-500 mg of the sample was taken up for
sample aliquots were also taken from each of
dissolution. The samples were refluxed in a
the two irradiated fuel dissolver solutions for
mixture of Conc. HNO3 + 0.005 M NaF. After
determining the isotopic composition of Nd
dissolution, the solutions were evaporated to
and U.
dryness and were repeatedly treated with
conc. HNO3. The residues were finally

Table 1 - Details and irradiation history of the fuel samples

Bundle No. LY 263 LY 274

Channel ID L 11 J 11
String position 7 9
Expected burn-up [n/Mb](a) 3,146 2,980
Expected burn-up [MWd/t(Th)](b) 11,640 11,026
Irradiation duration (Effective full power days, EFP) 477 508

(a)
Neutrons per Megabarn
(b)
1 n/Mb = 3.7 MWD/t (Th)

Advanced Reactors and Applications

16 Thorium Utilisation

Table 2 - Experimental settings for TIMS analyses of Nd, Th and U

Element Species used Ratio Vaporization Ionization

determined filament current filament current
(Amp) (Amp)
Nd Nd+ 142/148 2.5-3.0
Th ThO+ 245/248 3.0 6.0-6.2

U U+ 233/238 2.0-2.5

TIMS technique demands that the filament heating temperatures employed for
element should be in the purest chemical form the atom ratio measurements of Nd, Th and U
for achieving the best results. Purification and are given in Table 2. 232U was determined by
chemical separation are also essential to alpha spectrometry using direct evaporated
eliminate potential isobaric interferences source prepared on electro-polished stainless
during the mass spectrometric analysis. The steel disk. Alpha spectra were recorded by
spiked aliquots, after isotopic equilibration, using a 100 mm2 PIPS detector. 232U/233U
were used for separation and purification by atom ratio was calculated using the
232
anion exchange using Dowex 1x8, 200-400 U/(233U+234U) alpha activity ratio and
234
mesh resin in 7M HNO3 medium. Th and U are U/233U ratio obtained by TIMS.
retained on to the column while fission
Results and Discussion
products wash down during the loading and
subsequent washing steps with 7 M HNO3. Purified fractions from the spiked
Using 0.1 M HNO3, Th and U were eluted mixtures as well as unspiked samples were
together. The separation of Th and U was done analyzed by TIMS for the atom ratios. U+,
in 9 M HCl medium on Dowex 1x8, 200-400 ThO+ and Nd+ ions were monitored for U, Th
mesh resin. Under this loading condition, U is and Nd, respectively. Isotopic composition of
retained while Th is washed down. Later, U uranium, determined experimentally in the
was eluted with 0.1 M HNO3. Fission product irradiated Th sample, can be strongly
fraction was collected and subjected to a influenced by the pick-up of natural uranium
second stage anion-exchange separation on from the laboratory environments, reagents
Bio-Rad 1x2, 200-400 mesh resin by etc. Hence extreme care should be taken
(HNO3+MeOH) medium for the purification during the isotopic composition determination
of La and Nd fractions [2,4]. of U to minimize natural contamination by
employing leached glass-wares, high purity
Thermal ionisation mass spectrometer
reagents and maintaining clean laboratory
(MAT-261) with variable multi-collector
environment. 232U in the sample was
Faraday cup detector system was employed
determined by alpha spectrometry due to its
for the isotopic analyses. Purified Nd, U and
low abundance, high alpha specific activity
Pu fractions in 1 M HNO3 were loaded on to
(half-life ~ 70 y) and possibility of isobaric
the vaporization filament of a high purity
interference of 232Th at 232U during TIMS
double rhenium filament assembly. The
analysis. The experimentally determined 232U

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 17

Table 3 - Isotopic composition of U in the irradiated ThO2 samples

Nuclide LY-263 LY-274

Avg. At. Wt. of U Atom % abundance Avg. At. Wt.
of U
232* 0.0489 0.0459
233 88.91 88.78
234 9.58 9.95
233.171 233.169
235 0.94 1.00
236 0.078 0.085
238 0.44 0.14

* Determined by alpha spectrometry

content was found to be five times more than Csp ´ Wsp 1 (Rsp - Rm ) ( Av. At.Wt.)sa ( A.F . of isotope i )sp
Csa = ´ ´ ´ ´
Wsa Rsp (Rm - Rsa ) ( Av. At.Wt.)sp ( A.F . of isotope j )sa
that predicted theoretically based on
ORIGEN-2 code. The difference between the
(1)
theoretical estimation and the actual
concentration was attributed to (n,2n) reaction where, C: Concentration of element, W: Weight
on 232Th. Isotopic composition data of U and of aliquot, R: Isotopic ratio (i/j), where ‘i’ is the
Nd in the dissolver fuel samples are given in spike isotope and ‘j’ is the sample isotope, sp:
Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Spike solution, sa: Sample solution, m: Spike
+ sample mixture, Av. At. Wt.: Average
Table 4 - Isotopic composition of Nd in the
atomic weight of element, A.F.: Atom fraction
irradiated ThO2 samples
of the isotope
Nuclide LY-263 LY-274 Natural
Since 142Nd is a shielded nuclide and not
142 0.863 0.403 27.153
produced in the fission, the observed
143 22.808 23.331 12.173 (142Nd/148Nd) ratio of the spike-sample
144 33.971 33.730 23.798 mixtures was corrected for the contribution from
145 17.168 17.414 8.293 natural contamination of Nd [2]. The corrected
(142Nd/148Nd) ratio was used for the ID-MS
146 15.093 15.073 17.189
determination of Nd. The data on the
148 7.244 7.281 5.756 concentrations of Nd, Th and U in the dissolver
150 2.854 2.764 5.638 solutions of irradiated fuels are given in Table 5.

Average atomic weight of Nd in sample LY-263 and Using the data on isotopic composition
LY-274 are 144.601 and 144.603, respectively. and concentration of Th, U and Nd, burn-up
Concentrations of Nd, Th and U were was calculated using the equation:
calculated using the IDMS equation:

Advanced Reactors and Applications

18 Thorium Utilisation

Table 5 - Concentration of Nd, Th & U in the Solutions of the Irradiated Fuel Samples
Sample Nd Th U Amount ratio Atom%
code Burn-up
Conc.* No. of Conc. * No. of Conc.* No. of Th/U Th/Nd
(mg/g) atoms/gm (mg/g) atoms/g (mg/g) atoms/g of
of solution of solution
solution
LY-263 1.89 7.87E+15 1338.61 3.47E+18 19.13 4.94E+16 69.97 708.3 1.29
LY-274 13.92 5.80 E+16 9870.43 2.56E+19 162.6 4.20E+17 60.70 709.1 1.29

*All the concentration values are given as average of 3 aliquots.

æ NBM ö Electronics Services Section in

çç ÷÷*100
Atom % fission = è YBM ø (2) Radiochemistry Division for their constant
æ æN öö
ç NU + NTh + çç BM ÷÷ ÷ support and cooperation
ç ÷
è è YBM øø
References
where, NBM: Number of atoms of burn-up [1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d
monitor, NTh: Number of atoms of Th after development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium
irradiation, NU: Number of atoms of U after fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, Nucl. Eng.
irradiation, YBM: Fission yield of burn-up Des., 236 (2006) 683.
[2] S.K. Aggarwal, P.G. Jaison, V.M. Telmore, P.S.
monitor
Khodade, R.V. Shah, R. Govindan, V.L. Sant and
Burn-up of the two samples was P.M. Shah, Determination of burn-up of irradiated
PHWR fuel samples from KAPS-1 by mass
calculated using the above equation based on spectrometry, BARC Report 2007/E/020 (2007).
the number of 148Nd atoms determined [3] B. Saha, R. Bagyalakshmi, G. Periaswami, V.D.
experimentally. The atom percent fission Kavimandan, S.A. Chitambar, H.C. Jain and C.K.
obtained for the two irradiated thoria samples Mathews, Determination of nuclear fuel burn-up
using mass spectrometric techniques, BARC
was found to be 1.25%.
Report-891 (1977).
Conclusions [4] S.K. Aggarwal, P.G. Jaison, V.M. Telmore, R.V.
Shah, V.L. Sant, K. Sasibhushan, A.R. Parab, D.
Burn-up was determined experimentally Alamelu, Burn-up Determination of Irradiated
for two irradiated thoria samples. Thermal Thoria Samples by Isotope Dilution-Thermal
Io nisatio n Mass Spectro metry, BARC
ionisation mass spectrometry was used for the
Report-2010/E/003 (2010).
determination of isotopic composition and [5] S.K. Aggarwal and V. Venugopal, Burn-up
concentrations of Th, U and Nd. The atom determination of nuclear fuels using mass
percent fission was calculated based on stable spectrometric techniques, Indian Nuclear Society
fission product 148Nd as a burn-up monitor. News Letter No.1 (2004).
[6] S.K. Aggarwal, D. Alamelu, R. Govindan, P.G.
The experimentally determined 232U content
Jaison, P.S. Khodade, A.R. Parab, V.L. Sant, R.V.
in 233U was found to be close to 500 ppm. Shah and V.M. Telmore, Mass Spectrometric
Measurements on Irradiated Th, U and Pu based
Acknowledgements
Fuels for Burn-up Determination, Proceedings of
The authors are thankful to all the staff Theme Meeting on Recent Advances in Post
I r r a d ia t io n E x a mi n a ti o n ( RA P - 2 0 0 8 ) ,
members of the Mass Spectrometry Section in Kalpakkam, May 2008, pp 9-10.
the Fuel Chemistry Division and Equipment

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 19

[7] S.K. Aggarwal, R. Govindan, P.G. Jaison, P.S. ISMAS Silver Jubilee Symposium, Goa, January
Khodade, A.R. Parab, V.L. Sant, P.M. Shah and 2003, pp 888-891.
V. Venugopal, Determination of Burn-up of
Irradiated Thoria using TIMS, Proceedings of

Advanced Reactors and Applications

20 Thorium Utilisation

Compositional characterization of uranium-thorium oxide of

AHWR fuel composition by EDXRF and TXRF at Fuel
Chemistry Division, BARC

N.L. Misra, Sangita Dhara, S. Sanjay Kumar, S. Kannan, S.K. Aggarwal, V. Venugopal
Fuel Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The compositional characterization of nuclear fuel of Advanced Heavy water Reactors
(AHWRs) is an important input for efficient generation of electricity from these reactors. These
fuels emit high dose radiation. To characterize the composition of such fuel material the ideal
technique should use very small amount of sample. X-Ray Fluorescence techniques are well
established for compositional characterization of nuclear fuels in a non-destructive and non
consumptive way but, generally, require comparatively larger amount of samples.
Advancements in the instrumentation and sample preparation methodology of these techniques
have reduced the amount of sample required appreciably. At Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC,
Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) and Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence
(TXRF) spectrometry have been used for compositional characterization of mixed uranium –
thorium oxides in composition range of AHWR fuel using different methods of sample
preparation to achieve better precision and accuracy with minimum amount of sample so that
the radioactive waste generated and radiation risk to the analyst is minimum when this
methodology is extended to actual samples. A brief overview of such research and
development activities has been given in this paper. A comparison of the analytical results,
obtained using various sample preparation methods and techniques is also presented.
Keywords: AHWR, Uranium, Thorium, EDXRF, TXRF

Introduction radiation dose produced mainly due to the g

activity (2.6 meV) of 208Tl, a daughter product
India is aiming for electricity production
of 232U which is present at a 100-500 ppmw
through advanced reactors by utilising its vast
level in 233U. An ideal method of elemental
thorium resources [1]. The AHWR fuel
analysis of these fuel materials should utilize
consists of 3.00 to 3.75% of 233U/239Pu in
minimum amount of sample and measurement
(U,Th)O2 or (U,Pu)O2 [2]. Elemental
time, so that the radioactive waste generated
characterization of these fuels for major
and radiation hazard to the analyst and damage
elements i.e. U, Th and Pu is an important step
to instrument are minimum.
for the quality control of these materials.
Though the U and Pu % in AHWR fuel is Since their discovery in the year 1895 by
comparatively less, these fuels have high W.C. Roentgen, X-ray techniques have played

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 21

an important role for the chemical effects [4-6]. In TXRF, generally a

characterization of the materials [3,4] of monochromatic incident beam falls on a
different matrices. X-ray secondary emission highly polished optically flat sample support
spectrometric techniques, popularly known as (over which the sample is deposited in form of
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), have been used a few nm thin film having total mass of a few
extensively for the compositional hundred ng so that it gives negligible matrix
characterization of materials. In XRF, the effect), at an angle below the critical angle and
sample is excited using X-rays generated from gets totally reflected [4-6]. Because of this
an X-ray source and the secondary feature the incident as well as totally reflected
characteristic X-rays produced from sample beams excite the sample. Since the sample is
are detected and measured by a detector. The excited by both: incident as well as totally
energies of these X-ray lines are the reflected beams, the intensity of he
characteristic of the elements present in the characteristic X-rays emitted is almost double
sample whereas the intensity is proportional to in TXRF compared to that in normal XRF. In
their concentration. These features are used to addition, since the exciting beam interacts
find the composition of the materials. only at the surface of sample support and does
Depending on the geometry of sample not penetrate deep inside it, the background is
excitation and detection, XRF has different reduced dramatically. The characteristic
modes of operation. The two main modes of X-rays emitted from the sample can be
XRF are: Wavelength Dispersive X-ray measured by placing a detector at a height of a
Fluorescence (WDXRF) and Energy few mm from the sample. These features result
Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). in improving the detection limits of TXRF by
Both these geometries have their own several orders of magnitude compared to
advantages and disadvantages [3-4] and are EDXRF and WDXRF. In TXRF, the detection
well established in sample analysis in limits are at pg level. These improved and
nondestructive and non-consumptive way. versatile features of EDXRF and TXRF e.g.
With the continuous improvements in Simplicity, fast, requirement of only a few mg
instrumentation, the EDXRF technique is of samples and multielement analytical
becoming more and more popular in XRF capability can be exploited for compositional
analysis. A new and advanced variant of characterization of radioactive materials.
EDXRF i.e. Total Reflection X-Ray However, not many studies are reported in
Fluorescence (TXRF) has made the XRF literature for such applications. In Fuel
technique comparable to other well Chemistry Division, BARC, some studies
established trace elemental analytical have been made for trace and major element
techniques e.g. Inductively Couple Plasma - determinations of nuclear materials using
Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), TXRF [7-9]. Both these techniques
Inductively Couple Plasma – Mass (especially TXRF) have a very promising
Spectrometry (ICP-MA) and Neutron potential for analysis of AHWR fuel
Activation Analysis (NAA), etc. [4-6]. TXRF possessing high radiation doses. However,
is comparatively a new technique, which has before these analytical methods are applied to
better detection limits and negligible matrix actual AHWR fuel samples, these should be

Advanced Reactors and Applications

22 Thorium Utilisation

tested using mixed natural uranium – thorium relative amount of uranium with respect to
oxide samples having the composition of thorium covers the composition of AHWR
AHWR fuel. Keeping these points in view, fuel. The amount of yttrium was kept constant
some studies have been made to develop in each solution. Aliquots of 20 mL volume of
EDXRF and TXRF spectrometric methods for the each solution mixture were absorbed on
determination of uranium and thorium in four 30 mm diameter Whatman 541 filter
mixed uranium-thorium oxides of AHWR fuel papers and EDXRF spectrum were recorded
composition using different sample after drying. The U and Th amounts on the
preparation methods e.g. Dissolution, making filter papers were in the range of 0- 50 mg and
pellets and fusion beads and just rubbing the 1- 6 mg, respectively [10].
oxide pellets gently on the TXRF sample
support. For TXRF measurements, sintered and
green pellets of (U,Th)O2 solid solution
Experimental having U percent in AHWR fuel composition
Sample Preparation range were used. The pellets were rubbed very
gently on the quartz sample supports, thereby
Nuclear grade U3O8 and ThO2 powders transferring very less amount of sample on the
were used for preparation of calibration and sample support, and their TXRF spectra were
sample mixtures. Y2O3 used was of AR grade. measured.
Twelve synthetic mixtures of U and Th
covering the uranium in mixed uranium- Instrumentation
thorium oxides from 0 to 10 percent were For EDXRF measurements a Jordan
prepared by mixing different amounts of U3O8 Valley EDXRF spectrometer EX-3600TEC
in 2 g of ThO2. Yttrium in form of Y2O3 (about with a low power (50 W) air cooled Rh target
50 mg) was mixed in these mixtures and the tube operated at 40 kV and 170 mA was used.
resultant mixtures were ground well in a pestle The spectrometer has Peltier cooled
mortar. Approximately 800 mg of each silicon-PIN diode detector with a resolution of
mixture were pressed in form of 30 mm 150 eV (at 5.9 keV) and a ten position sample
diameter pellets of 2.5 g weight using boric chamber capable of measuring EDXRF
acid binder. One gram weights from the spectra sequentially. An Rh filter was used to
remaining parts of each of these mixtures were reduce the background. The measurement
fused with lithium tetra borate fusion mixtures time was varied from 100-300 s depending on
at a temperature of 1050ºC and fusion beads of the peak intensity of analytes.
approximately 40 mm diameter and 10 g
weight were made. Six pellets/ beads were For TXRF measurements an ITAL
used as calibration standards and the Structures TXRF spectrometer TX-2000
remaining six were used as samples for having Mo target X-ray tube operated at 40 kV
EDXRF analysis. and 30 mA with a Si(Li) detector having a
resolution of 139 eV (at 5.9 keV) was used.
Ten solution mixtures of U, Th and Y
The Mo Ka X-rays were monochromatised
nitrate were prepared by mixing their
with W/C multilayer.
respective solutions in such a way as the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 23

In all the studies the X-ray lines used were obtained in the corresponding EDXRF
U La (13.615 keV), Th La (12.969 keV) and spectra. The comparison of the analytical
Y Ka (14.958 keV). results of pressed pellet and fusion bead shows
that the average precision in fusion bead is
Results and Discussion
much better (1% RSD 1s) than that in pressed
The EDXRF spectrometer used in present pellets (7% RSD 1s). The deviation of
study has a low power X-ray tube with better EDXRF results from the expected values was
geometry having a distance of about 10 mm comparable (<2%) in both the cases. This is
between the tube / detector window and because during fusion the sample dissolves in
sample. This increases the excitation melted lithium tetra borate flux and forms
efficiency of the elements in the sample glass beads after cooling. This gives
considerably and hence, reduces the amount uniformity and smoothness in bead surface
of sample required compared to WDXRF and compared to pellets. In addition the effect of
earlier versions of EDXRF spectrometers. The variable oxidation state and particle size is
spectrometer has also provision of inserting taken care in bead samples. Both these
radiation filters and secondary targets to methods of sample preparations require larger
increase the peak to background ratio in amount of sample (generally a few hundred
different energy regions. In present study an mg) and thus radiation risk to the analyst as
Rh filter was used which is transparent to the well as instrument is possible during sample
Rh Ka X-rays and absorbs the background analysis. Also the amounts of analytical waste
radiation in the energy region of analyte and generated are appreciable.
internal standard characteristic lines i.e. U La,
Uranium and thorium amounts in solution
Th La and Y Ka. Normally in XRF analysis of mixtures of uranyl nitrate and thorium nitrate
powders, samples are presented in form of samples were also determined in similar way.
pressed pellets or fusion beads. Both these However in this case the total amount of U, Th
techniques of sample preparation for XRF and Y deposited on filter paper support was
have their own advantages and disadvantages. much less (< 6 mg). Considering the relative
In order to compare the precision and accuracy
amount of 232U (absolute amount < 50 mg)
achievable in the XRF analysis of sample
with respect to total Th present in real AHWR
preparation using these well established
samples the dose shall be very small. A typical
techniques with the solution based EDXRF
EDXRF spectrum of such sample is given in
and solid sample analysis by TXRF (to be
Fig. 1. The results of U and Th determinations
discussed later) requiring sample in
showed an average precision of about 2% (1s)
microgram levels, the samples were analyzed
and the average deviation of the EDXRF
using pellets as well as fusion beads. The
results from the expected values was < 3%
calibration plots were made between the
These results are comparable with that of the
amount ratios of U/Y vs. corresponding
results obtained in the fusion bead method of
intensity ratios of U La and Y Ka for both the
sample preparation. This is due to the fact that
pressed pellets and fusion beads. The amounts
analyses of solution samples have negligible
of uranium in the samples were determined by
in-homogeneity and the matrix effects are also
using these calibration plots and the intensity

Advanced Reactors and Applications

24 Thorium Utilisation

Th La
10000 Th La
100000
Intensity (Counts)

Intensity (Counts)
80000 8000

60000 6000

40000 4000

Y Ka
20000

Rh Ka
2000
U La

0 U La
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0
10 12 14 16
Energy (keV) Energy (keV)

Fig. 1 EDXRF spectrum of a typical (U+Th) Fig. 2 A typical TXRF spectrum of the
solution after absorption on filter sample obtained after rubbing a
paper (U=2% in U+Th, Y was mixed (U0.02Th0.98)O2 pellet on the sample
as internal standard) support

far far less. In addition only microgram of AHWR fuel. The TXRF spectrum, thus
amounts of sample are required which measured, had a strong U La and Th La peaks.
mitigates radiation hazards associated with One such TXRF spectrum has been shown in
radioactive samples as well as the amount of Fig. 2. Based on the TXRF spectra thus
radioactive analytical waste generated is quite measured, the relative amounts of uranium
less. and thorium were determined with respect to
each other. The cell parameters of these pellets
For TXRF measurements normally a few
determined by their XRD patterns showed a
microlitres of sample in form of solution are
linear relationship with the U% in (U,Th)O2
deposited on a flat polished sample support so
pellets determined by TXRF. Also this
that a thin film of the sample free from matrix
determination has a good agreement with the
effect is formed. This specimen is then
expected U amounts in these pellets (on the
presented for TXRF measurements. For direct
basis of their preparation). This approach has
analysis of solid samples very few studies are
the advantage that sample amount required for
reported in literature. TXRF can be used as a
analysis is so small that it cannot be seen by
micro analytical technique where, a very small
naked eyes, the tedious process of dissolution
amount of sample (a few mg after drying) is
of the pellets can be avoided and the method is
required for measurement. Since TXRF
non destructive. The average precision (1 s)
requires only a few mg of solid sample on the
obtained in the present method was 5% [7].
sample support during measurements, if the
Further studies are in progress to improve this
AHWR fuel pellets are gently rubbed on
value. A comparison of average precision and
sample supports, the amount of sample
deviation of EDXRF/TXRF determined
transferred should give a good TXRF
uranium concentrations from the expected
spectrum. This assumption was tested using
concentrations, obtained with different
natural uranium - thorium oxide solid solution
methods of sample preparation, are given in
pellets having the composition similar to that
Table 1.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 25

Table 1 - A comparison of different sample preparation methods of EDXRF and TXRF for
the uranium determinations in mixed uranium-thorium oxide samples of AHWR fuel
composition

XRF Sample Preparation Average Precision Average deviation of Results

Technique Methodology (RSD 1s) from the expected value* (%)
EDXRF Pellets 7 2
EDXRF Fusion Beads 1 2
EDXRF Solution 2 2
TXRF Rubbing the pellets 2 5
on sample supports

*On the basis of their preparation

Conclusion fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, Nucl. Eng.

Des., 236 (2006) 683.
From the above studies it is concluded [2] B. Bhattacharrjee, An overview of R&D in fuel
that for real AHWR fuel samples the EDXRF cycle activ ities of AHWR,
determinations with a few microlitre of htpp://www.ins-india.org/conf/2003/1.pdf
[3] E.A. Bertin, Principle and Practice of X-Ray
samples deposited on filter paper shall be a
Spectrometric Analysis, Plenum Press, New
good technique requiring less sample and York, 1984.
thereby giving very small radiation dose to the [4] R.E. Van Grieken, A. Markowicz, Handbook of
analyst as well as instrument and generating X-Ray Spectrometry, Marcel Dekker Inc., New
very small amount of analytical waste. The York, 1993.
[5] R. Klockenkaemper, Total reflection X-ray
recovery of the precious analytes (U, Th and
fluorescence Analysis, Chemical Analysis, vol.
Pu) shall also be easier in this method. The 140, 1996.
precision and accuracy obtained in this [6] N.L. Misra, K.D. Singh Mudher, Total reflection
approach are comparable with that obtained X-ray Fluorescence: A technique for trace
with samples in beads. The method requires element analysis in materials-Progress in Crystal
Growth and Characterization of Materials, 45
dissolution of the sample. The TXRF method
(2002) 65.
of compositional characterization of AHWR [7] S. Dhara, N.L. Misra, P. Prabhat, S.K. Aggarwal,
fuel offers a very promising potential, as it Studies on characterization of (U,Th)O2 Solid
does not require the dissolution of the sample, Samples by total reflection x-ray fluorescence
spectrometry without dissolution, BARC Golden
the deposition of samples on sample support is
Jubilee Year DAE-BRNS Topical Symposium on
very easy and physically does not destroy the Role of Analytical Chemistry in Nuclear
fuel pellets. Technology (RACNT) Jan. 4-6, 2007.
[8] Bulk determination of uranium and thorium in
References presence of each other by Total Reflection X-ray
[1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d Fluorescence spectrometry, Sangita Dhara, N.L.
development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium Misra, Khush Dev Singh Mudher, Spectrochim.
Acta, Part B. 62 (2007) 82.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

26 Thorium Utilisation

[9] Determination of trace elements in uranium oxide [10] Sangita Dhara, S. Sanjay Kumar, N.L. Misra,
by Total Refle, ction X-ray Fluorescence Suresh K. Aggarwal, An EDXRF method for
spectrometery, N.L. Misra, K.D. Singh Mudher determination of uranium and thorium in AHWR
V.C. Adya, B. Rajeshwari and V. Venugopal, fuel after dissolution, X-ray Spectrom., 38 (2009),
Spectrochim. Acta, 60 (2005) 834. 112.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 27

Microsphere Impregnation Technique for the Fabrication of

Dense (Th,U)O2 Pellets for AHWR: Reproducibility of
Product Composition

Rajesh V. Pai, J.V. Dehadraya and S.K. Mukerjee

Fuel Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA

Abstract
ThO2 microspheres were prepared by internal gelation process using a pre-boiled
hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA), urea solution. The microspheres were characterized with
respect to tap density, specific surface area and pore size distribution. Loading of uranium was
studied as a function of vacuum, concentration of uranyl nitrate solution, duration of
impregnation and the morphology of the ThO2 microspheres. Using the standardized process
flow-sheet for the preparation of ThO2 microspheres and impregnation of uranyl nitrate
solution, homogeneous loading of uranium within 3% of the desired value could be obtained.
To check the reproducibility of U loading, impregnation experiment was performed under
similar conditions for selected batches of ThO2 microspheres. The green pellets could be
sintered to ~96% of T.D. by heating in air at 1350oC for a period of 4 h. The polished surface of
the fractured pellets showed a smooth surface without any berry structure. The SEM studies of
the pellets indicated a uniform microstructure with average grain size of 1 mm. The elemental
scanning by the EDX method showed the uniform distribution of uranium in the microspheres
and pellets.
Keywords: Microspheres; Impregnation; sintering

Introduction large-scale production of this fuel because of

the problems associated with the presence of
Thorium comprises an important
about 500-2000 ppm of 232U in the 233U fuel.
component of fuel in India’s nuclear power
To take care of man-rem problem, the chosen
programme and its judicious utilisation
techniques should be amenable to automation
through the envisaged three-stage programme
and remote fabrication. As the time available
is being pursued. ThO2 solid solution
for fuel fabrication is short after product
containing around 4 mole% 233UO2 is the
purification of 233U due to builds up of
proposed fuel for the forthcoming Advanced
daughter products of 232U, the process should
Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). Generally,
be simple and quick. The Sol-Gel
the large-scale production of MOX fuel
Microsphere Pelletisation (SGMP) is one such
pellets is carried out by the standard powder
technique, which employs free flowing, dust
pellet route. However there are a few
free, sol-gel derived microspheres as starting
technological problems that need to be
feed material for fabrication of the pellets.
addressed before adopting this method for

Advanced Reactors and Applications

28 Thorium Utilisation

Th(NO3)3OH Pre-boiled HMTA, urea

Several investigations have been made on the solution (3M) solution (3M)
development of gel pelletisation technique for
the preparation of ThO2 and (Th,U)O2 pellets Feed broth

[1-5]. Other alternative fabrication routes Droplet formation

being considered are based on vibro-sol route Gelation

and impregnation technique [6]. Among these, Washing
microsphere impregnation technique is
Drying
attractive for minimum shielding requirement
resulting from limited 233U handling process Calcination, 500oC, 3 h

steps. The process involves preparation of

Degassing, 250oC,
porous ThO2 microspheres in an unshielded Vacuum, 10-3 mbar

area. These microspheres then impregnated Impregnation with

UO2(NO3)2 solution
with uranyl nitrate solution, pelletised and
sintered. But uniform incorporation of Calcination
500oC, 1h
uranium is a matter of concern as the
Pelletisation
permeation of uranyl nitrate is through
capillary action and dependent highly on Sintering at 1350oC, 4h in
air & reduction in
morphology of microspheres used and the N2/8% H2 at 600oC, 1h

impregnation parameters such as

Fig. 1 Flow sheet for the preparation of
concentration of uranyl nitrate solution, extent (Th,U)O2 pellets by microsphere
of vacuum and time of impregnation. Studies impregnation technique
on the reproducibility in uranium loading in
the microspheres were carried out by impregnation using uranyl nitrate solution
optimising the process conditions. Using the under vacuum, further heat treatment,
standardized process flow-sheet for the pelletisation and sintering to obtain high
preparation of ThO2 microspheres and density pellets.
impregnation of uranyl nitrate solution,
Preparation of Gel Microspheres and
homogeneous loading of uranium within 3%
Characterization
of the desired value could be obtained. The
obtained microspheres were used for For the preparation of feed broth, thorium
fabrication of high-density ThO2 pellets nitrate solution was first mixed with
containing ~ 4 mole% of uranium. hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA 3M) and
urea (3M) solution in the required proportion.
Experimental The metal ion concentration ([Th]) of the feed
The process flow sheet used for the broth was varied from 0.8 to 1.3M in steps of
preparation of (Th,U)O2 pellets in the present 0.1M. For each metal ion concentration, the
study is shown in Fig. 1. The principal steps [HMTA, urea]/ [Th] ratio (R) was varied in the
involved for the preparation of high density range from 1.1 to 1.8. This feed solution was
pellets are: preparation of feed solution, then converted into droplets using an internal
gelation, washing of gel spheres, heat gelation assembly [5]. The gel particles were
treatment of ThO2 microspheres, separated from oil by collecting them on a

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 29

conveyor belt. These particles were then

washed with carbon tetrachloride to remove
the adherent oil followed by ammonium
hydroxide (3M) to remove HMTA, urea,
ammonium nitrate, methylol urea etc. The wet
gel microspheres were characterized with
respect to physical appearance and leaching
behaviour during ammonia washing. The wet
gel particles after ammonia washing step were
dried in an air oven at 100oC for 6 hr followed
by heating at 250oC for 4 hr. The dried Fig. 2 Apparatus used for the impregnation
microspheres were further calcined at 500oC of uranyl nitrate solution in ThO2
microspheres
for 3 h. The dried product was characterized
by measuring tap density, crush strength, ThO2 microspheres. For each impregnation
specific surface area and pore size study ~ 3 g of ThO2 microspheres was taken.
distribution. To check the reproducibility of The flask was evacuated to 10-3 mbar using a
he morphology of ThO2 microspheres rotary pump.
prepared from a given set of conditions,
several batches were prepared for each feed Heating the flask at around 250ºC
composition keeping all the experimental degassed the micro spheres. After degassing,
conditions unchanged. The feed solutions of the flask was isolated from the vacuum
[Th] = 1.20 M, R = 1.35 was selected among system, and spheres were cooled to room
these batches since it gave the best results in temperature and 5 to 8 mL of uranyl nitrate
the various compositions used. Three batches solution was introduced into the sample cell
of this composition were prepared by keeping from the top funnel without breaking the
the process parameters such as gelation vacuum. The solution was allowed to
temperature, washing time, drying and permeate into thoria microspheres for a fixed
calcination temperature and time identical. time. The addition of uranyl nitrate solution
These microspheres were characterized for was carried out slowly maintaining excess of
the morphology as mentioned above. uranyl nitrate solution at the funnel so that the
extent of vacuum disturbance was restricted to
Impregnation of Uranyl Nitrate Solution in
the volume of uranyl nitrate solution
to Thoria Microspheres
introduced. The time of impregnation was
Impregnation was carried out using a varied from 5 minutes to 30 minutes. After
simple indigenously designed glass apparatus impregnation, the microspheres were
(Fig. 2) consisting of a 1 litre capacity conical transferred to a wire mesh. The solution
flask having a suitable attachment for adhering to the spheres was removed by
attaining vacuum of 10-2 to 10-3 mbar. Uranyl applying air jet. The microspheres were
nitrate solutions having different heated to 150ºC followed by 500ºC for 1 hr.
concentrations i.e.; 0.5M, 0.75M, 1.0M, These microspheres were chemically
1.25M and 1.5 M were used to impregnate characterized for its components and phase

Advanced Reactors and Applications

30 Thorium Utilisation

analysis. The calcinations behaviour was compositions had micro as well as meso
studied by TG-DTA. Further, to check the porosity. Considering the cumulative pore
reproducibility of the extent of uranium volume and pore size distribution, thoria
impregnation, the optimized impregnation microspheres prepared from feed composition
parameters were controlled closely for the [Th] = 1.20 and R = 1.35 yielded the most
three batches prepared for impregnation desirable product for impregnation. The next
experiments. The impregnation experiments step was to ascertain preparation of
were performed in duplicate. The uranium microspheres with controlled morphology and
permeated into these microspheres was its loading with fixed quantity of uranium
analyzed by Davies and Gray method [7]. reproducibly. Table 1 lists the characteristics
These microspheres were dried at 150oC for 1 of microspheres of these three batches
h, calcined at 500oC for 1 h and pelletised at designated as IMPC-1, IMPC-2 and IMPC-3
250 MPa compaction pressure using a single prepared from feed composition [Th] = 1.20
acting hydraulic press. The green pellets were M, R = 1.35. It can be seen that the specific
sintered at 1350oC for 4 h in air. The surface areas of IMPC-1, IMPC-2 and
microstructure of the sintered pellets was IMPC-3 are quiet close (28.05 m2/g, 28.45
evaluated by SEM. The elemental mapping of m2/g and 29.47 m2/g respectively). The
Th and U in the microspheres as well as in the adsorption-desorption curves for IMPC-1,
sintered pellets was carried out by Energy IMPC-2 and IMPC-3 calcined at 500oC for 3 h
Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) to evaluate in air are presented in Fig. 3(a). The
the distribution pattern of uranium. The O/M cumulative pore volume of these samples
ratio was determined by TG. varied from 0.0327 to 0.0388 cm3/g (Table-1).
Fig. 3(b) shows the pore size distribution of
Results and Discussion
these three batches. This figure clearly shows
The wet gel microspheres were white in that for all three batches the particles have
colour with texture varying from translucent micro as well as meso porosities in them. The
to opaque. The translucent microspheres were amount of uranium loaded in these
hard in nature but the opaque microspheres microspheres for the optimum set of
were either hard or soft. The good quality impregnation conditions is given in Table 1.
microspheres, which survived the drying and For each batch, the impregnation experiment
calcination steps were obtained with [Th] = was carried out in duplicate. The average
1.15-1.25 M and R= 1.25 to 1.35. These uranium content of the (Th,U)O2
microspheres were used for impregnation microspheres analyzed by Davies and Gray
study. The average size of the ThO2 method was found to be 3.97 ± 0.12 wt % of
microspheres calcined at 500ºC was 1.60 ± (Th,U)O2 in all the samples. It was also
0.08 mm. The loading of uranium in the ThO2 observed during these studies that by suitable
microspheres is mainly dependent on the calcination, the morphology of uranium-
morphology of the microspheres, i.e.; the type impregnated microspheres can be modified
of pores, the pore radius, their inter and more amount of uranium could be loaded
connectivity and the cumulative pore volume. in these microspheres in successive
The microspheres obtained using selected impregnation steps. Thus this process may be

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 31

Table 1 - Characteristics of ThO2 microspheres of composition [Th] = 1.2, R= 1.35 under

taken for consistency studies

Batch No. Specific Surface Cumulative pore Nature of pores Uranium loaded
area (m2/g) volume (cm3/g) (Wt %)
IMPC-1 28.05 0.0170 Micro and meso 3.91
4.09
IMPC-2 28.45 0.0388 Micro and meso 3.99
3.81
IMPC-3 29.47 0.0348 Micro and meso 4.17
3.84
Mean value 3.97± 0.12

35 0.020
IMPC1
30 IMPC2
IMPC-1 adsorption IMPC3
IMPC-1 desorption 0.015
25 IMPC-2 adsorption
pore volume (cm3/g)

Dv/Dr (cm3/g/Ao)

IMPC-2 desorption
IMPC-3 adsorption
20 0.010
IMPC-3 desorption

15
0.005
10

5 0.000

0 10 100 1000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P/P0 Radius(Ao)

Fig. 3 (b) Pore size distributions for IMPC-1,

Fig. 3 (a) Adsorption-desorption isotherms
IMPC-2 and IMPC-3
of IMPC- 1 to 3
uranium is in higher oxidation state (>4) in air,
suitable for the preparation of dense
which acts as a sintering aid. The presence of
(Th,U)O2/(Th,U)C2 kernels required for
uranium in higher oxidation state in UO2+x
coated particle fuelled reactors.
matrix is known to incorporate cationic
The green pellets prepared were having a vacancies in the matrix, which are responsible
density of 4.5 to 5 g/cc. These pellets could be for the enhanced cation diffusivity [10]. The
sintered to 96% TD in air at 1350ºC for 4 h. O/M ratio of the sintered product was very
This sintering temperature is much lower than close to 2.0.The fractured and polished
the temperatures required for (Th,U)O2 in surface of the pellets showed a smooth surface
reducing atmosphere [3]. It is well known that without any berry structure. The
the addition of aliovalent cations such as microstructure of the sintered pellet viewed by
Mg2+, Nb5+accelerates the sintering of thoria SEM showed uniform size grains of 1-2 mm.
[8, 9]. In the present case during sintering,

Advanced Reactors and Applications

32 Thorium Utilisation

Since the pellets are prepared from these

microspheres, a uniform distribution of
uranium across the pellets was expected.
Figs. 5 and 6 gives respectively the elemental
maps of the microspheres and sintered pellet.

Conclusions

Internal gelation process has been

standardized for the preparation of porous
ThO2 microspheres suitable for reproducible
and uniform loading of about 4 wt % of
Fig. 4 SEM photograph of (Th,U)O2 pellet uranium. Good quality pellets could be
sintered at 1350oC in air for 4 h obtained from these microspheres which
could be sintered to ~ 96 % T.D. by heating at
Figure 4 shows the SEM photograph of 1350ºC in air for 4 hr. The elemental mapping
(Th,U)O2 pellet sintered at 1350ºC in air for showed that uranium is distributed in the
4 h. microspheres as well as in the pellets
The elemental maps for Th and U in the homogenously. Use of pre-boiled
microspheres as well as in the sintered pellets HMTA-urea as well as an intermediate
were recorded using Energy Dispersive X-ray calcination step was quite useful in obtaining
to evaluate the distribution of uranium in the microspheres which could be easily pelletised
microspheres as well as in the final pellets. into good quality pellets.
The results showed a homogeneous Acknowledgements
distribution of uranium in the microspheres as
The authors are thankful to Dr. S.K.
well as in the pellets for all the samples. This
Aggarwal, Head, Fuel Chemistry Division for
indicates that uranyl nitrate penetrates into the
his keen interest and support in the work. The
core of the microspheres rendering uniform
authors sincerely thank Shri. T.V. Vittal Rao,
distribution of uranium in the microspheres.
Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC for surface

a b c

Fig. 5 Elemental scanning photograph of microsphere sample a= portion scanned, b= X-rays

from Th, c= X-rays from U

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 33

a b c

Fig. 6 Elemental scanning photograph of pellet sample a= portion scanned,b= X-rays from
Th, c= X-rays from U

area and pore size measurements, Dr. U.M. [5] Rajesh V. Pai, S.K. Mukerjee, V. N. Vaidya, J.
Nucl. Mater., 325 (2004) 159.
Kasar, Product Development Section, BARC
[6] Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potentials Benefits and
for the analysis of uranium by Davies & Gray Challenges, IAEATECDOC-1450, International
method. Thanks are also due to Dr. Shovit Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2005, 1.
Bhattacharya TPPED, BARC for the SEM and [7] W. Davies and W. Gray, Talanta, 11 (1964) 1203.
elemental scan photographs. [8] P. Balakrishna, B.P. Varma, T.S. Krishnan, T. R.
Mohan, P. Ramakrishna, J. Mater. Sci. Lett., 7
References (1988) 657.
[1] S. Yamagishi, Y. Takahashi, J. Nucl. Mater., 217 [9] M.R. Nair, U. Basak, R. Ramachandran, S.
(1994) 127. Majumdar, Trans. Powder Met. Assn. India 26
(1999) 53.
[2] H. Tel, M. Eral, Y. Atlas, J. Nucl. Mater., 256
(1998) 18. [10] J. Belle, R. M. Berman, Thorium dioxide,
Properties and nuclear applications, DOE/NE
[3] C. Ganguly, H. Langen, e. Zimmer, E. R. Merz,
0060, US Department of Atomic Energy, 1984.
Nucl. Technol., 73 (1986) 84.
[4] E. Zimmer, C. Ganguly, J. Borchardt, H. Langen,
J. Nucl. Mater., 152 (1988) 169.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

34 Thorium Utilisation

Xe Release from Irradiated ThO2 Matrix an Important issue

in Nulcear Fuel Performance Analysis in relation to Peaceful
Use of Thoria based Fuels

Siddhartha Kolay, A.N. Shirsat, M. (Ali) Basu, D. Das

Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Xenon release behavior from trace-irradiated virgin and fission product-doped thoria-urania
matrices are compared. An augmentation is observed in Xe release from the Simfuel. A
comparison is also made with the release kinetics from similar urania fuels under high burn-up
situation. In the high burn-up case, impediment of Xe diffusion is reflected in significantly
higher barrier energy value.
Keywords: Xe diffusion, urania-thoria matrix, virgin fuel, Simfuel, high burnup fuel.

Introduction breeder reactors (FBR), and 233U burning for

power production in the last stage. Parallel
To meet the energy needs for industries
endeavor is also there to abridge the processes
and urban centers, nuclear energy is one of the
of the last two stages by deriving the power
sustainable resources available in the world in
directly from thorium through in situ breeding
a long-term time frame. Worldwide the
of the fissile daughter U-233 in advanced
nuclear power is essentially derived from
heavy water reactor being developed. 250
uranium and plutonium based fuels. Our
MWe AHWR technology has been worked
country has only meager reserves of uranium,
out to derive 65% power directly from thorium
the naturally occurring fissile element that can
[1]. AHWR will have fuel pin clusters of
be directly used in a nuclear reactor to produce
oxide-based fuels of approximate
energy. However, we have nearly one fourth
compositions ThO2-3.75 mol% UO2 and
of the entire world’s reserve of thorium which
ThO2-4 mol% PuO2, and pure ThO2.
is a fertile element to be converted at first to
the fissile daughter, uranium-233 through For the thoria-based fuel one generally
-
(n,b ) process in a reactor. Our strategies for adopts the strategy of its extensive burn-up in
large-scale deployment of nuclear energy has once through cycle due to the exceptional
been focused towards the thorium utilisation difficulty of spent fuel handling and
usually through the three-stage concept: 239Pu reprocessing in the presence of hard gamma
generation from uranium in thermal reactors emitting daughter nuclei. Fuel containment is
like pressurized heavy water reactors an important issue in attaining high burn-up as
(PHWR), 233U breeding from thorium in fast a significant amount of fission products (for

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 35

example, 10 atom% fps from 5% burn-up) are

generated there and these will distribute in
different chemical states and further
redistribute spatially under temperature and
concentration gradients across the fuel pin.
Fission derived energy flowing out radially to
water cooled boundary will set up a
temperature profile according to the power
rating and in typical case the central and
peripheral temperatures of the 12 mm
diameter pin will be 1273 K and 873 K
respectively. At high burn-up the thermal as
well as chemical transport property will
significantly deviate from that of virgin matrix
due to swelling and micro cracks development
as the result of thermal stress and the
mechanical stress in particular from
progressively large incorporation of fps in
solid and gaseous states inside the matrix. Fig. 1 General view of fission products
While most of the fission products settle down distribution and temperature profile in
PWR fuel at high burn-up
as dissolved state in the matrix or as separate
phases, the gaseous products, xenon (Xe) and Table 1 - Fission yields of gaseous and
krypton (Kr) and the corrosive volatiles iodine volatile elements
(I), tellurium (Te), cesium (Cs), and rubidium
(Rb), undergo transport and redistribution in Fuel types Xe+Kr Cs+Rb 1+Te
235
the fuel pin. The redistribution leads to PWR ( U fuel) 22 24 4
significant release of the species from the fuel PWR (MOX fuel 24 22 4
resulting in their accumulations at the PuO2~30%)
boundary regions. The volatiles mostly AHWR 32 20 6
concentrate at fuel-clad gap, while the gases (233U fuel)
expand further filling up the plenum region FBR (239Pu fuel) 24 22 4
(Fig. 1). Table 1 gives approximate atom
yields of Xe, Kr, I, Te, Cs and Rb per 100
larger thermal stress under a given power
fissions. The progressive gas accumulation
rating and higher possibility of pellet-clad
results in pneumatic pressure built up in the
mechanical interaction. SCC failure of fuel
fuel pin assembly and lowering of thermal
results from PCMI under the corrosive
transport of the He column filling the gap. The
atmosphere of the migrated volatiles, and the
deterioration of thermal conductance of the
failure chances increase with burn-up.
fuel-clad gap and fps incorporated fuel matrix,
Therefore, the knowledge on the extent of
and progressive loss of integrity of the matrix
gases and volatiles release from the matrix is
due to swelling and crack development lead to

Advanced Reactors and Applications

36 Thorium Utilisation

very important in predicting fuel-clad under flowing Ar atmosphere for several

integrity and safe operation of reactor. hours to decompose the carbonates to oxide
and then sintered at 1900K in flowing Ar
The fluorite lattices of thoria and urania
containing 8% H2. The fuel has particle
though similar in many respect, there is subtle
density 97% Theoretical density (TD), size in
difference in the transports of the gases and
the range of 37-45 mm, and BET surface area
volatiles in these matrices. The defect energy
of about 25 m2kg-1.The fuel used by Naik et al
and migration energy of defect are quite
[4] is thoria-1mol% urania having particle
different in the two cases. The transport data of
density 94 % TD, size in the range of 37-45 mm
Xe and other species are extensively studied
and BET surface area of about 25.5 m2
and reported in the literature. The same is not
kg-1.The sample was irradiated at low dose
true however for thoria and its solid solution
5.93x1020 fision m-3. Shiba et al [3] has used
with urania, for which only limited
thoria-6 mol% urania having particle density
information is there [2-4]. The purpose of this
paper is to compile, from the vastly scattered 99 % TD, average particle size of 50 mm and
literature, some essential aspects of Xe release BET surface area of about 18.4 m2 kg-1. The
from urania and thoria fuel matrix and transport coefficient of xenon in each case was
compare them with kinetic data generated by obtained for trace-irradiated fuel (~1021
the authors for Xe release from thoria matrix fissions m-3, ~10-5 atom% burn-up) by using
[2]. For making the comparison, it is prudent post irradiation annealing (PIA) technique.
to briefly mention the sample history of the The coefficient thus corroborates to single
thoria based fuel and the experimental atom diffusion. For experiments [2] the
procedure used in the measurement of Xe following set-up was used (Fig. 2):
transport property. In the PIA experiments, the specimen
Experimental Background irradiated to a known dose was thermally
annealed at elevated temperatures of interest
Fission product doped thoria-2 mol % and the quantity of Xe released was measured
urania fuel used in our study [2] was prepared with NaI (Tl) detector by sweeping the
by homogenously mixing and grinding released Xe by He gas and absorbing in
nuclear purity thoria containing 600 ppm
magnesia with weighed amount of urania and
nine selected fission products (La, Y, Ce Zr
Nd, Ba, Sr , Ru and Mo). in the form of their
oxides or carbonates or metals corroborating
to 2 atom% burnup. Elements with a similar
chemical behavior were represented by a
single element.

The purpose of adding magnesia is to

improve the sinterability of the fuel pellet. The
mixed powder was pressed in two stages to
attain high green density, calcined at 1073K Fig. 2 Schematic of PIA setup for Xe release

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 37

-34
1
-36
2
-38
1.ThO2-UO2-simfuel,trace irradiated(our data)[2]

ln D(m2sec-1)
2.Pure UO ,Trace irradiated(Matzke)[6]
-40 3.Th U 2 O ,Trace irradiated (Shiba)[3]
0.94 0.06 2
4.Th0.99U0.01O2, Trace irradiated (Naik)[4]
-1
-42 5.UO2, Irradiated to 11000 MWd T [7]

4
-44
3

-46 5

5.55 5.60 5.65 5.70 5.75 5.80 5.85

104/T(K)

Fig. 3 Typical plot of Xe release from Simfuel Fig. 4 Arrhenius plots showing temperature
at 1773 K [2] trends of Xe transport in different fuel
matrices
activated charcoal trap cooled in liquid N2 and
placed above the radiation detector. The gas We have compared the fission release
sweep rate was standardized ensuring characteristics of Xe from the thoria- 2 mol%
quantitative adsorption in the trap and urania simfuel used in our study with those
maintained constant for all the experimental from virgin fuels reported by Naik et al [4],
runs. Shiba et al [3]. The assessed value of urania
Results and Discussions fuel (Matzke [6]) and reported experimental
result of reactor irradiated fuel (1 atom %
The interpretation of the diffusion burnup) [7] are also considered in this
property from the measurement of cumulative comparison.
release kinetics of fission product at the
respective temperature was carried out with The Arrhenius plot of the kinetic
the help of Booth’s statistical model which coefficients obtained from different studies is
under the condition of low fractional release f represented in Fig. 4. The first plot shows the
(below 20%) and for the cases of long lived or result of our study [2] where the urania-thoria
stable isotopes predicts a simple parabolic solid solution has been doped with calculated
growth of f as a function of time, t as f = amounts of fission products corresponding to
6(Dt/pa2)1/2 [5]. Low release rate of the species burnup of 2 atom% (20000 MWd T-1). The
in practice enables one to establish the linear temperature dependence of diffusivity can be
relationship of f versus t1/2 (Fig. 3). The represented as D (m2s-1) = 1.5×10-10exp [(-189
diffusivity values D are evaluated from the kJ mol-1)/RT]. The second plot refers to the
observed slopes of the linear plots of f versus single atom diffusion of Xe through the UO2
t1/2 of the species using the equivalent sphere lattice as recommended by Matzke [6]
radius a of the granular samples. The considering reported results. The temperature
equivalent sphere radius a for a sample of dependence of the recommended coefficient is
specific surface area S is given by the relation, given by D(m2s-1) = 5.01× 10-14 exp[(-335 kJ
mol-1)/RT]. The third plot reported by Shiba
a = 3/(rS) where r is density of fuel particles.
[3] corresponds to Xe diffusion through a

Advanced Reactors and Applications

38 Thorium Utilisation

Table 2 - Fuel characteristics and activation energies in Xe transport for different fuel
matrices

Fuel TD Particle size BET surface area Ea (kJ mol-1)

(%) (mm) m2 kg-1 from plots
Thoria-2 mol% urania Simfuel 97 37-45 25.0 189
(Our data [2])
Thoria-1 mol % urania (Naik et al. [4]) 94 37-45 25.5 243
Thoria-6 mol% urania virgin fuel 99 50 18.4 478
(Shiba et al [3])
Recommended data of urania [6] - - - 376
Killeen and Baker, Reactor irradiated - - - 957
urania fuel,1 atom % burn up [7]

thoria-6 mol% urania solid solution with grain based fuel as reported by Shiba [3] indicates
size 10 mm and density ~ 99% TD and the deviation from the trivacancy mechanism that
diffusion coefficient can be represented as D reportedly explains the recommended value of
(m2s-1) = 2.6× 10-5 exp[(-478 kJ mol-1)/RT]. 376 kJ mol-1 in urania [8]. The value of 478 in
The data reported by Naik et al [4] for thoria-1 thoria is closer to that calculated for Xe
mol% urania is given in the fourth plot and the diffusion involving a tetravacancy complex
corresponding temperature dependent where a metal vacancy joins a xenon-
diffusion coefficient is represented as D(m2 trivacancy complex. The higher energy is
s-1) = 1.4×10-12 exp[(-239 kJ mol-1)/RT]. attributed to the formation of cation vacancy
and its migration, which taken together
Xe diffusion study in crushed pellets of
control the movement of Xe-trivacancy
UO2 irradiated to 11000 MWd T-1 was
complex.
reported by Killeen and Baker [7] and their
result is shown as the fifth plot in the figure. For 1 atom % burnup, the extremely high
The activation energies obtained from these value of 957 kJ/mol as reported by Killeen and
plots are shown in Table 2. It is seen that the Baker [7] is not a true representation of the
activation energies vary from 189 to 478 for intrinsic diffusivity of xenon atoms through
Xe diffusion through similar type of trace the urania lattice since TEM results show that
irradiated lattices. The activation energies fission gases are present as small bubbles
reported for the thoria-urania virgin fuel predominantly.
samples [3,4] differ significantly, though the
It is interesting to note that our data of
transport coefficients have been reportedly
xenon diffusion in simulated fuel [2] gives
normalized for the fuel density and surface
much lower value of activation energy in
area using Booth model [5]. The difference
comparison to the reported data with similar
suggests that the density variations could not
high-density matrix. The low value is
be fully accounted by the model. The high
attributed to easier xenon diffusion in the
activation energy for Xe diffusion in thoria

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 39

Simfuel matrix that contains a large Acknowledgement

concentration of cationic and anionic
Authors would like to acknowledge Dr.
vacancies formed by volatilization of
T. Mukherjee, Director, Chemistry Group for
magnesium oxide ([MgO]fluorite = Mg(g) +
his encouragement and support to this study.
½O2(g)) during fuel sintering. The
volatilizations of barium and strontium also References
contribute to the vacancy formation. The [1] R. K. Sinha, A. Kakodkar, Design and
presence of both type of vacancies help in the Development of AHWR—the Indian thorium
fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, Nuclear Eng
formation of large number of neutral
Design, 236 (2006) 683.
trivacancies and facilitates the xenon [2] A. N. Shirsat, M. (Ali) Basu, S. Kolay, A. Datta D.
migration. It is interesting to note that the Das, Transport Properties of I, Te and Xe in
observed activation of 189 kJ mol-1 is closer to thoria-urania SIMFUEL, J. Nucl. Mater., 392
(2009)16.
the theoretically predicted value of about 2.1
[3] K. Shiba, Diffusion Processes in thoria and
eV for the atomic jump involving trivacancies
thorium-based oxides with emphasis on fission
[6]. fragments irradiation effects in Diffusion
Processes in Nuclear Materials, Ed. R. P.
Conclusion Agarwala, Elsev ier Science Pub lishers,
North-Holland, 1992.
Xenon diffusion is facilitated in
[4] M. C. Naik, A. R. Paul, K. N. G. Kaimal, J. Nucl.
thoria-based matrix fabricated using magnesia
Mater., 96 (1981) 57.
like sintering aids that volatilizes producing [5] A.H. Booth, G.T. Rymer, Report CRDC-720,
cationic and anionic vacancies (1958).
simultaneously. Xenon diffusion coefficient [6] Hj. Matzke, Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Fuels
in virgin fuel depends on density of the matrix. in Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Materials, Ed.
R. P. Agarwala, Elsevier Science Publishers,
The presence of dispersed xenon bubbles in
North-Holland, 1992.
irradiated fuel impedes the diffusion
[7] J.C. Killeen and C. Baker, Topical Meeting on
extensively. LWR Fuel Performance, Orlando, FL, 1985
p4-69.
[8] Jackson and Catlow, J. Nucl. Mater., 127 (1985)
161.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

40 Thorium Utilisation

Thermo Physical Properties of Thoria Based Fuels

A. K. Sengupta, J. Banerjee, R. K. Bhagat, Arun Kumar and H. S. Kamath

Radiometallurgy Division, Nuclear Fuels Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085,
INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Thorium utilization in Indian Nuclear Power programme has become a necessity because of
limited Uranium resources but its vast Thorium. Accordingly, India has a very ambitious
programme to utilize its Thorium in the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) apart from
using them as blanket for breeding in fast reactor. The proposed driver fuel for AHWR will be
in the form of ThO2-2%U233O2 and ThO2-4%PuO2. The in reactor performance of this fuel to a
great extent depends on the thermo physical properties namely thermal
conductivity/diffusivity, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, heat capacity, high
temperature hardness, To predict the performance of this fuel or to generate a computer code for
predicting in-pile fuel behavior under normal and accidental conditions, knowledge of thermo
physical properties data base is of utmost importance. In this context, some of the important
properties of (ThyU1-y)O2 and (ThyPu1-y)O2 fuels systems have been measured as a function of
composition (‘U’ and ‘Pu’ content) and temperature. The data assessed or generated on heat
capacity/specific heat, thermal diffusivity/conductivity, thermal expansion, mechanical
constant, Hardness (ambient and high temperature), Yield stress/strain, fracture properties etc.
have been reported and discussed.
Keywords: thoria, urania, plutonia, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, hot hardness,
elastic constants.

Introduction would use plutonium-based fuel to breed

U-233 from thorium subsequently; AHWR
Thorium utilisation in Indian Nuclear
would burn the U-233 in the third stage with
Power programme for production of fissile
thorium, getting about 75% of their power
U233 and its subsequent use as fissile material
from the thorium.
has been on priority because of limited
Uranium but vast Thorium reserves. With The proposed composition of the driver
about six times more thorium reserves than fuel for AHWR will be ThO2-2%U233O2 and
uranium, India has made thorium utilisation a ThO2-4%PuO2. The fissile 233U produced is
major goal for large-scale energy production burnt in the same reactor thereby reducing the
in its nuclear power program, in a three-stage problems related to handling, transportation
concept. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors and safeguard. Moreover, the transuranium
(PHWRs,) fuelled by natural uranium would wastes like ‘Pu’, ‘Np’ and ‘Am’ which
generate plutonium in the first stage. In the produce high level and long lived radio
second stage Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 41

a b

c d

Fig. 1 Microstructures of sintered samples : (a) ThO2, (b) ThO2+2% UO2, (c) ThO2+4% PuO2
and (d) UO2.

isotopes are reduced considerably thereby Experimental

reducing waste load considerably.
Material
Improving the technology for nuclear Sintered pellet samples of ThO2,
reactors through better computer codes and (Th1-yUy)O2 [containing 2, 4, 6, 10, 20% UO2],
more accurate materials property data can and (Th1-yPuy)O2 [containing 2, 4, 6 and 10%
contribute to improved economics of future PuO2] were fabricated by powder pellet route,
plants by helping to remove the need for large involving mechanical mixing, cold
design margins simply to account for compaction and high temperature sintering.
limitations of data and methods. Accurate Progressive milling technique was used for
representations of thermo-physical properties obtaining good homogeneity in the fuel mix.
under relevant temperature and neutron ThO2 powder was doped with 500 ppm MgO
fluence conditions are necessary for which act as sintering aid. The details of the
evaluating reactor performance under normal fabrication procedure along with the
operation and accidental conditions. In the fabrication flow sheet are given in ref. [1].
present paper the data base generated for some Sintered samples of different size and shape
important properties like thermal were made which are suitable for different
conductivity, thermal expansion, high measurements. Figure 1 shows representative
temperature hardness, fracture toughness etc. microstructures of sintered fuel material.
of these fuel systems in house have been
presented and analyzed.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

42 Thorium Utilisation

Physical Properties Hot Hardness

Thermal Conductivity/ Thermal Diffusivity Hardness was measured using the

relation. : HV = 1.854. PH / d2, where d is
Thermal conductivity of the samples was
average diagonal length in micron and PH is
determined from the experimentally measured
Indenter load in kg. High temperature
thermal diffusivity data by transient Laser
hardness was measured using a NIKON hot
flash method [2]. Measurements were carried
hardness tester. Hardness measurements were
out in vacuum (6.65 x 10-3 Pa) in the
performed at room temperature and high
temperature range 873 K to 1873 K. Thermal
temperatures on metallographically polished
diffusivity was calculated using Clark and
Taylor [3] method of radiation heat loss surface of the pellet. Vicker¢s diamond
correction. The accuracy and reproducibility pyramid indenter was used with a indentation
of the results were estimated by measuring load of 200 g and dwelling time 5 seconds. At
thermal diffusivity of NIST standard each temperature at least two to three
(fine-grained isotropic graphite standards; indentions were made to arrive at a particular
NBS SRM 8425) in the same temperature data.
range. The uncertainty in the measurements Elastic Constant
was found to be ±2%. Thermal conductivity
Elastic constants like Young’s Modulus,
was calculated by multiplying thermal
Shear Modulus, Bulk Modulus, Poissons ratio
diffusivity by heat capacity and density of the
etc. were calculated by pulse echo method by
samples.
measurement of time of flight for
Thermal Expansion Longitudinal and Shear wave velocities at
Thermal expansion was measured by a ambient temperature. From the ‘time of flight’
high temperature horizontal dilatometer in the data and ‘thickness’ of the samples these
temperature range 300K–1773K. During the constants were calculated using standard
measurement, samples were heated relations. A centre frequency of 5 MHz was
continuously from room temperature to 1773 used for both long wave and short wave
K at a heating rate of 6 K/min in argon transducer.
atmosphere. The length change of the sample Fracture Toughness
was measured continuously by an LVDT
Fracture toughness was measured by
maintained at constant temperature. The
indentation technique using Vickers diamond
dilatometer is capable of measuring a length
pyramid indenter. Indentations were made on
change of ±0.1 mm. The uncertainty
metallographically polished surface of
(maximum) of measurement was found to be
samples with a load of 1 kg. when cracks
±5%, in this temperature range from 573 K –
generate from the corners of the indentations
1773 K for both ThO2-UO2 and ThO2-PuO2
beyond a critical load, the crack lengths and
solid solutions.
the lengths of the diagonals were measured
from which fracture toughness, fracture
surface energy and fracture modulus were
calculated using the following relation [15]:

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 43

K1C = 0.016*(E / HV )1/2 *PH /c3/2 (1) k=

1
(6)
A + B× T
where ‘c’ is the half diagonal of the radial
crack giving the surface trace (m), ‘a’ is half where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants. The
diagonal of the indent trace (m). Fracture parameter ‘A’ represents the influence of
surface energy, ‘g’ and fracture modulus ‘Ef’ phonon scattering by lattice imperfections and
were calculated using following relations ‘B’ describes the influence of phonon-phonon
[16,17]: scattering. The parameter ‘A’ depends on the
difference in mass and radius between the
g = (1 - g 2 ) ( K1C 2 ) / 2 E (2)
substituted atom and the host atom, while ‘B’
Ef = ( K1C 2 ) / JIC = 2 E / (1 - g 2 ) (3) remains constant theoretically. The details of
the factor affecting ‘A’ and ‘B could be
Results
obtained elsewhere [7].
Thermal Conductivity
(Th1-yUy)O2
Thermal conductivity (k) has been
Thermal conductivity data as a function
calculated from the experimentally measured
of temperature and UO2 content could be
thermal diffusivity (a, cm2/s), temperature
expressed by the following relation
corrected density (r,g/cc) and literature
values of specific heat (Cp, J/g.K) and using k [ThO2] = 1/(-0.032+2.36 .10-4 T) (7)
the following relation. k[Th0.96U.04]O2= 1/(-0.045+2.62 .10-4 T)
(8)
k = Cp .a. r (W/m.K) (4)
k[Th0.94U.06]O2=1/(-0.029+2.60 .10-4 T)
The specific heat of mixed (Th1-yUy)O2 (9)
and (Th1-yPuy)O2 solid solutions at any
k[Th0.90U.10]O2=1/(-0.18+2.58 .10-4 T))
temperature were calculated from the
(10)
literature values of specific heats for pure
ThO2 [4] and UO2 [5] and PuO2 using k[Th0.80U.20]O2=1/(0.028+2.47 .10-4 T)
Neumann Kopp’s law. The thermal (11)
conductivity data was normalized Subsequently thermal conductivity of
corresponding to a density of 95% T.D. using (Th1-yUy)O2 [95%TD] as a function of
the following relation [6]. composition (y) and temperature (T/K)in the
f = (1- p)1.5 (5) temperature range 873 to 1873K are given by.
k(y,T) = 1/[-0.046 + 0.003.y + (2.52 .10-4
w h e r e “ f ” i s t h e fr a c t i o n a l t h e r m a l
+ 1.073.10-7.y)T (12)
conductivity and “p” the porosity. This
equation describes the influence of randomly The recommended data for ThO2 and
oriented, spherical porosity on the thermal ThO2-4% UO2 are shown in Fig. 2 along with
conductivity. The thermal conductivity data the experimental data of this study and those
thus obtained could be expressed in the of others.
following standard form applicable for
insulators and dielectric solids.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

44 Thorium Utilisation

800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
12 12

ThO2 -4% UO2

Ferro et. al 10

Thermal Conductivty (W/mK)

ThO2
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

10 This study
Berman et.al
Berman, et.al
This study
8
8
6

6
4

4 2

2
T.Jarvis
T.Jarvis
0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Temperature (K) Temperature (K)

Fig. 2 Thermal conductivity of ThO2 and (Th0.96U0.04)O2 ( 95% T D) as a function of

temperature.

(Th1-yPuy)O2
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
10

Figure 3 shows the thermal conductivity ThO2

ThO2-2% PuO2
(k) of (Th1-yPuy)O2 as a function of ThO2-4% PuO2 8
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

ThO2-6% PuO2
temperature and PuO2 content after correcting ThO2-10% PuO2
6
to 95% theoretical density. It shows a
systematic decrease of thermal conductivity 4

with increasing PuO2 content and

temperature. The data are comparable with 2

T. Jarvis

those obtained by Murabayashi [8] on 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Temperature(K)
simulated fuel samples of the composition
ranging from 0 to 10w% CeO2. Jeffs [9] Fig. 3 Thermal conductivity of (Th1-yPuy)O2
derived thermal conductivity of ThO2 with as a function of temperature
1.10, 1.75 and 2.72 wt% from the values of
linear heat rating obtained during the k(y,T) = 1/ [-0.084 + 1.74.y + (2.63.10-4
+ 1.74.10-4.y) T ] (13)
irradiation condition in the reactor. The
derived thermal conductivity data are much Thermal Expansion of ThO2-UO2 and
lower than that obtained in this present study, ThO2-PuO2
convincingly due to irradiation damage of the
(Th1-yUy)O2
sample.
Bakker et al [4] recommended the
At lower temperature, the decrease in percentage linear thermal expansion data of
thermal conductivity with increase in PuO2 is (Th1-yUy)O2 (0<y<1) by obtaining the linear
more prominent than that at high temperature. interpolation of the values of Touloukian [10]
The thermal conductivity of (Th1-yPuy)O2 as a and Martin [11]. He obtained two different
function of composition, y [wt%], and relations in two different set of temperature
temperature, T [K] can be expressed by [873 to ranges:
1873K].

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 45

-4
(DL/Lo)x100 = - 0.18 – y . 0.087 + (5.10 x 10
-4 -7 400 800 1200 1600 2000
+ y . 4.70 x 10 ).T + (3.73 x 10
-7 2 -11 . ThO2 by Toulokian
- y .4.002 x 10 ).T - (7.59 x 10 1.6 UO2 by Martin2 (273£T£923) 1.6
-11 3 UO2 by Martin2 (923£T£2000)
- y 11.98 x 10 ).T (14) Recommended data for ThO2+4% UO2

Thermal Expansion (%)

Recommended data for ThO2+10% UO2
(for 273 K<T<923 K) 1.2 1.2

-4
(DL/Lo)x100 = - 0.18 – y . 0.15 + (5.097 x 10 0.8 0.8
-4 -7
+ y . 6.69 x 10 ).T+(3.73 x 10
-7 2 -11
- y . 6.16 x 10 ).T - (7.59 x 10 0.4 0.4

-11 3
- y .19.784 x 10 ).T (15)
0.0 0.0
(for 923 K<T<2000 K) 400 800 1200 1600 2000
0
Temperature ( C)

Percentage linear thermal expansion

obtained in this study for ThO2 containing 4% Fig. 4 Thermal expansion data for ThO2
and 10% UO2 (300£T£1473K) are given by containing 4 and 10% UO2 as a
function of temperature along with
(DL/Lo) x100 = -0.27 + 8.15 x 10-4 .T literature data for ThO2 and by
+ 2.22 x 10-7 .T2 Toulokian.
- 8.73 x 10-11 .T3 (16)
temperatures by taking linear interpolated
(DL/Lo) x100 = -0.24 + 6.8341 x 10-4 .T
+ 4.44 x 10-7 .T2 expansion data of ThO2 and UO2 as per their
- 16.54 x 734 x 10-11 .T3 weight fraction.
(17)
(Th1-yPuy)O2
The data obtained by taking average
The recommended percentage linear
between the experimental data and the data
thermal expansion (Fig. 5) for ThO2
recommended by Bakker [4] for above
containing 2, 4, 6 and 10% PuO2 are given
compositions are given below and shown in
below (300£T£1773K) [12],
Fig. 4 along with the recommended data for
ThO2 [10] and for UO2 by Martin [11]. Thus [PuO2 :2%] : (DL/Lo) x 100 =
the recommended percentage linear thermal - 0.35 + 9.31 x 10-4.T + 2.92 x 10-7.T2
expansion for ThO2 containing 4% and 10% - 8.46 x1 0-11.T3 (20)
UO2 (300£T£1773K) [12] are given by, [PuO2 :4%] : (DL/Lo) x100 =
- 0.38 + 11.4 x 10-4 .T + 1.87 x 10-8.T2
(DL/Lo)x100 = - 0.25 + 7.76 x 10-4 .T + 5.16 x 10-12.T3 (21)
+ 1.21 x1 0-7 .T2
- 4.74 x 10-12.T3 (18) [PuO2 :6%] : (DL/Lo) x100 =
- 0.372 + 10.5 x 10-4.T + 2.37 x 10-7.T2
(DL/Lo) x100 = - 0.23 + 7.01 x 10-4.T - 9.10 x 10-11.T3 (22)
+ 2.43 x 10-7.T2
- 5.17 x10-11 .T3 (19) [PuO2 :10%]: (DL/Lo) x100 =
- 0.44 + 13.5 x 10-4.T - 1.56 x 10-7.T2
ThO2 and UO2 form an ideal solid + 5.67 x 10-11.T3 (23)
solution and the lattice parameter changes
linearly at room temperature in the whole Like thoria-urania system, ThO2 and
composition range hence, thermal expansion PuO2 also form an ideal solid solution and thus
of the solid solutions (Th1-yUy)O2 could be thermal expansion of the solid solutions
reasonably approximated at various (Th1-yPuy)O2 (where 0<y<1) could be

Advanced Reactors and Applications

46 Thorium Utilisation

300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
2.0 600 600
Present Study :-
ThO2 ThO2
(Th0.98Pu0.02)O2 1.6 500 ThO2+ 4% UO2 500
(Th0.96Pu0.04)O2
ThO2+ 10% UO2
Thermal Expansion(%)

(Th0.94Pu0.06)O2
(Th0.90Pu0.10)O2 1.2 400 ThO2+ 20% UO2 400

Hardness (VHN)
Mathew et. al1 :-
ThO2
(Th0.90Ce0.10)O2 0.8 300 300
ThO2 (Touloukian et al)

Simulated data from linear interpolation 0.4 200 200

between ThO2 & PuO2
ThO2 + 2% PuO2
ThO2 + 4% PuO2 100 100
0.0
ThO2 + 6% PuO2
ThO2 +10% PuO2
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Temperature(K) Temperature (K)

Fig. 5 Thermal expansion for (Th1-yPuy)O2 Fig. 6 Hardness as a function of temperature

as a function of temperature showing
both experimental and simulated data
by linear interpolation method. 2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2.5

reasonably approximated at various 2.0 2.0

temperatures by taking linear interpolated 1.5 1.5

Stress (GPa)

expansion data of ThO2 and PuO2 as per their

weight fraction. 1.0 1.0

(DL/Lo) x100 = 0.5 0.5

- 0.18 - 0.049. y + (5.08 x 10-4

+ 2.25 x 10-4. y).T + (3.73 x 10-7 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0

- 2.51 x 10-7. y) .T2 + (-7.59 x 10-11 Strain (%)

+ 12.45 x 10-11.y).T3 (24)

Fig. 7 Stress vs. strain diagram for ThO2+
Hot Hardness 2% UO2.
High temperature hardness was plotted
against temperature (Fig. 6) for ThO2 and Elastic Constants
ThO2 containing 4, 10 and 20% UO2. It is
For isotropic media shear modulus ‘G’,
observed that hardness decreases with
Young’s modulus ‘E’, bulk modulus ‘K’ and
increase in temperature and UO2 content. For
Poison’s ratio ‘n’ can be estimated from the
ThO2 - 4% PuO2, the change in slope was
longitudinal (VL) and shear velocities (VS)
observed at 1100 K indicating the onset of
[13]. VL and VS are obtained from the
creep processes. The predominant
experimentally measured time of flight and
deformation mechanism expected from this
thickness of the sample at room temperature
temperature onwards would be the diffusion
controlled climb, glide and grain boundary G = r.Vs2 (25)
sliding. Figure 7 shows Stress vs. strain E = G.[(3VL2-4 VS2)/ (VL2-VS2)] (26)
diagram for ThO2+ 2% UO2.
K = r .((3VL2-4VS2)/3) (27)

where r is density

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 47

Table 1 - Calculated data for ThO2+2%UO2 (95.72%T.D.) at 298 K

Sl. Property Numerical value at 298 K

No.
1 Lattice parameter, nm 0.559
3
2 Molar volume, m 2.636x10-5
3 Coefficient of linear expansion, 1/K, (298-1600 K) 9.662x10-6
4 Coefficient of volumetric expansion, 1/K, 2.899x10-5
(298-1600 K)
5 Theoritical density, kg/m3 10.019x103
6 Shear modulus, G GPa 97.899
7 Elastic modulus, E GPa 246.375
8 Bulk modulus, K GPa 169.9
9 Poison¢s ratio, g 0.2583134
10 Compressibility, b GPa-1 5.88610-3
11 Micro-hardness (VHN) 787.11
(GPa) 7.72
12 Yield stress (GPa) 2.147
13 Yield strain 0.00871
(%) 0.871
0.5
14 Fracture Toughness, K1C (MPa*m ) 1.204
2
15 Fracture surface energy, JIC (J/M ) 2.744
12 -2
16 Fracture Modulus, Ef (*10 ) ( Nm ) 0.528

g =(VL2-2VS2)/ 2 (VL2-VS2) (28) PH /Y = HV / Y sinf = 1+1.2* ln[(E/Y)

* p0.5*cot f/8(1-g2)] (30)
Compressibility (b)
where “f” is half of the indenter apex angle.
Compressibility is one of the input
Yield strain ‘e’ is obtained from e = Y / E. Plot
parameter in calculating dilatational
of Yield stress and yield strain values are
contribution to specific heat of the material
shown in Fig. 7.
and Gruneisen parameter. Compressibility ‘b’
can be expressed in terms of Fracture toughness (K1C) fracture surface
energy (g) and fracture modulus (Ef)
b = [r(3VL2-4VS2)/ 3] -1 = 1/K (29)
The results of the elastic properties
Yield stress(Y) and yield strain (e)
measured by ultrasonic time of flight
Yield stress of ceramics with ionic bond measurement method and the fracture
is calculated using relation [14]:

Advanced Reactors and Applications

48 Thorium Utilisation

toughness and fracture surface energy for [7] Y. Takahashi, M. Murabayashi, Measurement of
Thermal Properties of Nuclear Materials by Laser
ThO2+2%UO2 are given in Table 1. Flash Method, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 12 (3)
(1975) 133.
Conclusion
[8] M. Murabayashi, Thermal Conductivity of
Some of the important thermo physical Ceramic solid solutions, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol.,
and mechanical properties data of (Th 1-y Uy)O2 7[11] (1970) 559.
[9] A.T Jeffs, Thermal Conductivity of ThO2 –PuO2
and (Th1-yPuy)O2fuels system have been
under irradiation, AECL-3294.
assessed/generated with precision. This
[10] Y.S.Touloukian, R.K.Kirby, R.E.Taylor,
includes generation of a data base on thermal T.Y.R.Lee, Thermal Expansion. Nonmetallic
conductivity, thermal expansion, hot hardness Solids, IFI/Plenum, New York, (1970).
and bulk modulus, Young’s modulus, Shear [11] D.G. Martin, The Thermal expansion of solid
UO2 and (U,Pu) mixed oxides - A review and
modulus, Poison¢s ratio etc. These data will be
recommendations, J. Nucl. Mater, 152 (1988) 94.
of immense help as an input data for developing
[12] I A E A - T E CD O C - 1 4 9 6 , T h e r mo p h y s ic a l
a computer code or to predict in reactor fuel properties database of materials for light water
performance under normal and accidental reactors and heavy water reactors, Final report of a
condition. coordinated research project 1999–2005,
International Atomic Energy Agency, June 2006
References pp 217-218.
[13] Thermo physical Properties Handbook, Nippon
[1] M.R. Nair, U.Basak, R.Ramachandran and
Netu Bussei Gakkai, Youkendou, TOKYO,
S.Majumdar, Proceeding of the International
(1990).
Symposium and Annual Technical meeting of
Powder Metallurgy Association of India (PMAI), [14] Shinsuke Yamanaka, Shinji Yoshida, Ken
Hyderabad, March 1999, pp 53-56. Kurosaki, Masayoshi Uno, Kazuya Yamamoto,
Takashi Namekaw, Mechanical properties of
[2] A.K.Sengupta, C. Ganguly, S. Majumdar and P.
(U,Ce)O with and without Nd or Zr, J. of Alloys
R. Roy, Proceedings of the 5th National
and Compounds, 327 (2001) 281.
symposium on thermal analysis, IIT Kharagpur,
India. Dec 1985. [15] G.R. Anstis, P. Chantikul, B.R. Lawn and D.B
Marshall, A critical evaluation of Indentation
[3] L. M. Clark and R. E. Taylor. Journal of Applied
techniques for measuring fracture toughness: I,
Physics, 46 (1975) 714.
Direct crack measurements,J. Am. Ceram. Soc.,
[4] K. Bakker, E.H.P. Corfunke, R.J.M. Konings and
64 (1981) 533.
R.P.C. Scharm, Critical evaluation of the thermal
[16] R.Warren, Measurement of the Fracture
propertie of ThO2, and Th1-y UyO2 and a survey of
properties of brittle solid s by H ertzian
the literature data on (Th1-y Puy )O2, J. Nucl. Mat.,
indentation, Acta Met., 26 (1978) 1759.
250 (1997) 1.
[17] T.R.G.Kutty, K. N. Chandrasekharan, J. P.
[5] J.K. Fink, Thermophysical properties of uranium
Panakkal, J. K. Ghosh, Fracture toughness and
dioxide, J. Nucl.,Mater., 279 (2000) 1.
fracture surface energy of sintered uranium
[6] B. Schulz, High Temp.-High Press., 13 (1981)
dioxide pellets, J. Mat. Science and letters, 6
649.
(1987) 260.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 49

Understanding Response of Thorium under High

Temperatures and High Pressures using ab-initio
Calculations

K.D. Joshi, Satish C. Gupta and S. Banerjee

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The knowledge of high-temperature and high-pressure properties of thorium are important for
designing advanced nuclear power systems for utilization of thorium. Employing the first
principles method, we have determined the thermal expansivity, thermal vibrations and room
pressure melting of thorium, and also determined its response to the high strain rate shock
compression and various elastic moduli in the compressed states.
Keywords: Thorium, thermal expansivity, isotherm, Hugoniot, melting

Introduction determine the pressure increase on high strain

rate shock compression and various elastic
A good understanding of the response of
moduli in the compressed states. Further, the
thorium to high temperatures and high
pressure effect on melting point and shock
pressures is an important need for its efficient
induced melting of thorium have been
conversion to fissile material in the fast
determined.
reactors and for the analysis of its behavior
under extreme conditions in severe accident Behaviour of Thorium Subjected to High
scenario. For conversion of thorium to fissile Temperatures
233
U, the thorium blanket in the fast reactors
Upon heating, a crystalline solid
needs to maintain its shape and integrity under
generally expands, its amplitude of atomic
high temperatures, therefore, the knowledge
thermal vibrations increase with increasing
of its thermal expansion behaviour and
temperature, and finally melts. The thermal
melting property are very useful. Further, for
expansivity and thermal vibrations depend on
accidental analysis of the advanced nuclear
the detailed interatomic potential; for
power systems, the behaviour of thorium
example, the thermal expansivity arises due to
under rapid pressurisation is an essential
anharmonic contribution to the interatomic
input.
potential and vibrational amplitudes are
In the present work, the first principles related to the stiffness constants, which in turn
method has been employed to determine are related to second derivative of the
thermal expansivity, thermal vibrations and potential energy with respect to deformation
room pressure melting of thorium; and also to of the lattice.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

50 Thorium Utilisation

Fig. 1 Theoretically calculated total energy Fig. 2 Thermal Expansion of thorium;

as a function of Wigner Seitz radius variation of reduced lattice constant
for thorium. ‘a(T)/a(0)’ versus temperature.

Under ambient conditions, thorium The linear thermal expansion coefficient (a) is
occurs in Face Centered Cubic (FCC) 1 ¶< u>
evaluated using expression a =
structure. The potential energy (E) of the FCC r0 ¶T
structure is calculated as a function of
The reduced lattice constants as a
primitive cell volume (V) at 0 K using full
function of temperature obtained from
potential linearized augmented plane wave
theoretical thermal expansion coefficient are
method [1]. The calculated total energy is
plotted along with the experimental data in
plotted as a function of Wigner Seitz radius in
Fig. 2. The linear thermal expansion
Fig. 1. The total energy dependence upon r
coefficient determined from the temperature
about the equilibrium Wigner Seitz radius (r0)
derivative of <u> is ~1.427´10-5 K-1 as
is fitted to a quasi-harmonic function in
compared to the experimental value of
displacement (r-r0) from equilibrium position
as follows: 1.23´10-5 K-1 [3].

E(r) – E(r0) = c(r-r0)2 – g(r-r0)2 – g(r-r0)3 The mean square thermal atomic
– f(r-r0)4 (1) vibrations <u2> have been determined using
Debye model of lattice vibrations [2]
Here the quadratic term represents the
harmonic part, the term in (r-r0)3 corresponds <u2> =3T/mh 2 kBq2 (3)
to the asymmetry of the mutual repulsion of
The Debye temperature (q) is evaluated from
atoms and term in (r-r0)4 represents the
the volume dependent elastic constants, which
softening of the atomic vibrations at large
at various volumes have been determined
amplitudes [2]. The E(r0), r0, c, g and f are the
from the second order derivative of the
fitting parameters. The average thermal
potential energy as a functi on of
displacement (<u> =<r-r0>) is obtained using
corresponding distortions.
Boltzmann distribution function:
1
µ E(u) µ E(u) E(V,e) = E(V,0) + V å å C ije i e j
<u> = kBT kBT
(2) 2 i j
ò ue du òe
-µ -µ

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Thorium Utilisation 51

¶ 2 E(V,e)
with Cij = (4)
¶e i ¶e j

The Fig. 3 shows the theoretically

determined mean square thermal vibrations
along with the experimental data derived from
the Debye-Waller factors extracted for
neutron diffraction patterns recorded at
various temperatures in thorium [3].

Finally, the melting temperature of

thorium is determined using Lindeman Fig. 3 Variation of vibrational amplitudes
criterion of melting, according to which, with temperature for thorium
melting of a solid occurs when ratio of the root
by Johanson et al. [6], however, indicate that
mean square vibrational amplitude to the
the f level of thorium under ambient
equilibrium interatomic distance (R0) exceeds
conditions is already occupied. For
a fraction xm (xm for actinides is
understanding the behavior of thorium in more
experimentally measured to be ~0.083). This
detail and to determine its response to high
criterion suggests that melting of thorium
strain rate dynamic compression with shock
occurs at 2234 K. This is the temperature at
waves, detailed theoretical analysis
which the FCC thorium would melt. Thorium,
employing first principles method were
however, transforms to Body Centered Cubic
carried out.
(BCC) phase and then melts. It is interesting to
mention here the experimental observation in The total energy calculations at various
which the measured melting temperatures of a unit cell volumes have been carried out in the
- Pu and d - Pu are found to be very close to body centred tetragonal unit cell. At each
each other suggesting that the melting of volume, the total energy calculations have
solids is essentially dependent upon atomic been performed at various c/a ratio ranging
properties [3]. The melting temperature of from 1.0 to 1.65 (where c/a =1 corresponds to
FCC Th determined is about 10 % higher than bcc and c/a = 1.414 represents the fcc
the experimental value of 2021 K [2]. structure) and the optimized c/a
corresponding to minimum total energy has
Behaviour of Thorium under Dynamic been determined. Our theoretical calculations
Pressures
suggest (Fig. 4) that thorium undergoes fcc ®
Under application of static high pressures bct phase transition at volume compression
in diamond anvil cell up to 300 GPa, thorium V/V0 ~0.61 (with corresponding pressure of
has been observed to transform from FCC to ~67 GPa). The c/a ratio of the bct phase
bct phase around 70 GPa [4]. Based on increases gradually upon further compression
theoretical analysis, Rao et. al. [5] suggested and reaches a maximum value of 1.63 at V/V0
that this structural transition is related with the = 0.47 (~169 GPa). Our optimized c/a ratios
transfer of spd electrons to the initially agree well with the experimentally measured
unoccupied f level. Theoretical calculations values [4]. The pressure dependent elastic

Advanced Reactors and Applications

52 Thorium Utilisation

Fig. 4 The variation of elastic moduli and c/a

ratio of thorium on volume
compression Fig. 5 Response of thorium to high strain
rate shock compression. The line
moduli determined theoretically using Eq. (4) represents our theoretical Hugoniot
are also displayed in Fig. 4. We observe that and symbols are the experimental data
the shear modulus C, which increases [9]
monotonically with increasing compression
ET(V,T) is thermal lattice contribution
reaches a maximum value at V/V0 ~0.61, and
including zero point vibration energy and
upon further compression, it starts decreasing
Ee(V,T) = ½bT2 is thermal electronic
and finally vanishes at V/V0 ~0.51. This
contribution to total energy. The g and ge are
suggests that the FCC ® bct transition is
thermal lattice and thermal electronic
related to the softening of C .
Gruneisen parameters, respectively. The
The melting curves shown by blue and various terms in these equations were
green lines are derived using the theoretically determined using the procedures described by
determined ambient pressure melting Godwal and Jeanloz [7] and Gupta et. al. [8].
temperature and experimentally measured The shock Hugoniot of thorium derived from
one, respectively. The pressure at the the theoretical 0 K isotherm in conjunction
crossover of the melting curve and Hugoniot with Eq. (5) and (6) and Rankine Hugoniot
corresponds to the shock melting pressure. relation is displayed in Fig. 5. The theoretical
Hugoniot agrees well with the available
The 0 K isotherm has been determined by
experimental data [9].
taking the first order volume derivative of the
total energy dependence on unit cell volume. Furthermore, to determine the variation
The 300 K isotherm and the shock Hugoniot in melting temperature as a function of
are then determined after adding finite compression V/V0 we used following
temperature corrections to the total energy as expression of Lindeman:
follows:
Tmelt(V/V0) =
E(V,T) = EC(V) + ET(V,T) + Ee(V,T) (5)
é 1 g ( V / V0 ) - 1 ù
Tmelt(1)expê2 ò 3 d(V / V )ú
¶E C (V) gE T E 0
P(V,T) = - + + ge e (6) êë V/V0 V / V0 úû
¶V V V
(7)

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Thorium Utilisation 53

The Gruneisen parameter g(V/V0)

required for this purpose is evaluated from our
theoretically determined q as a function of
volume as follows:
¶lnq D
g= (8)
¶lnV

For the determination of melting

temperature at various high pressures, the Eq.
(7) require the knowledge of Tmelt(1), the
melting temperature at normal volume, i.e. at
Fig. 6 Temperature rise along the Hugoniot
V/V0 = 1.0. The experimental value from and melting curve for the thorium
literature and the theoretical value derived in determined from first principles total
present analysis have both been used energy calculations
separately in two calculations. The two
melting lines, so obtained are plotted along -136 GPa with corresponding temperature
with the shock Hugoniot in Fig. 6. The shock range of 8506 K – 10590 K.
melting pressure for thorium determined for
References
first case is ~116 GPa with corresponding
[1] P. Blaha, K. Schwarz and J. Luitz, A Full Potential
temperature of 8506 K, and for the second case
Linearized Augumented Plane Wave Package for
it is 136 GPa with corresponding temperature Calculating Crystal Properties, WIEN97
of 10590 K. Thus, shock melting in thorium is (Technical University of Vienna) (1997).
predicted to be in the pressure range of 116 [2] Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State
Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Singapore,
-136 GPa.
New York, (1996).
Summary [3] A.C. Lawson, B. Martinez, J.A. Roberts, B.I.
Bennett, J.W. Richardson Jr., Melting of Light
From theoretically calculated total Actinides, Phil. Mag., B80 (2000) 53.
energy versus volume we have determined the [4] Y.K. Vohra and J. Akella, 5 f Bonding in Thorium
thermal expansivity and mean square at Extreme Compression: Phase Transition at 300
GPa, Phys. Rev. Lett., 67 (1991) 3563.
vibrational amplitude as a function of
[5] R.S. Rao, B.K. Godwal and S.K Sikka. Thorium a
temperature. The theoretical values of thermal 5 f Band metal at ultrahigh Pressures, Phys. Rev.,
expansivity and mean square vibrational B46 (1992) 5780.
amplitudes at various temperatures compare [6] B. Johansson, R. Ahuja, O. Eriksson and J.M
well with the experimental values. Using the Wills. Anomalous Crystal Structure of Thorium,
Phys. Rev. Lett., 75 (1995) 280.
mean square vibrational amplitude in
[7] B.K. Godwal and R. Jeanloz, First Principles
Lindeman rule of melting we have evaluated Equation of State of Gold, Phys. Rev., B40 (1989)
the melting temperature of FCC thorium to be 7501.
~ 2234 K as compared to the experimental [8] Satish C. Gupta, K.D. Joshi and S. Banerjee,
value of 2021 K. The shock melting in thorium Experimental and Theoretical Investigations on d
and f Electron Systems under High Pressure,
is predicted to be in the pressure range of 116
Metall. Materials Trans., A39 (2008) 1593.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

54 Thorium Utilisation

[9] R.G. McQueen, S.P. Marsh, Equation of State of Measurements to Two Megabars, J. Appl. Phys.,
Nineteen Metallic Elements from Shock Wave 31 (1960) 1253.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 55

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Dilip Saha and Ratan Kumar Sinha

Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The third stage of the three-stage Indian power programme aims at the development of reactors
based on Uranium-233 obtained from irradiated Thorium. To expedite transition to Thorium
based systems, an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed at Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre as a technology demonstration reactor. The AHWR is a 300 MWe
boiling light water cooled, heavy water moderated, vertical pressure tube type reactor designed
to produce most of its power from thorium. The reactor incorporates a number of passive safety
features and is associated with a fuel cycle having reduced environmental impact. At the same
time, the reactor possesses several features, which are likely to reduce its capital and operating
costs. Several major experimental facilities have been set-up for generation of data,
demonstration of technologies, and verification of computer codes. This includes a Critical
Facility, with a capability to simulate AHWR core lattice and fuel configurations, and a full
height Integral Test Loop to simulate Main Heat Transport (MHT) System of AHWR.
Important passive features incorporated in AHWR include natural circulation based core
cooling, containment cooling and containment isolation and ECC water injection directly into
the fuel cluster. This paper gives overview of AHWR.
Keywords: AHWR, thorium fuel cycle, natural circulation, passive systems

Introduction MWth Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) has

long been operating at Indira Gandhi Centre
Indian nuclear power programme was
for Atomic Research (IGCAR) at Kalpakkam.
formulated considering the existence of vast
Construction of the first 500 MWe Prototype
reserve of thorium and a moderate amount of
Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) is in progress.
uranium in the country. The first stage of the
The third stage aims at the development of
three-stage programme envisaged setting up
reactors based on Uranium-233 fuel obtained
pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs)
from irradiated thorium. To expedite
and associated fuel cycle facilities. Fifteen
transition to thorium based systems, an
such units of 220 MWe capacity and two 540
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) has
MWe units are now operational in India.
been designed and developed in BARC as a
Complete fuel cycle technology related to
technology demonstration reactor. The
PHWR has been mastered. The second stage
development of AHWR at this juncture is
envisages development of fast breeder
necessary to meet the following objectives.
reactors using uranium and plutonium
obtained from the spent fuel of first stage. A 40

Advanced Reactors and Applications

56 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 1 - Major design characteristics of AHWR

Attributes Design Particulars

Core configuration Vertical, pressure tube type
Fuel (Th-Pu)O2 and (Th-233U)O2
Coolant Boiling Light Water
Moderator Heavy Water
Cover Gas Helium
Number of coolant channels 452
Pressure tube ID 120 mm
Pressure tube material 20% Cold Worked Zr-2.5% Nb Alloy
Lattice pitch 225 mm
Active fuel length 3.5 m
Calandria diameter 7.4 m
Calandria material Stainless Steel - Grade 304L
Steam drum pressure 7 MPa
Mode of core heat removal Natural circulation
MHT loop height 39 m
Primary shut-down system 37 mechanical shut-off rods
Secondary shut-down System Liquid poison injection in moderator

(a) Timely development of fuel cycle environmental impact, waste disposal etc. To
technologies related to use of thorium in fulfill these requirements, a number of
power reactors. innovative features have been incorporated in
(b) Sustenance of technologies and expertise AHWR. This reactor has been designed to
developed for PHWRs and their gainful produce most of its power from thorium, with
utilisation for the development of a no external input of uranium-233, in the
thermal reactor system, meeting the equilibrium cycle.
safety and operational requirements Description of AHWR
being internationally stipulated now for
new generation reactors. AHWR is a 300 MWe, vertical, pressure
tube type reactor cooled by boiling light water
For sustainable development of nuclear
and moderated by heavy water. The reactor is
energy, besides ensuring fuel supply, a
fuelled with (233U-Th)O2 together with
number of key issues are to be addressed. It
(Pu-Th)O2 . AHWR is nearly self-sustaining
should be economically competitive; it must
in 233U. The design of AHWR is fine tuned
address the issues related to nuclear safety,
towards deriving most of its power from

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 57

Fig. 1 Schematic of AHWR main systems

thorium-based fuel, while achieving negative thorium and 233U will then be recycled and
void coefficient of reactivity. The major reused. The AHWR fuel cycle has enough
design characteristics are given in Table 1 and flexibility to accommodate a large variety of
schematic of AHWR systems is shown in fuelling options. Incidentally, the thorium fuel
Fig. 1. cycle also presents low proliferation risks, a
factor considered significant by several
The AHWR fuel contains 54 fuel pins
nations for export of nuclear technology. A
arranged in three concentric circles
quantitative analysis of the AHWR fuel cycle
surrounding a central displacer rod. The inner
substantiates this feature. Figure 2 shows
two circles contain thirty (Th-233U)O2 fuel
AHWR fuel cluster assembly and schematic.
pins and the outer circle contains twenty four
(Th-Pu)O2 fuel pins. The fuel also The reactor core is housed in calandria, a
incorporates a water tube for the spraying of cylindrical stainless steel vessel containing
ECCS water directly on fuel pins during a heavy water, which acts as moderator and
postulated LOCA. AHWR fuel is currently reflector. The calandria, located below ground
designed for an average burn-up of 38 GWd/t. level, contains vertical coolant channels in
Its design makes it amenable for which the boiling light water coolant picks up
reconstitution, if desired to facilitate a further heat from fuel assemblies suspended inside
extension of burn-up in the (Th-233U)O2 fuel the pressure tubes of the coolant channel. The
pins in future. The AHWR fuel cycle will be coolant circulation is by natural convection
self-sufficient in 233U after initial loading. The through tail pipes to steam drums, where
spent fuel streams will be reprocessed and steam is separated for operating the turbine to

Advanced Reactors and Applications

58 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 2 AHWR fuel cluster assembly and schematic

generate electricity from the coupled injection system using accumulators and a
generator. Four steam drums, each catering to low-pressure injection system using GDWP
one-fourth of the core, receive feed water at as source of water, are passively brought into
stipulated temperature to provide optimum action, in a sequential manner, as the
sub-cooling at reactor inlet. Inside the depressurisation of the Main Heat Transport
calandria, Zircaloy-4 calandria tubes surround (MHT) system progresses following a LOCA.
the pressure tubes for separation of the cold A passive containment cooling system is
moderator from the hot pressure tube. An incorporated for long term heat removal from
annulus gas monitoring system monitors the the containment following LOCA. This
gap between the pressure tube and calandria system removes the energy released into the
tube to detect any leakage from either pressure containment through cooling tubes, which are
tube or calandria tube. Down-comers, four in hydraulic communication with the GDWP
from each steam drum, bring the flow to a water. The containment steam condenses over
circular inlet header, which distributes the the tubes and cooling water circulates through
flow to each of the 452 coolant channels the tubes, aided by natural convection, to
through individual feeders. Passive valves transfer the heat of condensation to GDWP. A
establish communication of steam drums with fuelling machine located on top of the reactor
the isolation condensers submerged inside a block carries out on-power refuelling in the
8000 m3 capacity gravity driven water pool vertical channels. The reactor is confined
(GDWP) for decay heat removal, in case of within a double containment to minimise
non-availability of main condenser. The pool ground release of radioactivity in case of
acts as a heat sink for passive decay heat postulated accident like LOCA. The inner
removal system. In the event of a postulated primary containment is built of pre-stressed
Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA), four concrete structure whereas the outer
independent Emergency Core Cooling secondary containment is built of reinforced
System (ECCS) circuits provide cooling of the concrete structure.
core for at least 72 hours. A high-pressure

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 59

Improved Economics and therefore the need for evacuation planning

in the public domain in a large-scale
AHWR possesses several features that
deployment scenario. This may facilitate
are likely to reduce its capital and operating
siting of these reactors close to population
costs. Some of them are listed below:
centers. Some important safety features of
(a) Using heavy water at low pressure AHWR are given below:
reduces potential for leakages.
(a) Slightly negative void coefficient of
(b) Recovery of heat generated in the reactivity.
moderator for feed water heating.
(b) Passive safety systems working on
(c) Elimination of major components and natural laws.
equipment such as primary coolant
(c) Large heat sink in the form of Gravity
pumps and drive motors, associated
Driven Water Pool with an inventory of
control and power supply equipment and
8000 m3 of water, located near the top of
corresponding saving of electrical power
Reactor Building.
required to run these pumps.
(d) Removal of heat from core by natural
(d) Shop-assembled coolant channels, with
circulation.
features to enable quick replacement of
pressure tube alone, without affecting (e) T h e f u e l a s s e mb l y i n AHWR
other installed channel components. incorporates a multi-purpose displacer
assembly for the spraying of ECCS water
(e) Inherent advantages of using high
directly on fuel pins during a postulated
pressure boiling water as coolant
LOCA. This also helps achieving
- Elimination of steam generators negative void coefficient.
- Use of high-pressure steam (f) Two independent shutdown systems
(f) Production of 500 m 3 /day of (primary and secondary).
demineralised water in multi-effect (g) Passive poison injection in moderator in
desalination plant by using steam from the event of non-availability of both the
LP Turbine (for plants located on the sea primary as well as secondary shut down
coast). systems due to failure or malevolent
(g) Hundred years design life of the reactor. insider action.
Advanced Safety Features (h) AHWR employs natural circulation for
removal of heat from the reactor core
AHWR provides a robust design against
under operat ing and shutdown
external as well as internal threats, including
conditions. All event scenarios initiating
insider malevolent acts. This feature
from non-availability of main pumps are,
contributes to outstanding security of the
therefore, excluded.
reactor through implementation of
technological solutions. One of the most Passive Systems
important design objectives of AHWR is to
It may be noted that AHWR depends
eliminate any significant radiological impact
heavily on passive systems. Thermal

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60 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

IC INLET HEADER

IC2 GDWP IC1

IC TUBES

IC OUTLET HEADER

GOVERNOR
VALVE
STEAM TO
TURBINE

STEAM
DRUM
IC CONDENSATE
RETURN VALVE
FEED WATER

TAIL PIPES DOWN COMERS

RIH

CORE
COOLANT INLET FEEDERS
CHANNELS

Fig. 3 MHT andFig.3

decayMHT & Decaysystem
heat removal Heat Removal System
SCHEMATIC OF PHT CIRCUIT OF AHWR

hydraulics plays a very important role in the The isolation condenser (IC) system
design of all these passive systems some of comes into action following a reactor trip to
which are described below. remove decay heat. Steam from the steam
drum flows into the IC, where it gets
Natural Circulation Core Cooling in
condensed and condensate returns back to the
AHWR
steam drum. Both the MHT and IC system
In AHWR natural circulation is the mode flow rates are maintained by natural
for circulating coolant to remove heat from circulation. The ICs reject heat to a large pool
reactor core under normal as well as accidental of water (GDWP) in which it is immersed. In a
conditions. Figure 3 shows the Main Heat natural circulation system, the driving
Transport (MHT) System and the passive buoyancy force is provided by the thermally
decay heat removal system of AHWR. The induced density difference.
two-phase steam water mixture generated in
the core flows through the tail pipes to steam In a natural circulation loop, the driving
drum, where steam gets separated from water. buoyancy force is balanced by the retarding
The separated water flows down the frictional forces. With low driving force in a
downcomers to reactor inlet header. From natural circulation system, measures are taken
header it flows back to the core through inlet to reduce frictional losses. Mechanical
feeders. separators in steam drum are eliminated and
large diameter pipes are used. Large diameter

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 61

PRIMARY CONTAINMENT
SECONDARYCONTAINMENT
GRAVITY DRIVEN WATER POOL
VENT SHAFT
VENTILATION DUCT

ISOLATION WATER
TANK

CENTRAL
OPENING
U-DUCT
PCCS

Fig. 4. Passive Containment Isolation System

piping results in the larger inventory of the the tank, separates the two compartments. The
primary system fluid, which enhances safety. baffle plate however, does not run through the
full height of the tank. The bottom portion of
Passive Containment Isolation System
the tank allows the two compartments to be in
The reactor has double containment communication. The volume V2 is normally
system viz., primary and secondary ventilated to atmosphere through a ‘U’ duct,
containments. Between the two containments, which has a branched connection to isolation
a negative pressure with reference to water tank outlet. In the event of volume V1
atmosphere is maintained to ensure that there reaching certain pressure, the water level in
is no release to atmosphere. The primary other compartment of tank rises to spill the
containment envelops the high enthalpy and water into the ‘U’ duct. Thus, securing a water
low enthalpy zones designated as volume V1 seal at the base of U duct ensures isolation of
and V2 respectively. The volume V2 is volumes V1 and V2 from atmosphere. It is
normally ventilated to atmosphere through a required that the seal be formed in a minimum
ventilation duct. possible time to ensure fast isolation.
A scheme for containment isolation for Passive Containment Cooling System
AHWR without any active actuation is
In AHWR, a passive containment cooling
conceived. The scheme consists of an
system (PCCS) is envisaged which can
isolation water tank comprising of two
remove long term (for 72 hrs) heat from
compartments, one in communication with
containment following Loss of Coolant
volume V1 through a vent shaft while the
Accident (LOCA). In the AHWR, a large pool
other is in communication with volume V2 via
of water is provided at high elevation near the
the normal ventilation duct as shown in Fig. 4.
top of the containment. This pool named
A vertical baffle plate, running from the top of
Gravity Driven Water Pool acts as the heat

Advanced Reactors and Applications

62 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 5 Passive Containment Cooling System

Fig. 6 Emergency Core Cooling System
sink for a number of passive heat removal
systems including the PCCS. The passive carried out on natural circulation and its
external condensers (PEC) of the PCCS are stability in the main heat transport system and
connected to the pool as shown in Fig. 5. The the decay heat removal system, carryover and
containment steam condenses on the outer carry under studies in steam drum, effect of
surface of the tubes of PEC. The water inside non-condensable gases on steam
the tubes takes up the heat from air/vapor condensation in passive containment cooling
mixture and gets heated up. Due to the heating system, and thermal stratification in GDWP.
up of water the natural circulation of water
from the pool to PEC and from PEC to pool is Proposed Fuel Cycle
established. AHWR uses (Th-Pu)O2 and (Th-233U)O2
Emergency Core Cooling System as fuel. The reactor has been designed for
self-sustaining in 233U. Thus a closed fuel
This comprises injection of water directly cycle approach has been adopted for AHWR
into the reactor core in three stages. In the first wherein the spent fuel is reprocessed and 233U
stage, injection from accumulators takes place and thorium obtained is recycled back. The
(Fig. 6). In the second stage, the water flows AHWR fuel cycle, shown in Fig. 7. The
under gravity from GDWP providing core reactor will be made critical initially with
cooling for three days. In the third stage, water (Th-Pu)O2 fuel. For the initial few years,
accumulated in the reactor cavity is pumped annual reload would consist of only
back to GDWP, which eventually enters the (Th-Pu)O2 clusters. The spent fuel cluster
core. The first and second stages of ECCS are before reprocessing would undergo
passively actuated and do not depend on any disassembly for segregation of (Th-Pu)O2
active component. pins, (Th-233U)O2 pins, structural materials
A large number of analytical and and burnable absorbers. The (Th-233U)O2 pins
experimental studies were carried out to will require a two stream reprocessing process
verify, establish, and demonstrate working of i.e. separation of thorium and uranium
these passive systems. To carry out whereas the (Th-Pu)O2 pins will require a
experiments, a large number of experimental three stream reprocessing process, i.e.,
facilities were created. Studies were also separation of thorium, uranium and

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 63

Fig. 7 Proposed Fuel Cycle for AHWR

plutonium. Part of the recovered thoria will be (b) Effective utilisation of space in the
recycled into the reactor by using it for the annulus between primary and secondary
fabrication of (Th-233U)O2 pins. containments

Proposed Plant Layout (c) Unrestricted entry to reactor top for

re-fuelling and fuel transfer operations to
The plant layout of AHWR is optimised temporary fuel storage bay
for meeting various functional needs, safety,
(d) Adequate shielding against radiation and
radiation zoning, piping and cabling
preventing s pread of radioact ive
requirements, erection and construction
contamination during normal and
requirement and access and security
accidental conditions
considerations. Floor plans of various
buildings have been optimised based on (e) Provision of a large water inventory at a
equipment and systems within, functional suitable height, capable of supporting a
needs, space utilisation, radiation zoning, number of passive systems
accessibility, serviceability, maintenance, (f) Submergence of reactor core under water
transportation and ventilation aspects and before exhaustion of inventory of
access philosophy. Main considerations emergency core cooling system
governing reactor building and containment
(g) Easy access to maximum number of
layout are as given below:
equipment for operation and maintenance
(a) Minimisation of primary containment during normal and accidental situations
volume (h) Fire prevention and control

Advanced Reactors and Applications

64 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 8 Proposed layout of AHWR based plant for a coastal site

The general plant layout of AHWR, as pump-houses, Administrative Building, Stack

proposed for a coastal site, is indicated in & Radiation Monitoring Rooms and
Fig. 8. Switchyard, Nuclear Training Centre and
Seawater Intake and Discharge Structures.
Main plant buildings contained in an area
of 340 m x 350 m are Reactor Building, Conclusions
Control Building, Supplementary Control
Considering the large thorium reserves in
Building (SCB), Station Auxiliary Building A
India, the future nuclear power program will
& B, Service Building, Turbine Building, DG
be based on Th–233U fuel cycle. However,
(Diesel Generator) Buildings, Fuel Building,
there is a need for the timely development of
Waste Management Building, Fire Water
thorium-based technologies for the entire fuel
Reservoir, Emergency Water Reservoir,
cycle. The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
Work-shop, Desalination Plant, Condenser
(AHWR) has been designed to fulfill this
Cooling Water & Service Water

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 65

need. The AHWR is a 300MWe, vertical, addition to this passive feature, innovative
pressure tube type, heavy water moderated, passive safety systems have been incorporated
boiling light water cooled natural circulation in the design for decay heat removal under
reactor. The fuel consists of (Th–Pu)O2 and shut down condition and mitigation of
(Th–233U)O2 pins. The fuel cluster is designed postulated accident conditions.
to generate maximum energy out of 233U,
Bibliography
which is bred in situ from thorium and has a
[1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d
slightly negative void coefficient of reactivity.
development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium
For the AHWR, the well-proven pressure tube fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, Nuclear
technology has been adopted and many Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 683–700
passive safety features, consistent with the [2] D. Saha and R.K. Sinha, Indian Advanced
international trend, have been incorporated. A Nuclear Reactors, Sixteenth Annual Conference
of Indian Nuclear Society (INSAC- 2005),
distinguishing feature which makes this Mumbai, Nov. 15-18, 2005.
reactor unique, from other conventional [3] D. Saha, Indian Nuclear Power Programme and
nuclear power reactors is the fact that it is Some Associated R&D Activities, SJTU 2006
designed to remove core heat by natural International Workshop on Nuclear Power
Development, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
circulation under normal operating conditions
Shanghai, China, April, 2006
thereby eliminating the need of pumps. In

Advanced Reactors and Applications

66 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Facilitating Large Scale Nuclear Power Deployment through

Technological Innovations

Ratan Kumar Sinha

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Nuclear energy is expected to emerge, as a major option in meeting future global energy needs.
In order to facilitate large scale nuclear power deployment in the world, both in terms of
extending its reach to a large number of countries of the world, and increasing the nuclear share
everywhere, there is a need to consider solutions that would be sustainable from the point of
view of economics, safety, security, waste disposal, proliferation resistance, and resource
sustainability. Although there are international initiatives to address issues related to
economics, safety, and security through technological innovations, the issues related to nuclear
waste, proliferation resistance, and resource sustainability do not generally seem to have been
in focus for the implementation of solutions based on technological innovations. The Indian
programme for the development of advanced rectors has considered adoption of technical
means to the optimum extent to address these three remaining issues as well. In a scenario of
large-scale nuclear power deployment, mainly in developing countries, it will be necessary to
minimise the infrastructural burdens and overheads on siting, security and implementation of
safeguards though innovative technological solutions to an optimum extent.
Keywords: Large scale deployment, enhanced safety, waste management, proliferation
resistance, AHWR300-LEU

Introduction addressing the global warming related

concerns, nuclear energy is expected to
The global profile of nuclear power
emerge, as a major option to substantially
installed capacity has been nearly dormant
contribute to meeting the future global energy
(see Fig. 1) for the past two decades, with a
needs. The trend of the data provided in the
comparatively higher growth mainly achieved
Human Development Report 2007/2008 [2]
in the fast growing economies of China and
suggests that per capita electricity
India. Since 1985 the spread of nuclear power
consumption of at least 5000 kWh/year is
to new countries has also remained dormant,
needed for reaching a state of moderately high
with no further addition to the number of
human development. With this stipulation,
countries with nuclear power reactors either
together with the expectation that at least half
under construction or in operation (see Fig. 2)
of the total energy demand may need to be met
[1].
with nuclear, a simple calculation shows that
Considering the progressive depletion of the world may eventually need between 3000
fossil fuel reserves, and the urgent need for to 4000 nuclear power reactors of different

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 67

Operating reactors worldwide (GWe)

400
1982 1985 33 Countries
Ref: 35 Romania China since 1985
350 Nuclear Power Reactors

Number of countries with

in the World, 30

nuclear power reactors

32 Countries
300 Reference data since 1996
25
250 series no. 2, 2010, IAEA
20
200
15
150 First reactor operation
First reactor construction
10
100
5
50
Source: PRIS, IAEA
0
0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2009 Year
Year

Fig. 1 Profile of nuclear power installed Fig. 2 Time line of the growth in number of
capacity countries with nuclear power reactors

capacities for electricity generation. The concerns about safety and nuclear waste.
number may at least double with the use of Some of these concerns are vaguely reflected
nuclear energy to provide an alternative to as ‘public perception’, which appears to be a
fluid fossil fuels, in the form of hydrogen and dominant force in some democratic countries.
synthetic liquid fuels for transportation In order to facilitate large-scale nuclear power
applications. The goal of attaining such a large deployment in the world, both in terms of
population of nuclear power reactors is extending its reach to a large number of
independent of any projected scenario for countries of the world, and increasing the
growth; although a scenario will help in nuclear share everywhere, there is a need to
estimating the time when the goal can be consider sustainable solutions to these issues.
reached. It is also worth noting that a large
In terms of public perceptions towards
number of these reactors may need to be
issues affecting sustainable use of nuclear
located in regions with high population
power, safety and security of nuclear
densities. Thus, while the first “wave” of
installations and waste management perhaps
nuclear reactors appeared in developed
form the major areas of concern. From a point
countries, the second “wave” of reactors is
of view of achieving fuel cycle sustainability,
expected to occur in countries, which still
issues related to waste management, resource
have substantial gap between projected
sustainability and proliferation resistance
demand and projected sustainable energy
seem to be the dominating factors.
resources.
There are some international initiatives to
Challenges of Large-scale Deployment
address some of the aforementioned aspects.
The major impediments for growth of Generally, they either adopt large sizes to take
nuclear power are mainly interlinked issues of advantage of economics of scale or propose
proliferation concerns and vulnerability to small and medium sizes to facilitate
supply shocks. In addition, there have been economics of large-scale production and
impediments on account of one or more of the passive safety features. Construction and
different factors, including economics,

Advanced Reactors and Applications

68 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

maintenance technologies have also developing countries, with large unfulfilled

substantially progressed to enhance the energy demands and high population
economics of nuclear power in several densities, can be stated in the following words
regions. To address safety issues, the new [2]:
designs lean towards strengthening the
“Four decades from now, in any country
different levels of defence-in-depth and
of the world, it should be possible to start
adoption of redundancy, diversity and
replacing fossil fuelled power plants, at the
additional inherent and passive safety
same urban or semi-urban site where these are
features. Both economics and, safety and
located, with advanced Nuclear Power Plants
security are thus seen to be already
(NPPs) that would, more economically,
addressable through the use of technological
deliver at least twice the power that was being
innovations. Three additional aspects,
produced by the replaced plants”.
namely, resource sustainability, nuclear
waste, and proliferation resistance do not In a scenario of large-scale nuclear power
generally seem to have been in focus for the deployment, mainly in developing countries,
implementation of solutions based on some of them with large population densities,
technological innovations. it will be necessary to minimise the
infrastructural burdens and overheads on
To facilitate sustainable global
siting, security and implementation of
large-scale deployment of nuclear energy, the
safeguards. Adoption of innovative
solutions should include deployment of
technological solutions to an optimum extent
proliferation resistant technologies together
seems to be the only long-term solution. It is
with a robust framework for international
important, therefore, to explore technological
cooperation, to address both proliferation and
solutions that minimise dependence upon
fuel supply concerns. The criteria for the
institutional approaches and reduce
safety, for these systems should be consistent
vulnerability to external and internal threats
with the increase in the number of nuclear
through passive means.
facilities, and should address a possible need
to locate these facilities close to population Main Components of a Technological
centers, in accordance with siting rules Approach for Safety and Security in a
generally applicable to conventional major Large-scale Deployment Scenario
industrial facilities. Economic Addressing the need for enhanced safety
competitiveness is a function of time frame, is perhaps the most important aspect of
geographical region and application area of gaining public acceptance. For a large-scale
deployment. Logically, therefore, the deployment to be sustainable, it is required
innovative systems should be economically that under all circumstances there is no
competitive to facilitate their early and wide unacceptable radiological impact outside the
deployment. The challenges associated with plant boundary. This should hold not only
the various aspects of global expansion of with failure of all active systems, and failure of
nuclear power are thus quite substantial. In external infrastructure to provide coolant,
this context, a crisp and focused goal, that power and other services, but also even in the
would be of a high priority for many

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 69

Fig. 3 Safety and Security – an envisaged scenario

case of malevolent acts by an insider and can be implemented in several reactor

inability of plant operators to manage the configurations. The Indian Advanced Heavy
events and their consequences, for a Water Reactor, AHWR300-LEU described in
significantly long time. In such a case, the paper, serves to illustrate the case of a
technological solutions become imperative to mature design that has already incorporated
meet the design objectives. these features in its design. In addition to
technological innovations to improve safety,
Consider a scenario, wherein, a robust
the reactor can also provide significant
structural containment exists to protect
improvements in other areas of sustainability.
internal systems against external threats
(Fig. 3). AHWR300-LEU

It is required that even with (a) AHWR300-LEU [3] is a 300 MWe,

non-availability of all services and functions vertical, pressure-tube type, boiling light
located outside the containment, including water-cooled, and heavy water-moderated
control room functions and operator actions, reactor. The reactor incorporates a number of
and (b) non-functionality or compromised passive safety features and is associated with a
functionality of any instrumentation and fuel cycle having reduced environmental
electrical systems located inside the impact. The schematic of the main systems is
containment, there should be no unacceptable shown in Fig. 4.
radiological impact outside the plant
The AHWR300-LEU fuel cluster (Fig. 5)
boundary. This can be ensured by ensuring
contains 54 fuel pins arranged in three
capability for safe shutdown of the reactor
concentric circles surrounding a central
without operator intervention, availability of
displacer assembly. The Zircaloy-2 clad fuel
an adequate capacity heat sink, either inside
pins in the three circles, starting from the
the containment, or accessible across
innermost, contain 18%, 22% and 22.5% of
containment structure and passive transfer of
LEUO2 (with 19.75% enriched uranium)
decay heat to the heat sink. These principles

Advanced Reactors and Applications

70 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 4 Schematic of AHWR300-LEU main systems

feeders branch out to the coolant channels in

the core. The outlets from the coolant channels
are connected to tailpipes carrying
steam-water mixture from the individual
coolant channels to four steam drums. Steam
is separated from the steam-water mixture in
steam drums, and is supplied to the turbine.
The condensate is heated in moderator heat
exchangers and feed heaters and is returned to
steam drums by feed pumps. Four
downcomers connect each steam drum to the
inlet header.

The Emergency Core Cooling System

Fig. 5 AHWR300-LEU fuel cluster
(ECCS) is designed to remove the core heat by
passive means in case of a postulated Loss of
respectively, and the balance ThO2. The Coolant Accident (LOCA). In the event of a
average fissile content is 4.21%. rupture in the primary coolant pressure
boundary, the cooling is initially achieved by
The Main Heat Transport (MHT) System
passive initiation of a large flow of water from
transports heat from fuel pins to steam drum,
accumulators. Later, cooling of the core is
using boiling light water, as the coolant under
achieved by the passive injection of cold water
natural circulation. The MHT system consists
from an 8000 m3 Gravity Driven Water Pool
of a common circular inlet header from which

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 71

Table 1- AHWR300-LEU design parameters

Reactor power 920 MWth, 300 MWe

Core configuration Vertical, pressure tube type design
Coolant Boiling light water
Number of coolant channels 444
Pressure tube ID 120 mm
Lattice pitch 225 mm (square pitch)
No. of pins in fuel cluster 54
Active fuel length 3.5 m
Total core flow rate 2141 kg/s
Coolant inlet temperature 259°C (nominal)
Feed water temperature 130°C
Average steam quality 19.1%
Steam generation rate 408 kg/s
Steam drum pressure 70 bar
MHT loop height 39 m
Primary shut down system 45 shut off rods
Secondary shut down system Liquid poison injection in moderator
No. of control rods 24
Passive Poison Injection Poison injection through a passive valve actuated
by increased steam pressure

(GDWP) located near the top of the reactor AHWR300-LEU. The reactor building air
building. In AHWR300-LEU, subsequent to supply and exhaust ducts are shaped in the
energy absorption in GDWP in vapour form of U-bends of sufficient height. In the
suppression mode, the Passive Containment event of LOCA, the containment pressure
Cooling System (PCCS) provides long-term drives water into the U-bends of the
containment cooling following a postulated ventilation ducts. Water in the U-bends acts as
LOCA. GDWP serves as a passive heat sink a seal between the containment and the
yielding a grace period of three days. The core external environment, thus, providing the
is submerged in water from GDWP long necessary isolation between the two. The
before the end of this period. major parameters of this reactor are listed in
Tables 1 and 2.
The AHWR300-LEU has a double
containment. For containment isolation, a The AHWR300-LEU was designed with
passive system has been provided in an aim to achieve all the sustainability

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72 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 2 - AHWR300-LEU Physics Parameters

Properties Value
Average discharge burnup (MWd/t) 64,000
Energy extracted per tonne equivalent mined uranium (MWd/t) 7,826
Power from thorium (%) 39
Number of control rods Absorber rod: 8 (10.9)
(Worth in mk*) Regulating rod: 8 (11.6)
Shim rod: 8 (9.9)
Regulating rod worth in normal operating condition (67% in) (mk) 5.33
Number of shutoff rods (Total worth in mk) 45 (-83.25)
Total worth of shutoff rods if two maximum worth rods are -60.28
unavailable (mk)
Peaking factors (Local/Radial/Axial/Total) 1.35 / 1.2 / 1.29 / 2.1
Fuel temperature coefficient (Dk/k/K) -2.82x10-5
Channel temperature coefficient (Dk/k/K) -3.73x10-5
Void coefficient (Dk/k/% void) -8.72x10-5
Moderator temperature coefficient (Dk/k/K) -3.09x10-5

*mk = milli k = 1000 x r (reactivity), r = (keff-1)/ keff

parameters necessary for meeting the the need for evacuation planning in the public
requirements for large-scale deployment of domain in a large-scale deployment scenario.
nuclear power. Hence, it has features, as This may facilitate siting of these reactors
brought out in the following paragraphs, close to population centers. Some important
which make it attractive from the point of view safety features of AHWR300-LEU are given
of economics, safety, resource sustainability, below:
and proliferation and waste management.
(a) Slightly negative void coefficient of
Advanced Safety Features reactivity.
AHWR300-LEU provides a robust (b) Passive safety systems working on
design against external as well as internal natural laws.
threats, including insider malevolent acts. (c) Large heat sink in the form of Gravity
This feature contributes to outstanding Driven Water Pool with an inventory of
security of the reactor through 8000 m3 of water, located near the top of
implementation of technological solutions. Reactor Building.
One of the most important design objectives of
(d) Removal of heat from core by natural
AHWR300-LEU is to eliminate any
circulation.
significant radiological impact and therefore

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 73

(e) The fuel assembly in AHWR300-LEU 600

Clad temperature (K)

590
10 sec delay
incorporates a multi-purpose displacer 5 sec delay
580 2 sec delay
assembly for the spraying of ECCS water
570
directly on fuel pins during a postulated
560
LOCA. This also helps achieving
550
negative void coefficient. 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s)
(f) Two independent shutdown systems
(primary and secondary). Fig. 6 Peak-clad temperature variation
(g) Passive poison injection in moderator in
the event of non-availability of both the
The effectiveness of these passive
primary as well as secondary shut down
features has been demonstrated by analysis as
systems due to failure or malevolent
well as by extensive experimentation. One
insider action.
such case is demonstrated in Fig. 6. Due to
(h) AHWR300-LEU employs natura l passive systems, peak clad temperature hardly
circulation for removal of heat from the rises even in the extreme condition of
reactor core under operating and complete station blackout and failure of
shutdown conditions. All event scenarios primary and secondary shutdown systems.
initiating from non-availability of main
One of the design objectives is to make a
pumps are, therefore, excluded.
technology case for no exclusion zone beyond
(i) T h e r e a c t o r p h y s i c s d e s i g n o f
plant boundary, because of its
AHWR300-LEU is optimised to achieve
above-mentioned advanced safety features.
high burn-up with the LEU-Thorium
based fuel along with inherent safety Improved Economics
characteristics like negative reactivity AHWR300-LEU possesses several
coefficients. The design provides for features that are likely to reduce its capital and
inherent safety characteristics through operating costs. Some of them are listed
achievement of required reactivity below:
coefficients, e.g.
(a) Using heavy water at low pressure
· Sufficient reactivity worth of
reduces potential for leakages.
shutdown systems is ensured under
all accidental conditions, including (b) Recovery of heat generated in the
LOCA and LORA ( Loss Of moderator for feed water heating.
Regulation Accident), even with two (c) Elimination of major components and
maximum worth shutoff rods being equipment such as primary coolant
unavailable.
pumps and drive motors, associated
· All reactivity and power coefficients,
control and power supply equipment and
liable to be encountered during
corresponding saving of electrical power
reactor startup, LOCA and under long
required to run these pumps.
shutdown, are ensured to be negative.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

74 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 3 - Salient parameters of a modern LWR [4]

Power rating 1500 MWe/

4410 MWth
Operation cycle length 440 EFPD
No. of refueling batches 4
Initial Loading Reload Discharge Full core discharge
at retirement
Uranium 128.9 32.23 29.76 122.51
(Tons) (3.4% fissile) (4.95% fissile) (0.85% fissile) (2.05% fissile)
Plutonium (kg) Nil Nil 415.5 1258
(64.54% fissile) (72.8% fissile)
Minor Actinides (kg) Nil Nil 44.87 91.90

(d) Shop-assembled coolant channels, with Collaborative Project Global Architecture of

features to enable quick replacement of Innovative Nuclear Energy Systems Based on
pressure tube alone, without affecting Thermal and Fast Reactors Including Closed
other installed channel components. Fuel Cycle (GAINS) [4]) the AHWR300-LEU
(e) Inherent advantages of using high requires about 5.7% less mined natural
pressure boiling water as coolant uranium for the same quantity of energy
produced, thus making it a favourable option
· Elimination of steam generators
for efficient utilisation of natural uranium
· Use of high-pressure steam
resources.
(f) Production of 500 m 3 /day of
demineralised water in multi-effect The reactor is configured to obtain a
desalination plant by using steam from significant portion of power by fission of 233U
LP Turbine (for plants located on the sea derived from in-situ conversion from 232Th.
coast). On an average, about 39% of the power is
(g) Hundred years design life of the reactor. obtained from thorium. Uranium in the spent
fuel contains about 8% fissile isotopes, and
Better Resource utilisation as compared with
hence is suitable to be reused in other reactors.
Modern Light Water Reactors (LWRs)
It is also possible to reuse the Plutonium from
The fuel is currently designed for an spent fuel in fast reactors. A comparison of
average burn-up of 64 GWd/t and has mined uranium requirement is shown in Fig. 7.
significant thoria percentage. In comparison Variation of fissile uranium percent in total
to modern LWRs (an advanced Pressurised uranium with burnup for AHWR-LEU is
Water Reactor (PWR) of 60 GWd/t burnup shown in Fig. 8.
(refer Table 3) being considered for
International Project on Innovative Nuclear
Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 75

20

Fissile uranium / Total uranium (%)

233
20 18 U
Mined uranium per unit energy
235
16 U
produced (Tons/TWhe) 14 Total fissile uranium
15
12
10
10 8
6
5 4
2
0
0 0 20 40 60 80
Modern PHWR AHWR300 Burnup (GWd/t)
LWR -LEU

Fig. 7 Comparison of mined uranium Fig. 8 Variation of fissile uranium percent in

total uranium with burn-up

30

Amount of Plutonium in spent fuel per

Enhanced Level of Proliferation Resistance Total
25
AHWR300-LEU offers significant Fissile
unit energy (kg/TWhe)
advantages in terms of proliferation 20
resistance. As a result of its mixed fuel, the
15
300 MWe plant produces only 21% of the
Plutonium as compared to a modern LWR 10
(Fig. 9). The Plutonium from AHWR300- 5
LEU spent fuel contains ~56% fissile
isotopes, while those from LWR spent fuel 0 Modern AHWR300
LWR -LEU
contains ~65% fissile isotopes. Also, fraction
of 238Pu in total plutonium, responsible for Fig. 9 Plutonium production per unit energy
high heat generation, is ~10%, as against a
much lower fraction in modern LWRs, thus
making the Plutonium from AHWR300-LEU percentage of thoria, conventional approaches
spent fuel much less attractive for for dissolution are highly inefficient, thus
proliferation. Figure 10 shows a comparison making reprocessing more difficult.
of the total plutonium at different burn-ups, Reduced Waste Generation as compared to
against other reactors. Modern LWRs
An additional aspect of proliferation The AHWR300-LEU fuel contains a
resistance is the appreciable quantities (~200 significant fraction of thorium as a fertile host.
ppm) of 232U in the uranium from spent fuel of Thorium being higher in the periodic table, the
AHWR300-LEU. The daughter products of quantity of minor actinides produced is
232
U emit high-energy gamma radiation. This significantly reduced. As compared to the
makes it possible to re-use uranium in other modern LWR, referred to in the previous
reactors in a proliferation resistant manner. It section, for the same amount of energy
may be further noted that due to its significant produced, AHWR300-LEU results in 37%

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76 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

14

Total plutonium in spent fuel per unit heavy metal

MODERN
1
Modern LWR: Advanced PWR with N4 (PWR)2 LWR1
60 GWd/t burnup [4]
12 2
N4 PWR with 50 GWd/t burnup [5]
3
TAPS: Indian Tarapur Atomic Power
Station with 20 GWd/t burnup
10 PHWR: Indian PHWR with 7000
GWd/t burnup

8 TAPS (BWR)3
(g/kgHM)

PHWR AHWR300-LEU
4

0
0 20 40 60
Burnup (GWd/te)

Fig. 10 Comparison of the total plutonium at different burn-ups

less minor actinides (Fig. 11). This will

3.0
Minor actinides in spent fuel per

obviously lead to a reduced burden on waste

disposal requirements. 2.5
unit enrgy produced

2.0
(kg/TWhe)

Further, because of the inert matrix,

thorium oxide is eminently suitable for 1.5
long-term storage. Due to inert nature of the 1.0
matrix, reprocessing of the AHWR300-LEU
fuel poses relatively complex challenges.
0.5
With this feature, even with a fuel cycle 0.0
Modern AHWR300
designed in a once through mode, the spent
LWR -LEU
fuel can be kept stored in interim storage
facilities. at the plant site for prolonged Fig. 11 Comparison of minor actinide
durations. production per unit energy

Conclusion superior waste disposal options, and

non-proliferation properties. From the results
The results of several studies indicate a
of the studies included in the paper, it can be
significant increment in the energy demand
seen that thorium based fuel addresses many
worldwide. Considering sustainability
of the above-mentioned issues. AHWR and
concerns, a multi-fold increment in growth of
AHWR300-LEU provide solutions to these
nuclear power seems inevitable. This requires
concerns to a large extent.
satisfactory technological response to
challenges of very high level of safety and
security, high degree of fuel use efficiency,

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 77

References Architecture of Innovative Nuclear Energy

Systems Based on Thermal and Fast Reactors
[1] R.K. Sinha, The IAEA’s contribution to the Including Closed Fuel Cycle(GAINS),
peaceful use of nuclear power, Nuclear Power http://www.iaea.org/INPRO/GAINS/index.html
Newsletter, 3(2) (2006) Special Issue. Accelerator-Driven Systems (ADS) and Fast
[2] Human Development Report 2007/2008, Reactor (FR) in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles,
Published for United Nations Development Organisation for [5]
Programme. Economic Co-operation and Development,
[3] AHWR300-LEU: Advanced Heavy Water OECD (2002).
Reactor with LEU-Th MOX Fuel, Bhabha Atomic [6] I.V. Dulera and R.K. Sinha, High Temperature
Research Centre (BARC), 2009. Reactors, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 383
[4] Materials developed during the implementation of (2008) 183.
t h e IA E A c o ll a b o ra t iv e p r o j e ct G lo b a l

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78 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Design of A Thorium Fuelled Advanced Heavy Water

Reactor

P.D. Krishnani
Reactor Physics Design Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA:
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The AHWR fuel consists of (Th,Pu)O2 and (Th,233U)O2 pins. The fuel cluster is designed to
generate maximum energy out of 233U, which is bred in-situ from thorium and has a slightly
negative void coefficient of reactivity, negative fuel temperature coefficient and negative
power coefficient. The fuel cycle is based on the in-situ conversion of naturally available
thorium into fissile 233U in self-sustaining mode. The 233U required initially can be produced by
specially designing the initial core of AHWR using (Th,Pu) MOX fuel. There will be gradual
transition from the initial core to an equilibrium core. The self-sustenance is being achieved by
a differential fuel loading of low and a relatively higher Pu in the fuel clusters. In AHWR the
plutonium burns efficiently and the discharged fuel contains less minor actinides and also
exhibits proliferation resistant characteristics due to presence of hard g-rays emanating from
232
U. The reactor offers enough flexibility to accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles. The
use of enriched uranium (LEU) with initial configuration 19.75% 235U and 80.25% 238U along
with thorium in all the fuel pins of the AHWR fuel assembly was studied and calculations were
done for the equilibrium fuel cycle. It was found that a case with the average LEU content of
21.3% gives high burnup of about 64 GWd/te. There is better utilization of natural uranium
resources. The spent fuel contains significant quantity of 232U and 238Pu enhancing its
proliferation resistance characteristics. The paper will focus on the design features of AHWR
as well as other aspects mentioned above.
Keywords: Thorium utilization, AHWR core self-sustaining in 233U, composite cluster, AHWR
Initial core, (Th,LEU)MOX, proliferation resistant, negative void reactivity.

Introduction reactor cooled by boiling light water and

moderated by heavy water [1,2]. The main
The main objective for development of
objectives are to achieve relatively higher
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is
fraction of power from Th/233U, negative void
to demonstrate thorium fuel cycle
reactivity coefficient, minimisation of initial
technologies, along with several other
inventory and consumption of plutonium,
advanced technologies required for next
self-sustaining characteristics in 233U and high
generation reactors, so that these are readily
discharge burnup. The equilibrium core uses
available in time for launching the third stage.
(Th,233U) MOX and (Th,Pu) MOX fuel pins in
The AHWR under design is a 920 MWth,
the same fuel cluster called the standard
vertical pressure tube type thorium-based
composite cluster. The self-sustenance is

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 79

achieved by a differential fuel loading of Fuel Cluster Design

standard fuel clusters and modified fuel
The fuel cluster for the equilibrium core
clusters, which has relatively higher Pu
of AHWR, called the standard composite
content. Plutonium is used as makeup fuel to
cluster, consists of 54 pins arranged in arrays
achieve high discharge burn-up and
of 12, 18 and 24 pins. The first array of 12 pins
self-sustaining characteristics of Th-233U fuel
has 233U content of 3.0% by weight and the
cycle.
middle 18 pins have 3.75% 233U. The 24
The basic fuel cycle for the equilibrium (Th,Pu) MOX pins in the third array have an
core is based on the fact that it should be axial gradation of 4.0 % Pu in the lower half of
self-sustaining in 233U. A study has been the active fuel and 2.5% plutonium in the
performed to design the initial core, which upper half to improve MCHFR (minimum
produces enough 233U required for the critical heat flux ratio). The current design has
introduction of composite fuel clusters in the a multi functional central displacer unit, which
core. The initial core will use 42-rod clusters consists of SS in the top half and Zircaloy-2 in
of (U,Pu) MOX and (Th,Pu) MOX. There will the bottom half of the cluster [3]. In order to
be gradual transition from the initial core to an achieve self sustenance in 233U cluster has
equilibrium core. been modified by replacing the innermost 12
pins by (Th,Pu)MOX having 4% Pu
AHWR offers enough flexibility to
enrichment. The enrichment used is same
accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles.
from top to bottom. Graded enrichment is
Few cases were studied to achieve high
employed only in the outer ring pins. Also,
discharge burnup by using Low Enriched
only Zircaloy rod is used through out the
Uranium (LEU) as external feed in thorium
length in the displacer. This cluster is called as
oxide fuel in AHWR (AHWR_LEU Core).
modified composite cluster.
The enriched uranium with initial
configuration 19.75% 235U and 80.25% 238U The fuel cluster for the initial core will
was used along with thorium in all the fuel have 42 fuel pins of either (Th, Pu) MOX or
pins of the fuel cluster and calculations were (U, Pu) MOX. The 42-pin cluster is identical
done for the equilibrium fuel cycle. It was to 54-pin cluster except for the 12 pins of the
found that a case with the average LEU innermost ring are dummy zircaloy pins. Also,
content of 21.3% gives high burnup of about the entire displacer unit is made of zircaloy.
64 GWd/te. There is better utilization of The clusters for initial core employ plutonium
natural uranium resources and all reactivity enrichments in (U, Pu) MOX and the (Th-Pu)
coefficients are negative. The spent fuel MOX of 0.9% and 1.7% respectively. There is
contains sufficient quantity of 232U and 238Pu no differential enrichment or axial gradation
enhancing its proliferation resistance of plutonium in the 42-pin clusters used for the
characteristics. The paper discusses the study of this initial core.
physics design of AHWR for equilibrium
The fuel cluster for AHWR fuelled with
operation, the initial period and a variant of
(Th,LEU) MOX is geometrically identical to
AHWR using (Th,LEU)MOX fuel.
the AHWR composite cluster. The enrichment
of LEU in the 12 pins of the innermost ring is

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80 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fuel pins
22
20
18

Uranium isotoes g/kgHM

16 233
U
14 234
U
235
12 U
236
10 U
237
8 U
238
U
6
Total U
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Burnup, GWd/te
Displacer unit

Fig. 1 Cross section of the fuel cluster Fig. 2 Variation of uranium isotopes with
irradiation in AHWR standard cluster
18% and in 18 pins of the intermediate ring is
233
U in AHWR equilibrium core cluster
22%. The 24 pins in the outermost ring are 2.3

axially graded having enrichments 19% and 2.2 233

U inStandard cluster
233
U in Alternate cluster
26% in the upper and lower halves 2.1
Average 233U
2.0
respectively. The displacer unit has a central
1.9
U, kg

rod of zircaloy-2 throughout the length. The

1.8
233

cross section of fuel cluster has been shown in

1.7
Fig. 1. The description of AHWR lattice for 1.6
the above core configurations is given in 1.5
Table 1. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Burnup GWd/te
Lattice Simulations
Fig. 3 Variation of 233U with irradiation in
The lattice simulations have been
standard cluster and modified cluster
performed with the WIMSD code [4] using the
69-group cross-section set based on the
reduces and hence the core becomes deficit in
ENDF-B/VI.8 dataset [5]. 233
U if loaded with standard composite
The initial content of 233U in the standard clusters alone. The self-sustenance in 233U can
composite cluster is about 2.23 kg and the Pu be achieved by loading the equilibrium core
content is about 1.68 kg. With burnup, the loss with two types of fuel clusters the standard
of fissile 233U in the (Th,233U)MOX pins has to cluster and the modified cluster. The variation
be compensated by the conversion of fertile of 233U with burn-up for standard and modified
232
Th to fissile 233U in the (Th,Pu)MOX pins. clusters has been shown in Fig. 3. It can be
The variation of uranium isotopes for the observed that 233U content reduces with
standard cluster has been shown in Fig. 2. burnup in the standard cluster whereas it
increases in the modified cluster and the net
It can be seen from the figure that though
effect of this to make the AHWR self
the total uranium content in the standard fuel
sustaining in 233U. About 65% power comes
cluster increases with burn-up, 233U content
from thorium. The discharge burnup achieved

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 81

Table 1 - Lattice description of AHWR core self-sustaining in 233U & AHWR_LEU core
Description Physical dimensions / specifications
Lattice pitch, mm 225
Fuel
No of fuel pins in each ring 12 / 18 / 24
Fuel density, g/cc 9.3
Heavy metal, kg 116.5
Fuel types / Enrichment, %
AHWR composite cluster of (Th,Pu)MOX and(Th,233U)MOX
Ring 1 (Th, 233U)MOX, 3% (standard cluster)
(Th, Pu) MOX, 4% (modified cluster)
Ring 2 (Th, 233U)MOX, 3.75%
Ring 3 (Two axial enrichments) (Th, Pu)MOX, 4% (Lower half)
2.5% (Upper half)
42-pin cluster of (Th,Pu)MOX and(U, Pu) MOX for Initial core
Ring 1 Dummy Zr-2 pins
Ring 2 (U, Pu)MOX 0.9% or (Th,Pu) 1.7%
Ring 3 (One axial enrichment) (U, Pu)MOX 0.9% or (Th,Pu) 1.7%
AHWR cluster of (Th,LEU)MOX
Ring 1 (Th-LEU)MOX, 18%
Ring 2 (Th-LEU)MOX, 22%
Ring 3 (Two axial enrichments) (Th-LEU)MOX, 26.0% (Lower half)
19.0% (Upper half)
Tube Material & Dimensions, ID/OD, mm: Zr-2.5% Nb, 120.0/128.0
Pressure Tube (PT) Zircaloy-2, 163.8/168.0
Calandria Tube (CT)
Multi-purpose displacer tube (annular)
Material Zr-2
OD / Thickness, mm 36 / 3
Solid Rod inside Displacer, Material/OD SS (upper)/Zr-2(lower) /18 mm
(AHWR standard composite cluster)
Solid Rod inside Displacer, Material/OD Zr-2 /18 mm (throughout)
modified cluster, 42 pin cluster for the initial core,
54-pin cluster with (Th-LEU)
Coolant
Material Light water
Temperature oC/density, g/cc 285 / 0.45
Moderator
Material Heavy water
Temperature oC/density, g/cc 67.5 / 1.089

with the standard and modified clusters are 38 quantity of 232U and enhances its proliferation
and 33 GWd/te, which results in an average resistance. The uranium and plutonium
discharge burnup of about 35.5 GWd/te in the vectors for the two types of clusters are given
core. Plutonium burns efficiently as the fissile in Table 2.
content reduces from 75% to about 25%. The
The initial content of plutonium in (Th,
discharged uranium contains sufficient
Pu) MOX and (U, Pu) MOX in the 42-pin fuel

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82 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 2 - Isotopic vector of uranium and plutonium of AHWR fuel cluster having (Th,Pu)
MOX and (Th,233U)MOX at initial and discharge burnups

Isotopic vector of Uranium

232 233 234 235 236
Fuel type/status U% U% U% U% U%
Standard/ Modified fuel 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
cluster (0 GWd/te)
Standard fuel cluster 0.14 83.15 14.10 2.32 0.28
(38 GWd/te)
Modified fuel cluster 0.15 85.53 12.17 1.94 0.21
(33 GWd/te)
Isotopic vector of Plutonium
238 239 240 241 242
Fuel type/status Pu % Pu % Pu % Pu % Pu %
Standard/Modified fuel 0.0 68.79 24.6 5.26 1.35
cluster (0 GWd/te)
Standard Fuel cluster 2.29 1.61 31.12 21.24 43.74
(38 GWd/te)
Modified Fuel cluster 1.72 6.21 42.18 22.62 27.27
(33 GWd/te)

clusters are 1.54 kg and 0.92 kg respectively. 100.0

Fraction of power from fissile isotopes %

Power fraction from fissile isotopes in

90.0 AHWR equilibrium core with 21.33% LEU in Th
Initially almost all the power comes from U-233
80.0
plutonium but as reactor operates and is U-235
70.0 Pu
refueled by (Th, Pu) MOX having Pu 60.0
50.0
enrichment of 3.25%, the power share from 40.0
thorium also improves. Initially the average 30.0
20.0
discharge burnup of the core is low but
10.0
improves later after introduction of the 0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
composite clusters. Burnup GWd/T

The initial uranium content is about 24.9 Fig. 4 Power fractions from 233U, 235U and
kg in a (Th, LEU) MOX fuel assembly. The Pu for (Th,LEU)MOX fuel cluster
average discharge burnup of this cluster is
about 64 GWd/te. With burn-up, the fissile comes from thorium. The power fractions
235
U and the fertile 238U deplete and the other from 235U, 233U and plutonium for this cluster
isotopes of uranium and plutonium build up. have been shown in Fig. 4. The fissile content
At the same time the fertile thorium also gets in the uranium and plutonium recovered from
converted into fissile 233U. Initially the entire the spent fuel are about 8.1% and 55.6%
power comes from 235U. As the fuel burns, the respectively. About 200 ppm 232U and 9.54%
238
bred 233U and plutonium start contributing to Pu are present in the spent fuel which
power. At equilibrium about 39% power enhances its proliferation resistance. The

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 83

Table 3 - Isotopic vector of Uranium and plutonium of (Th,LEU) MOX fuel cluster at
initial and discharge burn-ups

Isotopic vector of Uranium

232 233 234 235 236 237 238
Fuel type / status U% U% U% U% U% U% U
HM HM HM HM HM HM % HM
(Th, LEU)MOX fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.75 0.0 0.0 80.25
cluster ( 0 GWd/te)
(Th, LEU)MOX fuel 0.02 6.51 1.24 1.62 3.26 0.00 87.35
cluster (64 GWd/Te)
Isotopic vector of Plutonium
238 239 240 241 242
Fuel type / status Pu Pu Pu Pu Pu
% HM % HM % HM % HM % HM
(Th, LEU)MOX fuel 0 0 0 0 0
cluster ( 0 GWd/te)
(Th, LEU)MOX fuel 9.54 41.65 21.15 13.96 13.70
cluster (64 GWd/Te)

Fig. 4 AHWR core layout

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84 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

isotopic vector of uranium and plutonium are as close as possible to the equilibrium core and
given in Table 3. to minimise the initial Pu inventory. The core
layout of one of the cases analysed for the
Core Design Features: Results of Core
initial core has been shown in Fig. 6. 72
Calculations
channels of this core have been loaded with
The AHWR has been designed to produce (Th,Pu) MOX fuel cluster and 380 cannels
a total power to the coolant of 920 MWth [6]. with (U, Pu) MOX. The initial inventory of Pu
The reactor core of AHWR consists of 513 and natural uranium are about 460 kg and
lattice locations in a square lattice pitch of 225 38637 kg [9].
mm where fuel assemblies occupy 452
locations. Sixty one locations are reserved for The core calculations have been
the reactivity control devices and shut down performed using the diffusion theory code
system-1, of which 37 locations are used for FEMFOL [10]. The core excess reactivity was
locating shutoff rods (SORs) and 24 for estimated to be 98 mk which lasts for 200 FPD
locating control rods (CRs). The core layout (Full power days). Beyond 200 FPD refueling
with the locations of the reactivity devices is was carried out with (Th,Pu) MOX fuel
shown in Fig. 5. In the nominal configuration clusters having 3.25% Pu by automatic
the absorber rods (ARs) remain fully IN, the channel selection using fuzzy logic code [11].
regulating rods (RRs) are 67% IN and the shim Radial fuel shuffling was adopted. Because of
rods (SRs) are fully OUT. the channel power limit initially only 80%
power could be drawn from the core. The
The global analysis has been carried out initial discharge burnups were low about 4500
by diffusion theory code FEMTAVG [7] MWd/te. At 1600 FPD the core consists of
which uses nodal expansion method to solve only (Th,Pu) MOX cluster having 3.25% Pu in
for the fluxes in two-group formalism. Power all the pins. Beyond this the fuel channels
distribution optimisation was obtained by were refueled by (Th,Pu) MOX and composite
adopting three burnup zones 28.5/ 34.5/ 48 clusters. The equilibrium core is reached after
GWd/te with limit on the maximum channel about 4600 FPD.
power (MCP) by the minimum critical heat
flux ratio (MCHFR). The average discharge A variant of AHWR (AHWR_LEU) to
burnup of this core is about 35.5 GWd/te. The produce a total power to the coolant of 920
self-sustenance in 233U is achieved by MWth has 444 fuel assemblies of (Th, LEU)
employing a combination of two types of MOX and 69 reactivity devices. Out of 69
clusters (standard and modified composite locations, 24 are reserved for the reactivity
clusters) and an annual feed of 39 Nos of each control devices and 45 locations for shut off
type. The annual requirement of plutonium for rods. Power distribution optimisation was
this core will be about 173 kg [8]. The major obtained by adopting three burnup zones 59/
core design features are tabulated in Table 4. 64/ 74 GWd/te. The average discharge burnup
of this core is about 64 GWd/te.
Various options for the initial core were
studied with an objective to have the physics
safety parameters and the power distribution

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Table 4 - Main core design features: AHWR core self sustaining in 233U and AHWR_LEU
core
Parameter Value
AHWR Self sustaining AHWR_LEU
Power to the coolant, MWth 920 920
Total no. of channels 513 513
No. of Fuel channels 452 444
Active fuel length, mm 3500 3500
Local /Radial /Axial/ Total 1.32/1.2/1.49/2.36 1.35/1.2/1.36/2.2
Average discharge burnup, GWd/Te 35.5 64
Fuelling rate, annual
(a) No. of channels fueled per year 78 44
(b) 233U, kg Nil -
(c) Pu, kg 173 -
(d) LEU (net), kg - 1095.72
(e) Thorium (net), kg 8771.5 4030.07
Energy extracted per tonne equivalent mined - 7826
uranium, MWd/te
Power from thorium, % 65 39
No. of Control rods (AR/RR/SR), worth, mk 24 (8 each) 11.4/10.9/12.0 24 (8 each) 10.9/11.6/9.9
RR worth in nominal configuaration (ARs Fully 4.55 5.33
IN; RRs 67% IN; SRs Fully OUT), mk
Shut Down system (37 SOR),Worth, mk -70.4 (All 37SOR) -83.25 (All 45SOR)
Total -51.4 (35 SOR) -60.28 (43 SOR)
Two maximum worth rods not available, mk
Safety parameters
Delayed neutron fraction, b (without 0.003 0.003
photo-neutrons)
Prompt neutron generation time, L, ms 0.22 0.22
Average reactivity coefficients in operating range, Dk/k/°C:
Fuel temperature, Dk/k/°C: -2.1 x 10-5 -2.82 x 10-5
Channel temperature, Dk/k/°C: +2.1 x 10-5 -3.73x 10-5
Void coefficient, Dk/k/% void -5.9 x 10-5 -8.72x 10-5
Moderator temperature, Dk/k/°C: +5.5 x 10-5 -3.09x 10-5

Reactivity Coefficients The presence of excessive Pu in the core

during the initial phase makes the void
In AHWR core self sustaining in 233U the
reactivity more negative and the fuel
fuel temperature and the void reactivity
temperature coefficient less negative. The
coefficients are negative whereas the
presence of boron in the moderator makes the
moderator temperature and the channel
channel temperature and moderator
temperature coefficients are positive so the
temperature coefficients more positive. All
reactivity swing from cold to hot standby is
the reactivity coefficients improve as the
positive but it is negative from hot standby to
equilibrium core is reached. For the (Th-LEU)
full power. For the initial core the reactivity
MOX fuel all the reactivity coefficients are
coefficients were calculated at various FPDs.

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86 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 5 - Reactivity balance in AHWR core self sustaining in 233U and AHWR_LEU core

Reactor core state Reactivity mk

AHWR self AHWR_LEU
sustaining
Reactivity swings
1. Cold to Hot Standby
(i) Moderator Temperature (300 K to 340.5 K) +2.1 - 1.25
(ii) Channel Temperature (300 K to 558 K) +4.7 - 8.12
Total +6.8 - 9.37
2a. Hot standby to Full power -3.5 - 4.66
(i) Fuel Temperature (558 K to 723 K) - 3.3 - 3.76
(ii) Coolant Void (Coolant density from 0.74
g/cc to 0.45 g/cc) - 6.8 - 8.42
Total - 5.9 - 4.94
2b. LOCA from Full power
(Coolant density 0.45 g/cc to 0.03 g/cc)
3. Equilibrium Xenon load - 19.8 - 22.08

negative and hence the reactivity swing is conditions with two shut off rods of maximum
negative from cold to full power. The various worth not available. Due to high negative void
reactivity coefficients for AHWR core reactivity SDS-1 doesn’t always meet the
self-sustaining in 233U and AHWR_LEU are shutdown requirement with adequate
given in Table 4 and the reactivity balance for shutdown margin (SDM) during transition
these cores is given in Table 5. from initial core to the equilibrium core with
two maximum worth rods not available and
Reactivity Worth of Shut Down Systems
hence shutdown by SDS-1 will have to be
AHWR has two independent shut down accompanied by suitable amount of poison
systems, Shut Down System-1 (SDS-1) and injection - like ALPAS/LPIS in AHWRs
Shut Down System-2 (SDS-2). Shut down during initial phase of operation until
criteria used in AHWR is that following trip available shutdown margin improves. The
from any state of the reactor it shall be SDS-2 when pressurised will inject
rendered sub-critical by at least 10 mk up to a Gadolinium nitrate solution in the moderator.
stipulated time period of 72 hours with any of
Conclusions
the two shutdown systems acting. The
shutdown requirements under operational, AHWR has primarily been designed for
LOCA and LORA conditions are listed in utilization of thorium in closed fuel cycle with
Table 6 for AHWR self-sustaining core and objectives of achieving relatively higher
AHWR_LEU. It can be noted that in both the fraction of power from Th/233U, negative void
cores the shutdown requirement is met by reactivity coefficient, minimum Pu inventory,
SDS-1 under operational and accidental self-sustaining in 233U and high discharge

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Table 6 - Requirements on shutdown system for different scenarios in AHWR core self
sustaining in 233U and AHWR_LEU core

Type of reactivity Reactivity required, mk

states
AHWR self sustaining AHWR_LEU
Normal During a During a Normal During a During a
operation LORA LOCA operation LORA LOCA
Loss of reactivity + 5.7 - + 6.77 -
control
Loss of coolant - + 5.9 - + 4.94
Full power to hot + 6.8 + 6.8 + 6.8 + 8.42 + 8.42 +8.42
standby
Hot standby to cold - 6.8 - 6.8 - 6.8 + 9.37 + 9.37 + 9.37
critical*
Sub-criticality + 10.0 + 10.0 + 10.0 + 10.0 + 10.0 + 10.0
margin
Subtotal + 16.8 + 22.5 + 22.7 27.79 + 34.56 + 32.73
After one day
Xenon decay + 19.8 + 19.8 + 19.8 + 22.08 + 22.08 + 22.08
Subtotal + 36.6 + 42.3 + 42.5 + 49.87 + 56.64 + 54.81
After 3 days
Pa-233 decay** + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.0
Total + 37.6 + 43.3 + 43.5 + 50.87 +57.64 + 55.81

*Credit is not taken for negative reactivities

**Reactivity realised following complete decay of 233Pa (about 3 months) ~ 10.0 mk

burnup. In AHWR plutonium burns equilibrium core. The fuel in the initial,
efficiently in presence of thorium and the transition and equilibrium core are different,
discharged fuel contains only 25% of initial the safety of the core has to be ensured during
plutonium inventory having only 23%~27% each phase, which lasts for couple of years.
fissile content. The reactivity swings from The refueling will be associated with large
cold critical to hot zero power is positive but is channel power (ripple effect), which may
well within the range of regulating system, require burnable poison in the fuel cluster and
while the reactivity swing from hot zero power mini batch fuelling.
to full power is negative. The power
The reactor offers enough flexibility to
coefficient is always negative. AHWR spent
accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles.
fuel contains about 1500 ppm 232U which
ThO2 with 21.33% LEU provides an alternate
makes it proliferation resistant. There will be
fuel for AHWR which gives high discharge
gradual transition from the initial core to the
burnup of 64 GWd/te. The energy extracted

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88 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

per tonne of equivalent mined uranium is [4] J.R. Askew, F.J. Fayers, P.B. Kemshell,. A
general description of the lattice code WIMS,
about 7826 MWd as compared to 6700 MWd British Nuclear Energy Society, p. 564, October
in PHWR resulting in better utilization of (1966).
uranium resources. At discharge burnup about [5] A. Trkov, (Co-ordinator), WIMS-D Library
39% power comes from thorium. For Update Project, International Atomic Energy
Agency,
(Th,LEU) fuel all the reactivity coefficients
http://www-iaeands/indcentre.org/~wlup.
are negative. The spent fuel contains (2003).
significant amount of 232U and 238Pu [6] Umasankari Kannan, Neelima Prasad et. al.,
enhancing its proliferation resistance. Safety Analysis Report – Preliminary Physics
Chapter, RPDD/AHWR/100/2008, Rev 1.0,
Acknowledgements (2008).
[7] Arvind Kumar and R. Srivenkatesan, Nodal
The author is thankful to all the expansion method for reactor core calculation,
colleagues who have contributed in preparing BARC-1249, (1984).
the inputs for this paper and in particular to [8] Neelima Prasad Pushpam, Arvind Kumar and R.
Smt. Neelima Prasad Pushpam, Smt. Srivenkatesan, AHWR core optimisation for
achieving self-sustainability in 233U by loading
Umasankari Kannan and Dr. Anurag Gupta.
two types of AHWR fuel clusters, RPDD/AHWR/
References Note No. 105 / 12 Feb. 2009.
[9] Amit Thakur, Anek Kumar, Baltej Singh,
[1] A. Kakodkar, Salient features of design of
Umasankari Kannan, Arvind Kumar, P.D.
thorium fuelled Advanced Heavy Water Reactor,
Krishnani and R. Srivenkatesan, Follow up of the
Indo-Russian seminar on thorium utilisation,
initial Core of AHWR with 42 pin cluster
Obninsk, Russia, 17-20 November (1998).
consisting of Zircaloy displacer, RPDD / AHWR /
[2] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d 107 / 22 May, 2009.
development of AHWR – The Indian Thorium
[10] R. Srivenkatesan, FEMFOL – A code for core
fueled innovative reactor, Nucl. Eng. Des., 236
follow-up with nodal expansion method, To be
(2006) 7.
published.
[3] Arvind Kumar, A new cluster design for the
[11] ‘Fuel management code for selection of channels
reduction of void reactivity in AHWR, Proc. of
based on Fuzzy logic’ developed by S.
annual conf. on Power from Thorium – Status,
Rathakrishnan NPCIL, MAPS.
Strategies and directions, Mumbai, India, June
2000, Vol. I, p.52, Indian Nuclear Society (2000).

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Thoria Based Fuel Cycle for AHWR - An Overview

V.Shivakumar1, K. Anantharaman1, Arun Kumar2, A.K. Gupta3, D.S. Rana3

1. Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085,
INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]
2. Radiometallurgy Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA
3. Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA

Abstract
A co-located Fuel Cycle Facility (FCF) is planned for the thoria based Advanced Heavy Water
Reactor (AHWR) being designed at BARC. This will provide a platform for demonstration of
technologies required for the large-scale utilization of thorium as envisaged in India’s
three-stage nuclear power programme. The reactor will use (Th-Pu) MOX and (Th-233U) MOX
types of fuel. The FCF will have facilities for fuel fabrication, fuel reprocessing and waste
management. Some of the technologically challenging issues in the use of the thoria based fuel
of AHWR are handling of the highly radioactive fresh fuel, the requirement of remote fuel
fabrication and carrying three-stream aqueous reprocessing by dissolution of the stable thoria
matrix. A considerable amount of data on all aspects of thoria fuel cycle: fabrication, in-reactor
behaviour, reprocessing, and health physics have been generated from the various
experimental campaigns carried out in BARC. This paper gives an overview of the
AHWR-FCF and the various thoria fuel cycle activities being pursued in BARC.
Keywords: Fuel, thoria, AHWR, fabrication, reprocessing

Introduction reserves as envisaged in India’s three-stage

nuclear power programme [1].
A 300 MWe, thoria fuel based, vertical
pressure tube type, heavy water moderated The FCF, planned along with AHWR,
and boiling light water cooled Advanced will facilitate recycle of fissile and fertile
Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being materials. The adoption of closed thorium fuel
designed at BARC. A closed fuel cycle has cycle on an industrial scale is for the first time
been adopted for AHWR, which will help in in country and the global experience on this is
generating a large fraction of energy from also very little. A considerable amount of data
thorium. Along with the reactor, a co-located on all aspects of thoria fuel cycle: fabrication,
Fuel Cycle Facility (FCF) is also planned to in-reactor behaviour, reprocessing, and health
cater to the fuel fabrication, fuel reprocessing physics have been generated from various fuel
and waste management needs of the reactor. irradiation campaigns carried out [2]. This
The experience that will be generated on the experience is being utilised in development of
various fuel cycle activities in this facility will various technologies being adopted for the
be useful in utilisation of the large thoria different units of AHWR FCF.

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90 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 1 - Major Design Parameters of

AHWR Fuel

1. No. of fuel pins in the 54

cluster
2. Nominal Diameter of 118
Cluster, mm
3. Length of cluster, mm 4300
4. No. of Spacers 6
5. Fuel pin diameter, mm 11.2
6. Fuel Clad thickness, mm 0.6
7. Pellet stack length, mm 3500
8. Pellet diameter, mm 9.8
9. Top Plenum length, mm 235
10. Bottom Plenum length, mm 30
11. Central rod outer diameter, 36
mm
12 Fuel assembly burnup 40
Fig. 1 AHWR Fuel Cluster (GWd/t)
13 Fuel pin burnup (GWd/t) 50
Fuel Management in AHWR
14 Fuel pin linear heat rating 30.0
Natural thorium unlike uranium does not (kW/m)
contain any fissile component and therefore
its use in reactors will require addition of depends only on self-generated 233U. The
fissile material. The fuel for AHWR is reactor will use two types of structurally
obtained by mixing thoria with plutonia and similar fuel clusters: the All-Pu MOX fuel
thoria with urania (in this case 233U generated cluster and the Composite fuel cluster. The
from 232Th). The reactor will use (Th-Pu) fuel cluster is designed to meet the structural
MOX and (Th-233U) MOX types of fuel. The requirements of the vertical and circular
233
U for AHWR will be obtained by cross-section of the pressure tube. The fuel
reprocessing its spent fuel, while plutonium pins in the cluster are arranged in a
will be provided from reprocessing of the configuration that will satisfy the various
existing PHWR spent fuel. The fissile thermal-hydraulics and reactor physics
enrichment in the MOX fuel is in the range of requirements. The general arrangement of the
three to four weight percent. The reprocessed fuel cluster is shown in Fig. 1 and the salient
thoria will also be recycled back by using it as details of fuel cluster are given in Table 1. The
the thoria matrix for the MOX fuel. All-Pu MOX cluster has only one type of fuel
pin and it has (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pellets. The
A suitable fuel management strategy has
Composite cluster has two different types of
therefore been evolved for AHWR as it
fuel pins; one with (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pellets

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 91

Fig. 2 Major Units of AHWR-FCF

and the other with (Th-233U) MOX pellets. The components are assembled into a cluster in an
initial core of the reactor will be constituted assembly plant. The fuel cluster is also
using the All-Pu MOX fuel cluster. The reload disassembled in the assembly plant after
requirements of the reactor will be met by irradiation, to segregate the two types of pins
using only composite fuel clusters after it has before reprocessing.
attained equilibrium-core configuration.
The assembly plant will be the nodal
During the transition period, both types of fuel
point for the transfer of nuclear materials
cluster will be used to meet the reload
between the reactor and FCF. The various
requirements of the reactor.
plants of the FCF, which is shown in Fig. 2,
Major Units of AHWR-FCF have been suitably located to facilitate
material transfer. The (Th-233U) MOX fuel
The AHWR-FCF will mainly consist of
pins will have to be handled with adequate
facilities for fabrication of fuel, reprocessing
shielding. The process of assembly of fresh
of spent fuel discharged from the reactor,
fuel pins into a cluster therefore requires
interim storage of nuclear materials, carrying
remote handling operations. The (Th-Pu)
out Post Irradiation Examination (PIE) of fuel
MOX fuel pins can be handled using manual
and reactor structural components and
operations. For the AHWR fuel cluster, the
management of the radioactive wastes. The
fuel structural components will be assembled
two types of fuel pins: (Th-Pu) MOX and
manually with (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pins in the
(Th-233U) MOX will be fabricated in separate
(Th-Pu) MOX fabrication plant. This
plants. The fuel pins along with structural
assembly will be transported to the Assembly

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92 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

plant of the fuel cycle facility. The (Th-233U) MOX fuel inside glove box facilities exists at
MOX fuel pins will be transported in shielded BARC. MOX fuel assemblies were fabricated
casks from the (Th-233U) MOX fabrication at Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility
plant to the Assembly plant and will be (AFFF), Tarapur and loaded in BWRs as well
introduced in the cluster inside the hot-cells of as PHWRs.
the assembly plant. The hot-cells will be
A fabrication line has also been setup at
equipped with remote handling tools for the
AFFF for the fabrication of (Th-Pu) MOX
various mechanical operations, which have to
fuel. This is being used for fabrication of fuel
be carried on the fuel pins, fuel cluster and its
for irradiation experiments and AHWR
structural components. The assembled cluster
Critical Facility. This will provide an
will then be transported to the reactor complex
experience for optimising process parameters,
in shielded casks.
evolving fuel fabrication specifications,
Fuel Fabrication development of equipments and quality
control techniques prior to large scale
The fabrication of the thoria based MOX
campaign for AHWR [3].
fuel pellet is by the conventional powder
metallurgy route of cold compaction followed The annual fabrication capacity of
by high temperature sintering. These pellets (Th-Pu) MOX fabrication plant of
are loaded into long, thin, straight zircaloy AHWR-FCF has been mainly stipulated to
cladding tubes and the tube is hermitically meet the reload requirements of the reactor.
sealed at both ends by welding end plugs to The initial core of AHWR requires only
form a fuel rod. The fabrication of the plutonium bearing fuel pins and this is
plutonium bearing (Th-Pu) MOX pins has to considerably more than the annual production
be carried out inside glove box facilities. The of the (Th-Pu) MOX fabrication plant. Hence,
fabrication of the (Th-233U) MOX fuel has to the fuel fabrication for the Initial Core of
be carried out remotely inside shielded AHWR will begin well before reactor
hot-cells. This is because the 233U generated in criticality. The handling operations on the
reactors from thorium is accompanied by 232U, fresh fuel of Initial Core will therefore have to
whose daughter products are hard gamma cater to the higher radioactivity resulting due
emitters. The details of the fabrication of the to the long storage period. The long half-life of
two fuel types are brought out in the following 232
Th helps in keeping the concentrations of
sections. hard gamma daughter products generated to
Fabrication of (Th-Pu) MOX Fuel low levels. However, the activity levels are of
concern due to the large quantity of thoria that
The fabrication of the (Th-Pu) MOX fuel is handled.
will be carried out for AHWR in a dedicated
(Th-Pu) MOX fabrication plant of its fuel A major issue in the fabrication of the
cycle facility. (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pins of both (Th-Pu) MOX fuel is the stable nature of
PHWR and BWR design have also been thoria. Additives like MgO in fuel during
fabricated for irradiation tests. A large-scale fabrication helps in lowering of the sintering
experience of fabricating the similar (U-Pu) temperature. This was done during the

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 93

fabrication of high density thoria pellets for out using master slave manipulators and other
the PHWR fuel bundle. These thoria fuel remote handling tools. Automation will have
bundles were used for Initial Core flux an important role to play in this to facilitate
flattening in PHWRs. large-scale productions. The layout of the
fabrication line has to be suitably designed to
Another major issue posed by the stable
facilitate automation.
nature of thoria is during recycling of
fabrication rejects. Reject recycling especially A mock-up facility is being setup at
during the fabrication of AHWR Initial Core BARC for studying different fabrication
fuel will help in reducing the fabrication processes, development of equipments which
inventory of plutonium, but it requires can be remotely operated and maintained,
dissolution of the inert thoria matrix. development of automation and material
Experimental studies on dissolution have been transfer systems. A shielded fabrication line is
carried for various concentrations of fluoride being setup at AFFF, Tarapur for fabrication
additions with Nitic acid and have been found of (Th-233U) MOX fuel for Critical Facility.
to be quite effective using microwave-heating This will provide a major experience on
technique The (Th-Pu) MOX fuel fabrication handling 233U bearing fuel prior to the
plant will have an integrated wet processing large-scale campaign for AHWR [4].
facility for reject recycling.
Reprocessing
233
Fabrication of (Th- U) MOX fuel
The THOREX (Thorium-Uranium
233
The fabrication of (Th- U) MOX fuel Extraction) process will be used for
will be carried out for AHWR in a dedicated reprocessing the irradiated fuel of AHWR.
(Th-233U) MOX fabrication plant of its FCF. The major steps involved in this process are
The 233U fuel generated in reactors from de-cladding, dissolution of fuel in nitric acid,
thorium is accompanied by 232U, whose extraction of 233U/Pu from bulk thorium
daughter products Tl-208 & Bi-212 are hard followed by their purification and conversion
gamma emitters. The fabrication activities to oxide.
right from handling and storage of material to
The THOREX process has not matured to
the manufacturing processes used must be
the same extent as the PUREX
able to accommodate the higher level of
(Plutonium-Uranium extraction) largely due
radiological activity. The radiation levels
to lack of its immediate application in the
increases considerably within a short span of
technologically developed countries. One of
time after reprocessing. Even with quick
the main hurdles in this is the stable nature of
recycling schemes, the fabrication of 233U
thoria matrix, which makes its dissolution
bearing fuel pin has to be carried out remotely
more complicated than that of uranium. The
inside hot-cells. The fabrication scheme has to
problem of thoria dissolution during
be suitably structured to ensure low material
reprocessing can be to a considerable extent
hold-up and quick recycling of the
overcome by measures like addition of
reprocessed materials. This will help in saving
fluoride along with nitric acid during
of man-rem consumption. The remote
dissolution, addition of dopants like MgO in
operations inside the hot-cells will be carried

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94 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

fuel pellet and by having a lower fuel pellet reactor physics experiments planned for the
fabrication density. A pilot facility installed at representative AHWR cores with (Th-Pu)
BARC is being used to develop flow sheet MOX and (Th-233U) MOX types of fuels in the
parameters. The flow sheet for recovery of AHWR Critical Facility at BARC will provide
uranium, plutonium and thorium from further experience on all these aspects in an
three-stream reprocessing of (Th-Pu) MOX integrated manner.
fuel has been developed [5]. A power reactor
References
thorium reprocessing facility is also being
[1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d
setup at BARC. This will reprocess the
Development of AHWR – The Indian Thorium
zircaloy clad ThO2 fuel bundles used for initial Fuelled Innovative Nuclear Reactor, Nuclear
flux flattening in PHWRs and the separated Engineering and Design, 236 (2006) 683.
233
U will be used for AHWR Critical Facility. [2] K. Anantharaman, A. Ramanujam, H.S. Kamath,
S. Majumdar, V.N. Vaidya,, M. Venkataraman,
Conclusion Thorium based fuel reprocessing & refabrication
technologies and strategies, INSAC-2000 on
The use of thorium is necessary from Power from Thorium : Status, Strategies and
long-term objective of sustainability of energy Directions, Mumbai, June 2000.
resources. The thorium fuel cycle [3] K. Anantharaman, V. Shivakumar, R.K. Sinha,
technologies which are being developed for D e s ig n & F a b r ic a ti o n o f A H W R F u e l ,
CQCNF-2002, Hyderabad, December 2002, pp.
AHWR will demonstrate the capability for 224-230.
large-scale thorium utilisation in the third [4] K. Anantharaman, R.K. Sinha, I.V. Dulera, V.
stage of Indian nuclear power programme. Shivakumar, Evolution of Design and Fabrication
Some of the issues associated with thoria fuel Specifications for AHWR and CHTR Fuels,
International Conference on Characterization and
like its stable nature and radiological
Quality Control of Nuclear Fuel (CQCNF2005),
problems have a profound influence on its fuel Hyderabad, November 2005.
cycle activities. The programme for [5] K. Balu, Radiological problems in THOREX
AHWR-FCF will provide an impetus for the Process and 233 U recycle, Russian-Indian
development of technologies to overcome the workshop on Thorium fuel cycle, November
1998.
challenges posed by thorium fuel cycle. The

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 95

Fuel Cycle Flexibility in Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Arvind Kumar, P.D. Krishnani and R. K. Sinha

Reactor Design and Development Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085,
INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The Advanced Heavy water Reactor (AHWR) is especially being designed for utilization of
thorium. The main objective of AHWR is to produce power largely from Th/233U in a closed
fuel cycle that is self-sustaining in 233U with the use of top-up fuel to achieve reasonably high
burnup. Online fuelling and passive safety features such as heat removal by natural circulation
and negative void coefficients are major features of AHWR. The reactor, however, offers
enough flexibility to accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles. In this paper we show how
different fuel cycles can be implemented in AHWR. The role of multipurpose displacer is
highlighted in this connection.
Keywords: AHWR, composite cluster, fuel cycle flexibility, multipurpose displacer, void
coefficient

Introduction along with self-sustaining 233U in the thorium

matrix. The physics design has several
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
challenges in achieving negative void
(AHWR) is a 300 MWe/ 920 MWth vertical
reactivity, fuel cycle, spatial core control,
pressure tube type thorium-based reactor
on-line fuelling and minimisation of inventory
cooled by boiling light water and moderated
of plutonium fuel.
by heavy water [1]. The main objective of
AHWR is to produce power largely from It is difficult to achieve negative coolant
Th/233U effectively and efficiently. Negative void coefficient in a heavy water moderated
void reactivity coefficient, negative fuel pressure tube type reactor. For this a
temperature coefficient, negative power multi-pronged approach involving pitch
coefficient, minimisation of initial inventory reduction, heterogeneous cluster design and
and consumption of plutonium, use of mild absorbers is chosen. Plutonium
233
self-sufficiency in U and reasonably high bearing fuel is located separately in the outer
discharge burnup [2-5] are some of the design region of the cluster with self-sustaining 233U
and safety objectives. A non-proliferate bearing fuel in the inner region of the cluster.
thorium/ 233U based closed fuel cycle is A small amount of absorber, if required, can
chosen for AHWR. Plutonium discharged be placed in the multipurpose displacer
from PHWRs is used as the fissile seed fuel located in the centre of the cluster [2]. The
with thorium for the generation of 233U and state of nuclear data for the elements of
then as a top-up fuel in the equilibrium core interest and type of neutron spectrum in the

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96 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

reactor puts heavy demand on the numerical Physics Design Features

models and validation of reactivity
Heat removal by natural convection in
coefficients to ensure safety [6]. A critical
normal operation and in accident condition is
facility has especially been commissioned to
basic design feature of AHWR and dictates
carry out various lattice experiments to
other characteristics. Effective and efficient
validate numerical models and nuclear data.
utilization of thorium and the top up fuel
AHWR is a reactor with largely thermal plutonium with enhanced safety features is the
spectrum and employs on-line fueling. Fuel prime objective from physics standpoint.
cycle flexibility is its inherent characteristics Efficient utilisation of thorium is possible in
and the current design works very well with self-sustaining mode in the closed fuel cycle
variety of fuel-types including the LEU fuel only. As the plutonium that comes from the
and also with thorium/ LEU fuel. Equilibrium reprocessing of PHWR spent fuel is also
core is designed to run on self-sustaining scarce, its use too must be optimised to get
closed fuel cycle of 233U with plutonium high discharge fuel burn up. Some of the
discharged from PHWRs added as top-up fuel important physics design safety features are
to gain in fuel burn up. Two variants of the fuel detailed below.
cluster with different fraction of plutonium are Fuel Cluster
used to achieve self-sustaining thorium/ 233U
fuel cycle [7]. It is seen that uranium fuel does The composite fuel cluster called the D5
not rapidly get degraded in the closed fuel cluster [2] for the equilibrium core of AHWR
cycle in AHWR and ensuring same inventory consists of 54 pins arranged in three rings of
of 233U in the reprocessed uranium suffices to a 12, 18 and 24 fuel pins. The cluster design is
large extent to run the next cycle. However, to mainly driven by the objective of achieving
arrive at equilibrium core configuration 233U negative void reactivity that results in a safe
must be generated in situ. For this purpose, shutdown during loss of coolant under all
initial and pre-equilibrium core is loaded conditions. A multipurpose displacer is
largely with thorium-plutonium fuel [8]. To located in the centre of the cluster that also acts
overcome the scarcity of fissile plutonium, as a conduit for ECCS [2] and is central to the
uranium-plutonium fuel is also proposed to be cluster design. A small quantity of grey
used in the initial core of AHWR. absorber Zr/SS is used, if required, in the
displacer region. Fuel reconstitution and
To achieve the above objectives, a usage of different fuel types have also become
composite cluster called D5 [2], containing very easy with the introduction of
both (Th,Pu)MOX and (Th,233U)MOX fuel multi-purpose displacer.
pins is designed for AHWR. The reactor
design of AHWR has been optimized for The inner ring of 12 pins has a 233U
thorium utilization. But, it can efficiently burn content of 3.0 wt% and the middle 18 pins
different types of fuels without any major have 3.75 wt% 233U. The outer ring of
design change. It is seen here that low (Th,Pu)MOX pins have an average of 3.25
enriched uranium fuel (LEU) can perform wt% of total plutonium. The lower half of the
better in AHWR than in CANDU ACR. active fuel will have 4.0 wt% plutonium and

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Table 1 - Description of the AHWR fuel assembly

Parameter Value
Fuel:
No. of Fuel pins 54
OD, mm 11.2
Clad: Material/ Thickness, mm Zircaloy-2 / 0.6
Fuel Type/No. of Pins in/ Enrichment, wt%:
Inner ring –standard cluster (Th, 233U) MOX / 12/ 3.0
Inner ring –alternate cluster (Th,Pu) MOX / 12/ 4.0
Middle ring (Th, 233U) MOX / 18/ 3.75
Outer ring-Upper half (Th,Pu) MOX / 24/ 2.5
Outer ring-Lower half (Th,Pu) MOX / 24/ 4.0
Heavy Metal, kg 116.5
Lattice pitch, mm 225
Moderator Heavy water
Coolant Light Water
Pressure Tube: Material, ID/OD, mm Zr-2.5% Nb, 120.0/128.0
Calandria Tube: Material, ID/OD, mm Zircaloy-2, 163.8/168.0
Multi purpose Displacer Tube:
Material/OD/ ID, mm Zircaloy -2 / 36/ 30
Solid Rod of grey material inside Displacer Zircaloy -2 / SS

(a) (b)

Fig. 1 (a) Standard and (b) Alternate AHWR fuel clusters

233
the upper part will have 2.5 wt% plutonium U in Self-sustaining Configuration
[9]. The design data of fuel channel and fuel is
One of the major objectives is to operate
given in Table 1. The cross section of the fuel
AHWR in the closed fuel cycle. The 233U burns
cluster is shown in Fig. 1. Lattice calculations
and is bred in situ in the cluster. It is possible
are carried out using WIMS [10].
only if system is self-sustaining in 233U. With

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98 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

irradiation, the 233U content would deplete in a variety of fuel-types could successfully be
the inner (Th, 233U) MOX pins and would used for generating power efficiently. This is
gradually build-up in the outer (Th, Pu) MOX achieved largely by making some minor
pins due to conversion from thorium. The changes in the design of multipurpose
production of 233U in the outer pins is however displacer. For the present AHWR equilibrium
not sufficient to compensate for the burn up of core fuel, a grey rod of SS/zircaloy is used to
233
U in the inner pins. An alternate cluster is achieve desired void reactivity coefficient.
designed for this purpose. The alternate For LEU fuel, with no thorium, it was seen that
cluster, as shown in Fig. 1, is basically same as no gray material is required in the displacer
the standard cluster except that the 12 fuel pins and desired void reactivity is easily obtained.
in the alternate cluster contain 4.0 wt% In fact, the discharge burnup of about 25000
plutonium in place of 3.0 wt% 233U used in the MWd/T can be achieved with 2.0 wt%
standard cluster [7]. Reactor is fuelled with both enriched uranium fuel. Not only this, a
the clusters in equal proportion. It is now possible relatively low cluster peaking factor of 1.2 is
to achieve the self-sustaining characteristics of obtained. This is quite encouraging in
233
U with the annual plutonium consumption comparison to about 20000 MWd/te for
increasing by about 50 kg to 175 kg. The uranium CANDU ACR with 2.1 wt% enriched
from the discharged fuel would contain other uranium fuel. For the Thorium/ 19.75% LEU
isotopes of uranium like 234U, 235U and 236U. It fuel with a fissile 235U enrichment of 3.0 wt% a
is possible to operate AHWR in successive discharge burnup of about 30000 MWd/te is
cycles by employing the same enrichment of achieved. Also, for this fuel variation of void
233
U. coefficient with burnup is practically flat and a
low cluster peaking factor is obtained. Higher
Fuel Cycle Flexibility
discharge burnup of 55000 MWd/te can be
The design of AHWR has evolved from obtained from 4.0 wt% fissile, but then online
the presently operating PHWRs and BWRs in fueling is difficult at very high discharge
India. It is basically a heavy water reactor with burnups. For the initial core of AHWR that
coolant replaced by boiling light water. The uses thorium/plutonium fuel to start with, it
important feature of online fuelling of PHWRs was seen that a zircaloy-2 rod might be used
has been retained which goes very well with [8].
natural circulation. The displacer in AHWR
Reactor Core
cluster is multipurpose in that, first, it acts as a
conduit for ECCS; second, it acts as an aid in The reactivity devices in AHWR core are
fuel reconstitution; and, third, it helps in located in lattice locations. This is because of
achieving desired void reactivity coefficient. low value lattice pitch of 225 mm, which
It is the last property of negative void precludes their location in inter-lattice region
coefficient that is important from physics as in PHWRs. The reactor core of AHWR
standpoint. consists of 452 lattice locations for fuel and 61
lattice locations for shutoff rods (SORs) and
AHWR is designed primarily for the
control rods (CRs). Power distribution is
utilisation of thorium. However, fuel cycle
optimized by adopting multi-zone fuelling in a
flexibility is an inherent feature of AHWR and

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Table 2 - Main core design features of AHWR

Parameter Value
Power MWe/ MWth 300/ 920
Power from Thorium/U233, % 65
Total no. of channels 513
No. of Fuel channels 452
Active fuel length, m 3.5
Fuelling rate, annual:
(a) No. of Fuel clusters 78
(b) Plutonium, kg 175
(c) 233U, kg Nil (Self-sustaining)
Peaking Factors (maximum):
Local/ Radial/ Axial 1.3/ 1.2/ 1.5
Average target discharge burnup, 36,000
MWd/Te
Average heat rating, kW/m 10.8
MCHFR at 20% over power 1.7
Control rods (CRs), Nos./ Reactivity 24; Comprising 8 rods each of Absorber rods
worth, mk (ARs), Regulating rods (RRs) and Shim rods
(SRs) / ~11 mk in each group, total 33 mk
Shut Down System-1 37 Nos. / 70 mk ( 50 mk with two maximum
Shutoff rods No. / Reactivity worth worth rods not available)

Shut Down System-2 Liquid poison injection

Safety parameters:
Delayed neutron fraction, b 0.003 (without photo-neutrons)
Prompt neutron generation time, L, ms 0.22
Core averaged reactivity coefficients in operating range:
Fuel temperature, Dk/k/°C -2.1 x 10-5
Channel temperature , Dk/k/°C +2.5 x 10-5
Void coefficient, Dk/k / % void -5.0 x 10-5
Coolant temperature , Dk/k/°C +4.9 x 10-5
Moderator temperature, Dk/k/°C +5.5 x 10-5

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100 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 3 - Reactivity balance in AHWR

Reactor core state Reactivity,

mk
Reactivity swings
1. Cold to Hot Standby
(i) Moderator Temperature (300 K to 340.5 K) + 2.1
(ii) Channel Temperature (340.5 K to 558 K) +5.7
{Coolant +11.0 mk; Fuel -5.3 mk}
Total +7.8
2a. Hot standby to Full power
(i) Fuel Temperature (558 K to 723 K) - 3.5
(ii) Coolant Void (Coolant density from 0.74 g/cc to 0.45 g/cc) - 1.8
Total
2b. LOCA from Full power - 5.3
(Coolant density 0.45 g/cc to 0.03 g/cc)
- 3.2
3. Xenon Load
(i) Equilibrium load - 22.0
(ii) Transient load after Shutdown from full power (peak at about 7 h) - 9.0

time-averaged calculation for online fueling coefficient is about -5.0 x10-5 Dk/k/ % void
[9]. Core layout is shown in Fig. 2 and core [Table 2]. There is some variation in coolant
calculations are carried out using FEMINA void coefficient within the core due to its
[11]. Core design features and reactivity variation with burnup. The desired value of
balance is given in Table 2 and Table 3. It may void coefficient is obtained by making minor
be noted that a similar power distribution is changes in the design of multipurpose
easily achieved for different fuel cycles and displacer for the other fuel-types.
that radial/axial form factors remain
Conclusions
practically unchanged. In this way, one can
fuel online to a multi-zone core with different While AHWR is designed for the
discharge burnups with a variety of fuel-types. utilisation of thorium, it can efficiently
However, with online fueling discharge generate power from a variety of fuel-types.
burnup cannot be too high due to reactivity The multipurpose displacer plays a key role in
considerations. achieving this objective. In the present design
of AHWR a gray rod of SS/zircaloy-2 is
Void Reactivity Coefficient
located in the displacer to achieve desired void
The void coefficient of reactivity is one of reactivity coefficient. It is found that for both
the most important safety parameters in LEU and LEU/thorium fuel no grey absorber
AHWR. For the equilibrium core of AHWR is needed. And, this results in a relatively high
the value of core-averaged coolant void

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 101

Fig. 2 Layout of AHWR equilibrium core

discharge burnup. In fact, discharge burn-up of Thorium in Power Reactors and Subcritical
Cores , Indian Nuclear Society Annual
for LEU fuel is seen to be higher in
Conference, INSAC-2000, 2000.
comparison to CANDU ACR as the latter is [4] R.K. Sinha, A. Kakodkar, The roadmap for a
constraint to use burnable absorber. Also, for future Indian nuclear energy system, International
these fuel-types the void reactivity exhibits a conf. on Innovative Technologies for Nuclear
Fuel Cycles and Nuclear Power, IAEA, Vienna,
favorable flatter variation with burnup and
2003.
cluster peaking factor is relatively low.
[5] Arvind Kumar, U. Kannan, Y. Padala, G.M.
References Behera, R. Srivenkatesan, Kamala Balakrishnan,
Physics Design of Advanced Heavy Water
[1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d Reactor utilising Thorium , Technical Committee
development of AHWR – The Indian Thorium Meeting on Utilization of Thorium Fuel Options,
fueled innovative reactor, Nucl. Engg. and IAEA, Vienna, 1999.
Design, 236 (2006) 683.
[6] A. Kumar, K. Umashankari, R. Srivenkatesan,
[2] Arvind Kumar, A new cluster design for the Sensitivity Analysis For AHWR Fuel Cluster
reduction of void reactivity in AHWR, Proc. of Parameters Using Different WIMS Libraries,
annual conf. on Power from Thorium – Status, Annals of nuclear Energy, 29 (2002) 1967.
Strategies and directions, Mumbai, India, June
[7] Arvind Kumar, An alternate composite cluster
2000.
design for achieving self-sufficiency in U233 in
[3] R. Srivenkatesan, Arvind Kumar, U. Kannan, AHWR, RPDD / AHWR / Note No. 104, 2009.
V.K. Raina, M.K. Arora, S. Ganesan, S.B.
Degwekar, Physics Considerations for Utilisation

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102 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

[8] Arvind Kumar, A Cluster Design for the Initial [10] J.R. Askew, F.J. Fayers, P.B. Kemshell, A general
Core of AHWR, Note No. RPDD / AHWR / 25, description of the lattice code WIMS, British
2004. Nuclear Energy Society, (1966) 564.
[9] Arvind Kumar, K. Umashankari, Neelima [11] Arvind Kumar, R. Srivenkatesan, Nodal
Pushpam, G.M. Behera, B. Krishna Mohan, R. expansion method for reactor core calculation,
Sriven katesan , Safety analysis rep ort - BARC-1249, (1984).
Preliminary, Physics chapter, Rev 0, RPDD /
AHWR / 80, 2007.

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 103

Fuel Handling System for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

R.J. Patel, P. Halder, M.P. Kulkarni, S. Roy, S. Bansal, K.K. Jha, M. Chaturvedi, G. Sharma
Refuelling Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is a Thorium based vertical reactor, needs regular
refuelling to maintain requisite reactivity and also to get optimum fuel burn up. A dedicated,
remotely operated on line fuel handling system is used for this purpose. The system removes
spent fuel from core, inserts new fuel and discharges the spent fuel to outside reactor building
using shielded fuelling machine and fuel transfer system. During refuelling, the system
interacts with high temperature and high pressure channel and opens the pressure boundary of
channel for refuelling. The fuel handling system consist of various innovative features to meet
various design requirements like limiting load on channel during refuelling, maintaining
isolation between V1-V2 volumes, compensation of channel thermal contraction, handling
long and three piece fuel assembly, seismically stable design, online fuel transfer, provision of
passive containment isolation etc. Design of the system ensures adequate shielding, cooling
and wet transfer of fuel cluster during handling without applying external force on fuel element.
Safe handling of fuel is ensured by incorporating adequate safety features to avoid free fall of
fuel cluster during handling. This paper gives details of current design of AHWR fuel handling
system.
Keywords: AHWR, refuelling, fuel transfer, fuelling machine

Introduction Shield ‘B’) and bottom most part of the fuel

assembly is fuel cluster, which contains the
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
fissile material. All the three parts of fuel
(AHWR) is a Th-233U fuelled 300 MWe
assembly are kept joined together using a
vertical, pressure tube type, boiling light
detachable collet joint. The fuel assembly is
water, natural circulation cooled reactor,
hung from the top inside the coolant channel.
having 452 coolant channels having
The function of fuel handling system is to
temperature as 558 K and pressure as 7 MPa.
receive new fuel from fuel storage bay,
A remotely operated on-power fuelling
remove the spent fuel from the core, charge the
system is planned to be used for efficient
core with new fuel and transfer the spent
utilization of fuel, to maintain requisite
fuel-to-fuel storage bay. The fuelling system
reactivity and also to facilitate quick removal
mainly consists of a shielded fuelling machine
of failed fuel from coolant channel. The fuel
(FM), temporary fuel storage bay (TFSB)
assembly of AHWR is a 9.878 m long
located inside reactor building, inclined fuel
three-piece assembly. The top two parts are
transfer machine (IFTM) and fuel storage bay
the shielding portion of fuel (shield ‘A’ and
(FSB) located outside reactor building. The

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104 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

fuel handling & storage system has provision

of buffer storage fuel inside reactor building in
TFSB and main storage facility for fuel RAM
ASSEMBLY
outside reactor building in FSB where spent
fuel will be stored for 2 years before sending
SUPPORT
for reprocessing. Cooling & shielding STRUCTURE

requirements of fuel is maintained throughout

the fuel handling operation. MAGAZINE
ASSEMBLY
Fuelling Machine (FM)
CARRIAGE

The FM is a vertical, 19.3 m tall, remotely

operated assembly weighing about 600 Te
designed to perform on-power refuelling. The
FM consists of five subassemblies namely FM
SNOUT SEPARATOR
head, support structure, carriage, trolley and ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY
DECK PLATE

shielding subassembly (Fig. 1). Following are

the basic functions performed by FM to carry Fig. 1 Fuelling Machine of AHWR
out refuelling with the help of different
subassemblies: ensure cooling and lubrication to various
mechanisms of FM head. During parking
1. Alignment of FM with the desired condition, the FM is kept pressurised at 20
channel by moving in X & Y direction kg/cm2 whereas during refuelling, the
with the help of carriage and trolley pressure is maintained at slightly higher than
assembly. channel pressure to avoid entry of hot water in
2. Removing shielding block located in FM from channel. The FM head is supported
deck plate with the help of Shielding on carriage and trolley through support
block lifting s ystem mounted on structure & shielding subassembly to facilitate
shielding subassembly. its movement in X direction using rails laid on
3. Lowering the FM to connect with channel the reactor top and in Y direction using rails
after ensuring perfect alignment with the attached to carriage. The X & Y movement
help of support structure. facilitates the FM to approach any lattice
position for refuelling and fuel transfer port of
4. Perform refuelling operation by clamping
TFSB during fuel transfer. The X & Y
onto the channel, opening pressure
movement of carriage and trolley enables
boundary of channel, removing spent fuel
coarse alignment of FM within ±3mm to the
from the core, inserting new fuel in the
desired channel. The support structure, which
core, closing the pressure boundary and
supports the FM head, provides about 1.6 m
unclamping the channel with the help of
movement in Z direction (vertical) using ball
FM head.
screws to lower the FM head up to coolant
The FM head is a pressure boundary channel end fitting for clamping. The support
component and remains filled with light water structure also has provision of fine-X and
to ensure cooling of fuel cluster and also to

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 105

fixed shield. The movable shield is moved

S H I E L D 'B' upward by 150mm during movement of FM in
X & Y direction.
S HI ELD'A ' COLLET To perform the refuelling, FM head
COL LET
J OINT
interacts with coolant channels having
COLLET
STE M
surrounding temperature of 558 K. The fuel
JOINT
SAFETY
SLEEVE assembly located in coolant channel consists
FUEL
of shield ‘A’, shield ‘B’ and fuel cluster,
CLUSTER
joined with each other with the help of collet
COLLET
JOINT joint (Fig. 2). During refuelling, the spent fuel
S H I E L D 'B'
of fuel assembly is replaced with new fuel and
the shielding parts of fuel assembly (Shield
‘A’ & Shield ‘B’) are reused after attaching
with new fuel. The collet joint provided in the
fuel assembly is a pull to open and push to
close type positively locked joint, which is
Fig. 2 AHWR fuel assembly
operated using the FM head during refuelling.
fine-Y movement along with X-tilt & Y-tilt to The major subassemblies (Fig. 3) of FM
facilitate precise alignment of FM head with head are snout assembly, separator assembly,
coolant channel. To limit the load on coolant magazine assembly and ram assembly. The
channel while touching of FM head to coolant snout assembly enables sensing of gross
channel during Z movement, a spring stack alignment within ±10 mm of coolant channel
based load limiting arrangement has been using head antenna mounted in front area of
provided in shielding subassembly which snout assembly (Fig. 4). Precise sensing of
counterbalances the weight of FM head using misalignment with coolant channel is done
four stacks of disc springs. Provision has been using sensing fingers attached in front area of
kept in support structure to absorb the effect of snout assembly. The sensing fingers give
thermal contraction of channel after clamping misalignment feedback to support structure to
with FM head. make correct alignment. The snout assembly
clamps the perfectly aligned coolant channel
Shielding subassembly is provided
by applying predefined clamping force and
surrounding the FM head to shield the FM to
makes a leak tight joint with coolant channel
make the surrounding area accessible. The
with the help of metallic seal provided in the
shielding assembly use steel, lead & wax as
front area of snout.
shielding material to shield from all kind of
radiation. Also provisions have been kept in The ram assembly of FM head functions
shielding assembly to ensure V1-V2 isolation likes hand of FM head. The ram assembly
and also to avoid radiation streaming during consists of three coaxial rams i.e. B-ram,
refuelling. The shielding subassembly has two Latch & C-ram. The Ram assembly picks the
parts, fixed shield and movable shield. The fuel assembly and other plugs using
movable shield is provided at lower portion of

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106 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Head
Antenna

Fig. 4 Snout assembly of FM head

joint. During engaging/disengaging, the fuel

Fig. 3 FM head with support structure
is held using separator assembly and push/
pull force is applied using ram assembly to
predefined sequential movement of the three engage/ disengage the joint. The separator
coaxial rams, provides required movement assembly is a water hydraulic operated piston
inside FM head and coolant channel and cylinder type of assembly, which is normally
places at desired location during refuelling. kept retracted, however to sense and hold the
The B-ram of ram assembly has maximum fuel assembly for collet engagement/
travel of about 7.6 m whereas Latch & C-ram disengagement during refuelling, the
has maximum travel of 50 mm. Rack & pinion separator is advanced. Provision has been kept
based concept is used for B-ram whereas Ball to lock the separator in both advanced and
Screw concept is used for Latch & C-ram to retracted condition to ensure safety during
provide required movement. Two parallel refuelling. The different parts of fuel assembly
drive systems are provided for movement of and other removable plugs are required to be
B-ram. The drive systems of all the rams have stored in FM head during refuelling. To
been kept outside the shielding for easy perform this function, magazine assembly is
maintenance & replacement. provided in FM head between separator
assembly and ram assembly to perform this
During handling, the fuel assembly parts
function. Magazine assembly has eight
viz. shield ‘A’, shield ‘B’ & fuel cluster need
stations fixed on a rotor to store different
to be separated by detaching the collet joint.
components namely shield ‘A’, Shield ‘B’,
The Separator assembly of FM head senses
new fuel, spent fuel, seal plug, spare seal plug
and holds the fuel assembly to facilitate
& snout plug. One station is kept as spare
engagement/ disengagement of the collet
station. The axis of rotation of rotor is kept

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 107

offset with snout assembly such that after temperature and high-pressure condition,
rotating the rotor, the station gets aligned with efforts are underway in parallel to develop
ram assembly / snout assembly. The rotor is metallic seal for radial seal plug to get better
rotated using hydraulic motor through Geneva life and performance.
indexing mechanism to align the station with
During the refuelling process, FM aligns
ram assembly / snout assembly. Photograph of
with the desired channel, clamps the channel
FM head with support structure supported on
to make leak tight joint with the channel,
makeshift support frame for shop testing is
removes snout plug, removes seal plug,
shown in Fig. 3.
removes the fuel assembly, separates the
Various actuators and motors used in the shield ‘A’, shield ‘B and fuel cluster, stores the
FM are operated using oil / water hydraulic components in magazine, replaces spent fuel
system. The oil hydraulic system is provided with new fuel, attaches new fuel with shield
mainly for drive motors used in carriage, ‘B’ & shield ‘A’, inserts in coolant channel
trolley, support structure, ram assembly, and unclamps from the channel after installing
magazine assembly and snout assembly. The seal plug and snout plug. Cooling water is kept
water hydraulic system is provided mainly to circulating in FM using water hydraulic
maintain FM head pressure & flow, cooling of system to ensure cooling of spent fuel inside
various mechanical seals and actuation of the FM during refuelling and during parking.
separator assembly. Pneumatic supply system
Design of the FM is a great challenge
is used to cool the shielding subassembly to
especially for seismic qualification of long
remove the heat generated due to radiation
and heavy FM while limiting the load on end
shielding.
fitting in FM clamped condition. Also limiting
As the FM is always remaining filled with the thermal hydraulic transients generated due
pressurized light water, the FM is sealed by to injection of cold FM water into the hot
providing a snout plug in snout assembly. The channel during refuelling is a great challenge
snout plug seals the FM head at snout area especially for naturally circulated cooled
using ‘O’ ring seal. During refuelling, snout coolant channel. As the AHWR is a very
plug is removed by the FM ram and stored in compact pitch reactor having small lattice
magazine station to get clear path for pitch to channel diameter ratio, designing of
movement of different components through FM for working in such compact
snout assembly during refuelling. configuration is a great challenge and various
innovative changes have been incorporated to
Similarly, the pressure boundary of
make this system work under this compact
coolant channel is sealed using seal plug.
configuration.
Radial seal type seal plug is used in AHWR
unlike face seal type seal plug used in Indian Fuel Transfer System
PHWRs to meet the challenge of working in
The fuel transfer system of AHWR
compact lattice pitch (225 mm) configuration.
consists of mainly three subsystems i.e. Fuel
‘O’ ring seal is provided in seal plug to provide
Transfer equipment located in Temporary
required sealing. As the seal is exposed to high
Fuel Storage Bay (TFSB), Inclined Fuel

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108 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

FUELLING
MACHINE
INCLINED
FUEL
TRANSFER
MACHINE

REACTOR
CORE
FUEL
TFSB STORAGE
BAY

Fig. 5 Fuelling transfer system of AHWR

Transfer Machine (IFTM) & Fuel Storage Bay fresh fuel to ensure uninterrupted refuelling in
(FSB). The schematic of fuel transfer system case of temporary outage of IFTM. 15 Nos. of
along with fuelling machine is shown in Fig. 5. fresh and 15 Nos. of spent fuel buffer storages
location are provided in TFSB. The fuel
The Fuel transfer equipment located in
transfer equipment located in TFSB inside
TFSB works as interface to facilitate transfer
reactor building are fuel port, underwater
of fuel from FM to outside reactor building
trolley, rails, fuel ‘can’, hoisting system,
and vice versa through IFTM. The IFTM
gantry, gripper etc. Schematic of TFSB along
transfers the fuel from inside reactor building
with equipment is shown in Fig. 6. The fuel
to outside reactor building. The FSB is located
port acts as interface between FM and TFSB
outside reactor building and used for long term
fuel transfer equipment to charge new fuel in
storage of spent fuel as well as for loading &
FM and receive spent fuel from FM. The under
unloading of fresh & spent fuel from shipping
water trolley (UWT) moves on rails to transfer
cask. The fuel transfer operation will be done
the fuel from higher elevation to lower
remotely from control room, however local
elevation and vice-versa using rope based
control panels are also provided at some
hoisting system. A fuel ‘can’ is located on
places to perform some specific operations.
UWT which houses the fuel during its transfer
Temporary Fuel Storage Bay (TFSB) through UWT. The internals of fuel can is
designed compatible to handle shield ‘A’,
The TFSB is a light water pool having
Shield ‘B’ and fuel cluster so that both the
size approximately 8.7 m x 11.5 m x 17 m deep
shields and fuel cluster can be transferred
located inside reactor building. The TFSB
through TFSB using same equipments and
pool also acts as buffer storage of spent &

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 109

GRIPPER
HOISTING
water. Adequate illumination is provided in all
SYSTEM GANTRY

FM RAIL
areas of TFSB to visualize complete fuel
EL101000

transfer operation in TFSB from outside using

HOISTING
MECHANISM FUEL PORT cameras. Online monitoring of water level is
WATER
IDLER
PULLEY
LEVEL EL98150 done. To monitor the leakage from TFSB, on
Fuel 'can'

UWT
line leakage monitoring and collection system
is provided.
Rail Mast

The TFSB is also provided with rehearsal

Gripper test facility to perform various rehearsal
WIRE
ROPE
operations on FM especially after periodic
IDLER
PULLEY shutdown or after performing major
maintenance on FM.
Rail support
Inclined Fuel Transfer Machine

Inclined Fuel Transfer Machine is

Fuel
storage
provided to transfer the fuel across reactor
rake

building. The IFTM is about 36 m tall machine

connecting the TFSB to FSB through the
Fig. 6 TFSB fuel transfer equipment containment walls. Schematic of IFTM is
shown in Fig. 7.
same route. This feature facilitates quick
The IFTM consists of two ramps called
removal of fuel assemblies from coolant
primary ramp (located in TFSB) and
channels to meet various operation &
secondary ramp (located in FSB) inclined at
maintenance requirements.
25º angle from vertical. The movement of fuel
The gantry located in TFSB handles the across containment is done keeping it in a
fuel within TFSB with the help of gantry transfer pot, which is hoisted up in one ramp
gripper. The hoisting mechanisms of UWT with the help of hoisting system and hoisted
and gantry gripper are designed to meet single down in other ramp after tilting the pot in
failure proof criterion. The gantry gripper also swinging leg with the help of tilting
has various safety features to prevent mechanism to align with the other ramp. The
unintended release of fuel cluster during its hoisting mechanism of IFTM is designed to
handling in TFSB. Various water hydraulic meet single failure proof criterion. The tilting
operated underwater actuators are provided mechanism and hoisting mechanism is located
for various mechanisms whereas electrical in elevated shielded Fuel Transfer (FT) room.
drive is used for hoisting system and gantry
Efforts have been made to keep all drive
movement.
systems of IFTM in accessible area to
The TFSB water is continuously minimize the radiation exposure during
circulated through cooling and purification maintenance. During transfer, the transfer pot
system to maintain temperature, chemistry remains submerged in water for some duration
and to limit radioactive contamination in and for rest of the time it is hoisted in water

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110 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fuel Storage Bay

Fuel Storage bay is located in Fuel

Building, which is about 10 m away from
OCW. Fuel building is approximately 100 m
long and 24 m wide. A fuel storage bay of size
51.5 m x 13.5 m x 15 m depth is provided in
fuel building for storage of new and spent fuel
clusters. Tank in tank concept is adopted for
design of fuel storage bay. Layout of fuel
building and FSB is shown in Fig. 8. The FSB
is filled with 13.5 m deep light water. Fuel
storage racks are located in FSB to hold the
fuel clusters. Adequate water shielding is
provided to limit the radiation exposure to the
acceptable limit. The storage bay is divided
into six compartments to make the isolation
and emptying out possible for maintenance.
These compartments are New Fuel Unloading
Bay (NFUB), New Fuel Storage Bay (NFSB),
Fuel Transfer Bay (FTB), Spent Fuel
Fig. 7 Inclined fuel transfer machine Inspection Bay (SFIB), Spent Fuel Storage
Bay (SFSB) and Spent Fuel Loading Bay
filled condition. The quantity of water (SFLB). Secondary tilting mechanism of
remaining in transfer pot is adequate to ensure IFTM is situated in FTB. NFUB and SFLB are
cooling of spent fuel for the non-submerged used for unloading of new fuel clusters from
duration, however provision exists for shipping cask and loading of spent fuel
spraying of cold water on spent fuel to ensure clusters into shipping cask respectively for
continuous cooling in stuck up situation. The transportation.
transfer pot is made capable of transporting
shield ‘A’, shield ‘B’ and fuel cluster of fuel On both ends of FSB, passages are
assembly. provided for entry of tractor-trailer for loading
/ unloading of new and spent fuel cask. A
The concept of IFTM was evolved after double door passage is provided for entry of
considering various alternatives due to its shipping cask and tractor-trailer. Shipping
advantages like less space requirement inside cask is received on tractor-trailer in horizontal
reactor building, online fuel transfer, small condition. Subsequently it is made vertical
penetration in containment, passive and lowered in shipping cask-loading area
containment isolation and continuous cooling underwater. For new and spent fuel clusters
of fuel during transfer. separate loading and decontamination area are
provided. Leakage collection and monitoring
system is provided in the FSB.

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 111

FT
ROOM

TRACTOR TRAILER
SPACE FOR
STORAGE
AREA

SPACE FOR
TRACTOR TRAILER

SFLB
NFUB

AREA
MAINTENANCE
NFSB

SFSB
SFIB
FTB
TRENCH

SYSTEM
PURIFICATION
COOLING &

SPACE FOR
ENTRY
TRUCK
ENTRY FOR ENTRY FOR
TRACTOR TRACTOR
TRAILER TRAILER

Fig. 8 Fuel Storage Bay

The FSB has capacity of storage of spent the top of storage bay for unloading of new
fuel for two years and storage of new fuel fuel clusters from the shipping cask, loading
inventory of six months. In addition, provision of fuel clusters into the storage rack, loading /
has been kept for storing of fuel cluster and unloading into / from the IFTM transfer pot,
shield-A & shield-B in case of full core loading of spent fuel clusters into the shipping
unloading in storage bay. cask and handling of gate.

Provision has been kept to isolate and The fuel storage bay is provided with
draining of water of any of the compartment to inspection facilities for new fuel clusters and
facilitate maintenance. The drained water is spent fuel clusters. The inspection facilities
stored temporarily in a separate underground include visual inspection using under water
water storage tank provided adjacent to the camera, gauging of new fuel clusters, sniffing
fuel building. and canning facility for failed fuels. Separate
inspection facility for spent fuel cluster is
FSB water is continuously circulated
provided in SFIB. The inspection facility for
through cooling and purification system to
spent fuel cluster consists of visual inspection
maintain temperature, chemistry and to limit
for failed/damaged fuel cluster, detection of
radioactive contamination in water.
failed fuel cluster, isolation of failed fuel
In FSB handling of fuel cluster is done cluster by canning to avoid contamination of
using fuel cluster lifting tool mounted on the bay water.
gantry. One 5 Te capacity gantry is provided at

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112 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Conclusion Efforts have been made to introduce

various passive safety, fail safe and single
The design of AHWR fuel handling
failure proof features in the design of fuel
system has evolved after considering various
handling system to ensure safe and reliable
alternatives and optimization study for
handling of fuel. Even though equipment have
fuelling machine and fuel transfer system.
been visualized through 3 D models, it is
Experience and feedback of existing Fuelling
planned to manufacture prototype of critical
Machines of PHWRs and Dhruva Research
equipment and to perform elaborate testing
Reactor has been utilized while designing the
programme for design validation and also to
system. Design of the system has
take feed back for further design
progressively undergone further
improvisation.
improvisation and changes based on the inputs
related to various other system parameters of
AHWR.

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 113

Probabilistic Safety Assessment of AHWR

V. Gopika, D. Mukhopadhyay, B. Chatterjee, V. Verma, I. Thangamani, M. Hari Prasad,

V.V.S. Sanyasi Rao, H. G. Lele, A. K. Ghosh
Reactor Safety Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In nuclear reactor Probabilistic Safety Analysis (PSAs), risk is usually defined by the
frequency and magnitude of radioactive releases to the environment. Level-1, 2 and 3 PSA
studies were carried out for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). The salient findings of
the study are presented in the paper.
Keywords: AHWR, risk, CDF, PSA

Introduction
Plant Familiarization & Level 3: Atmospheric
identification of design dispersion with
PSA is an analytical technique for aspects important to consequence analysis
severe accident
assessing the risk of a facility by integrating
Release from containment
diverse aspects of its design and operation.
Risk is defined as the product of the frequency PSA level 1: Identification
Level 2: Source term
(within containment)
of significant events with
of an accident and the associated large contribution to CDF
evaluation through
analysis
consequences from that accident. In the
context of a Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), core Fig. 1 Level-1, 2&3 PSA activities block
damage of the reactor and the resulting release diagram
of radioactivity in the public domain are used
to define the risk. PSAs for nuclear plants are shutdown, core cooling and containment
divided into three levels namely Level-1, isolation, are active systems and the reliability
Level-2 and Level-3. PSA Level -1 looks into of these systems dictates the Core Damage
frequency of core damage, Level-2 into the Frequency (CDF) and Large Early Release
thermal hydraulics in primary heat transport Frequency (LERF). For these reactors, IAEA
(PHT) system and containment, fission recommends a value less than or equal to 10-5
product release within PHT system, transport per reactor year for severe CDF and a value
within PHT and containment and releases to less than or equal to 10-6 per reactor year for
the environment and Level-3 into exposure in LERF [1]. It may be noted that for old reactors,
public domain. The activity block diagram of these numbers are higher by a factor of 10.
these three levels is given in Fig. 1.
Various new or advanced reactor
In the case of present generation reactors, concepts have been advocated which employ
most of the systems, employed for reactor to the extent possible passive safety systems.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

114 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

In these systems, due to the designs employed, Construction of Event Tree for each of the
the normal accident sequences of present Identified IE
generation reactors do not result in core Event Trees (ETs) employ deductive
damage. Thus, failures of more number of logic approach for identifying the accident
systems (mainly passive systems) are needed sequences generated by an IE. These involve
to result in core damage. Some studies failure / operation of the safety systems /
indicate that the core damage frequency in human actions that are called upon after the IE
these reactors is at most of the order of 10-6 per occurs. Because of the defense in depth
reactor year [2]. philosophy employed in reactors, failure of
Level-1 PSA two or more safety systems are needed to
result in core damage subsequent to the
A Level-1 PSA models accident
occurrence of the IE. Event trees are
sequences up to the point at which the reactor
constructed for (i) small LOCA (ii) Large
core either reaches a stable condition or
LOCA (iii) ECCS Header Break (iv) Class IV
becomes severely damaged, which could
power failure (v) active process water system
release large amount of radioactivity into the
failure (vi) Feed water system failure (vii)
containment. The probabilistic aspects of the
Loss of Regulation Accident (viii) Main
analysis focus on the performance and
Steam Line Break Inside Containment (ix)
reliability of nuclear plant systems and station
Main Steam Line Break Outside Containment.
staff in response to plant conditions. It consists
of the identification of initiating events, Reliability Analysis of Process and Safety
construction of event trees and fault trees and Systems
quantification of accident sequences using Process system failures usually result in
component reliability data and human error initiating events and create demand on safety
probabilities. It includes an analysis of plant systems. Reliability analysis of process
design and operation, with emphasis placed on systems like Active Process Water System
the accident sequences that lead to core (APWS), Feed Water system, Non Active
damage, their basic causes and their Process Water System (NAPWS), Service
frequencies. A level-1 PSA has been carried Water System (SWS), Moderator system, and
out for AHWR considering only internal End Shield Cooling System (ESCS) has been
Initiating Events (IEs), full power operation carried out to arrive at the failure frequency of
state with reactor core as the source of these systems. Also reliability analysis of
radioactivity release. The various steps safety systems like Emergency Core Cooling
involved are: System, Passive Poison Injection Systems,
Identification of Initiating Events and Core Decay Heat Removal Systems
comprising of Isolation Condensers, Gravity
A comprehensive list of the IEs
Driven Water Pool Recirculation System have
applicable to the design of AHWR has been
been carried out to evaluate their
prepared taking into account the list for
unavailability. It may be noted that the success
PHWRs and PWRs, and the design features
criterion for a safety system depends on the
specific to AHWR.
initiating event.

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 115

Analysis has been carried out by Classification of Consequences

FaultTree + V10.1 (FaultTree+V10.1, 1986)
In Level-1 PSA, each of the accident
[3]. The component failure data needed for
sequences needs to be analysed to find its
this analysis is obtained from generic source
impact on reactor core. Core can be either in
(e.g. IAEA TECDOC 478 [4]) and operational
safe state or in partially damaged state or fully
experience data from Indian PHWRs.
damaged state depending on the severity of the
Passive System Reliability accident. In order to identify the extent of
damage that has occurred, plant damage state
Advanced/ innovative nuclear power
categorisation has been devised based on
plants employ passive systems to achieve
thermal hydraulics studies. Only thermal
substantial simplification and improved
criteria are assigned to determine the states
safety, in order to reduce active component
and damage of channels/channel is not
malfunctions and human errors. It has to be
considered for state determination. For PWRs,
ensured that the passive systems are really
“Core Damage States” are defined by core
more reliable compared to the active systems
submergence and fuel meltdown criteria
to carry out their safety function under the
where as “Fuel Damage States” are
prevailing conditions.
determined based on loss of core geometry for
A passive system may fail due to the CANDU Pickering-A. [5]
deviation from expected behavior of
As per the thermal criteria four categories
parameters representing physical phenomena
are specified for AHWR as defined below:
mainly related to thermal hydraulics, different
boundary/ initial conditions in addition to the (i) Core Damage State: The Core Damage
mechanical failure of (passive/active) State is defined as the accident condition
component of the system. In AHWR, passive which results in peak clad temperature
systems are employed to (i) remove heat from beyond 1473 K.
the fuel rods during normal operation by (ii) Core Degradation State: The Core
natural circulation (main heat transport Degradation State is defined as the
system), (ii) during LOCA (by using passively accident condition which results in peak
operated high pressure and low pressure clad temperature beyond 1073 K, and
emergency core cooling system), (iii) during within 1473 K.
accident situations (by using again passively
(iii) Deviation from Safe State: The deviation
operated Isolation condensers) (iv) reactor
from “Safe State” is defined as the
shutdown under certain situations even when
accident condition which results in the
wired shutdown systems fail to operate and the
peak clad temperature beyond 673 K, and
reactor pressure is high (passive shutdown
below 1073 K, which is the fuel failure
system) and (v) in removing heat from the
criterion.
containment (passive containment heat
removal system). As an example, the (iv) Success State: The Success State is
frequency of accident scenario involving defined as the safe condition, wherein
natural circulation failure and reactor trip has fuel temperature is less than peak clad
been found to be 8.2x10-9/year. temperature 673 K.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

116 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Estimation of Core Damage Frequency “Core Damage State” has been further
investigated [6].
Based on the results of detailed thermal
hydraulic analysis, the accident sequences A Level-2 PSA examines severe reactor
have been binned to one of the above four accidents through a combination of
states. The accident sequences resulting in probabilistic and deterministic approaches, in
Core Damage State have been considered in order to determine the frequency and release
Core Damage Frequency (CDF) estimation. of radionuclides from containment. This
The Core Damage Frequency is found to be information is synthesized with Level-1 PSA
~5.46x10-8/year. The frequency for Core results.
Degradation is found to be 2.56x10-7/year. In
Deterministic Evaluations
comparison to AHWR the CDF for other
reactors are found to be higher (Current The deterministic part of the analysis
generation PWRs - 10-5 /year, CANDU focuses on the analysis of the physical
Pickering-A NSG 10-4 /year, IPHWRs processes of an accident (timing and
8.9x10-6/year). The advanced generation magnitude of radioactive release) and the
PWRs and CANDUs have made a target of response of the containment. While not
CDF of 10-6 / year – 10-8 /year. providing a full risk assessment, some insight
into risk is provided by the relative
Level-2 PSA
frequencies of various release categories. It
A Level 1 PSA models accident has been found that many of the accident
sequences up to the point at which the reactor sequences identified in Level-1 are found to
core either reaches a stable condition or fuel lead to insignificant releases to outside the
heatup upto 1473 K leading to marginal containment. This can be attributed to the
release (gap release of 5%) of radio nuclides robustness of the design with a strong
into the containment. As such, the sequences emphasis on defense in depth philosophy. To
in the Level-1 event trees will terminate on a begin with a few enveloping ‘Events Beyond
“Success State”, or “Core Degradation State”. Design Basis’, which have a very low
Events for “Core Damage State” are Beyond frequency of occurrence (<10-6 per year), have
Design Basis Events (BDBEs) in that the core been considered for further analysis. The
structural integrity is expected to be lost. The analysis is to study the progression of the
events may lead to core heat-up, the accident, using various computer codes for
disassembling of channels into debris and a estimating fission product release from the
high release of fission products (>5%). fuel, thermal hydraulic and aerosol transport
Sequences with failure of all design basis heat (RELAP5[7], CONTRAN[8], PHTACT[9],
removal systems, including the moderator NAUA-5) [10], within the heat transport
heat sink, are included in this category. As can system and containment. These evaluations
be noticed, in these sequences, there are many took into consideration the operation, or
multiple failures considered, which are otherwise, of the various containment
expected to result in severe core damage and engineered safety systems. The outcomes of
consequent release of radioactive material. the analyses are source terms to the
Keeping this definition, sequences for the environment in terms of timing, magnitude,

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 117

composition and duration of radioactive more essential if a reactor is located near to

releases. The source term evaluations are population centre. Consequences were
based on releases to the containment, retention evaluated for postulated (i) 200% Inlet Header
in containment, removal through filters and (IH) Break with failure of both the wired
containment bypass and leak rate. If a shutdown system and (ii) Main Steam Line
substantial quantity is released early in time, it Break (MSLB) outside the containment with
is classified as large early release (LER). It failure of both the wired shutdown system for
may be noted that containment leak rate plays AHWR. Consequences in terms of thyroid
a major role as far as ground level releases are dose and bone marrow dose to the individual
concerned. located at various distances from the point of
release have been evaluated for the accident
Probabilistic Evaluations
sequences using PCCCOSYMA [11]. The
The probabilistic element consists of the evaluations were carried out under the
development and quantification of following assumptions:
containment logic models. The tasks for the
(a) The meteorological parameters necessary
development of the logic models include:
for running the code correspond to the
(a) Development of a Containment Event KAPS site. Hourly data of wind speed,
Tree (CET), which defines a spectrum of stability category, and precipitation rate
containment damage or release states; and wind direction for a period of one
(b) Development of CET top event year were used.
definitions and the quantification of (b) Stack height assumed is 100 metres and
failure probabilities by fault tree analysis; ground release is assumed to be at 10
(c) Integration with results of Level -1 PSA metres.
studies and (c) The release is for duration of 72 hours.
(d) Evaluation of source term release The dose is evaluated assuming an
f r e q u e n c i e s b a s e d on i d e n t i f i e d exposure time of 72 hours. The individual
containment failure modes (isolation is exposed all the time during these 72
failure and containment bypass). hours.
The containment model development and (d) Hourly changes of wind direction are
quantification procedures are supported by taken into account while evaluating the
deterministic models of accident progression radionuclide concentration and dose at
(a Level-2 PSA code). various points.
(e) All the Xe released from the containment
Level-3 PSA
is assumed to be Xe-133; Iodine released
In addition to the evaluation of release is I-131; Cs released is Cs-137; and Kr
frequencies, it is essential to ensure that the released is Kr-88.
probability of receiving dose above prescribed
(f) The dose risk coefficients correspond to
regulatory limit is very small. This
those of ICRP-60.
necessitates the evaluation of the
consequences in the public domain. It is all the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

118 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
Releases of Cs Releases of I

1.0E+02 1.0E+04
1.0E+01 1.0E+03

Releases (Ci)
Releases (Ci)
1.0E+00
1.0E+02
1.0E-01
1.0E+01
1.0E-02
1.0E-03 1.0E+00
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71

Time(hr) Time(hr)

Releases of Kr Releases of Xe

1.0E+02 1.0E+06
1.0E+05
1.0E+01

Releases (Ci)
Releases (Ci)

1.0E+04
1.0E+00 1.0E+03
1.0E+02
1.0E-01
1.0E+01
1.0E-02 1.0E+00
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71

Time(hr) Time(hr)

Fig. 2 Different radionuclide release for the case of all the ESFs off

(g) The cumulative release in every 12 hours and June (heavy precipitation) (in this paper,
is combined and is assumed to be release curves are shown for January only). Finally
in the first hour of the phase in case of the results for the steam line break with failure
LOCA event. The release is considered in of shutdown systems and main steam isolation
6 phases. valves failure are presented (Table 1). Fig. 2
The general input for the code includes shows the different radionuclide releases for
the radionuclide release during release the case of all ESFs off (case 9 in Table 1).
phase(s). These are presented first for each of Figs. 3 and 4 show isodose curves for thyroid
the break sizes analysed. Then the thyroid dose and bone marrow dose received during
dose and bone marrow dose received due to the month of January for the same case.
ground and stack releases are evaluated. The For the case 10, i.e., the main steam line
maximum dose observed in each of the cases break, the isodose curves for thyroid dose and
is presented in Table 1. It can be seen that for bone marrow dose received during the month
the steam line break with failure of shutdown of January without countermeasures is shown
systems and a pair of isolation valves is found in the Figs. 5 and 6.
to result in maximum dose both for thyroid
and bone marrow due to containment bypass Observations
for this event. The Isodose curves have been It can be observed from the results that the
developed for two seasons represented by Iso-dose curves extend to larger areas in dry
weather conditions in January (dry weather) seasons and calm weather conditions

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 119

Table 1 - Dose evaluation for accident scenarios considered for Level-3 analysis
Sl. No. IE
Failure of Status of engineered safety Frequency Thyroid (Sv) Bone Marrow (Sv)
mitigating features* (yr-1)
safety
system CC PCFPB SCFRP PCCD Jan July Jan July
Case-1 S S Both wired shutdown system
S S 6.30e-10 8.91e-3 1.36e-3 2.85e-4 4.99e-5
200%inlet header break

Case-2 S S F S
(SDS-1&2) failure 4.28e-12 9.8e-3 1.57e-3 3.13e-4 5.7e-5
Case-3 S F S S 5.21e-12 1.41e-2 2.88e-3 4.22e-4 9.01e-5
(LLOCA)

Case-4 S F F S 3.54e-14 1.53e-2 3.23e-2 4.59e-4 1.01e-4

Case-5 F S S S 3.40e-13 2.93e-2 4.37e-3 9.01e-4 1.49e-4
Case-6 F S F S 2.30e-15 3.56e-2 5.79e-2 1.09e-3 1.93e-4
Case-7 F F S S 2.80e-15 4.03e-2 7.91e-3 1.2e-3 1.46e-4
Case-8 F F F S 1.90e-17 4.8e-2 9.92e-3 1.43e-3 3.08e-4
Case-9 F F F F 9.80e-20 5.21e-2 1.49e-2 1.55e-3 4.63e-4
Case-10 Main Steam Line Break (MSLB), both wired 8.52e-14 5.76e-1 1.17e-1 4.27e-1 8.99e-2
shutdown system (SDS-1&2) failure, without
counter measures (Containment Bypass event)

*CC - Containment coolers, PCFPB - Primary Containment filtration and pump back system, SCFRP -Secondary
Containment Filtration, Recirculation & Purge system, PCCD - Primary Containment Controlled Discharge
System, S-Success, F- Failure

Fig. 3 Iso-dose curve for thyroid-Jan Fig. 4 Iso-dose curve for bone marrow-Jan

compared to those obtained when there is scenarios were found to have low predicted
precipitation. The maximum dose observed, maximum doses. However, in case of main
in case of scenarios initiated by 200% large steam line break scenario with the failure of
LOCA is in the range of 0.01 Sv or less shutdown systems, the maximum dose
depending on the status of the four observed is found to be more than 100 mSv.
containment engineered safety features, This event is also found to have a frequency of
namely coolers, PCFPB, SCFRP and PCCD, 8.4*10-14 per year. For the main steam line
considered. The frequencies of these LOCA break scenario, since the observed thyroid
related events were found to be in the range dose was found to be high, the impact of
10-10 to 10-20 per year. The high frequency protective actions like Iodine prophylactics up

Advanced Reactors and Applications

120 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 5 Iso-dose curve for Thyroid-Jan Fig. 6 Iso-dose curve for bone marrow-Jan
without considering the counter without considering the counter
measures measures

1.0E-09 Frequency of Exceedence 1.0E-09

Frequency of Exceedence

1.0E-10 1.0E-10

1.0E-11 1.0E-11

1.0E-12 1.0E-12

1.0E-13
1.0E-13

1.0E-14
1.0E-14

1.0E-15
1.0E-15
1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E+00
1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E+00

Thyroid Dose (Sv) at 0.5 Km Bone Marrow (Sv) at 0.5 Km

Fig. 7 CCDF for Thyroid dose at 0.5 km Fig. 8 CCDF for Bone Marrow dose at 0.5
km

to around 4 km and sheltering for 8 hours and these frequencies, it is assumed that the
evacuation afterwards were considered. Two probability of a weather condition typical in a
cases one represented by the initiation of month is around 0.083 (i.e. 1/12). Frequency
protective actions in 0.5 hours and the other in of exceedence of a given dose, x, is computed
2 hours were analysed. It is observed from the by summing the frequencies of all doses x and
results that taking Iodine prophylactics in 0.5 above. Considering only dose versus
hours has helped in the reduction of dose to the exceedence frequency irrespective of the
thyroid by a factor of 2. A two-hour delay has months/ seasons (i.e. using the results
affected the dose received only marginally. A obtained during the months of January and
slight decrease in the dose received by bone July together), the results are shown in the
marrow has also been observed. Figs. 7 and 8. It has to be pointed out here that
Using the frequencies and the doses these are obtained considering only accident
presented in Table 1, frequency of exceedence sequences arising out of LOCA and failure of
of a given dose has been generated. In deriving containment safety functions (In case of
MSLB, containment is bypassed). If the doses

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 121

due to the accident sequences arising from all [3] FaultTree+V10.1, Copyright Isograph Reliability
Software, 1986.
the initiating events are considered, the graphs
[4] IAEA TECDOC 478, 1988, Component
are expected to be smoother. The very low Reliability Data for Use in Probabilistic Safety
frequencies of exceedence values are Assessment.
indicative of the defense in depth employed in [5] Gordon Thompson, A review of the accident risk
AHWR. posed by the Pickering ‘A’ nuclear generating
station, A Report to the Standing Committee on
Conclusion Energy, Environment and Natural Resources of
the Canadian Senate, August 2000.
Level-1, 2 and 3 study has been carried [6] D. Mukhopadhyay, B. Chatterjee, H.G. Lele, I.
out to quantify the risk for AHWR. The study Thangamani, Mansoor Ali, B. Gera, Vishnu
estimated a Core Damage Frequency of Verma, Rohit Rastogi, V. Bhasin, K.K. Vaze,
Durga Rao, Hari Prasad, Gopika Vinod, V.V. S.
~5.46x10-8/year. Detailed thermal hydraulic, Sanyasi Rao , A.K. Ghosh, Level -1, -2 and -3
fission product release and aerosol transport PSA for AHWR, BARC/2008/E/24, 2008.
studies within the heat transport system and [7] C.M. Allison, RELAP/MOD3.2 Code Manual,
containment have been carried out to evaluate NUREG/CR-5535, INEL -95/0174, 1995.
the releases to the environment. Doses [8] S.K.Haware, A.K. Ghosh, V. Venkat Raj, A.
Kakodkar, Analysis of CSNI Benchmark test on
(thyroid and bone marrow) for some
containment using the code CONTRAN, Third
postulated Beyond Design Basis Events have International Conference on Containment Design
been estimated. From these evaluations, it has and Operation, Vol-2, Toronto, Ontario, Oct
been found that the doses are very low. The 1994.
[9] Lele H.G., Mukhopadhyaya D., Behera, G. ,
predicted very low frequencies of exceedence
Gupta S.K., PHTACT – A Computer Code For
values are indicative of the defense in depth Estimation Of Fission Product Release And
employed in AHWR. Transport For Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
During A cc i d en t Co n d i ti o n s ,
References RSD/CSSS/SKG/2069/2001, Divisional Report,
[1] Basic Safety Principles for Nuclear Power Plants April 2001.
75-INSAG-3 Rev. 1, INSAG-12, 1999, IAEA, [10] H. Bunz, M. Kyoro and W. Schoeck, NAUA-4: A
Vienna. code for calculating aerosol behaviour in LWR
[2] Gopika Vinod, Hari Prasad, V.V. S. Sanyasi Rao, core- melt accidents. KfK-3554,
R.K. Saraf, P.V. Varde, B. Chatterjee, S.K. Kernforschungszentrum, Karlsruhe (1983).
Bhatia, S.K. Khobare, Preliminary Level 1 [11] EUR 16240 EN, PCCOSYMA, version 2.0, user
Probabilistic Safety Assessment of Advanced guide, NRPB, November 1995.
Heavy Water Reactor, Rev. 3, 2006, Unpublished
Report.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

122 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Critical Facility for AHWR & PHWRs

Samiran Sengupta1, S. B. Chafle1, S. Mammen1, K. Sasidharan1, V. K. Raina2

1. Research Reactor Design & Projects Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay,
Mumbai 400 085, INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]
2. Reactor Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, India

Abstract
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre is embarking on a broad based program for thorium utilization
in power production to achieve all-round capability in the entire thorium cycle. As a step in this
direction, a low power Critical Facility has been built in 2008 at BARC. The facility will greatly
contribute to the understanding and validation of the calculation models and nuclear data used
in the design of thorium based Advanced Heavy Water Reactor. The facility is also designed to
cater to the experimental requirements of future lattice studies related to other pressurized
heavy water reactors. This paper covers the basic design features and the planned experimental
program of the new facility.
Keywords: variable lattice,Thorium, AHWR, validation, experimentation

Introduction also be used to study various other core

configurations using different fuel materials,
India has large reserves of thorium and
moderator materials & neutron absorber
very modest reserves of uranium. Utilisation
materials.
of thorium, therefore, assumes significance
with regard to long-term production of nuclear Salient Design Features
power to meet the increasing Indian energy
The Critical Facility has been designed
requirement. Towards this, BARC is
and constructed to facilitate study of different
developing an Advanced Heavy Water
core lattices based on various fuel types,
Reactor (AHWR) utilising Thorium based
moderator materials and reactivity control
fuel [1]. Mixed oxide of Pu-Th & 233U-Th will
devices [2]. The major design features are
be used as fuel in this reactor. Internationally,
shown in Table 1. The reactor is designed for a
the nuclear data for Thorium cycle is less well
nominal fission power of 100 W with an
known as compared to that for Uranium &
average thermal neutron flux of 108n/cm2/sec.
Plutonium. It is, therefore, necessary to
The reactor can also be operated at higher
validate the computer codes used for
power levels of upto 400 W for short durations
theoretical calculations and associated
to facilitate special experimental campaigns.
nuclear data libraries by comparing with
The design provides enough flexibility to
experimental data. Towards this, a low power
arrange the fuel inside the core in a precise
Critical Facility has been built and made
geometry at the desired pitch. Initially, three
critical on 7th April, 2008. This facility can

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 123

Table 1 - Major Design Features

Nominal Power 100 Watts

Thermal neutron flux ~ 108 n/cm2/sec
Reactor tank 330 cm diameter, 500 cm height
Lattice pitch Variable lattice pitch (Minimum 215 mm)
Moderator Heavy water
Cover gas Nitrogen
Shutdown system 6 Cadmium shut off rods
Moderator dump
Reference Core 19 rod cluster of natural Uranium
61 lattice positions
245 mm pitch
AHWR Core 54 pin AHWR clusters in 9 central positions of Reference core
61 lattice positions
245 mm pitch
PHWR Core 37 rod fuel bundles
69 lattice positions
286 mm pitch

types of cores using heavy water as moderator

and reflector will be studied. The three cores
are based on different fuel types viz. i) 19 pin
natural uranium metal fuel clusters to
constitute the reference core ii) 54 pin (Th-Pu)
MOX/ (Th-233U) MOX clusters to constitute
the representative AHWR core and iii) 37 pin
natural uranium oxide fuel clusters to
constitute the 540 MWe PHWR core. Salient
design features of the facility are explained in
the following sections.

Reactor Block
Fig. 1 Inside view of reactor building
The reactor block 11.5 m x 10.75 m x 8.77
m is located inside the reactor building as
shown in Fig. 1. The reactor tank, square box as shown in Fig. 2. The walls of the reactor
and the support structures for fuel and control block are 2 m thick, which provide shielding in
assemblies are housed inside a cavity of 6.75 the radial direction. A concrete slab of 1.35 m
m x 6.75 m x 7.42 m high in the reactor block thickness at the top provides shielding in the
axial direction. Access to the reactor cavity

Advanced Reactors and Applications

124 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Fig. 2 Sectional view of the reactor block

from the reactor hall is through a lead shielded

door.

The reactor tank, which accommodates

the fuel, moderator and shut off rods, is a 10
mm thick cylindrical aluminium tank of 3.3 m
ID and 5 m height. The tank is open at the top
to facilitate connection with a square box
through an elastomer expansion joint. The
square box houses the lattice girder
assemblies. It is a leak tight enclosure made of
stainless steel. The bottom plate of the square
Fig. 3 Top view of reactor core
box has a 3.3 m diameter opening in the centre
to provide full access to reactor tank. The top
revolving plate supported on a bearing, which
plate of square box has a 3.35 m diameter
in turn rests on the square box top plate, covers
opening at the centre to allow access to the
the opening. Four sealed oval shaped openings
lattice girders, which support the fuel and
are provided on the revolving plate to provide
shut-off rod assemblies as shown in Fig. 3. A
access to all lattice positions in the reactor,

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 125

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of moderator and cover gas system

when desired. An oil seal is provided between cover gas and eventually gets dissipated to
the fixed top plate of the square box and atmosphere by natural convection.
revolving plate to confine the cover gas within
A schematic diagram of the moderator
the square box and to avoid ingress of
and cover gas system of Critical facility is
atmospheric air and moisture into the heavy
shown in Fig. 4. Three dump tanks, each of
water contained in the reactor tank.
required capacity, are provided to hold the
Moderator and Cover gas system entire inventory of moderator in the system.
Two dump lines have been provided in the
For the initial set of experiments heavy
reactor tank, one at the bottom of the tank
water acts as the moderator and reflector.
(total dump line) and the other at a height of
Nitrogen gas is used as the cover gas for the
1.25 m from the bottom of the tank (partial
heavy water. The system is designed to supply
dump line) to facilitate dumping of the
the required inventory of heavy water in a
moderator to the dump tanks from the reactor
controlled manner to the reactor tank to attain
tank. A batch addition and a batch removal
reactor criticality for various core
facility are incorporated in the system to
configurations/ reactor experiments as per the
permit addition or removal of exact quantity of
researcher’s requirements. Since the reactor is
moderator to or from the reactor tank. For
operated at a very low power level, no
carrying out experiments at elevated
dedicated core cooling system has been
provided. The small amount of heat generated moderator temperatures upto 60°C, an
in the core is transferred to the moderator & electrical heater has been provided in the
system. The heavy water system chemistry is

Advanced Reactors and Applications

126 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

maintained by recirculating the heavy water tank by opening of two fast acting dump
through a deuterised ion-exchanger bed and a valves. Even if one of the dump valves fails to
filter. open on demand, the desired initial dump rate
is achieved. Adequacy of each system to
The nitrogen cover gas system is
achieve sub-criticality for all the three cores is
designed to maintain a dry gas blanket at a
established to ensure reactor safety [2].
pressure of 5 to 8 cm water column (gauge) in
all the tanks containing heavy water to prevent Experimental Programme
degradation due to ingress of atmospheric
The facility will be used for further
moisture. A nitrogen drying circuit has been
optimisation of the physics design of AHWR
provided to facilitate drying of the reactor
and generation of additional nuclear data
tank, square box and connected piping. The
relevant to the design of thorium-based
same circuit is used for drying and recovery of
advanced reactors. Following are the various
heavy water from equipment/ components like
integral experiments planned to be carried out:
ion-exchanger, filter cartridge etc. as and
when required. (a) Critical height (level of heavy water
moderator) determination
Reactor Control and Protection system
(b) Dynamic worth of reactivity devices
For reliable neutronic power (RDs)
measurement and protection from source
(c) Level coefficient of reactivity (batch
range to power range, neutron detectors and
addition and batch removal). This is done
associated electronics, working on diverse
together with reactor period/log rate
principles and having sufficient redundancy
measurement (to be recorded digitally
have been used. Since there is substantial
and visually).
difference in expected critical heights of
AHWR and PHWR core configurations, the (d) Static worth of reactivity devices is
neutron detectors have been located below the measured by determining the critical
core in the graphite fillers under the reactor level and level coefficients with and
tank, to minimize the effects of variation of without the device.
critical height on the incident neutron flux (e) Reactor noise measurements
seen by the detectors. Criticality of the reactor The following differential experiments
is achieved by controlled addition of have been proposed to be carried out in
moderator in the reactor tank. Critical facility:
The Critical Facility is provided with two (a) Flux profile measurements inside/around
independent shut-down systems viz. the the fuel assembly. It is possible to insert
shut-off rods and the moderator dump. Fast activation foils in few pre-selected pins at
shut down of the reactor on a trip signal is specified locations. These pins are to be
achieved by gravity fall of a set of removable type.
six-cadmium shut off rods into the core. In
(b) Axial and radial neutron flux distribution
addition to the insertion of the shut-off rods,
using copper/gold wires/foils and the
moderator is also dumped from the reactor

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 127

fission counters. About 25 fission Concluding Remarks

counters is installed in the core.
The various experimental studies planned
(c) Flux profile measurement in the to be carried out at the critical facility will
moderator surrounding the fuel assembly. provide the necessary inputs for the validation
Provision is made to install activation of the physics design of the Advanced Heavy
detector in the moderator region. Water Reactor. The facility will also be used to
(d) Flux profile measurement around the conduct reactor physics experiments for
reactivity devices. These devices can be future pressurised heavy water reactors.
loaded parallel and perpendicular to fuel References
assemblies.
[1] R . K . S i n h a, A . K a k o d k a r, D e s ig n a n d
(e) Neutron Spectrum measurements. Development of AHWR – The Indian Thorium
Special activation foils is inserted in fuel Fuelled Innovative Nuclear Reactor, Nuclear
Engineering and Design, 236 (2006) 683.
pins at specified locations.
[2] Final Safety Assessment Report (FSAR), Critical
(f) Reaction rate measurements. Special Facility for AHWR & 500 MWe PHWRs, May,
materials such as depleted and enriched 2008.
uranium foils, pure 239Pu foils and also [3] V.K.Raina, R.Srivenkatesan, D.C.Khatri,
D.K.Lahiri, Critical Facility for Lattice Physics
with different concentrations of 240Pu,
233
Experiments for the Advanced Heavy Water
U foils, some special high purity Reactor and the 500 MWe Pressurized Heavy
material foils such as Lu will also be used. Water Reactors, Nuclear Engineering and Design,
236 (2006) 758.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

128 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

(Th,LEU) MOX: Alternate Fuel in AHWR

Neelima Prasad Pushpam, Anek Kumar, Umasankari Kannan, Arvind Kumar,

P.D. Krishnani
Reactor Physics Design Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) under design is a 920 MWth, vertical pressure tube
type thorium-based reactor cooled by boiling light water and moderated by heavy water. The
main objectives are to achieve relatively higher fraction of power from Th/233U, negative void
reactivity coefficient, minimisation of initial inventory and consumption of plutonium,
self-sustaining characteristics in 233U and high discharge burnup. Plutonium is used as makeup
fuel to achieve high discharge burnup and self-sustaining characteristics of Th-233U fuel cycle.
The 233U required is to be bred in situ. The reactor, however, offers enough flexibility to
accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles. Few cases were studied to achieve high discharge
burnup by using LEU as external feed in thorium oxide fuel in AHWR. The enriched uranium
with initial configuration 19.75% 235U and 80.25% 238U was used along with thorium in all the
pins of the AHWR fuel cluster and calculations were performed for the equilibrium fuel cycle.
It was found that a case with the average LEU content of 21.3% gives high discharge burnup of
about 64 GWd/te. This core configuration is referred as AHWR_LEU. The calculations show
that there is better utilization of natural uranium resources. The uranium recovered after
reprocessing the discharged fuel contains about 8.1% fissile content and about 200 ppm of 232U.
Plutonium in the spent fuel has about 55.6% fissile content and about 9.54% 238Pu. The
presence of 9.54% 238Pu and 200 ppm 232U in the spent fuel makes it proliferation resistant.
Also, the discharged fuel contains less plutonium and less minor actinides. All the reactivity
coefficients are negative. The report discusses the above results.
Keywords: Thorium utilization, AHWR equilibrium core, AHWR_LEU, self-sustaining in 233U,
composite cluster, (Th,LEU)MOX, equivalent mined uranium

Introduction self-sustaining characteristics in Th-233U and

high discharge burnup. Plutonium is used as
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
makeup fuel to achieve high discharge burnup
(AHWR) is a 920 MWth, vertical pressure
and self-sustaining characteristics of Th-233U
tube type thorium-based reactor cooled by
fuel cycle.
boiling light water and moderated by heavy
water [1-3]. The main objectives are to The reactor offers enough flexibility to
achieve relatively higher fraction of power accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles.
from Th/233U, negative void reactivity Few cases were studied to achieve high
coefficient, minimisation of initial inventory discharge burnup by using LEU as external
and consumption of plutonium, feed in thorium oxide fuel in AHWR. The

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 129

Fuel pins
enriched uranium with initial configuration
19.75%235U and 80.25% 238U was used along
with thorium in all the pins of the AHWR fuel
cluster and calculations were done for the
equilibrium fuel cycle. This core
configuration is referred to as AHWR_LEU. It
was found that in a case with the average LEU
content of 21.3% gives high burnup of about
64 GWd/te. There is better utilization of
natural uranium resources. The fissile content
in the uranium recovered after reprocessing
Displacer unit
the discharged fuel is about 8.1% which is
denatured and contains sufficient quantity of Fig. 1 Cross section of (Th,LEU) MOX fuel
232
U. Plutonium in the spent fuel has about cluster
55.6% fissile content and about 9.54% 238Pu.
The presence of 9.54% 238Pu and 200 ppm 232U throughout the length. The cluster design is
in the spent fuel makes it proliferation geometrically identical to the AHWR
resistant. Also, the discharged fuel contains composite cluster. The description of AHWR
less plutonium and less minor actinides. All lattice for AHWR composite cluster and (Th,
the reactivity coefficients are negative. The LEU) MOX is given in Table 1. The cross
report discusses the above results. section of fuel cluster is shown in Fig. 1. The
lattice simulations have been performed using
Fuel Cluster Design the WIMSD code system [5]. The nuclear data
The fuel cluster for the equilibrium core library used was the 69 group multi-group
of AHWR, called as the composite cluster, cross section set based on the ENDFB/VI.8
consists of 54 pins arranged in arrays of 12, 18 dataset [6].
and 24 pins, where the inner 30 pins have The initial content of uranium is about
(Th,233U)MOX fuel and the outer 24 pins 24.9 kg in a fuel assembly. With burnup, the
(Th,Pu) MOX fuel. The current design has a fissile 235U and the fertile 238U in the (Th,LEU)
multi functional central displacer, which MOX deplete and the other isotopes of
consists of SS in the top half and Zircaloy-2 in uranium and plutonium build up. At the same
the bottom half of the reactor [4]. time the fertile thorium also gets converted
In the present studies LEU is used as an into fissile 233U. Initially the entire power
alternate external feed in current comes from 235U. As the fuel burns, 233U and
AHWR_LEU design. The enrichment of LEU plutonium start contributing to power. At
in the 12 pins of the innermost ring is 18% and equilibrium, about 39% power comes from
in 18 pins of the intermediate ring is 22%. The thorium in the fuel. The power fractions from
235
24 pins in the outermost ring are axially U, 233U and Pu as a function of burnup have
graded having enrichments 19% and 26% in been shown in and Fig. 2.
the upper and lower halves respectively. The
displacer unit has a central rod of zircaloy-2

Advanced Reactors and Applications

130 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 1 - Description of the lattice of AHWR fuel cluster for equilibrium core and
(Th,LEU) MOX fuel cluster

Description Physical dimensions / specifications

Lattice pitch, mm 225
Fuel
No of fuel pins in each ring 12 / 18 / 24
Fuel density, g/cc 9.3
Heavy metal, kg 116.5
Fuel types / Enrichment, %
AHWR composite cluster of (Th,Pu)MOX and(Th,233U)MOX
Ring 1 (Th-233U)MOX, 3.0%
Ring 2 (Th-233U)MOX, 3.75%
Ring 3 (Two axial enrichments) (Th-Pu)MOX , 4.0% (Lower half)
2.5% (Upper half)
AHWR cluster of (Th,LEU)MOX
Ring 1 (Th-LEU)MOX, 18%
Ring 2 (Th-LEU)MOX, 22%
Ring 3 (Two axial enrichments) (Th-LEU)MOX, 26.0% (Lower half)
19.0% (Upper half)
Tube Material & Dimensions, ID/OD, mm:
Pressure Tube (PT) Zr-2.5% Nb, 120.0/128.0
Calandria Tube (CT) Zircaloy-2, 163.8/168.0
Multi-purpose displacer tube (annular)
Material Zr-2
OD / Thickness , mm 36 / 3
Solid Rod inside Displacer, Material/OD SS (upper)/Zr-2(lower) /18 mm
(AHWR composite cluster)
Solid Rod inside Displacer, Material/OD Zr-2 /18 mm (throughout)
(Fuel cluster of (Th,LEU) MOX
Coolant
Material Light water
temp. oC/density, g/cc 285 / 0.45
Moderator
material Heavy water
temp.oC/density, g/cc 67.5 / 1.089

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 131

Pu
100.0 80 FiisilePu
Fraction of power from fissile isotopes %

Power fraction from fissile isotopes in AHWR

90.0 equilibrium core with 21.33% LEU in Th 70

Plutonium produced per unit energy

80.0 U-233 60
U-235
70.0
Pu 50
60.0

(kg/TWhe)
40
50.0
30
40.0
20
30.0
20.0 10

10.0 0
LWR PHWR AHWR_LEU
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
Burnup GWd/t
Fig. 3 Mined uranium required per unit
energy for different reactor systems
Fig. 2 Power fractions from 233U, 235U and Pu
or PHWR. Mined uranium requirement and
the plutonium left in spent fuel of
The uranium and the plutonium vectors of
AHWR_LEU have been compared with those
the fuel discharged at 64 GWd/te are given in
of PWR and PHWR in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. All
Table 2. The recovered uranium has about
these quantities have been normalised for 1
8.1% fissile content and 200 ppm 232U. The
TWh(e) energy.
fissile content in the reprocessed Pu is about
55.6% and 238Pu about 9.54%. The plutonium Core Design Features
and Minor actinides (MA) produced in
The AHWR has been designed to produce
(LEU,Th)MOX fuel in AHWR is much less as
a total power to the coolant of 920 MWth [7].
compared to PWR or PHWR. There is better
The reactor core of AHWR consists of 513
utilization of natural uranium resources as the
lattice locations in a square lattice pitch of 225
mined uranium requirement is less than PWR
mm where fuel assemblies occupy 444

Table 2 - Isotopic vector of Uranium of initial and discharged fuel of (Th-LEU) MOX

Isotopic vector of uranium

232 233 234 235 236 237 238
Fuel Burn-up U% U% U% U% U % HM U% U%
HM HM HM HM HM HM
Initial 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.75 0.0 0.0 80.25
Discharge (64 0.02 6.51 1.24 1.62 3.26 0.00 87.35
GWd/Te)
Isotopic vector of plutonium
238 239 240 241 242
Fuel Burn-up Pu Pu Pu Pu Pu
% HM % HM % HM % HM % HM
Initial 0 0 0 0 0
Discharge (64 9.54 41.65 21.15 13.96 13.70
GWd/Te)

Advanced Reactors and Applications

132 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Pu locations. Sixty nine locations are reserved for

80 FiisilePu
the reactivity control devices and shut down
70
Plutonium produced per unit energy

60
system-1, of which 45 locations are used for
50
locating shutoff rods (SORs) and 24 for
locating control rods (CRs).
(kg/TWhe)

40

30
The core layout with the locations of the
20
reactivity devices is shown in Fig. 5. The
10
global analysis has been carried out by the
0
LWR PHWR AHWR_LEU diffusion theory code FEMTAVG[8] which
uses nodal expansion method to solve for the
Fig. 4 Plutonium produced per unit energy in fluxes in two-group formalism. Power
different reactor system in different
distribution optimisation was obtained by
reactor systems

Fig. 5 Layout of the AHWR core with (Th-LEU)

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Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 133

Table 3 - Main core design features of AHWR equilibrium core

Parameter Value
Power to the coolant, MWth 920
Total no. of channels 513
No. of Fuel channels 444
Active fuel length, mm 3500
Local /Radial /Axial/ Total 1.35/1.2/1.36/2.2
Average discharge burnup, GWd/te 64
a) No. of channels fueled per year 44
LEU (net), kg 1095.72
Thorium (net), kg 4030.07
Energy extracted per tonne equivalent mined uranium, MWd/t 7826
Power from thorium, 39% 39
No. of Control rods (AR/RR/SR), worth, mk 24 (8 each)
10.9/11.6/9.9
RR worth in nominal configuaration (ARs Fully IN; RRs 67% IN; 5.33
SRs Fully OUT), mk
Shut Down system (37 SOR),Worth, mk
Total -83.25 (All 45 SOR)
Two maximum worth rods not available, mk -60.28 (43 SOR)
Fuel temperature (Dk/k/oC) -2.82 x 10-5
Channel temperature (Dk/k/oC) -3.73x 10-5
Void coefficient, Dk/k/% void -8.72x 10-5
Moderator temperature (Dk/k/oC) -3.09x 10-5

adopting three burnup zones 59/ 64/ 74 AHWR_LEU has two independent shut
GWd/te with limit on the maximum channel down systems, Shut Down System-1 (SDS-1)
power (MCP) by the minimum critical heat and Shut Down System-2 (SDS-2). Shut down
flux ratio (MCHFR). The major core design criteria used in AHWR is that following trip
features are tabulated in Table 3. from any state of the reactor it shall be
rendered sub-critical by at least 10 mk up to a
In AHWR_LEU core all the reactivity
stipulated time period of 72 hours with any of
coefficients are negative and the reactivity
the two shutdown systems acting.
swing is negative from cold to full power. The
various reactivity coefficients for this core are The Shut Down System-1 consists of 45
given in Table-3. mechanical shut-off rods falling under gravity
when actuated. The positions of shutoff rods

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134 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

Table 4 - Requirements on shutdown system for different scenarios in AHWR with

(Th,LEU)MOX

Type of reactivity states Reactivity required

Normal operation During a During a LOCA
(mk) LORA (mk) (mk)
Loss of reactivity control + 6.77 -
Loss of coolant - + 4.94
Full power to hot standby + 8.42 + 8.42 +8.42
Hot standby to cold critical(a) + 9.37 + 9.37 + 9.37
Sub-criticality margin + 10.0 + 10.0 + 10.0
Subtotal 27.79 + 34.56 + 32.73
After one day
Xenon decay + 22.08 + 22.08 + 22.08
Subtotal +49.87 + 56.64 + 54.81
After 3 days
Pa-233 decay(b) + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.0
Total + 50.87 +57.64 + 55.81

(a)
Credit is not taken for negative reactivities
(b)
Reactivity realised following complete decay of 233Pa (about 3 months)~10.0mk
Worth of SDS-1 with 2 maximum rods not available is 60.25 mk

are fixed based on power distribution and to accommodate different kinds of fuel cycles.
control requirements. The worth of 45 SORs LEU with appropriate enrichment mixed with
and 43 SORs (2 SORs with maximum worth ThO2 provides an alternate fuel for AHWR,
not available) are 80.26 and 60.28 mk which gives high discharge burnup. It has
respectively. The shutdown requirements enhanced safety parameters as all the
under operational, LOCA and LORA reactivity coefficients are negative and the
conditions are listed in Table 4. The SDS-2 reactivity swing from cold to hot standby
when pressurised will inject Gadolinium conditions and to full power is negative.
nitrate solution in the moderator.
For this core the energy extracted per
Conclusions tonne of equivalent mined uranium is about
7826 MWd as compared to 6700 MWd in
AHWR has primarily been designed for
PHWR. At equilibrium core condition, about
utilization of thorium in closed fuel cycle with
39% power comes from thorium. The uranium
minimum additional requirement of
in spent fuel of (Th,LEU)MOX has fissile
plutonium as fissile feed, self sustaining in
content about 8.1% and 232U about 200 ppm.
Th-233U fuel cycle and high discharge burnup.
Plutonium in the spent fuel has about 55.6%
The reactor however offers enough flexibility
fissile content and about 9.54% 238Pu. The

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 135

presence of 9.54% 238Pu and 200 ppm 232U in fueled innovative reactor, Nucl. Eng. Des. 236,
Issues 7-8, p 683, April (2006).
the spent fuel enhances proliferation
[4] Arvind Kumar, A new cluster design for the
resistance. Also the discharged reduction of void reactivity in AHWR, Proc. of
(Th,LEU)MOX fuel contains less plutonium annual conf. on Power from Thorium – Status,
and minor actinides as compared to PWR or Strategies and directions, Mumbai, India, June
2000, Vol. I, p. 52, Indian Nuclear Society (2000).
PHWR.
[5] J.R. Askew, F.J. Fayers, P.B. Kemshell,. A
References general description of the lattice code WIMS,
British Nuclear Energy Society, p. 564, October
[1] A. Kakaodkar, Salient features of design of
(1966).
thorium fuelled Advanced Heavy Water Reactor,
Indo-Russian seminar on thorium utilisation, [6] Trkov, (Co-ordinator), WIMS-D Library Update
Obninsk, Russia, 17-20 November (1998). Project, International Atomic Energy Agency,
http://www-iaeands/indcentre.org/~wlup.
[2] B. Kamala and A. Kakodkar, Preliminary physics
(2003).
design of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
(AHWR), Proc. of the Technical Committee [7] K. Umasankari, Neelima Prasad et. al. Safety
Meeting on the Technical aspects of high Analysis Report – Preliminary Physics Chapter,
c o n v e r to r r e a ct o r s , N u r e mb e r g , RPDD/AHWR/100/2008 Rev 1.0 (2008).
IAEA-TECDOC-638, March (1990). [8] ind Kumar and R. Srivenkatesan, Nodal
[3] R.K. Sinha and A. Kakodkar, Design and expansion method for reactor core calculation,
development of AHWR – The Indian Thorium BARC-1249, (1984).

Advanced Reactors and Applications

136 Compact High Temperature Reactor

High Temperature Reactors

I.V. Dulera, R.K. Sinha and D. Saha

Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Nuclear energy assisted hydrogen production is attractive as a long-term sustainable alternative
to fossil fuel for transport applications. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), in India is
developing technologies for high temperature reactors and hydrogen production processes.
The current R&D activities target technologies for high temperature nuclear reactors, capable
of supplying process heat at 1000°C and high efficiency hydrogen production processes such as
thermo-chemical and high temperature steam electrolysis. A Compact High Temperature
Reactor (CHTR) is being developed as a technology demonstrator. CHTR is a mainly
233
U-thorium fuelled, lead-bismuth cooled and beryllium oxide moderated reactor. This reactor
will have a refuelling interval of around 15 years and will have several advanced passive safety
features to enable its operation as compact power pack in remote areas not connected to the
electrical grid. Design and development of a 600 MWth Innovative High Temperature Reactor
(IHTR) is also underway. Various analytical studies have been carried out in order to compare
different options as regards fuel configuration and coolants. Initial studies carried out indicate
selection of pebble bed reactor configuration with either molten lead or molten salt-based
cooling by natural circulation.
Keywords: high temperature reactors, liquid-metal coolants, passive systems

Introduction for hydrogen production by splitting water

utilizing high temperature process heat
Indian resources of crude oil being
produced by high temperature nuclear
meagre, domestic production of crude oil is
reactors. Considering anticipated demands
only about 21% of consumption [1] with the
and deployment of such reactors in large
balance being met by imports. Projected
numbers, an emphasis has been put on
annual oil requirements for 2031-32 [2] (for
inclusion of inherently safe design features
8% GDP growth rate) is estimated as 486
and development of passive design options so
million tonnes as against Indian reserves
as to ensure increased safety margins. Under
(2007-08) of 775 million tonnes [1]. Thus, it
its high temperature reactor programme,
has become inevitable that India find an
currently India is developing a Compact High
alternative energy carrier such as hydrogen for
Temperature Reactor (CHTR) as a technology
transport applications. Production of
demonstrator for associated technologies. In
hydrogen using nuclear energy seems to be the
addition several design options for a 600
most advantageous long-term option. Current
MWth Innovative High Temperature Reactor
emphasis is on development of technologies

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Compact High Temperature Reactor 137

Table 1 - Major design and operating characteristics of CHTR

Attributes Design Parameters

Reactor power 100 kWth
Core configuration Vertical, prismatic block type
233
Fuel U and Th based TRISO (Tri Isotropic) coated fuel
particles shaped into fuel compacts with graphite matrix
Fuel enrichment by 233U 33.75%
Refuelling interval 15 effective full power years
Fuel Burnup » 68000 MWd/t of heavy metal
Moderator BeO
Reflector Partly BeO and partly graphite
Coolant Molten Pb-Bi eutectic alloy (44.5% Pb and 55.5% Bi)
Mode of core heat removal Natural circulation of coolant
Coolant flow rate through core 6.7 kg/s
Coolant inlet temperature 900°C
Coolant outlet temperature 1000°C
Loop height 1.4 m (actual length of the fuel tube)
Core diameter 1.27 m
Core height 1.0 m (Height of the fuelled part and axial reflectors)
Primary shutdown system Mechanical shut-off rods
Secondary shutdown system Axial movement of movable BeO reflector blocks

for commercial hydrogen production are also demonstration of technologies for hydrogen
being evaluated. production by splitting water through high
efficiency thermo-chemical process. Major
Compact High Temperature Reactor
design and operating parameters are listed in
The CHTR [3,4] is 233U-thorium fuelled, Table 1.
lead-bismuth cooled and beryllium oxide
The reactor is modular in design. The
(BeO) moderated. Initially being developed to
reactor core consists of nineteen hexagonal
generate about 100 kWth power, the reactor
shaped BeO moderator blocks. These blocks
with a refuelling interval of around 15 years
contain centrally located graphite fuel tubes.
will have several advanced passive safety
Each fuel tube carries fuel inside longitudinal
features to enable its operation as compact
bores made in its wall. The fuel tube also
power pack in remote areas not connected to
serves as coolant channel. Molten
the electrical grid. The reactor is being
lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) alloy has been
designed to operate at 1000°C to facilitate

Advanced Reactors and Applications

138 Compact High Temperature Reactor

Fig. 1 Schematic and Core cross-sectional layout of CHTR

chosen as coolant so as to achieve a higher utilization vessels, which provide an interface

level of safety. Thorium-233U based fuel to systems for high temperature process heat
compacts are made-up of TRISO coated applications. For reactor control and
particle fuel, facilitating high burnup and high shutdown, tantalum alloy based control and
temperature process heat production. shut-off rods have been provided. Schematic
Eighteen blocks of BeO reflector surround the and cross-sectional layout of the reactor core
moderator blocks, which in turn are is shown in Figure-1. Detailed design of the
surrounded by graphite reflector blocks. The reactor and associated systems has been
core is contained in a reactor shell of a material carried out. The manufacturing capabilities
resistant to corrosion against LBE alloy for BeO, carbon components, and TRISO
coolant, and suitable for high temperature coated particle fuel have been demonstrated.
applications. Above and below the reactor Experimental facility to carry out various
shell plenums are provided for coolant exit studies related to LBE coolant has been
and entry into the core respectively. The commissioned and is in operation.
reactor shell is surrounded by two gas gaps
Subsequent to the manufacture of fuel,
that act as insulators during normal reactor
materials and other systems, a critical facility
operation. These gas gaps help in dissipating
for CHTR would be set up. Some of these
neutronically limited power to an external
developmental activities have been briefly
sink, in case of a postulated accident. A
described in the following paragraphs:
passive system has been provided to fill these
gas gaps with molten metal under such Fuel
condition. Nuclear heat from the core is
The CHTR fuel [4] is designed to operate
removed passively by natural circulation
at high temperatures, withstand high burn up,
based flow of coolant between the two
and have long core resident time. Thorium and
plenums, upward through the fuel tubes and
burnable poisons make the fuel temperature
returning through the downcomer tubes. A set
coefficient negative, thus making the reactor
of sodium heat pipes is provided to passively
inherently safe. A typical CHTR fuel bed
transfer heat from the hot coolant to the heat
consists of prismatic BeO moderator block

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Compact High Temperature Reactor 139

Fuel tube with 12 fuel bores to

accommodate fuel compacts

Fig. 2 Schematics of TRISO fuel particle, fuel compact, and single fuel bed.

with centrally located graphite fuel tube oxidation and corrosion resistant coatings on
carrying fuel compacts. These compacts are in these materials are also being developed.
turn made of TRISO coated particle fuel.
Inherent Safety Features and Passive
Development of fuel along with coatings is in
Systems
progress. Schematic of TRISO coated fuel
particle, fuel compact, and single fuel bed are CHTR is being designed to have many
shown in Fig. 2. features, which make it inherently safe. In
addition, many passive systems for reactor
Natural Circulation of Coolant Based
shutdown and reactor heat removal under
Passive Heat Removal System
normal and postulated accident conditions,
As explained above, the reactor heat is have been incorporated. These are listed
removed by passive natural circulation of below:
coolant. Analytical and experimental studies
CHTR Possesses Following Inherent Safety
have been carried out to establish the design.
Features
Fig. 3 shows few results along with the
photograph of the lead-bismuth loop in (a) A strong negative Doppler coefficient of
operation in BARC. the fuel for any operating condition
results in reactor power reduction in case
Materials Development
of fuel temperature rise during any
CHTR core materials are exposed to postulated accident scenario.
extreme environmental conditions. They need (b) A large margin between the normal
to withstand neutron fluence, high operating temperature (around 1100°C)
temperatures, (around 1000°C) and corrosive of the fuel and the allowable limit of the
environment of lead-bismuth eutectic alloy TRISO coated particle fuel (1600°C) to
based coolant. Materials being developed are retain fission products and gases results in
high-density nuclear grade BeO, high-density their negligible release during normal
nuclear grade isotropic graphite and operating conditions. This also provides a
carbon-carbon composite materials, healthy margin to take care of any
refractory metal alloys such as Nb-1%Zr-trace unwanted global or local power
carbon, and Tantalum-tungsten based alloy. In excursions.
parallel technologies for development of

Advanced Reactors and Applications

140 Comparison of Theoretical prediction
Compact with Expt. Result
High Temperature Reactor
of Liquid Metal Loop

Liquid Metal Loop 180 Steady State Results at various Power

160

DT across the heated section

140
120 Experimental Result
Theoretical Prediction
100
80
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Main Heater Power (kW)
Fig. 3 Lead-bismuth liquid metal loop and comparison of analytical and experimental results.

(c) High thermal inertia of the all-ceramic (g) In case of a primary system leakage, the
core and low core power density results in coolant solidifies and prevents further
very slow temperature rise of the reactor leakage.
core components as well as fuel during a (h) The thermal energy stored in the coolant,
condition when all heat sinks are lost. which is available for release in the event
(d) A negative moderator temperature of a leak, or accident is small.
coefficient results in lowering of reactor (i) Very low pressure in the coolant, allows
power in case of increase in moderator use of a graphite/ carbon based coolant
temperature due to any postulated tube having low neutron absorption
accident condition. cross-section, thus improving neutronics
(e) Due to use of LBE alloy based coolant of the reactor.
having very high boiling point (1670°C), (j) The coolant has a low induced long-lived
there is a very large thermal margin to its gamma activity.
boiling, the normal operating temperature
(k) In case of a leakage, the coolant solidifies
being 1000°C. This eliminates the
and retai ns iodine and ot her
possibility of heat exchange crisis and
radionucleides.
increases the reliability of heat removal
from the core. The coolant operates at low (l) For LBE alloy based coolant, the
pressure. r e a c t i v i t y ef fe c t s ( v o i d, p o we r ,
temperature, etc.) are negative; thus
(f) The coolant, which is maintained in inert
reducing the reactor power in case of any
gas atmosphere, is itself chemically inert.
inadvertent power or temperature
Even in the eventuality of accidental
increase.
contact with air or water, it does not react
violently with explosions or fires.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Compact High Temperature Reactor 141

Passive Systems: CHTR Incorporates Many neutronically limited power, may operate
Passive Systems as listed below: together or independently to prevent the
(a) Passive core heat removal under normal temperature of the core and coolant from
operation [4]: During normal operation of increasing beyond a set point. For the loss
the reactor, the core heat is removed by of load condition, when coolant circuit is
natural circulation of lead-bismuth intact, a system of six variable
eutectic alloy coolant. The main conductance sodium heat pipes dissipates
coolant-circulating loop comprises fuel heat to the atmosphere. Another passive
tubes, downcomers and top and bottom heat removal system involves filling of
the two gas gaps, provided outside the
plenums. The coolant at 900°C enters the
reactor vessel, by siphon action with a
fuel tube in lower plenum, takes the
molten metal to provide a conduction heat
reactor heat, and at 1000°C it is delivered
path from reactor core to heat sink
to the upper plenum.
provided outside the outer shell.
(b) Passive shutdown system [4]: This
system consists of a set of seven shut-off Innovative High Temperature Reactor (IHTR)
rods, made of Tantalum alloy, and held on BARC is carrying out design of a 600
top of the reactor core by individual MWth reactor [5] for commercial hydrogen
electro-magnets. Magnetic power of production. For this reactor, various design
these magnets is energised by a set of low options as regards fuel configurations, such as
power batteries. These shut-off rods are prismatic bed and pebble bed were considered
passively released under abnormal for thermal hydraulics and temperature
conditions. These shut-off rods fall in the distribution analysis. Coolant options such as
central bore of the fuel tubes provided for molten lead, molten salt and gaseous medium
coolant flow. This is a fail-safe system, so like helium were analysed. Besides these,
that in case of loss of power from other criteria such as ease in component
batteries, the shut-off rods would fall and handling, irradiation related material and fuel
shutdown the reactor. degradation, better fuel utilisation and passive
(c) Passive transfer of heat to secondary options for coolant flow etc. were also
system: A set of twelve high temperature considered. Initial studies carried out indicate
sodium heat pipes passively transfer heat selection of pebble bed reactor core with either
from upper plenum of the reactor to a set lead or molten salt-based coolant. These
of heat utilisation vessels which are kept would be finalised after carrying out further
directly above the upper plenum. studies. Schematic of the reactor is shown in
(d) Passive heat removal under postulated Fig. 4.
accident conditions [4]: CHTR has two Proposed major design and operating
independent and redundant passive heat characteristics of IHTR is given in Table-2.
removal systems to cater to different Many of the technologies developed for
postulated accident conditions. These CHTR would be utilised for this reactor. There
heat removal systems, which are are plans to setup engineering laboratories for
individually capable of removing carrying out research and development related

Advanced Reactors and Applications

142 Compact High Temperature Reactor

to reactor components, coolant technologies, Conclusions

reactor safety, fuel and material development,
India has very limited reserves of fossil
and other aspects related to such high
fuel required for transport applications.
temperature reactors.
Nuclear option for hydrogen production is the
most sustainable option. High temperature
reactors have large potential to provide
necessary high temperature process heat
Reactor
Vessel required for hydrogen production. BARC is
Coolant
Outlet
carrying out developmental work related to all
Coolant aspects of high temperature nuclear reactors.
De-Fuelling Pebble R&D work encompasses development of
Chute Retaining Mesh
materials and their fabrication technologies
Side Pebbles and for component manufacture, compatibility
Reflector Coolant studies, oxidation and corrosion related
Central
Reflector
studies and development of coatings, joining
Fuelling
pipe
Coolant technologies, development of high
Inlet
temperature high burn-up fuel, studies for
Bottom irradiation behaviour of fuel and materials,
Core Barrel Reflector
Support development of characterisation techniques,
development of liquid metal coolant
Fig. 4 Schematic of IHTR

Table 2 - Proposed major design and operating characteristics of IHTR

Reactor power 600 MWth for following deliverables

- Hydrogen: 80,000 Nm3/h Optmised for hydrogen
- Electricity: 18 MWe Production
- Drinking water: 375 m3/h
Coolant outlet/ 1000°C / 600°C
inlet temperature
Moderator Graphite
Coolant Molten lead or molten salt
Reflector Graphite
Mode of cooling Natural circulation of coolant may be considered
233
Fuel UO2 & ThO2 based high burn-up TRISO coated particle fuel
Control Passive power regulation and reactor shutdown systems
Energy transfer Intermediate heat exchangers for heat transfer to system for hydrogen
systems production + High efficiency turbo-machinery for electricity
generation + Desalination system for potable water
H2 production High efficiency thermo-chemical processes

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Compact High Temperature Reactor 143

technologies, and development of passive http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/

rep intengy.pdf
systems for reactor safety and heat removal.
[3] R.K. Sinha and S. Banerjee, Nuclear Energy to
These have opened many new avenues of Hydrogen, International conference on roadmap
research in BARC. to hydrogen energy organized by INAE,
Hyderabad, March 4-5, 2005.
References
[4] I.V. Dulera and R.K. Sinha, High temperature
[1] Website of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural reactors, Journal of Nuclear Materials 383 (2008)
G a s , G o v er n me n t o f I n d i a – h t tp : // p e t 183–188.
H l t2 7 1 7 8 6 2 3 5 r B M 1 o l e u m. n i c.in/p e [5] I.V. Dulera, A. Basak, and R.K. Sinha, Options
Hlt271785626 Hlt271785627tBM 2 BM 3 for design of 600 MWth Indian High Temperature
stat.pdf Reactor for Hydrogen Production, Annual
[2] Integrated Energy Policy, Planning Commission, conference of Indian Nuclear Society, Mumbai,
Government of India, 2006- available at November, 2005.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

144 Compact High Temperature Reactor

Physics Design of Compact High Temperature Reactor

D.K. Dwivedi, Anurag Gupta, Ashok Kumar, P.D. Krishnani

Reactor Physics Design Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
India is pursuing a comprehensive high temperature reactor program to fulfill its needs for non
electrical high temperature process heat applications, such as hydrogen or secondary
hydrocarbons production, unattended power packs etc. The Compact High Temperature
Reactor, CHTR, is being developed as a technology demonstrator and a critical facility for the
program. This paper presents the evolution, current status and salient features of the physics
design of CHTR. The difficulties encountered in physics modelling of the reactor core at high
temperatures are also outlined. Some preliminary safety related studies carried out are also
presented.
Keywords: High Temperature reactor, Thorium, Hydrogen production, Nuclear power pack

Introduction for designing a Compact High Temperature

Reactor (CHTR) of 100 kWth capacity, which
With continuously increasing demands,
would serve as technology demonstration
nuclear reactors will need to be increasingly
facility. It is being designed on the basis of
utilised in the future for non-electrical high
following guidelines:
temperature process heat applications
including production of hydrogen or (a) Use of thorium based fuel
secondary hydrocarbons as a substitute for (b) Passive core heat removal by natural
primary fossil fuel, and for serving as circulation of liquid heavy metal coolant
components of compact power packs in
(c) Passive rejection of entire heat to the
remote areas not connected to grid. Most of
atmosphere under postulated accident
these technologies need heat in the
condition
temperatures range of 700ºC to 900ºC. In
particular, generation of hydrogen from water (d) Compact design to minimise weight of
using thermo-chemical processes needs heat the reactor
at temperatures exceeding 800ºC. Keeping (e) Longer core life without refuelling
this in mind, a program to design and develop
The CHTR Core Description
a high temperature reactor system mainly for
hydrogen production from water by In the current stage of conceptual design,
thermo-chemical process and non-grid based the reactor core (Fig. 1) consists of nineteen
electricity generation applications has been prismatic beryllium oxide moderator blocks.
initiated in BARC. Presently, work is going on These blocks (Fig. 2) contain centrally located

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Compact High Temperature Reactor 145

Fig. 1 CHTR core cross sectional view

Fig. 3 TRISO fuel particle

Physics Design of CHTR

Physics design of a reactor core with a

very high operating temperature is a
challenging task. Use of special materials and
non-availability of nuclear data at high
temperatures pose several challenges.
Moreover, the compactness of the core makes
Fig. 2 Fuel Assembly
it very difficult to design the control and
instrumentation systems. The current design
graphite tubes (Inner Diameter / Outer of the CHTR core contains 2.8 kg U (93% 233U
Diameter 35/75 mm). The central portion of + other isotopes) in 8 kg of (U+Th) fuel. A
the graphite tube will serve as coolant channel. core life of about 15 full power years could be
The liquid metal (Lead-Bismuth eutectic) achieved with the above configuration. It can
coolant flows between the top and bottom be seen that the initial core reactivity is quite
plenum, upward through the fuel tubes and large. To control this, 6 burn-up compensation
returning through downcomer tubes. The rods made from a mix of Tantalum and
outlet temperature of coolant is 1000°C. Each Tungsten, inserted in six fixed BeO reflector
graphite tube carries within it the (233U+Th) blocks and a small quantity (15 g) of burnable
based fuel, inside 12 equispaced longitudinal poison Gadolinium has been added to the fuel
bores of 10 mm diameter. These bores will be in the 35 cm axial length at the central portion
filled with fuel compacts of 35 mm length of the central fuel assembly. Figure 4(b)
made from TRISO particles embedded in shows the variation of keff with burnup for
graphite matrix. The TRISO particles are in initial core life cycle when burnup
the form of micro-spheres of (233U-Th) based compensation rods (BCRs) are in the core.
kernel coated with layers of soft pyrolitic Subsequently BCRs will be removed to
carbon, hard inner pyrolitic carbon layer, SiC compensate for burnup.
and a hard outer pyrolitic carbon layer (Fig. 3). In the present design, the reactor has
The average fuel temperature at operating following independent control and shutdown
conditions is about 1000ºC. systems:

Advanced Reactors and Applications

146 Compact High Temperature Reactor

1.16
0 gm Gd with all 6 BCR OUT
1.14 1.08 No burnable poison
15 gm Gd with all 6 BCR OUT
0 gm Gd with all 6 BCR IN 15gm Gd in central FA
1.12
15 gm Gd with all 6 BCR IN
1.06
1.10
1.08

K-eff
Keff

1.04
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.02
1.00
1.00
0.98
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Burnup (FPD)
Burnup (FPD)

Fig. 4 (a) keff with burnup for configurations Fig. 4 (b) keff with burnup for configu-rations
with and without the burnable with and without the burnable
absorber when burnup compensations absorber when burnup compensations
rods are IN and OUT for initial core rods are IN for initial core life.
life.

Control Control rods made from a mix of Tantalum and Tungsten in the outer
twelve coolant channels.
Burnup Burnup compensation rods, similar to control rods but having thicker
compensation dimensions, in six fixed BeO reflector blocks.
Primary Shutdown Five shutoff rods made from a mix of Tantalum and Tungsten falling
System in any five coolant channels in the second hexagon ring from the
centre.
Secondary Twelve axially moving Cylindrical BeO blocks going out of the
Shutdown System core.

Detailed analyses have been done for the configuration even in case of one rod failure.
feasibility of the control and shutdown The worth of secondary shutdown system is
systems. The worths of shutdown systems, also adequate to shutdown the reactor even in
given in Table 1, are in the most reactive core the case of one rod failure.
configuration, when all burnup compensation
The fuel temperature coefficient of
rods are out of the core and 15 gm Gadolinium
reactivity is computed as –5.9´10–6/ºC. A
added in the fuel.
preliminary point kinetics analysis is done to
About 58 mk initial excess reactivity of simulate a scenario in which an inadvertent
the core, is controlled by keeping six burnup withdrawal of a control rod in critical state is
compensation rods completely in the core for considered, which introduces positive
initial 2300 full power days core life. The reactivity of 1.0 mk in the core, resulting in a
design analyses shows that five shutoff rods, power rise and subsequent rise in fuel
in any five coolant channels in the second temperatures. A negative reactivity feedback
hexagon ring from the centre, are sufficient to is introduced by the rise in fuel temperature
shutdown the reactor in most reactive core and the power stabilizes at about 2.7 times the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Compact High Temperature Reactor 147

Table-1: Worth of Primary & Secondary shutdown systems and burnup compensation
system in Hot and Cold operating condition at initial core life cycle.

Reactor State keff

Hot condition Cold condition
(1000ºC) (27oC)
All control rods OUT 1.09738 1.15256
Only 4 primary shutoff rods IN 0.89731 0.95990
Any 11 movable BeO reflectors OUT 0.90197 0.95835
All 6 burnup compensation rods IN 1.02445 1.07530

7 1250
Tf(max)=1225 0C
6 1200
Tf(stablize)=1174 0C
Relative Power

Temperature( C)
5 1150
0

4 1100
Tc(max)=1062 0C
3 1050 Tc(stablize)=1037 0C

2 1000

1 950

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time(sec) Time (seconds)

Fig. 5 (a) Variation of power when 1.0mk Fig. 5 (b) Temperatures variation when 1.0
added in 5 seconds mk added in 5 seconds

initial power. Figure 5a,b show the variation the reactor independently. Rise in power and
of relative power, fuel and coolant fuel temperature in case of inadvertent
temperatures in case of a fast transient. withdrawal of a control rod is also within
acceptable limits. The current core
Conclusions and Discussions
configuration offers a promising design for
The design of CHTR is indigenous and CHTR core.
various research activities are going on to
Bibliography
meet the design challenges. Analysis has
[1] D. K. Dwivedi, Anurag Gupta and P. D.
shown that 2.8 kg of U (with 93% 233U and
Krishnani, Physics Design of the Compact High
other isotopes) in 8 kg of (U+Th) fuel is Temperature Reactor with Burnup Compensation
required for a core life of about 15 effective Rods, Note No.:RPDD\HTR\028\2008.
full power years. The initial excess reactivity [2] D. K. Dwivedi, Anurag Gupta, P. D. Krishnani,
in the core can be controlled by 6 burnup Studies on the optimization of fuel temperature
coefficient and single control rod worth in CHTR,
compensation rods and by using a small Note No.: RPDD\HTR\027\2008.
quantity of burnable poison gadolinium. It [3] D. K. Dwivedi, Anurag Gupta and P. D.
was analysed that both primary and secondary Krishnani, Physics Design of the Compact High
shutdown systems are adequate to shutdown Temperature Reactor with Alternative Control
System, Note No.:RPDD\HTR\026\2008.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

148 Compact High Temperature Reactor

[4] Ashok Kumar and P.D. Krishnani, Monte Carlo Hexag onal Lattice Core A nalyses with
calculations for CHTR with latest data sheet, Note Auto-triangulaisation, Report: BARC-1515.
No RPDD/HTR/024, April 24, 2008. [8] P. D. Krishnani P.D., 1982. CLUB-A multigroup
[5] V. Balraman and M. S. Trasi, 1981. Report: integral transport theory code for analysis of
BARC/I-639. cluster lattices, Ann. nucl. Energy, 9, p.255.
[6] Anurag Gupta, Ashok Kumar and P.D. Krishnani, [9] P. D. Krishnani, Interface current method for
Use of Gadolinium as Burnable Poison in CHTR, PHWR cluster geometry with anisotropy in the
Note No: RPDD/HTR/17, April 4,2005. angular flux at interfaces, Ann. Nucl. Energy, 9
[7] V. Jagannathan and R. P. Jain, TRIHEX-3D, A (1982) 287.
Multig ro up Diffusion Theory Code for [10] R. K. Sinha and A. Kakodkar, Compact High
Temperature Reactor, 2003.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 149

Nuclear Desalination Activities in India

P. K. Tewari
Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Desalination of water is one of the key drivers under non-power applications of Atomic Energy
Program in India. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) has been engaged in development
and deployment of desalination and water purification technologies for a wide range of
applications. BARC is actively involved in nuclear desalination activities and set up a Nuclear
Desalination Demonstration Plant (NDDP) at Kalpakkam integrated to Madras Atomic Power
Station (MAPS). To demonstrate utilisation of nuclear waste heat, a desalination unit based on
low temperature evaporation (LTE) was coupled to a nuclear research reactor at Trombay for
producing distilled water from sea water. BARC is a member of IAEA Technical Working
Group on Nuclear Desalination (TWG-ND) providing guidance and sharing experiences
through information exchange and provided training to technocrats of interested Member
States on nuclear desalination in India.
Keywords: Nuclear Desalination, Multi-Stage Flash (MSF), Multi-Effect Distillation (MED),
Reverse Osmosis (RO), Low Temperature Evaporation (LTE)

Introduction required to deal with the crisis. It includes

seawater and brackish water desalination,
India accounts for about 2% of the
purification of chemically contaminated
world’s geographical area, 4% of the fresh
water, wastewater treatment, water reuse and
water and 16% of world population. Water is a
rainwater harvesting. As the world’s climate
precious resource necessary to sustain life.
becomes more volatile and its population
Government of India is giving top priority for
continues to grow, water is increasingly being
providing safe drinking water to all. There are
valued as an economic resource. Management
many factors contributing to water shortage in
of water resources will become a key political,
the country, ranging from economic growth,
economic and environmental challenge for
better quality of life, changes in climate and
developing, emerging as well as developed
rainfall patterns. In coastal areas, saline water
countries.
intrusion due to excessive ground water
pumping causes contamination to local Nuclear Desalination
aquifers, leaving them at times unusable for
Desalination is an energy intensive
irrigation and human consumption. The
process. Desalination system, especially
adverse impact of global warming and climate
thermal unit can be integrated with a power
change will make the condition worse.
plant for directly receiving steam, electricity
Integrated water resource management is

Advanced Reactors and Applications

150 Nuclear Desalination

Table 1 - Steam Characteristics of Typical Nuclear and Fossil Power Plants

Sl. Parameters Nuclear power Conventional

No. plant power plant
1 Type PHWR Coal based
2 Steam pressure (MPa) 4 13
3 Steam temperature (°C) 250 535
4 Steam enthalpy at HP turbine inlet ( kJ/kg) 2800 3470
5 Specific steam consumption (kg/kwh) 6 3.4
6 Steam pressure at LP turbine outlet (MPa) 0.01 0.01
7 Steam temperature at LP turbine outlet (°C) 45 45

and coolant (seawater) return stream as feed. consumption in a nuclear power plant is higher
Co-location of desalination and power plants as compared to conventional power plant
has the benefits of sharing infrastructural (Table 1). This leads to availability of higher
facilities, which would lead to the reduction of amount of steam that could be utilised for
overall costs. Such dual-purpose plants desalination. Nuclear power plant is normally
generating power & water have inherent situated in coastal areas, where the feed
design strategies for better thermodynamic seawater is available nearby and also there is
efficiency besides economic optimisation. scarcity of good quality water.

In nuclear desalination, nuclear reactor is Nuclear desalination is inevitable due to

used as the source of energy for the process. rapidly diminishing water resources. Green
This energy could be low-grade steam (for House Gases (GHGs) are causing global
MSF/ MED), waste heat (for LTE) or warming and climate change. The ocean
electricity (for RO). A power cum absorbs more than 80% of the heat added to
desalination plant utilising a fraction of the the climate system. Such warming causes
total energy output of power plant and water to expand, resulting in rise of sea level.
producing electricity and water is known as The decline in Mountain glaciers and snow
dual purpose plant or cogeneration plant. The cover also contribute to the rise in sea level.
power plant exclusively dedicated for water The global average sea level has risen about
desalination is known as single purpose plant. 1.8 mm a year during 1961-2003. The rise in
For a given power rating, nuclear power plant level was about 3.1 mm a year during
in general, has larger amount of waste heat 1993-2003. Sea-level rise would have a
than fossil fuel power plant. The enthalpy of number of physical impacts on coastal areas,
steam available at the inlet to the high pressure including saline-water intrusion. This affects
(HP) turbine of a nuclear power plant is lower fresh water resources adversely. Water and
due to the lower pressure and temperature of energy are closely linked. Conventional fossil
the saturated steam. Thus, the specific steam fuel powered plants have been utilised as the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 151

Table 2 - Nuclear Desalination Plants

Name & Type Reactors Gross Power Desalination Capacity

(MWe) Process (m3/d)
Ikata-1,2 (Japan) PWR 2x566 MSF 200
Ikata-3 (Japan) PWR 890 RO 2000
Ohi-1,2 (Japan) PWR 2x1175 MSF 3900
Ohi-3,4 (Japan) PWR 2x1180 RO 2600
Genkai-4 (Japan) PWR 1180 RO 1000
Genkai-3,4 (Japan) PWR 2x1180 MED 1000
Takahama-3,4 (Japan) PWR 2x870 MED 1000
Kashiwazaki (Japan) BWR 1100 MSF 1000
BN-350 (Kazakhstan) 150 MED 80000
MAPS ( India) PHWR 2x220 MSF & RO (Hybrid) 6300
CIRUS (India) PHWR 40 (MWth) LTE 30

primary source of energy for seawater produced by seawater desalination is

desalination. However, the availability of eco-friendly. It does not use any chemical for
fossil fuel is limited. The emission of GHGs is regeneration.
another serious issue. There is need to account
IAEA is playing a significant role as a
for environmental externalities in terms of
facilitating agency which is important for
reduction in desalinated water cost using
creating the awareness, coordinating the
nuclear energy. Nuclear energy, like most
research projects, identifying important topics
renewable energy sources, produces virtually
of common interest, organising technical
no green house gases. Nuclear desalination
meetings, providing forums for exchange of
produces desalinated water from seawater
information on nuclear desalination.
without contributing to GHGs. Growing
awareness of the environmental externalities Nuclear Desalination in India
of traditional fossil fuel combustion would
Desalination of water is one of the key
also favor nuclear desalination. Table-2 gives
drivers under non-power applications of
a list of the nuclear plants used for desalination
Atomic Energy Program in India. BARC has
of water.
been engaged in development and deployment
Integrating a desalination plant to nuclear (Fig. 1) of desalination and water purification
reactor, utilising its low grade/ waste heat for technologies for wide range of applications.
seawater desalination for producing
In thermal desalination, efforts are
de-mineralised (DM) water and drinking
continued to reduce the cost of desalinated
quality water creates a new source of water as
water through technological innovations such
well as it does not add GHGs. The DM water
as utilisation of low grade and waste heat etc.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

152 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 1 Deployment of Desalination & Water Purification Technologies by BARC

In order to demonstrate utilisation of nuclear BARC has designed, developed and

waste heat for seawater desalination, a 30 installed a Nuclear Desalination
Kilo-Litres/ Day (KLD) Low Temperature Demonstration Plant (NDDP) at Kalpakkam
Evaporation (LTE) desalination plant was based on hybrid technology for seawater
integrated with a nuclear research reactor for desalination (Fig. 3). It is a 6.3 Million Litres
utilising a part of its waste heat for producing per Day (MLD) hybrid MSF-RO desalination
high quality desalinated water (about 1 ppm plant comprising of 4.5 MLD Multi-stage
TDS) from seawater (35000 ppm TDS) to Flash (MSF) and 1.8 MLD Reverse Osmosis
meet the make-up water requirement of the (RO) plant coupled to Madras Atomic Power
reactor (Fig. 2). This first-of-its-kind plant has Station (MAPS). Different construction
been operating as per design intent since last phases of NDDP are shown in Fig. 4. The
five years. Product water from desalination requirements of seawater, steam and
unit is utilised for meeting the make up electricity for the desalination plant are met
requirement of the nuclear reactor. Based on from MAPS. Co-location of desalination and
this experience, a next generation LTE system nuclear power plants has the benefit of sharing
with innovative design features was also the resources and infrastructural facilities.
developed and commissioned. It produces Hybridisation of thermal and membrane
ultra-pure water (>10 mega ohm-cm) from desalination technologies has several
seawater. advantages. It has provision for redundancy

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 153

Fig. 2 Low Temperature Evaporation (LTE) desalination plant integrated with nuclear
research reactor at Trombay

and production of desalinated water of

different qualities for best utilisation such as
high quality distilled water for high-end
process use and WHO quality potable water
for drinking purposes. MSF uses low-pressure
steam from the Madras Atomic Power Station
(MAPS) as energy input. Combined seawater
intake and brine discharge systems are the
other advantages of hybridisation. The RO
section incorporates necessary pretreatment
Fig. 3 Nuclear Desalination Demonstration and an energy recovery system. It operates at
Plant (NDDP) Coupled to Madras relatively lower pressure and employs lesser
Atomic Power Station at Kalpakkam
pretreatment chemicals because of relatively

Fig. 4 Different Construction Phases of NDDP

Advanced Reactors and Applications

154 Nuclear Desalination

Table 3 - Salient Features of the RO Section

1 Capacity (m3/h) 75
2 Sea water TDS (ppm) 25000 - 40000
3 Operating pressure (MPa) 4.5 – 5.5
4 Recovery (%) 35
5 Solute Rejection (%) > 98.5
6 Product quality (ppm) 250 - 500

Table 4 - Technical Specifications of the MSF Section of NDDP

1 Capacity (m3/hr) 187.5

2 Design concept Recycle type
3 Tube configuration Long tube
4 No. of flash stages 39 (heat recovery : 36, heat rejection : 3)
5 Top brine temperature (°C) 121
6 Performance ratio 9
7 Feed quality (ppm) 25000–40000
8 Product quality (ppm) 2-10

clean feed seawater from MAPS outfall. RO

was commissioned in 2002 and has been
operating on regular basis since last six years.
Salient features of RO are given in Table 3.
MSF is based on long tube design and high
gain output ratio (GOR) requiring less energy
consumption as compared to conventional
MSF. MSF was commissioned in October
2008. Salient features of MSF are given in
Table 4. RO and MSF sections of NDDP are
Fig. 5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) Section of
shown in Figs. 5 and 6. NDDP
Several firsts have been achieved through
only country having experience in different
successful execution of NDDP. It is the largest
types of intermediate loops, which isolate a
nuclear desalination plant based on hybrid
desalination plant from nuclear plant.
concept in the world. It is also first time in the
world that a hybrid nuclear desalination NDDP has demonstrated the utilisation of
project has been executed coupled to an nuclear energy for seawater desalination. The
existing nuclear power station. India is the objective of producing distilled quality

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 155

to IGCAR and MAPS reservoirs. A group of

four (4) technocrats from Algeria were
provided training in nuclear desalination
under IAEA Technical Cooperation Program.
An engineer from Syria was also provided one
month training in nuclear desalination. A
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for
providing technical consultancy on large size
desalination plants has been signed between
Fig. 6 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Section of BARC and BHEL in this regard. NDDP has
NDDP
further enhanced the capability of BARC in
desalinated water from seawater by MSF was desalination field.
achieved. It consistently produces desalinated BARC (India) is participating in
water of 2 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS) Coordinated Research Projects (CRPs) of
which is better than the designed intent. IAEA and sharing valuable information with
Product water line from MSF has been Member States. We are also involved in
connected to conventional DM system of validation and further development of
MAPS. RO part of NDDP has been operating Desalination Economic Evaluation Program
successfully producing drinking quality water (DEEP) software code. As per bilateral
of 200-300 ppm TDS from seawater. Product agreement, India and France are working on
water from RO and MSF is blended to provide integrated nuclear desalination systems. It
better quality drinking water and transported includes Vapor Compression (VC),

Fig. 7 Proposed Nuclear Desalination Plant integrated with AHWR

Advanced Reactors and Applications

156 Nuclear Desalination

Multi-Effect Distillation (MED), hybrid value as it converts seawater into desalinated

systems and environmental aspects of nuclear water using nuclear energy. Indian region is
desalination. highly sensitive to ‘climate change’, which
will further aggravate the water problem in the
It is proposed to integrate a 500,000 LPD
coastal area. The nuclear desalination plants
capacity nuclear desalination plant with
would play an important role in adaptation and
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) for
mitigation of the adverse impact of climate
seawater desalination (Fig. 7). The reject from
change in the coastal areas. It would help in
the desalination plant contains a number of
decision making for selection of desalination
valuable materials and is a source of many
plants and dealing with the water problem in
chemicals. R&D project has been taken up to
water stressed coastal area.
investigate the recovery of valuables from
reject brine of desalination plant/ seawater. Bibliography
[1] P.K. Tewari, The Potential for Desalination in
Conclusion
India, Int. J. Nuclear Desalination, Vol. 2, No. 4
India has a long coastline. Nuclear (2007) 303.

desalination is unique technology for the [2] P.K. Tewari, Nuclear Energy for Water Security,
Atoms for Peace: An International Journal, Vol.1,
production of desalinated water without Nos.2/3 (2006) 199.
contributing to GHGs. It has immense societal

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 157

Thermodynamic Advantages of Nuclear Desalination

through Reverse Osmosis

K.P.Bhattacharyya, S.Prabhakar and P.K. Tewari

Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Sea water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) desalination can serve as a cost effective Nuclear
Desalination technique since it can utilize the waste heat available in the condenser cooling
circuit, electrical power from the power plant itself with provision for using grid power in case
of exigencies and shared infrastructure. Coupling nuclear reactor and desalination involves a
number of issues like safety of nuclear plant, prevention of radioactive contamination,
assurance of product supply during reactor shutdown, as well as economic and financing
issues. Coupling of RO plants to the reactor is straightforward and loss of RO unit, resulting in
the loss of load, does not impact reactor turbine. Product contamination probability is less since
it has inbuilt mechanical barrier. Preheat RO has many thermodynamic advantages and studies
have indicated improved performance characteristics thereby leading to savings in operational
cost. Significant advantages include operational flexibility even while power plant is
non-operational and non-requirement of safety systems for resource utilization unlike its
thermal counterpart. The plant can produce different qualities of water for multiple end uses
such as potable water, process water and boiler make-up with 2nd stage along with minor
polishing. This paper brings out a comprehensive assessment of RO process as a stand-alone
nuclear desalination.
Keywords: Reverse Osmosis (RO), Nuclear desalination, Preheat, Potable water, Boiler
make-up feed

Introduction condensers. The temperature of the water

from the condensers is too low (32 to 38°C) for
Nuclear desalination is defined as the
distillation processes. However, this
production of pure water from seawater in a
relatively hot water can be fed to the reverse
facility in which a nuclear reactor is used as
osmosis system, which will give improved
the source of energy for the desalination
thermodynamic performance both with
process. The net electrical efficiencies of the
respect to production and the operational
power conversion systems in most Pressurised
pressure. Coupling of RO system with the
Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and Light
reactor is flexible and straightforward.
Water Reactors (LWRs) are of the order of 30
Transients on the reactor side or on the process
to 33%. This means that nearly two thirds of
side do not have significant impact on the
the net thermal power produced in the
operation of both. The task of safety
reactors, is evacuated to the heat sink via the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

158 Nuclear Desalination

Reject
involving any phase change and hence
Feed at
P>P consumes less energy compared to other
Feed
processes.
Membrane Element Product

RO process requires only electricity to

power the pumps needed to create the pressure
Fig. 1 Principle of Reverse Osmosis
head. Use of condenser cooling seawater
which is at elevated temperature (6-8ºC more)
verification thus becomes simpler. Product improves the efficiency of the RO process. It is
water directly obtained from the first stage RO known that the viscosity of the feed water is
can be used as a source of potable water with inversely proportional to its temperature.
minor passivation. However, even process Thus, as temperature increases, water
water and the boiler make-up feed water can viscosity decreases and RO membrane
be obtained in cost-effective manner by becomes more permeable, with a consequent
treating the first stage permeate in the 2nd stage increase in production.
RO equipped with polishing unit. Reject of 2nd
Transport Theory of RO Process
stage, which is lower in salinity than raw
seawater, can be recycled back to the first The most accepted transport model of RO
stage for improvement of process economics. process is preferential sorption-capillary flow
Reverse osmosis process may therefore be model, proposed by Sourirajan (1970), where
considered as a stand-alone nuclear the surface layer of the membrane is assumed
desalination system. to be micro-porous and heterogeneous at all
levels of solute separation. According to the
Principle of Reverse Osmosis Desalination model, the separation is partly governed by
Reverse osmosis is a membrane surface phenomena and partly by fluid
separation process in which pure water is transport under pressure through capillary
forced out of a concentrated saline solution by pores.
flowing through a semi-permeable membrane
Three basic RO system equations are;
at high static trans-membrane pressure
differences. These pressure differences have NB = A [P - Dp]
to be higher than the osmotic pressure (ï) (i) For a given membrane, the solvent flux
between the solution and the pure water. (N B ) is proportional to net pressure
Principle of Reverse Osmosis is shown in differential (NDP) across the membrane.
Fig. 1.
NB = A [P - DP] (1)
The saline feed is pumped into a closed
Where A is the membrane characteristic
vessel where it is pressurised against the
parameter, to be determined by pure water
membrane to about 50 bar. A part of the
permeability experiment of the membrane. It
relatively pure water passes through the
has units of g/s-sq.cm-atm. P is the average
membrane while the remaining solution gets
pressure on the membrane surface and Dp is
concentrated and is discharged. The process is
ambient temperature operation without

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 159

the osmotic pressure difference between the reduced, one observes that a permanent flux
feed at membrane surface and the permeate. loss has occurred. For standard thin-film
membranes we find permanent flux loss above
(ii) Solute flux (NA) is due to pore diffusion
55-60°C.
and proportional to the concentration
gradient of solute) across the membrane Solute transport parameter i.e “B”-value
thickness (d); the proportionality of membrane also increases with temperature
constant is the diffusivity of solute in the in Arrhenius fashion. The activation energy is
membrane pore. slightly higher than that for water, of the order
æD ö of 8 kcal/mol. Therefore, as temperature is
NA = ç AM ÷[(C A2 - C A3 )] = B(C A2 - C A3 )
è Kd ø increased, solute transmission increases
(2) which negates the acceptability of product
water quality. As temperature increases,
Where B is called solute transport
osmotic pressure differential across the
parameter (DAM/ K.d) and K is the solute
membrane (DP ) increases. If the hydraulic
partition coefficient between the
pressure differential, DP, is maintained at a
membrane phase and feed phase.
constant value, the membrane’s net driving
(iii) Because of concentration polarization at force, NDP decreases.
the membrane interface, there will be
back-diffusion towards the bulk feed The net result of these two effects leads to
phase along with convective diffusion reduction in the water production cost.
through the membrane. However, maximum temperature is limited by
é X - X A3 ù the thermal stability of the membrane, which
NB = kC(1 - X A3 ) lnê A2 ú (3) is 45oC for thin film composite polyamide
ë X A1 - X A3 û
membranes and 35oC for cellulose acetate
Where k is the mass transfer coefficient based membranes. This reduction is site
on the high pres sure side of the dependent and is a complex function of
membrane, C is the molar concentration several parameters including feed TDS and
and X terms refer mole fractions at pretreatment circuit. According to theoretical
bulk(1),interface(2) and product (3). calculations for each value of feed TDS, the
maximum recovery ratio is obtained at a
Membrane permeability parameter i.e
specific temperature.
“A”-value of membrane increases reversibly
with temperature in Arrhenius fashion up to However, following drawbacks are
45- 50°C. The apparent activation energy for associated to this approach and to be
thin film RO membranes is 5.8 - 6.0 kcal/mol. considered appropriately in process design.
At 35°C, flux is about 1.3 times its value at
(a) Elevated temperature operation makes
25°C. With standard membrane elements
biological fouling control more
above 50ºC, flux increases but at a lower
challenging.
apparent activation energy. Flux eventually
stops increasing with temperature and appears (b) The solubility of calcium carbonate with
to reach a maximum. When temperature is temperature is an inverse function.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

160 Nuclear Desalination

(c) There is a significant increase in salt unrecovered energy of reject stream, losses in
passage with temperature. the high pressure pumps etc.
(d) There is the possibility of permanent flux The energy requirement of RO process,
decline due to compaction of the support since does not involve phase change, is
structure of the membrane. relatively lower compared to its thermal
Thermodynamics of RO Process counterparts, MSF and MED processes.
Energy economics of thermal processes
RO process is non-equilibrium
largely depends on how efficiently the latent
irreversible process where there is an increase
heat is recovered and reused. Comparative
in entropy. The positive value of entropy
assessment of energy requirement of various
change is the driving force that produces the
desalination processes is given in Table 1.
transfer through the membrane and
consequently dissipation of free energy. The Determination of Calculated Parameters
lost work for the process at a constant The basis of comparison of flux
temperature can be expressed by the loss of improvement or decline is normalised specific
Gibbs free energy. Elevated temperature RO flux at 25° C. The flux of the membrane (J) is
operation causes more positive change in defined in terms of the flow rate of permeate
entropy and increases solvent flux. The produced (QP) per membrane area (A). Since
minimum thermodynamic free energy the flux is a function of temperature because of
requirement in RO process is determined by viscosity effects, it is usually corrected to a
the ratio of activity of water in the feed (a0) to standard temperature using a temperature
that in product and the percent recovery of correction factor (TCF) expressed as
water.
æ é 1 1 ùö
Minimum work requirement per mole = J25C = J expç -TCFê + ÷ (4)
è ë298 T + 273 úû ø
- RT ln a0

Considering isothermal reversible nature Net operating pressure (Pnet) is another

and pure water as the permeate, theoretical important parameter defined as the applied
requirement becomes about 0.7 kWh/m3 of pressure (P) less the osmotic pressure
product water for a sea water feed of about difference (DP).
35000 ppm total dissolved solid (TDS) at Pnet = P - Dp (5)
25ºC. However, realistic operational data of
specific energy consumption varies from 3.5 Specific flux (Jsp) is defined as the flux
kWh to 8.0 kWh depending upon process produced per unit net operating pressure
integration and system design. Increase in J
J sp = (6)
specific energy consumptions is attributed to Pnet
many factors like increase in free energy
requirement due to concentration Normalized specific flux (NormJsp) is used to
polarization, excess pressure for producing evaluate flux improvement or decline by
practical flow rates through the membrane, normalizing the flux at any point using the
initial flux (Jsp,0)

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 161

Table 1 - Comparative assessment of energy requirement of various desalination processes

[6]

Process Electrical Steam Power Total Remarks

Power requirement Equivalent of Power
steam
kWh/m3 MJ/m3 kWh/m3 kWh/m3
MSF-BR(a) 3.68 256 15.32 19.00 8.6(GOR(f)), TBT(g)
110oC
MED(b) 2.3 189.93 9.73 12.03 12.2(GOR), TBT 72oC
EDR(c) 2.5 – 35 -- -- 2.5 - 35 Strong dependence on
feed salinity
BWRO(d) 2.1 -- -- -- 5000 ppm : 30oC
53.5% Recovery
SWRO(e) 5.01+1.05 -- -- 5.01 41,000ppm, 250C
(with Energy +1.05 35% Recovery
Recovery)

SWRO 6.4 +1.05 -- -- 6.4 +

1.05

(a)
MSF-BR: Multistage flash with brine recirculation;
(b)
MED: Multi-effect distillation;
(c)
EDR: Electro-dialysis reversal;
(d)
BWRO: Brackish water reverse osmosis;
(e)
SWRO: Sea water reverse osmosis,
(f)
GOR: Gain output ratio;
(g)
TBT : Top brine temperature

J sp Process Economics
NormJ sp = (7)
J sp,0
Overall system recovery of large scale
Performance Study SWRO plant is limited by two factors namely
reject osmotic pressure and high pressure
Detailed calculations based on
pump. With the availability of high flux thin
experimental studies have indicated that at
film composite polyamide membrane element
constant pressure, increase in temperature
with improved solute rejection characteristics
leads to reduction in power consumption.
over 99.4% and operating at condenser
Calculations have shown based on
cooling water, the system design is becoming
experimental data that for a change in
thermodynamically controlled than mass
temperature of about 15oC, the operating
transfer controlled. The permeate directly
pressure reduces by about 10%. Figure 2
obtained from single stage RO is as-such fit
shows the variation of operating pressure with
for human consumption.
temperature.
Keeping declining parameters in mind
and to ensure sustained production of better

Advanced Reactors and Applications

162 Nuclear Desalination

(a) Firstly, it is to be ensured that the

65
coupling adequately takes into account
Pressure ( Kg/sq.cm)

60

55 the particular conditions of the site and

50
that it is based on the specific optimal
45
25 30 34 40 42
solution for these conditions.
Tem perature (deg.C)

(b) Secondly, coupling should not impact the

safety of the reactor in any normal,
Fig. 2 Variation of Operating Pressure with
Temperature transient or accidental conditions.
When the reactor is coupled to RO plants
nd
quality water, 2 stage RO may be kept as an at the same site, the coupling is very weak and
installed stand-by system without loading of the loss of RO unit, resulting in the loss of
membrane element. Incorporation of 2nd stage load, does not impact the reactor turbine.
requires much less capital investment (less Transients on either side do not affect each
than 10% of the overall cost) and usually other. Even if the coupling gives low
operates at a pressure of about 10 bar with over availability factor, a RO plant coupled to
85% recovery. Reject from the 2nd stage RO nuclear power plant can give high availability
operation is lower in salinity than raw feed and factor. Since, the condenser cooling water is in
hence upon recycling it, there will be salinity the secondary circuit of the reactor, isolated by
reduction of first stage feed which will the metallic barrier, it does not need isolation
decrease operating pressure. Hence, water heat exchanger or pressure reversal backup
production cost marginally goes-up. unlike its thermal counter part to combat
However, the installed 2nd stage RO, if radioactivity contamination.
operated, will be able to produce process The use of electricity from the grid for RO
water of quality less than 10 ppm TDS which plants can allow them to operate as stand alone
can be used as boiler make-up feed with minor plants, thereby improving their operational
polishing like MSF distillate. This variant of flexibility in case of outage of the heat source
producing boiler make-up appears to be better from the nuclear plant.
alternative than its thermal counter part since
it involves less degree of coupling with reactor Performance data of 1800 m3/d SWRO
and also economically competitive. Typically, nuclear desalination demonstration plant,
Specific water production cost of MSF operational since 2002, always have indicated
distillate is about Rs 70-80 per cubic meter. below detectable levels of radio-contaminants
The same kind of production cost is expected in the product water.
in two stage RO process also. Conclusion
Safety Aspects Desalination is an energy intensive
In nuclear desalination systems, two process. Nuclear desalination, which is one of
considerations are paramount when coupling the peaceful application of nuclear energy for
the reactor to the desalination process: the mankind, in the form of stand-alone MSF
and hybrid MSF-RO has already been
accepted as a economically feasible and safe

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 163

means of producing drinking water by world competitive to produce different qualities of

community. Excellent prospects of nuclear water like its thermal counter part MSF and
desalination are foreseen in next 10-20 years. MED.

In the present context, RO plant is Bibliography

considered as a compliment to MSF / MED [1] S. Sourirajan, Reverse Osmosis Membrane
plant in nuclear desalination scheme. But with Research, Theory-Technology-Engineering,
NRCC, Canada (1977).
improvement in process economics through
[2] W.S. Winston Ho & Kamlesh Sirkar, Membrane
utilization of condenser cooling water of
Handbook (Ed), 1992.
nuclear power station and technological [3] M. Mulder, Basic Principles of Membrane
innovations like incorporation of UF Technology, Kluwer Academic, Dordrech
pretreatment in place of conventional (1996).
pretreatment, use of high efficiency pressure [4] K.S.Spiegler, A.D.K. Laird, Principles of
Desalination, 2nd Edition, Part-B
exchangers as energy recovery device, 2nd
[5] Proceedings of the International Conference on
stage RO equipped with polishing unit etc, the
Non-electric applications of nuclear energy:
RO process is emerging as a stand-alone safe Nuclear desalination, Hydrogen production and
economic nuclear desalination process with other Industrial applications, Oarai, Japan 16-19
ability to produce different qualities of water April 2007.
[6] Mahmoud Abdel-Jawad, Energy for coupling
for multiple end uses, particularly for small
with desalination plants in the GCC countries,
and medium size. consultancy report prepared for ESCWA
(September 2001).
The studies indicate that preheat RO with
[7] S.Prabhakar, Indian Nuclear Society News,
UF pretreatment along with installed standby Vol-6, No.3, July-Sept 2009, p.9-15.
2nd stage is thermodynamically better and

Advanced Reactors and Applications

164 Nuclear Desalination

Nuclear Desalination Utilising Waste Heat

A. Raha, I.S. Rao, V.K. Srivastava and P.K. Tewari

Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Thermal desalination is an energy intensive process. Energy cost contributes about 35-45% of
the desalted water cost. Nuclear reactors produce significant amounts of waste heat which can
be utilized for production of high quality water from seawater by coupling Low Temperature
Evaporation (LTE) or low temperature Multi Effect Distillation (MED) desalination plants.
This application has already been demonstrated in CIRUS nuclear reactor and the plant is being
operated successfully since 2004.The experience gained thus can also be utilized for putting
similar desalination units in AHWR and HTGR type of nuclear reactors.
Keywords: LTE Desalination, waste heat utilization, Nuclear Research Reactor, AHWR,
HTGR

Introduction system of a nuclear research reactor to utilise

reactor waste heat for desalination. As a
Thermal desalination plants consume
practical demonstration of waste heat
significant amounts of energy. Energy cost
utilisation from nuclear reactor circuit, a 30
contributes about 35-45% of the desalted
m3/day eco-friendly LTE desalination system
water cost. Nuclear reactors produce
was designed, developed and coupled to the
significant amounts of waste heat, which can
40 MWth research reactor CIRUS (Fig. 1).
be utilized for production of high quality water
This is a continuous operating plant. It has
from seawater. BARC has been engaged in
been producing very low conductivity water
R&D of thermal desalination technologies.
(~3 mS/cm) for the reactor makeup directly
The experience in the design of coupling
from seawater without any pre-treatment. The
system, fabrication, O&M of the sea water
pure water produced from the desalination
desalination plant utilizing waste heat from
plant is meeting the make-up requirement of
nuclear reactors by LTE/MED technologies
demineralised water for the reactor. Product
are discussed in this paper.
water analysis shows that activity level due to
Nuclear Desalination Utilizing Waste Heat of radiation is below the detectable limit. The
Nuclear Research Reactor (CIRUS) experience gained from this plant is very
Nuclear research reactors produce useful in designing and setting up larger-scale
significant quantities of waste heat. A scheme desalination plants using waste heat from
has been developed to integrate a research reactors and power plants [1].
low-temperature evaporation seawater
desalination unit with the primary coolant

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 165

flow from an overhead water storage tank. The

core outlet is led to an underground water
storage tank (dump tank) from where it is
pumped back to the storage tank.

LTE Desalination Plant

The LTE desalination plant is a

self-contained unit with heater, separator and
condenser housed in a casing. It utilizes waste
heat in the form of hot water (50ºC) or
low-pressure steam (0.13 bar) to produce pure
water from seawater. Apart from the electric
power requirement for the pump, no other
energy or fuel is required. The probability of
scale formation is practically eliminated by
operating at low temperature and permissible
brine concentration. Vacuum is mainlined,
and water jet ejectors having no moving parts
drain excess brine. It produces very good
quality pure water (<5 mS/cm conductivity)
Fig. 1 30 Te/d LTE destination plant coupled
directly from seawater. It does not need any
to a nuclear research reactor CIRUS
chemical pretreatment of seawater except
chlorination. Moving parts are kept to a
Salient Features of the Nuclear Research
minimum, thus reducing maintenance and
Reactor CIRUS
increasing reliability. Seawater at ambient
CIRUS is a research reactor with a temperature enters the condenser tubes. A part
capacity of 40 MWth. It uses metallic natural of this seawater from the outlet is taken as feed
uranium as fuel, heavy water as moderator, to the heater section which enters at the bottom
demineralised light water as coolant and of the tubes. About one-third of the feed
seawater as the secondary coolant [2]. The seawater evaporates. The remaining
heat generated in the fuel assemblies is two-thirds are drained out to avoid build-up of
removed by recirculation of demineralised concentration. The hot water in the shell side,
water in a closed loop called a primary cooling which enters at 65ºC and leaves at 57ºC
water (PCW) system using recirculation imparts heat to the seawater in the tube side
pumps. The heat from the primary coolant is which boils at 41°C under 700 mm Hg
transferred to the secondary coolant vacuum. The vapor rises through the separator
(seawater) in a set of heat exchangers and section and enters the condenser section to
ultimately rejected to the sea. When PCW form product water, which is pumped out.
pumps are not in operation for any reason, a Water jet ejectors are used to create and
shutdown cooling flow through the core is maintain vacuum in the unit and to drain
established automatically by one pass gravity concentrated seawater from the unit. The

Advanced Reactors and Applications

166 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the LTE desalination plant coupled to a nuclear research reactor

product water is continuously monitored for intermediate heat exchanger so that an

its quality by an on-line salinometer. If the ingression of activity to the inactive
quality of the product water falls below the intermediate circuit is prevented in the event
desired limit, the salinometer actuates a of leakage in the heat exchanger tubes. It
three-way solenoid valve, which diverts the ensures an extremely low probability of
product water back to the evaporator. radioactive contamination and high protection
of product water. Flow controls for the feed
Coupling Aspects
seawater and product water have been
The schematic diagram of the coupling provided to take care of the sudden changes in
arrangement of the LTE desalination plant the power rating of the nuclear reactor. The
with CIRUS is shown in Fig. 2. An sudden change leads to fluctuation in
intermediate heat exchanger is incorporated temperature of heating medium resulting in
between the PCW and the desalination plant to change in production rate of fresh water.
ensure that no radioactive material reaches the
Performance Analysis
desalted water. The intermediate circuit
consists of a booster pump, the intermediate The hot water temperature to the
heat exchanger, the desalination plant and the desalination plant varies from 53-65ºC as the
associated piping and isolation valves. The power rating of the reactor operation varies
intermediate circuit water is maintained at a from 20-40 MWth. Experiments were carried
pressure higher than the PCW pressure in the out at operating temperature of 41ºC and

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 167

Table 1 - LTE desalination plant performance at different hot water temperatures

Sl. No Hot Water Product Water flow rate, TDS in Product Water,
Temperature, ºC Te/d ppm
1. 50 10.0 2
2. 55 15.1 2
3. 60 21.6 2
4. 62 24.5 2
5. 65 30.2 2

vacuum of 700 mm Hg for hot water regenerative heat exchangers and 23 MWth
temperature varying from 50-65ºC. Table 1 heat is recovered by purification return flow to
gives the performance of the desalination MHT. Further cooling up to 42°C is done by
plant at various hot water temperatures for transferring heat to process water in
reactor rating varying from 20-40 MWth. The non-regenerative cooler in the present design.
conductivity of the product water was
The schematic diagram of MHT
obtained in the range of 5-6 mS (2-3 ppm).
purification and cooling circuit is shown in
Studies for Nuclear Desalination utilising Fig. 3. This cooling results in loss of 8 MWth
Waste Heat of AHWR heat to process water. Considering this, it is
felt that a part of this waste heat (about 5
Salient Features of AHWR
MWth heat from 100°C to 64°C) can be
The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor utilized for desalination purpose for
(AHWR) is a 300 MWe [3], vertical, pressure producing about 250 m3/day desalted water to
tube type, boiling light water cooled, and meet the entire demineralized water make up
heavy water moderated reactor. This is the requirement of the reactor.
latest Indian design for a next generation
heavy water moderated nuclear power Coupling Arrangement of Desalination
reactors. The AHWR is a vertical pressure Unit with MHT Circuit
tube type reactor cooled by boiling light water An additional heat exchanger (isolation
under natural circulation. HX) is provided in the design before the
non-regenerative cooler to transfer this heat to
Main Heat Transport (MHT) Purification
Circuit Waste Heat process water so as to avoid ingress of
radioactive contamination. This circuit is
In Main Heat Transport (MHT) called as intermediate isolation loop. This
purification system of AHWR, process water loop uses demineralized water as the heat
at flow rate of 33.3 kg/s at a temperature of transfer medium. The purification circuit
259ºC and pressure of 70 bar is cooled to 42 ºC water from regenerative coolers of MHT
and at 10 bar before passing it through the circuit at 100ºC @33.3 kg/s enters to the shell
purification filters and ion exchange columns. side of isolation HX and cools down to 64ºC.
Purification flow is cooled up to 100°C in Demineralised water at 50ºC @40 kg/s is

Advanced Reactors and Applications

168 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of MHT purification and cooling circuit with desalination plant

circulated through the tube side of the An additional non-regenerative heat

isolation heat exchanger and gained heat from exchanger is provided to further cool down the
shell side fluid thereby increasing its purification circuit water from 64ºC to 42ºC.
temperature to 80ºC. Demineralised water is In case of non-availability of desalination
cooled from 80°C to 50°C in the desalination plant, the temperature of MHT purification
plant before passing it to the isolation heat circuit water is raised to 48.4ºC instead of
exchanger. Coupling arrangement of waste 42ºC at the outlet of non-regenerative heat
heat utilization from MHT purification and exchanger, which is acceptable from
cooling circuit of AHWR to desalination plant purification ion exchange column. Process
is shown in Fig. 4. About 5 MWth is water outlet temperature of non-regenerative
transferred heat to desalination plant. The heat exchanger is increased to 52.6ºC from
isolation HX is located at the discharge of 42.5ºC. As the MHT circuit water is
recirculation pump to ensure that the pressure radioactive, isolation heat exchanger (IHX) is
of the demineralized water in the intermediate provided as barrier to radioactivity ingress
circuit is higher than the pressure of the towards desalination plant. Again, pressure
purification circuit water. reversal concept has been adopted by keeping
the pressure of the hot process water circuit of

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 169

Fig. 4 Coupling arrangement of waste heat utilisation from MHT purification and cooling
circuit of AHWR to desalination plant

the desalination plant more than the MHT circulated in the shell side of the heater section
water circuit ensuring additional protection to of the first effect and then to the single effect
radioactivity ingress to desalination plant [4]. desalination unit. Vapor generated in the tube
side rises through the demister and enters the
LTE Desalination Unit
shell side of the heater section of second effect
Process Description and act as heating medium in the second
The desalination unit consists of one effect. Vapors generated in the second effect
2-effect and one single effect low temperature enter into the condenser placed horizontally at
LTE desalination evaporators operating at low the top. The single effect desalination
temperatures. In the 2-effect desalination unit, evaporator consists of heater, separator and
the First effect consists of a heater and a condenser sections. Construction of this plant
vapour separator and the second effect consist is similar to that of second effect of the 2-effect
of heater, a vapour separator and a condenser. desalination unit.
Fig. 5 illustrates the details of these Condensers are 1:4 shell and tube heat
arrangements. exchangers with cutout provided on the top of
Raw coolant seawater after heat exchange the shell for the vapor to condense on the tubes
in the condenser is rejected to sea. Part of this in this section to produce fresh water.
reject water is taken as feed to desalination Concentrated water is drawn out from the
unit and enters through the bottom of the evaporators. The product water is
evaporator tubes placed vertically. Hot water continuously pumped out.
from the MHT purification circuit is

Advanced Reactors and Applications

170 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 5 250 m3/day LTE desalination plant utilizing MHT waste heat of AHWR

The product water is very pure, almost ejector and vacuum in each effect is
distilled quality and with minor polishing in maintained.
mixed bed ion exchange, produces
Studies for nuclear desalination utilizing waste
demineralized water. Technical specifications
heat of High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor
of the desalination unit are shown in Table 2.
(HTGR)
The materials of different parts of the Development of the HTGR is pursued as
desalination unit are selected to be compatible an environmentally agreeable efficient fourth
to the seawater environment. Material of generation reactor as source for electricity
construction of different parts of the generation and other industrial applications.
desalination unit is shown in Table-3. One of its objectives is to provide energy for
Evacuation System facilitating combined production of
desalinated water, electricity and hydrogen.
The evaporator chambers operate at very
The high temperature (about 900°C) is useful
low temperatures and pressures. Here the
for hydrogen production. The reject heat could
vapour specific volume is very high. All the
be utilised for electricity generation. Studies
chambers are maintained at vacuum
show that the waste heat could be utilised for
corresponding to the boiling temperature of
the desalination of seawater for producing
seawater in that particular effect. Continuous
potable water.
withdrawal of non-condensable gases is
achieved by the use of single stage seawater jet

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Nuclear Desalination 171

Table 2 - Technical Specifications of 250 m3/day LTE desalination unit

Sl. Parameters 170 m3/day 80 m3/day

No.
1st effect 2nd effect Single effect
1. Product water output (m3/h) 3.35 3.75 3.35
2. Seawater salinity (ppm) 35000 35000 35000
3. Product water salinity (ppm) <5 <5 <5
4. Total cooling seawater Nil 285 285
requirement (m3/h)
5. Feed seawater requirement 14.6 11.1 10.65
(m3/h)
6. Hot water temperature (°C) 80 - 65
7. Seawater boiling temperature 55 41 41
(°C)
8. Evaporator operating pressure 0.16 0.08 0.08
(bar abs)
9. Waste heat requirement (MWth ) 2.5 - 2.5

Table 3 - Material of construction of 250 m3/day LTE desalination unit

Sl. No Parts Material

1. Tubes and Tube sheet Cu-Ni (90:10)
2. Shell of evaporator section Carbon steel A 515-70
3. Shell of condensers SS 304L
4. Water jet ejectors SS 316L
5. Demister pads SS 316L

Power Cycles of HTGR exchanger; the Pre-Cooler and the

Inter-Cooler. This waste heat can be used as a
Helium based Brayton cycle is normally
source of thermal energy for the desalination
used for HTGR (Fig. 6). Key factors affecting
plant
the efficiency of Brayton cycle includes the
turbine inlet temperature, compressor and Hybrid (MED-RO) Nuclear Desalination
turbine adiabatic efficiencies, recuperator Plant Coupled with HTGR
effectiveness and cycle fractional pressure
Hybrid Desalination plant consisting of
loss. The compression ratio is also important.
Multi Effect Distillation & Reverse Osmosis
In HTGR thermodynamic cycle all of its Desalination plant (MED-RO) was proposed
waste heat is rejected via two large helium to be coupled with High Temperature Gas
gases to buffered demineralised water heat Cooled Reactor (HTGR) for producing

Advanced Reactors and Applications

172 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 6 Brayton cycle for HTGR and temperature-entropy(T-S) plot for it

desalinated water from sea water utilising This DM water is cooled in the isolation
waste heat from HTGR. Schematic of heat exchanger by giving away its heat to
coupling system of HTGR nuclear reactor another DM water loop and transfer the
with hybrid MED-RO plant can be seen in thermal energy to the desalination plant. So
Fig. 7. this isolation heat exchanger provides the
metallic barrier to prevent any radioactivity
Coupling of MED plant with HTGR
carryover in desalination loop.
MED desalination plant is coupled to
Now, to have the pressure reversal
HTGR nuclear power reactor along with an
(High-Low-High), pressure in the
intermediate heat exchanger as an additional
desalination plant loop should be greater than
isolation loop. It uses the flash loop to transfer
the intermediate loop (IL) pressure. So, higher
heat to desalination plant.
pressure in maintained in this loop compared
Buffered demineralised (DM) water is to IL pressure by the DM water-circulating
used as cooling media in the pre-cooler and pump.
intercooler & this water is heated in this loop
One PRV is installed in the loop prior to
depending on the heat rejected in the
the flash tank to reduce the pressure. After
pre-cooler and intercooler. Also it is essential
flashing in the flashing chamber, hot water is
to ensure that no localized boiling is allowed
cooled by giving away the latent heat for
to take place within these heat exchangers. So
vapour generation. Then this water is pumped
pressure in this loop should always be greater
through DM water to seawater heat exchanger
than the saturation pressure of the water at the
i.e. heat sink for rejecting rest amount of heat.
temperature where it was heated up to.
There is also a provision of bypass line in the
desalination loop to divert all the hot water

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 173

Fig. 7 Coupling arrangement of Hybrid Desalination Plant with HTGR utilising waste heat

from the isolation heat exchanger directly to seawater discharge and RO plant’s water
heat sink in case of non availability of the intake. This piping connection would
MED desalination plant. incorporate a “dump” valve to enable HTGRs
to continue normal operation in the event that
Coupling of RO Plant with HTGR
the RO plant was non-operational.
The electric power generated by the
Thermal Integration of Nuclear High
HTGR can be used to power a Reverse Osmosis
Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR)
(RO) desalination plant. This is direct electrical
for Cogeneration
coupling of the power plant to RO desalination
plant without going through a transformation/ Thermal integration of Nuclear High
transmission / distribution process. So it will Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR)
have some cost benefit. and desalination plant by ‘Pinch Technology’
to estimate in detail the resource stream (in
RO with Feed Preheating
terms of quality and quantity) has been carried
In the heat sink, heat is rejected to the sea out. Summary of the result are presented on
water. This rejected sea water is at high Table 4. It was concluded that total waste heat
temperature (nearly 40ºC). It is used as feed available in the HTGRs could be utilised for
stock for a reverse osmosis desalination plant. desalination purpose [5].
The only physical coupling between the two
plants is a pipe connection between HTGR

Advanced Reactors and Applications

174 Nuclear Desalination

Table 4 - Summary of the result of thermal integration of HTGR & Hybrid Desalination
Plant

Sl. Type of Waste Heat Waste Heat Capacity of Capacity of Total

No Reactor Available Utilized the MED plant the RO plant Capacity
(MWth) (MWth) (T/hr) (T/h) (T/h)
1 GT-MHR 310 310 1467 715 2182
2 PBMR 210 209.4 863.7 571.2 1435

Conclusions demonstrates the application of nuclear waste

heat for nuclear desalination on a larger scale.
From the three cases presented in the
paper, it can be further emphasized that there References
exits enormous potential for utilization of [1] P. K. Tewari, I. S. Rao, LTE desalination utilizing
waste heat from nuclear reactor for waste heat from a nuclear research reactor,
desalination purpose. Successful operation of Desalination, 150 (2002) 1.
LTE-CIRUS desalination plant has already [2] K. Sashidharan, U.C. Jain, V.K. Raina, Utilization
of a nuclear research reactor waste heat for
demonstrated the safety and economics of desahnation of seawater, Proceedings of the
nuclear desalination technology as a viable Trombay Symposium on Desalination & Water
alternative to producing demineralised water Reuse-99, BARC, Mumbai, 1999, pp. 138-144.
from seawater. Proposed design of [3] R.K. Sinha, A. Kakodkar, Indian programme
related to innovative nuclear reactor technology,
Low-Temperature Evaporation (LTE)
Proceedings of Indian Nuclear Society Annual
desalination plant coupled to Advance Heavy conference - INSAC 2002, Mumbai, India,
Water Reactor utilising waste heat from its October 9-11, 2002.
MHT purification circuit also illustrates the [4] A.K. Adak, I.S. Rao, V.K. Srivastava, P.K.
potential of utilisation of waste heat from Tewari, Nuclear desalination by waste heat
utilisation in an advanced heavy water reactor,
advanced nuclear reactor to produce high International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, 2
purity water required for reactor makeup. (2007) 3.
Lastly the studies for coupling of hybrid [5] A Raha, I S Rao, V K Srivastava, P.K.Tewari,
desalination plant with HTGRs, utilising Nuclear desalination utilizing waste heat from
High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactors,
waste heat from its power cycle also
unpublished.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 175

Analysis of Lost Shaft Work Calculation by DEEP for

Nuclear Desalination Plant Considering Different
Thermodynamic Cycles

A.K. Adak, V.K. Srivastava and P.K. Tewari

Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Desalination Economic Evaluation Program (DEEP) is computer modeling software
developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) related to economic evaluation
of various desalination systems like MSF, MED, RO etc. combined with power generation.
Lost shaft-work or loss of power of a power plant due to steam extraction for desalination plant
is an important parameter for techno-economic calculations. In a cogeneration plant amount of
steam extracted for desalination is charged an equivalent amount of power loss of the power
plant. This paper reviews and analyses lost shaft work or power calculation models of DEEP for
nuclear desalination plant considering different thermodynamic cycles with a case study of
NDDP MSF plant in India.
Keywords: DEEP, Power loss, NDDP, MSF

Co-generation Plant and DEEP model calculation of the lost shaft-work in

DEEP as illustrated in this paper. Lost
Desalination Economic Evaluation
shaft-work or loss of power due to steam
Program (DEEP) is a computer modeling
extraction for desalination plant is an
software developed by the International
important parameter for techno-economic
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) related to
evaluations. In a co-generation plant amount
economic evaluation of various nuclear
of steam extracted for desalination plant is
desalination systems like Multi-Stage Flash
charged based on an equivalent amount of
(MSF), Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) and
power loss of the power plant. Figure 1 shows
Reverse Osmosis (RO) for combined water
the coupling of MSF desalination plant with a
and power generation [1]. Validation,
nuclear power plant.
verification, improvising and benchmarking
of DEEP software is being done considering Analysis of Lost Power Model
reference data currently available from
The lost shaft-work calculation has been
nuclear/fossil fuelled desalination plants.
made by incorporating the realistic steam
Software is updated with current available
cycle i.e. Rankine cycle instead of Carnot
data, models, sub-programmes, and spread
cycle (ideal cycle) in the later versions of
sheets and input from users. One such
DEEP 3.2. A comparison of lost shaft-work
suggestion has been made in improving the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

176 Nuclear Desalination

Fig. 1 Coupling of MSF Desalination Plant with a Nuclear Power Plant

Q1
T1 Q1 T1
T1 T4
T4 Q1
T T
T4 T

T3 T2 T3
Q2 T3 T2 T2
Q2 Q2

s s s

Fig. 2 (a) Rankine Cycle (b) Carnot Cycle-1 (c) Carnot Cycle-2

was for a case of MSF-RO plant at NDDP diagram. The configuration (a) is the Rankine
Kalpakkam, where steam for MSF plant is cycle and configurations (b) & (c) are the
extracted from High Pressure (HP) turbine Carnot cycles at different modes. The earlier
exhaust. The steam conditions [2] are: steam version DEEP on 3.1 has used the simplest
extracted at pressure (P1):4.85 kg/cm2, configuration (c) where heat input (Q1) to the
temperature (T1):150ºC is expanded to cycle is latent heat at T1 or T4. For both the
pressure (P2):0.08 kg/cm2, temperature (T2): Carnot configurations (b) & (c) amount of heat
45º C. The flow rate of extracted steam is 22.0 rejection (Q2) is also different.
T/hr. Figure 2 shows Rankine and Carnot
It is well known that Carnot cycle is the
cycles of various configurations in T-s
ideal thermodynamic steam cycle and having

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 177

Table 1 - Comparative Results of Power Loss

Parameter Rankine Cycle Carnot Cycle-1 Carnot Cycle-2

(used by DEEP 3.1)
Heat added (Q1) 610.9 Kcal/kg 626.6 Kcal/kg 505.0 Kcal/kg
Heat rejected (Q2) 470.9 Kcal/kg 470.9 Kcal/kg 379.8 Kcal/kg
Net work done (Q1-Q2) 140.0 Kcal/kg 155.7 Kcal/kg 125.2 Kcal/kg
Cycle efficiency 0.229 0.248 0.248
(Q1-Q2)/Q1
Power Production 3.04 MWe 3.38 MWe 2.72 MWe
Loss of power due to 3.04 MWe 3.38 MWe 2.72 MWe
desalination

the maximum efficiency. As the efficiency of tables and figures. Following are the case
Carnot cycle is more than Rankine and hence studies and comparative analysis:
more power should be the output for the cycle.
Comparative Analysis: DEEP 3.1 (Carnot
However, it was seen that adopting Carnot
Cycle) & DEEP 3.1 (Rankine Cycle)
cycle-2 as used by earlier version DEEP 3.1,
power loss of the power plant due to steam The DEEP 3.1 (Carnot Cycle) program
extraction for desalination plant is less than was modified by introducing Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle which infers an ambiguous and was run for the case of Nuclear Steam
result [Table 1]. Further analysis was made Cycle (NSC) with a coupled MSF plant and
keeping same amount of heat rejection by both comparative results of lost power (Qle) was
Rankine and Carnot cycle-1, and it was seen obtained considering Top Brine Temperature
that heat input was more in Carnot cycle-1 (TBT) at 110ºC. Table 2 gives the results of
compared to Rankine cycle. Therefore, if we lost power at different steam extraction
adopt Carnot cycle-1 method of calculation temperature (Tsteam). Also the results are
for coupling a desalination plant with the plotted as shown in Fig. 3.
power plant, more power is lost.
Figure 3 shows the loss of power due to
With all these considerations IAEA has extraction of steam at various temperatures for
decided to introduce the more realistic a case of Nuclear Steam Cycle (NSC) and
Rankine cycle in DEEP. Accordingly, it is MSF desalination plant. It has been found that
proposed to keep both Rankine and Carnot lost power difference increases between
cycle-2 method of calculations are kept as Rankine cycle and Carnot cycle if temperature
option in the latest version of DEEP 3.2. of steam extraction increases. However lost
Table 1 gives a comparative power loss power is always more for Rankine cycle.
calculation results by using various cycles. Table 3 has shown the power loss calculation
for NSC coupled with MED desalination plant
To substantiate, several case studies are
presented and are shown in the subsequent

Advanced Reactors and Applications

178 Nuclear Desalination

Table 2 - NSC+MSF Case: Lost power at TBT 110 C

Case 1: Power plant capacity: 600 MWe

NSC+MSF Desalination Plant Capacity: 100000 cu.m/d
For Tsteam(Deg C) 115 120 140 160 180
Lost Power, Qle by 42.6 44.9 53.6 61.3 68
TBT=110ºC Carnot(MWe)
Efficiency by Carnot 0.180 0.191 0.230 0.266 0.298
Lost Power, Qle by 47.1 50.2 62.2 73.6 84.2
Rankine(MWe)
Efficiency by Rankine 0.177 0.187 0.226 0.262 0.293

80
90
70
Los t P ow e r (M W e )
L o st Po w er (M W e)

80
60
70
50 B y C a rn o t
B y Ca r n o t
60 40 BRy ank ine
RB y a n kin e
50 30

40 20

30 10
115 120 140 160 180 70 80 100 120 140

Ex t r a c t io n St e a m T e m p . ( De g C ) Ex tra c tion S te a m Te m p. (DEg C)

Fig. 3 NSC+MSF Case: Lost power at TBT Fig. 4 NSC+MED Case: Lost power at TBT
110 C 65 C

at TBT of 65ºC and with various steam 55

L o st Po w er (M W e)

50
extraction temperatures. 45

40 By Carnot

Figure 4 shows the loss of power due to 35 B y R a n kin e

30

extraction of steam at various temperatures for 25

a case of Nuclear Steam Cycle and MED 20

140 160 180 200
Ex t r a c t io n S t e a m T e m p . ( D e g C )
desalination plant. It has been found that lost
power difference increases between Rankine Fig. 5 NSC+MED+TVC Case: Lost power at
cycle and Carnot cycle if temperature of steam TBT 65 C
extraction increases. However lost power is
always more for Rankine cycle. Table 4 shows Figure 5 shows the loss of power due to
the power loss calculation for NSC coupled extraction of steam at various temperatures for
with MED with Thermal Vapour a case of Nuclear Steam Cycle and MED with
Compression (TVC) desalination plant at Thermo Vapour Compression (TVC)
TBT of 65ºC and with various steam desalination plant. It has been found that lost
extraction temperatures. In TVC case steam is power difference increases between Rankine
extracted at very high pressure and cycle and Carnot cycle if temperature of steam
temperatures.

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Nuclear Desalination 179

Table 3 - NSC+MED Case: Lost power at TBT 65ºC

Case 2: Power plant capacity:600 MWe

NSC+MED Desalination Plant Capacity: 100000 cu.m/d
For Tsteam(Deg C) 70 80 100 120 140
Lost Power, Qle by 20 26.9 39.1 49.5 58.3
Carnot(MWe)
TBT=65ºC Efficiency Carnot 0.073 0.099 0.147 0.191 0.230
Lost Power, Qle by 20.9 27.6 42 55.3 67.7
Rankine(MWe)
Efficiency Rankine 0.070 0.096 0.144 0.187 0.226

Table 4 - NSC+MED+TVC case: Lost Power at TBT 65 C

Case 3: Power plant capacity:600 MWe

NSC+MED+TVC Desalination Plant Capacity: 100000 cu.m/d
For Tsteam(Deg C) 140 160 180 200
Lost Power, Qle by 29.2 32.9 36 38.6
TBT=65ºC Carnot(MWe)
Rtvc=1.0 Efficiency Carnot 0.230 0.266 0.298 0.328
Lost Power, Qle 33.8 39.5 44.6 49.1
byRankine (MWe)
Efficiency Rankine 0.226 0.262 0.293 0.321

extraction increases. However lost power is to have proper estimation of lost power and
always more for Rankine cycle. eventually product water cost by a combined
nuclear desalination plant.
Conclusions
References
Lost power of power plant due to steam
extraction for desalination plant is an [1] Desalination Economic Evaluation Program
(DEEP) (2004)– Computer Manual Series no.14,
important parameter for techno-economic IAEA Vienna.
evaluations. In a co-generation plant amount [2] A K Adak and P K Tewari, Coupling aspects of an
of steam extracted for desalination is charged MSF desalination plant and loss of electrical
on an equivalent amount of power loss of the power generation of a nuclear power plant: case
study, Int. J. of Nuclear Desalination, 1(3)
power plant. Analysis shows the need of
(2004)373.
introduction of Rankine cycle in DEEP on 3.2

Advanced Reactors and Applications

180 Nuclear Desalination

Development of Carbon Aerogel based Multifarad

Electrodes for Desalination using Capacitive de-Ionization
Technique

R.K. Khardekar, D.K. Kohli, Rashmi Singh, M.K. Singh, P. Ramshankar, and P.K. Gupta
Target laboratory, LMDDD, Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced Technology, Indore 452 013, INDIA;
E- mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
We report development of carbon aerogel based electrodes made using wet phase exchange
coating process for capacitive deionization application. The carbon aerogel powder was
prepared by sol-gel polymerization of organic monomers in non-aqueous medium followed by
critical point drying (CPD) and pyrolysis in inert atmosphere. The specific surface area of
carbon aerogel obtained was 512m2/g. The results obtained by cyclic voltammetry showed that
specific capacitance of carbon aerogel electrode was in the range of 65-69 F/g. Adsorption
capacity of the electrode was 19 mmol/g for 50 ppm NaCl solution in capacitive deionization
experiments.
Keywords: Capacitive De- ionization, Electrosorption, Carbon aerogel electrode

Introduction alternative to the existing commercial

desalination technologies [1].
Scarcity of potable water is a global
phenomenon because of population increase Capacitive de-ionization (CDI)
and industrial development. In addition, for technology involves the separation of ions by
the requirements in industrial units such as passing the saline liquid between two
nuclear reactors, scaling due to high salt oppositely charged electrodes. In this
content requires cost effective, fast technique, salt ions are removed by
desalination units which can handle large electrosorptive deionization process using
volumes. The water desalination and high surface area electrodes. Strong electrical
purification technologies available as of now double layers formed at the electrodes hold the
are energy intensive and expensive. Some of charged ions in the presence of electric
these are ion exchange, reverse osmosis, potential. On removal of the electric field, ions
electrodialysis, and evaporation. are released back to the bulk solution which
offers chemical free and low energy
The electro-sorption based capacitive
regeneration. Electrodes for CDI are made
deionization method is a low pressure,
using high surface area materials like
non-membrane deionization process used for
activated carbon and carbon aerogels [3,4].
the desalination of brackish water. This
Carbon aerogels are preferred electrode
process is energy efficient and cost-effective

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 181

materials as they have high electrical pyrolysed in argon atmosphere at 850 ºC to

conductivity (10-100 S/cm) and mesopores obtain carbon aerogel.
which offer large liquid accessible surface
Carbon Electrode Preparation
area.
The carbon aerogel powders were
We have developed carbon aerogel based
grinded to particle size ~1-10 microns.
electrodes on graphite sheet for CDI
Graphite sheet with thickness ~ 0.2 mm was
application. The carbon aerogel is obtained by
selected as substrate for coating carbon
the sol-gel polymerization of resorcinol with
aerogel powder. Graphite substrate was
furfural followed by critical point drying
coated with thick slurry made with carbon
(CPD) and pyrolysis at high temperatures.
aerogel powder, polyvinylidene fluoride
Carbon aerogel powder is mixed with suitable
(PVDF) acting as binder and N-methy 2
binder and coated on graphite base. The wet
–pyrrolidone (NMP) as solvent followed by
film formed on the graphite is immersed in
wet exchange. Coatings with different
water for 24 hours for exchange of solvent.
compositions were done by changing the ratio
The process is known as wet phase exchange
of solid powder, binder and solvent to
process [2]. Specific capacitance and
optimise the electro-sorption properties and
adsorption capacity of prepared electrode
adhesion of film.
were studied.
Characterisations
Experimental
(a) Surface area analysis was carried out to
Carbon Aerogel Preparation
obtain specific surface area and pore size
Resorcinol (>99% Merck) and furfural distribution of carbon aerogel powders
(99% Qualigens) were taken in 1:2 molar ratio using Quantachrome Autosorb
dissolved and mixed in Isopropanol (³ 99 %, Automated Gas Sorption System.
Merck). A typical gel formulation containing (b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
0.38 M resorcinol and 0.76M furfural for a was carried out to study the surface
total of 11.5% solid mass content was taken. morphology of carbon aerogel powder
Hydrochloric acid was used as catalyst for and film by Philips XL30CP SEM
gelation. The sol was first prepared using the System.
above mentioned contents and was poured in
(c) The electro sorption measurements were
sealed vessels and kept in constant bath at
done by cyclic voltammetry for different
60ºC. Solid black gel was formed in an hour.
samples using different electrolytes with
The gel was then cured for 48 hours at 60ºC to
an AUTOLAB/PGSTAT302
allow complete cross-linking of network.
potentiostat. To prepare the working
Subsequently the gel was dried by employing
electrode, the coated sample was exposed
critical point drying of IPA in high pressure
on one surface using a glass epoxy probe,
autoclave to avoid pore collapse. Critical
developed in-house. Cyclic voltammetry
temperature and critical pressure for
was performed with platinum electrode as
isopropanol is 236ºC and 670 psi respectively.
reference electrode and a saturated
High strength porous block thus obtained was
calomel electrode as reference electrode

Advanced Reactors and Applications

182 Nuclear Desalination

0.008 Carbon Aerogel (CPD)

0.007

0.006
Pore Volume (cc/Å/g)

0.005

0.004

0.003

0.002

0.001

0.000
10 20 40 60 80100 100 200
Diameter (Å)
Fig. 2 SEM of carbon aerogel (CPD)
powder.
Fig. 1 BJH pore size distribution for the
carbon aerogels
w h e r e P 0 i s t h e s t a r t i n g NaCl
[4]. Cyclic voltammetry was carried out concentration, P is the final NaCl
with 0.5M NaCl electrolyte in the concentration, V is the volume of NaCl
potential range -0.2 V to 6.0 V, with solution, and m is the mass of active
different scan rates of 2mV/s, 5 mV/s component in the working electrode[5].
and10 mV/s. Results
(d) The capacitance value computed using The surface area value for the carbon
scans obtained is helpful in determining aerogel sample was 518 m²/g. The pore size
the capacitance of the electrode, distribution using BJH data (Fig. 1) shows that
expressed as: the aerogel is mainly dominated by
C = (qa + |qc|)/ DV, (1) mesoporous structures. The mesopores
Where, C is the capacitance, qa and qc are present provide easy access of micropores
the anodic and cathodic voltammetric leading to higher capacitance of the carbon
charges on positive and negative sweeps, aerogel based electrodes.
respectively, DV is the potential range Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of
over which the scan is performed. carbon aerogel prepared by CPD shows
(d) CDI p e r f o r ma n c e : D e s a l i n a t i o n presence of open structures (Fig. 2). The wet
experiments were conducted using a unit exchange coating process is very important
cell assembled using two electrodes. step as this leads to porous film formation,
Graphite sheet based electrodes of size 15 which is very useful for the liquid migration.
cm x 15 cm were prepared using carbon The SEM pictures for the carbon aerogel
aerogel powder by wet phase exchange based coating using PVDF binder by wet
method. The charging and discharging exchange is shown in Fig. 3, confirming the
cycles and salt concentration variation porous nature of the sample. The SEM of only
w i t h t i me w a s r e c o r d e d u s i n g PVDF film with wet exchange is also shown in
conductivity meter. The NaCl adsorption Fig. 4, which also show the open network
capacity was calculated according to advantageous for the adsorption process in
M = (P0 – P)V/m (2) CDI application.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Desalination 183

Sample of carbon aerogel coating

800 Sample weight = 4.34 mg
C = 68.1 F/g for 2 mV/s scan rate
C = 69.8 F/g for 5 mV/s scan rate
600
C = 65.2 F/g for 10 mV/s scan rate
Coating C:PVDF:NMP::6:1:19
400 Electrolyte: 0.5 M NaCl

Current (mA)
200

-200

-400 Scan rate: 2 mV/s

Scan rate: 5 mV/s
Scan rate:10 mV/s
-600
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Voltage (V)

Fig. 3 SEM of carbon aerogel film coating

Fig. 5 Cyclic voltammetry curves
prepared by wet phase exchange
process
Starting conc.= 51 mg/l,
0.20 conductivity=109 µS/cm
After charging of 10 minutes:

Charging/ discharging current (A)

Conc. = 11 mg/l cond=23 µS/cm
0.15

0.10

0.05 Discharge Discharge

cycle cycle

0.00
Charging Charging
cycle cycle
-0.05 V = 1.2V V = 1.2V

-0.10
0 10 20 30 40
Time (minutes)

Fig. 4 SEM of PVDF film with wet exchange Fig. 6 Charging and discharging cycles for
50 mg/L NaCl solution

Cyclic voltammogram at different scan 50

Starting NaCl conc.= 50 mg/l, cond. =105 µS/cm
After charging of 10 minutes:
rates in 0.5 M NaCl solution is shown in Fig. 5. Conc.= 11 mg/l, Cond.= 23 µS/cm
NaCl concentration (mg/l)

40
The curves represent typical rectangular shape
which indicate that all charge-discharge 30
processes are stable and highly reversible. The
20
specific capacitance value calculated using
Eq.1 is in the range of 65- 70 F/g. 10

Current data were collected by 0 2 4 6 8 10

Time (minutes)
periodically charging and discharging the cell
for 50 mg/L and 500 mg/L solution Fig. 7 Concentration variation with time for
concentration (Fig. 6 and Fig. 8). Figure 7 and 50 mg/L NaCl solution.
Figure 9 show concentration variation with
time for two different NaCl solution Conclusions
concentrations. The adsorption capacity
We have successfully developed carbon
calculated (using Eq. 2) are ~19 mmol/g for 50
aerogel electrodes for capacitive deionization
mg/L NaCl solution and ~72 mmol/g for 500
technique. The specific capacitance for the
mg/L NaCl solution.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

184 Nuclear Desalination

1.0
520
Starting NaCl conc.= 500 mg/l,
0.8 cond.=1070 µS/cm 500 Starting NaCl conc.= 500 mg/l
Charging/ discharging current (A)

After charging cycle: After charging of 10 minutes:

0.6
Conc.=360 mg/l cond.=769 µS/cm 480 Conc.= 360 mg/l

NaCl concentration (mg/l)

0.4 Adsorption per gram of active material= 4.2 mg
Discharge Discharge 460
0.2 cycle cycle
440
0.0
420
-0.2 Charging Charging
cycle cycle 400
-0.4 V = 1.2 V V = 1.2 V
380
-0.6
360
-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 340
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (minutes)
Time (minutes)

Fig. 8 Charging and discharging cycles for Fig. 9 Concentration variation with time for
500 mg/L NaCl solution 500 mg/L NaCl solution

electrodes is above 60 F/g. Electrosorption

References
desalination results shows good adsorption
[1] K. S. Spiegler and Y. M. El Sayed, Desalination,
capacities. The regeneration of electrodes was
134 (2001) 109.
confirmed from cyclic voltammetry and
[2] Jung-Ae Lim, Nam-Soo Park, Jin-Soo Park,
desalinating studies. Jae-Hwan Choi, Desalination, 238 (2009) 37.
[3] L i n d a Zou , G a y le mo r r i s , D a o d u o Q i ,
Acknowledgement
Desalination, 225 (2008) 329.
We thankfully acknowledge the [4] Kwang-Kyu. Park, Jae-Bong Lee, Pill-Yang Park
contribution by Dr. A. K. Tripathi, Chemistry et al. Desalination, 206 (2007) 86.
[5] Lixia Li, Linda Zou, Huaihe Song, Gayle Morris,
Division, BARC, Mumbai for carrying out the
Carbon, 47 (2009) 775.
specific surface area and pore size analysis of
carbon aerogel powders. We also thank Ms.
Pragya Tiwari, ISUD, RRCAT, Indore for
carrying out SEM of coated samples.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 185

Nuclear Hydrogen Production

C.S.R. Prasad1 and I.V. Dulera2

1. Chemical Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085,
INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]
2. Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085,
INDIA

Abstract
Lately hydrogen has attracted a lot of attention as an alternate energy carrier for transport
applications. It is felt that nuclear resources can play a significant role in providing energy for
hydrogen production. Nuclear energy assisted hydrogen production is attractive as a long-term
sustainable alternate to fossil fuel for transport applications. As hydrogen would be produced
from water, the option is environmentally benign. Hydrogen can be produced from water with
high efficiency by either thermo-chemical processes or by high temperature steam electrolysis
(HTSE). These processes need either electricity or process heat at high temperatures, or both
depending upon the process of hydrogen production selected. High temperature nuclear
reactors have a large potential for supplying energy for these hydrogen production processes at
required high temperature conditions. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), in India is
developing technologies for nuclear hydrogen production processes. The current R&D
activities target technologies for development of high efficiency hydrogen production
processes such as thermo-chemical and high temperature steam electrolysis.
Keywords: hydrogen, thermochemical process, electrolysis, HTSE

Introduction that India find an alternative energy carrier

such as hydrogen for transport applications.
The rapidly growing Indian transport
Natural gas is an attractive alternative, but
sector is mainly dependent on
Indian reserves of natural gas are not
petroleum-based products. Indian resources
significant. Over the years hydrogen has
of crude oil being meagre, domestic
emerged as an attractive energy carrier for
production of crude oil is only about 21% of
transport applications. In addition, this could
consumption [1] with the balance being met
also be utilized for power generation. Thus it
by imports. Projected annual oil requirements
is envisaged to form an important component
for 2031-32 [2] (for 8% GDP growth rate) is
of future energy mix in India. Hydrogen is
estimated as 486 million tonnes as against
available in abundance, but is not an energy
Indian reserves (2007-08) of 775 million
source like oil, coal, wind, or sun. It is an
tonnes [1]. Due to depleting world reserves of
energy carrier like electricity - a way of
petroleum-based products and the increasing
transporting useful energy to consumers. It is
trend of their prices it has become inevitable
an especially versatile carrier because like oil

Advanced Reactors and Applications

186 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

Fig. 1 Hydrogen production roadmap

and gas, it can be stored in large amounts and term sustainability of nuclear and solar
can be made from almost any energy source energy, they have attracted lot of attention
and used to provide almost any energy service worldwide, for providing required energy for
and can be either burnt like petrol or easily hydrogen separation. Current emphasis is on
converted to electricity. The reason hydrogen development of technologies for hydrogen
is not an energy source is that it is not available production by splitting water utilising high
in nature; the way oil, natural gas and coal are temperature process heat produced by high
found. It must first be freed from chemical temperature nuclear reactors.
compounds in which it is bound up. Therefore
Nuclear Hydrogen - Options for Hydrogen
hydrogen production options basically deal
Production Systems
with separating hydrogen from fossil fuel,
biomass or water. Abundance of hydrogen India has a National Hydrogen Energy
containing compound, complexities involved (NHE) Road Map [3] prepared by Indian
and the energy required in separation of Ministry of New & Renewable Energy
hydrogen are the key features deciding (MNRE). The roadmap was prepared in
selection of hydrogen production option. October 2006. Bhabha Atomic Research
There are broadly three ways to separate Centre (BARC) has played a key role in the
hydrogen: using heat and catalysts by formulation of the Road Map specifically for
reforming hydrocarbons or carbohydrates hydrogen production. BARC hydrogen
found in biomass, using electricity with or energy programme also contributes to this
without heat to split water, or experimental road map. The roadmap, as shown in Fig. 1,
processes, based on sunlight, plasma identifies different routes for hydrogen
discharge, or microorganisms. Due to long production during near, mid-term, and

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 187

Fig. 2 Nuclear hydrogen production options

long-term. BARC is developing technologies production, in BARC, include very high

for production of hydrogen in large volumes temperature (>850°C) thermo-chemical
for long-term supplies. processes (e.g. Iodine Sulfur process) with an
R&D goal of achieving more than 50 percent
Nuclear hydrogen production, from
energy conversion efficiency, moderately
water, can be classified into two categories:
high temperature processes (500-700°C) with
viz electrolysis, including high temperature
an expected energy conversion efficiency
steam electrolysis (HTSE) and
around 35-40 percent, conventional
thermo-chemical splitting. High efficiency
electrolysis, with an energy conversion
production processes like HTSE and
efficiency of about 25 percent, and high
thermo-chemical splitting, are highly energy
temperature steam electrolysis with a
intensive and need either electricity or process
conversion efficiency of about 45%. These
heat at high temperatures, or both depending
processes are shown in Fig. 2.
upon the process of hydrogen production
selected. Thermo-chemical splitting of water High temperature steam electrolysis,
to produce hydrogen has a very high reported when fully developed, would cater to probably
efficiency (40-57%), but needs process heat at moderately high as well as high temperature
550-850°C. A large number of thermo range. The long-term goal is to develop and
chemical cycles [4] have been studied deploy high efficiency thermo-chemical
worldwide. Three promising processes processes. During the interim period other less
representing high, medium and relatively complex processes are proposed to be
lower temperature regimes are Iodine-Sulfur deployed to meet demands. Currently. R & D
(I-S), Calcium - Bromine (Ca-Br) and Copper- is focused on Iodine-Sulfur (IS) process,
Chlorine (Cu-Cl) processes. Currently which is reported to be one of the most
envisaged options for nuclear hydrogen efficient thermo chemical processes for the

Advanced Reactors and Applications

188 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

production of hydrogen by splitting water. the porous nickel electrodes up to 1600 cm2
The initial developmental efforts in BARC on area and 500 mm diameter and module sizes of
I-S process include studies related to 50 cells per cell module and hydrogen
feasibility of the process, efficiency, stability production capacities of 30 Nm3 per hour.
of close loop operation, safety, materials, and Several prototypes were fabricated and tested
integration aspects with a high temperature for electrochemical performance and gas
nuclear reactor. The initial R & D on Copper generation characteristics. Both low
Chlorine based thermo chemical process also temperature/ low-pressure demonstration
has been initiated. Efforts are also being made plants and high temperature/high pressure
for development of HTSE, which needs both prototype plants are under fabrication and
electricity and high temperature process heat installation for specific applications in
from a nuclear reactor. It has a reported hydrogen energy applications as well as for
efficiency of 45-50%. Electrolytic cell and submarine life-support system requirements.
components are similar to Solid Oxide Fuel Currently activities are being pursued with a
Cell (SOFC). Presently development work for view to commercialise the products. Efforts
ceramic cell components by thin film are also being made to enhance the cell
processing technologies is being carried out. It electrical performance of the larger scaled up
is necessary to evaluate all options for nuclear cell-modules to the extent achieved in test
hydrogen generation and distribution in a electrolytic cell-modules developed already.
holistic manner, with realistic data inputs, to Earlier studies have shown a high
arrive at a rational decision on a future performance of about 10,000 ASM (Amperes
roadmap for deployment of nuclear hydrogen. per Square Meter) at 2.0 to 2.2 volts at about
100 °C and up to 15 kg/cm2 in 200 cm2 area
Electrolysis Based Processes
electrodes. Required cell component
Electrolysis currently comprises about fabrication techniques and porous electrode
4% of world’s hydrogen production and is component design modifications along with
used mainly in areas with very cheap module assembly aspects, especially in scaled
electricity, such as those rich in hydro or up sizes, are being investigated to establish
geothermal resources or in special and sustain the enhanced cell performances in
applications requiring high purity hydrogen larger cell dimensions also. In addition,
such as semiconductor manufacturing. This Structured Porous Nickel Matrices
can also be produced during off peak hour Development with tailor-made pore structure
periods of electricity production. BARC has characteristics is being pursued using new
developed an advanced high temperature and fabrication techniques like micro-drilling,
high pressure Alkaline Water Electrolyser EDM, photo-etching methods etc.
(AWE) technology in a bipolar filter press
type zero-gap multi-cell module design In High Temperature Steam Electrolysis
incorporating porous nickel electrodes and (HTSE), R & D activities are being pursued
capable of high current density operation. The for achieving a tubular type Solid Oxide
development efforts during the past two Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) design complete
decades have resulted in the size scale-up of with steam electrolysis sub-systems. The

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 189

methods and materials currently under mentioned above, BARC is currently actively
development in BARC for testing and pursuing Iodine-Sulfur (IS) process.
evaluation of SOFC power packs are being
Iodine-Sulfur (IS) Process
utilized to develop the SOEC system also.
HTSE system of 1 Nm3/hr hydrogen This is a three-step process involving
production capacity is being targeted for the formation and decomposition of hydriodic
design validation of the tubular cell type acid (HI) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The input
construction and technology demonstration to the IS process is water and heat to produce
purposes. hydrogen and oxygen, as byproduct. The
chemicals used such as iodine and sulfur
Thermo-Chemical Processes
dioxide are recycled to close the process loop.
Direct thermolysis of water requires a There are three main sections of IS process
temperature of >2500° C. In thermo-chemical viz. Bunsen section, hydriodic acid
processes the water splitting process is decomposition section and sulfuric acid
subdivided into different partial reactions, decomposition section. In the individual
each running at a lower temperature level. A sections there are multiple options. Bunsen
thermo-chemical process is a sequence of section consists of generation of hydriodic and
thermally driven chemical reactions in which sulfuric acids, their separation and
water and heat are the inputs, and hydrogen purification. These two acids can be produced
and oxygen are the outputs. The chemicals and using either co-current or counter-current
reagents are recycled in a closed cycle. In the flow reactor or Electro-Chemical membrane
case of a hybrid thermo-chemical process, a reactor. In the hydriodic acid section the
combination of heat and electricity is used for hydrogen iodide is split to hydrogen and
splitting water. For long-term hydrogen iodine. Iodine is recycled to the Bunsen
supplies and large-scale centralized hydrogen section. The various options in this section are
production, thermo-chemical splitting of use of reactive distillation column or coupled
water by getting heat from an external source membrane & reactive distillation column or
such as high temperature nuclear reactor, electro-electro dialysis route followed by
seems to be the most promising route. distillation and membrane reactor for
Large-scale hydrogen production by this hydrogen iodide decomposition. Similarly
process offers quite attractive concept for sulfuric acid decomposition section can
future CO2 - free and efficient energy systems. follow isobaric concentration route or direct
This process for splitting of water is carried contact route where oxygen produced is by
out through multi step chemical reactions at product and sulfur dioxide is recycled to
high temperatures in the range of 550-850 °C Bunsen section. The thermo-chemical
depending on the chemical process adopted. reactions are given below;
These processes are also being studied from H2SO4 ® SO2 + H2O + 1/2 O2 (850oC)
the view of integration with nuclear reactors. Sulfuring acid decomposition reaction (1)
High temperature nuclear reactors are well
I2 + SO2 + 2H2O ® 2HI + H2SO4 (120oC)
suited for supplying heat to endothermic Bunsen reaction (2)
process steps involved in these processes. As

Advanced Reactors and Applications

190 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

Demonstration Using HTR

Long term
: ~ 80,000 m3 H2/Hr.

System Design: Process, Reactors

Process
Pilot scale demonstration Simulation
Mid term
:~ 13 m3 H2/Hr F using
L
chemical
Experimental O process
Studies for W
simulator
Improving Bunsen S
Section Operation Lab Scale Demonstration: H
and processing ~ 150 N Lit H2/Hr E
method of HIx E
2016
solution T
I
N Evaluation &
G Development of
Near term Early R&D - Studies on materials
Reactions & Separations

Fig. 3 Proposed roadmap for development of Iodine-Sulfur process

2HI ® I2 + H2 (450oC) (Cr0.2Fe1.8O3) was also studied for long-term

Hydriodic acid decomposition reaction (3) performance. While chromium substituted
If we compare the overall reactions, the iron oxide showed higher activity than the
net reaction is; unsubstituted Fe2O3 the performance of both
the catalysts remained unaltered over a period
H2O ® H2 + 1/2 O2 (4) of 100 hrs. and no noticeable degradation
This process is an all-fluid process and could be observed when evaluated at 800°C.
has been well studied and fully flow sheeted in Influence of sulfuric acid flux on catalyst
various laboratories worldwide. To start with, performance has also been evaluated.
BARC has initiated research to study all three Commercial viability of IS process lies in the
sections of IS process based on high feasibility demonstration of HIx reactive
temperature nuclear reactor. In Bunsen distillation. Research work done in BARC
section various reactor options were related to development of catalyst, reduction
considered and evaluated. An exergy of operating pressure and their impact on
methodology was proposed to be developed to efficiency. Results of simulation show that
effectively analyse techno-economics of HIx decomposition at low pressure can be
hydrogen producing process options; it can be considered for HI decomposition stage of IS
used to identify areas of research, optimize the process. A proposed roadmap for
parameters of units/systems/process. In development of the process is shown in Fig. 3.
Sulfuric acid section different catalysts are Copper – Chlorine (Cu-Cl) Process
being evaluated by BARC. Effectiveness of
iron oxide based catalysts for decomposition This process is attractive since it requires
of sulfuric acid in temperature range of process heat at a relatively lower temperature
600-825°C was reported. Modified catalyst (550°C). This process and other potential

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 191

processes that operate at lower temperatures an attractive option. This synthetic fuel can be
have two major advantages related to lower directly used as fuel in Internal Combustion
demands on materials and greater flexibility in (IC) engines. It is felt that there are many
heat sources. Sodium-cooled fast reactors and issues related to hydrogen storage, its
advanced supercritical water reactor, transport, and its utilisation, which could
currently under development, are examples of affect overall efficiency, safety, and
nuclear reactors operating in this temperature economics. Some of these are listed below:
range. The five stage thermo-chemical
(a) Transport of hydrogen over long
reactions of this process are given below;
distances: Cost intensive and would pose
2CuCl (l) + H2 (g) Ü 2Cu + 2HCl safety related problems
(430-475°C) (5)
(b) Embrittlement problems of associated
4CuCl (aq) Þ 2CuCl2 (aq)+2Cu (s) materials: High capital cost due to special
30-70°C (electrolysis) (6) materials
2CuCl2 (s) Ü 2CuCl2 (aq) 100°C (7) (c) Dangers of leak and subsequent fire and
safety hazards
2CuCl2 (s) + H2O(g) Þ CuO*CuCl2 (s)
+ 2HCl (g) 400°C (8) (d) Low volumetric power density of gas –
More compressor work
2CuCl (l) + ½ O2 Ü CuO*CuCl2 (s)
530°C (9) (e) Difficulties in combustion in Internal
Combustion (IC) engines
The Cu-Cl cycle, when developed
initially, had five steps. R & D efforts are (f) Large capital and operating costs for fuel
being made to reduce the complexities by cell based vehicles and lack of
reducing the number of steps. Hydrogen is availability of materials like platinum for
generated at 475°C and oxygen at 530°C. large-scale deployment
These are the highest temperatures in the One of the suggested solutions is to use
cycle. The combination of lower process biomass/ coal with hydrogen to produce
temperatures, relatively inexpensive process synthetic fuel. Biomass would lead to no net
chemicals, and a reported high, idealised CO2 burden on atmosphere. Conventional oil
efficiency of more than 40% make this process pipelines can be used for transportation.
highly attractive. While the efficiency is Vehicle engine would be similar to
somewhat lower than that of the sulfur cycles, conventional and existing engines. These
the promising chemistry makes the Cu-Cl would result in large economic saving. For
cycle important. For development of this example a synthetic fluid fuel like methanol
process, laboratory level experiments have would be easy to produce, transport, and
been initiated in BARC. utilise in IC engines.

Option of Synthetic Fluid Fuel Production Conclusions

Production of synthetic fluid fuel utilising India has a very rapidly growing transport
nuclear energy produced hydrogen along with sector, particularly the fossil fuel dependent
a source of carbon such as biomass etc., is also road transport sector. Our own crude oil

Advanced Reactors and Applications

192 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

source being meager, this directly implies a production, high temperature reactor design
continuing dependence on imported crude and and integration of these systems.
an exposure of the economy to the fluctuations
References
in crude prices in the international markets.
[1] Website of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
This dependence on fossil fuels could be
Gas, G o v er n me n t of India –
reduced, by a gradual transition to hydrogen as http://petroleum.nic.in/petstat.pdf
energy carrier. As an initial goal, a target of [2] Integrated Energy Policy, Planning Commission,
25% of fossil fuel requirement to be met Government of India, 2006- available at
through the use of hydrogen can be set. To http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genere
p/rep_intengy.pdf
meet such a target, hydrogen generation
[3] National Hydrogen Energy Road Map – 2006,
requires a source of primary energy, which is (Abridged Version, 2007), National Hydrogen
abundant and sustainable. Among possible Energy Board, Ministry of New and Renewable
alternatives, nuclear energy emerges as an Energy, Government of India-available at
http://mnre.gov.in/pdf/abridged-nhem.pdf
attractive primary energy source. R&D
[4] L.C. Brown, J.F. Funk, A.C. Marshall, 2002, High
activities in BARC are at various stages of efficiency generation of hydrogen fuels using
development in the fields of hydrogen nuclear power, GA-A24285, General Atomics
Corp., San Diego, CA, September 2002.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 193

Application of transition metal ferrites AFe2O4 (A= Co, Ni,

Cu) for the catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acid involved
in Sulfur-Iodine Thermochemical Cycle for Nuclear
Hydrogen production

A. M. Banerjee, M. R. Pai, A. K. Tripathi and S. R. Bharadwaj

Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, INDIA;
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The thermal decomposition of sulfuric acid is a highly endothermic step of the sulfur based
water splitting thermochemical cycles for large scale hydrogen production using the heat
energy from high temperature nuclear reactors. In the present study spinel ferrite catalysts with
general formula AFe2O4 (A = Co, Ni, Cu) were prepared by glycine-nitrate gel combustion
method and characterized using powder XRD and SEM. The redox properties of the samples
were studied by recording multiple TPR/O cycles. The copper ferrite sample was found to be
the most easily reducible sample with Tmax for reduction occurring at the lowest temperature
among all samples. The catalytic activities of all the samples were evaluated for sulphuric acid
decomposition reaction in the temperature range of 650°C-825°C. Copper ferrite was found to
be the most active catalyst for the reaction with ~ 78% conversion at 800°C. The spent catalyst
samples were further characterized by FTIR and SEM. FTIR spectra of all the three spent
catalyst samples exhibit four prominent peaks in the region 950-1200 cm-1, which is indicative
of bidentate sulfate coordination and these metal sulfates were probably the transient
intermediates of sulfuric acid decomposition to sulfur dioxide over these metal oxide catalysts.
Keywords: sulfuric acid decomposition, nuclear, spinel ferrite, reducibility, FTIR, sulfate

Introduction consist of a series of chemical reactions to

produce hydrogen from water at much lower
The catalytic decomposition of sulfuric
temperatures than required for the direct
acid to produce sulfur dioxide, oxygen and
thermal decomposition of water [4]. Water
water is a topic currently gaining enormous
splitting into hydrogen and oxygen is
importance as it can serve as thermal to
achieved via chemical reactions using
chemical energy conversion step in all the
intermediate compounds which are recycled.
sulfur based thermochemical cycles such as
The sum of all the reactions is equivalent to the
the sulfur–iodine thermochemical cycle [1],
dissociation of the water molecule. The
the hybrid sulfur cycle [2], and the
primary energy source to drive the cycle could
sulfur–bromine hybrid cycle [3], for
be a renewable energy source such as heat
successful massive hydrogen production by
energy from a high temperature nuclear [4,5]
water splitting. Thermochemical cycles

Advanced Reactors and Applications

194 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

reactor and hydrogen can be produced without preferred for the above applications. Metal
the need of any fossil fuels and also not oxide catalysts are active and can be a
releasing any green house gases considered substitute for noble metal catalysts as they
being responsible for global warming. The fulfill the essential requirement of materials
efficiency of these sulfur based with better chemical, thermal stability and
thermochemical cycles are potentially high modified catalytic properties. With an aim of
and thus hydrogen production costs relatively working in this direction we initially started
low. with chromium doped iron oxide as catalyst
for the above application, where we found that
Sulfuric acid thermal decomposition is
chromium doping helped in increasing the
the most endothermic reaction in the sulfur
activity of iron oxide [10]. Fe-based spinel
based thermochemical cycles [1] and is
oxides offer good thermal stability and also
normally carried out at above 800°C in a
interesting catalytic properties in several
process reactor that can extract high
redox processes. These properties of
temperature heat from a nuclear reactor. The
ferrospinels can be utilized in sulfuric acid
sulfuric acid decomposition is comprised of
decomposition which requires a catalyst
following two reactions in series:
which is active for the redox process and also
H2SO4 (l) ® H2O (l) + SO3 (g) ~450oC stable under the high temperatures and
(1.1) extremely corrosive reactants and products.
1 So, the present study was taken up with an
SO3 (g) ® SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ~800-900oC
2 objective to develop certain iron-based
(1.2) inverse spinel compositions which may serve
as structurally stable and catalytically active
Sulfuric acid can be decomposed to its
materials for the sulfuric acid decomposition
anhydride SO3 with or without a catalyst,
reaction. Three ferrospinels AFe2O4; (A = Co,
while the decomposition of SO3 has been
Ni, Cu) were evaluated for sulfuric acid
known to be a catalytic reaction. Apparently
decomposition and the effect of A-site cation
only a few and partial kinetic data for the
global process can be found in the literature. on the decomposition kinetics were compared.

Some of the reported catalysts for sulfuric Experimental

acid decomposition include supported Preparation
platinum catalysts such as (Pt/Al2O3, Pt/TiO2
Ferrospinels (AFe2O4, A = Co, Ni, Cu)
and Pt/ZrO2) [6], (Pt/TiO2 (rutile) [7],
were synthesized by the glycine-nitrate gel
(Pt/BaSO4) [8] and theoretical studies on
combustion method using stoichiometric
supported metal particles (Pd, Pt, Rh, Ir, and
quantities of metal nitrates as oxidant viz.,
Ru supported on titania) [9]. However, the
Cu(NO3)2·6H2O, Fe(NO3)3·9H2O,
ever rising demand and increasing cost of
Ni(NO3)2·6H2O, Co(NO3)2·6H2O and glycine
noble metals, in addition to problems of
(NH2CH2COOH) as fuel. The powder
leaching and sintering of the metal particles
obtained after gel combustion was calcined at
under the high temperature and harsh catalytic
500°C for 12 h and then further at 900°C for
operation conditions make noble metals less

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 195

Fig. 2 XRD patterns of the ferrospinels

Fig. 1 Block diagram of the quartz prepared by gel combustion route and
experimental set up for carrying out
calcined at 900°C for 12 hrs.
sulfuric acid decomposition reaction
the carrier to a pre-heater kept at 400°C
12 h to obtain well crystalline powders of
(heated by electrical heating tapes) to generate
CuFe2O4, CoFe2O4, and NiFe2O4.
vapors of sulfuric acid. The acid vapors were
Characterization then led to the catalytic reactor fabricated in
quartz and kept inside a controlled electrically
The synthesized samples were
heated furnace at high temperature. A
characterized by XRD, SEM, Temperature
condenser was fitted downstream along with a
Programmed Reduction techniques while the
liquid collector with tap. The gaseous
spent catalysts were characterized by FTIR,
products were passed through NaOH solution
SEM.
(0.1 N) and finally vented out.
Catalytic activity
Results and Discussions
The experimental set up for carrying out
The crystallinity and structure of the three
the catalytic activity measurements involved a
ferrospinels CuFe2O4, CoFe2O4, NiFe2O4
flow through quartz reactor as shown
prepared by glycine-nitrate gel combustion
schematically in Fig. 1. It was indigenously
route and calcined at 900°C are confirmed by
constructed of glass, quartz and Teflon tubing.
the powder XRD patterns shown in Fig. 2. As
A syringe pump, filled with concentrated
shown in the Fig. 2, the peak position and
sulfuric acid (98 wt%, sp.gr = 1.84) was
relative intensity of all diffraction peaks for all
employed for controlled injection of sulfuric
the three samples are in close agreement with
acid into the system and catalytic bed.
the standard diffraction data (JCPDS card no.
Provision was made for N2 to be used as a
34-0425, 22-1086 and 10-0325 for copper,
carrier. The acid pumped by the syringe at a
cobalt and nickel ferrite respectively). Copper
flow rate of 0.05 mL min-1 was fed along with

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196 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

along with a shoulder at 760°C. Thus the

reduction temperature of the spinels increases
in the order of CuFe2O4 <CoFe2O4 <NiFe2O4.

In our earlier study [10] we have carried

out the sulfuric acid decomposition with iron
oxide catalyst where the reduction of Fe3+
occurs in three steps to FeO via Fe2O3 to Fe3O4
at 400°C, Fe3O4 to FeO at 600°C and finally
FeO to Fe metal at 720°C respectively. Here,
in the case of spinels the reduction of Fe3+ to
metallic Fe0 occurs relatively at a much lower
temperature probably due to spillover effect.
The A2+ (A= Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+) cation is
Fig. 3 Typical first cycle temperature reduced by hydrogen to the corresponding
programmed reduction profiles of the metals which dissociates and activates the
ferrospinel catalyst hydrogen for reduction of the other cation
Fe3+.
ferrite crystallizes in tetragonal lattice while
nickel and cobalt ferrite exhibits cubic crystal Figure 4 shows scanning electron
structure. microscope (SEM) images of 900°C-sintered
ferrospinels. The images show the particles
Temperature programmed reduction
are well-defined with definite grain
experiments were performed over the 900°C
boundaries. The samples prepared by
sintered ferrospinel catalysts to investigate
gel-combustion are generally porous but with
their reduction behavior under conditions
high temperature sintering grain growth and
mentioned in experimental section. The great
densification occurs. The grain-to-grain
interest of these TPR studies is to establish
connectivity is reflected in both cobalt and
correlations between the reducibilities of the
nickel ferrites with some air holes in case of
spinels and reactivities for redox reactions like
copper ferrite even after high temperature
sulfuric acid decomposition. The first cycle
sintering.
TPR profiles of all these three catalysts are
shown in Fig. 3. Copper ferrite exhibited a The temperature dependent catalytic
very sharp reduction peak having Tmax at activities of the ferrospinels for sulfuric acid
400°C with onset at ~280°C and another very decomposition reaction in the temperature
sluggish, broad and weak reduction peak with range of 650°C to 825°C are shown in Fig. 5.
Tmax at 610°C. In case of cobalt ferrite the Catalytic activity of all the samples increases
reduction is inhibited to some extent with with temperature, which is due to kinetic
onset of reduction delayed to 330°C and a factors, and this also shows that the catalyst is
single very broad reduction band. Nickel stable under the experimental conditions of
ferrite showed a single reduction stage with high temperature and highly corrosive
initiation above 460°C and peaking at 645°C reactants and products. It is evident from

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Nuclear Hydrogen Production 197

Fig. 4 SEM images of the ferrospinels prepared by gel combustion route and calcined at 900°C
for 12 hrs.

Figure 4 that the maximum activity is obtained

for copper ferrite with a conversion of about ~
78% at 800°C. Sulfuric acid decomposition in
sulfur based thermochemical cycles is
normally carried out at above 800°C in a
process reactor and so under the required
process conditions copper ferrite is found to be
the most active catalyst. So, on the whole it
can be concluded that among the three spinel
ferrites investigated in this study copper
ferrite is the most promising system for
carrying out high temperature sulfuric acid
decomposition. It is pertinent to mention here
that blank experiments in absence of catalysts
Fig. 5 Temperature dependent catalytic
did not generate any SO2 under these activity profiles of the ferrospinel
conditions. catalyst for H2SO4 decomposition
reaction
Figure 6 shows the FTIR spectra of the
three used ferrospinel catalyst samples in the prominent IR bands such as at 961, 996, 1163
400-1500 cm-1 range. All the spent catalyst and 1196 cm-1 for the spent CuFe2O4 is
samples exhibits four prominent peaks in the described to nS-O vibrations of bidentate
950-1200 cm-1 region which is absent in the sulfate species. The peaks arise due to SO
freshly prepared samples. Presence of four bond stretching in metal sulfates with the

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198 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

Fig. 7 SEM image of the spent CuFe2O4

catalyst after 10 hrs. of exposure to
sulfuric acid at high temperatures

reduction occurring at the lowest temperature

Fig. 6 FTIR spectra of the spent ferrospinel among all samples. The catalytic activities for
catalyst these materials were evaluated for sulfuric
acid decomposition reaction in an
lowest wave number peak assigned to u1 indigenously constructed flow through quartz
stretching mode while the higher three peaks reactor, where the activity of copper ferrite
are due to u3 mode. These metal sulfates are was found to be highest. Presence of surface
probably the transient intermediates of sulfate complex was revealed from ex situ
sulfuric acid decomposition to sulfur dioxide FTIR spectra of the spent samples which
over these metal oxide catalyst. suggested that sulfuric acid decomposition
The SEM images of the spent CuFe2O4 proceeds on the catalyst spinel ferrites with
catalysts are shown in Fig. 7 where the intermediate formation of metal sulfates.
agglomeration of particles is observed which The improved reducibility of Fe3+ and the Cu2+
is probably due to sintering at high cations in CuFe2O4 as compared to the Fe3+
temperature reaction conditions. Patches of and respective bivalent cation in NiFe2O4 and
needle like crystals as shown in Fig. 7 were CoFe2O4 was evident from TPR results
also visible on the surface of copper ferrite promoted the sulfuric acid decomposition
which can be probably attributed to the reaction. Based on the present findings it can
formation of crystals of metal sulfates. be concluded that copper ferrite is the most
promising catalyst for sulfuric acid
Conclusion decomposition reaction among the three
The single phasic crystalline spinel ferrospinels investigated.
ferrites viz; CuFe2O4, CoFe2O4, NiFe2O4 were Acknowledgements
successfully prepared by gel combustion route
and the redox properties were evaluated by The authors thank Dr. Tulsi Mukherjee,
temperature programmed reduction. The Director, Chemistry Group, BARC and Dr. D.
copper ferrite sample was found to be the most Das, Head Chemistry Division, BARC for
easily reducible sample with Tmax for

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Nuclear Hydrogen Production 199

their constant support and encouragement [6] D.M. Ginosar, L.M. Petkovic, A.W. Glenn, K.C.
Burch, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 32 (2007) 482.
during this work.
[7] L.M. Petkovic, D.M. Ginosar, H.W. Rollins, K.C.
References Burch, P.J. Pinhero, H.H. Farrell, Appl. Catal., A
338 (2008) 27.
[1] D. O’Keefe, C. Allen, G. Besenbruch, L. Brown,
[8] Bhari Mallanna Nagaraja, Kwang Deog Jung,
J. Norman, R. Sharp, K.McCorkle, Int. J.
Byoung Sung Ahn, Haznan Abimanyu, Kye Sang
Hydrogen Energ., 7 (1982) 381.
Yoo, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 48 (2009) 1451.
[2] L.E. Brecher, S. Spewock, C.J.Warde, Int. J.
[9] Sergey N. Rashkeev, Daniel M. Ginosar, Lucia M.
Hydrogen Energ., 2 (1977) 7.
Petkovic, Helen H. Farrell, Catalysis Today, 139
[3] G.E. Beghi, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 11 (1986) (2009) 291.
761.
[10] A.M. Banerjee, M.R. Pai, K. Bhattacharya, A.K.
[4] C.E. Bamberger, D.M. Richardson, Cryogenics, Tripathi, V.S. Kamble, S.R. Bharadwaj, S.K.
16 (1976) 197. Kulshreshtha, Int. J.Hydrogen Energ., 33 (2008)
[5] Shinji Kubo, Hayato Nakajima, Seiji Kasahara, 319.
Syunichi Higashi, T. Masaki, H. Abe, K. Onuki,
Nucl. Engg. Design, 233 (2004) 347.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

200 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

Catalytic Decomposition of Sulfuric Acid: An Important

Step in Sulfur-Iodine Thermochemical Cycle for Generation
of Hydrogen Using Compact High Temperature Nuclear
Reactor

A.M. Banerjee1, A.R. Shirole1, M.R. Pai1, A.K. Tripathi1, V.S. Kamble1, S.R. Bharadwaj1, D.
Das and P.K. Sinha2
1. Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400 085, INDIA; E-mail:
[email protected]
2. ECMS, Materials Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Vashi, Navi Mumbai, INDIA

Abstract
Studies on catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acid were carried out over iron oxide based
materials in temperature range of 600-825°C employing an indigenously developed glass
setup. As compared to pristine iron oxide the chromium substituted sample has shown higher
conversion of sulfuric acid in to sulfur dioxide. No deterioration in the catalyst performance
was observed during 100 h run at 800°C with a sulfuric acid flux of ~0.6 ml min-1. Increase in
the acid flux from 0.6 ml min-1 to ~1 ml min-1 resulted in nominal reduction in SO2 yield.
However at higher flux in range of 1-10 ml min-1 the yield reduced gradually, the effect being
more pronounced for the unsubstituted sample.
Keywords: S-I thermochemical cycle, sulfuric acid decomposition, iron oxide based catalysts,
high temerature nuclear reactor.

Introduction of CO2, a green house gas, as a by-product.

Recently, decomposition of water by two
In view of ever-increasing worldwide
processes namely, thermochemical and high
energy demands, depleting fossil resources,
temperature electrolysis have shown great
deep concern about global warming due to
potential towards efficient production of
emission of greenhouse gases (GHG)
hydrogen on industrial scale. Energy
alternate energy resources are being explored
requirements of these processes are expected
[1]. Hydrogen being a clean sustainable and
to be met by high temperature nuclear reactor
renewable energy carrier is emerging as a
and solar concentrator [2,3].
viable solution to this problem. Presently most
of the hydrogen is produced by steam Thermochemical cycles produce
reforming of hydrocarbons such as steam hydrogen through a number of chemical
methane reforming (SMR) but this process reactions involving intermediates that are
suffers from a major drawback i.e. generation fully recyclable [3-5]. Among various

Advanced Reactors and Applications

Nuclear Hydrogen Production 201

thermochemical cycles proposed for [17]. Tagawa and Endo [14] have compared
hydrogen generation, Sulfur – Iodine (S-I) the activity of metal oxides for the sulfuric
process due to its higher efficiency (~56%) is acid decomposition in the range of 600-950°C
widely considered as a potential choice to and found the order as follows: Pt » Cr2O3>
meet the future energy requirements [6, 7]. S-I Fe2O3> CeO2> NiO> Al2O3. On the other
thermochemical cycle, originally proposed by hand, Dokiya et al. [9] reported a different
General Atomics [8], involves following order as Fe2O3 > V2O5 > Cr2O3 > CuO > CoO >
chemical reactions: TiO2 > ZnO > NiO, MnO2>Al2O3 and CeO2>
I2 (l) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ® 2HI (l) NiO> Al2O3. The metal oxides were reported
+ H2SO4 (l) (70-120oC) (1) to be active only over the temperature region
in which the corresponding sulfates were
H2SO4 (l) ® SO2 (g) + H2O (g) + 1/2O2 (g)
(700-900oC)(2) unstable [9, 16]. Recently, Ginosar et al [18]
evaluated complex metal oxides and reported
2HI (l) ® I2 (g) + H2 (g) (300-450oC)(3) CuFe2O4 and 2CuO.Cr2O3 to be more active
The intense heat flux from the high than 1.0 wt% Pt/TiO2 at temperatures above
temperature nuclear reactor can be effectively 850°C. Thus oxide catalysts can be a cheaper
utilized for the most energy demanding step of substitute for noble metal catalysts but issues
this cycle namely sulfuric acid decomposition like stability, and sintering effects on repeated
(Eqn.2). Thermal decomposition of sulfuric use, formation of sulfates etc. have to be
acid involves two steps, namely, non-catalytic addressed first before they are employed for
decomposition of sulfuric acid in to sulfur actual application.
trioxide and water at temperatures above In view of availability of high-grade heat
350°C and the catalytic decomposition of from the proposed Compact High
sulfur trioxide resulting in formation of sulfur Temperature Reactor (CHTR), work on S-I
dioxide and oxygen at temperatures above cycle has been started at BARC. Initial results
700°C. Efficiency of S-I thermochemical from our laboratory have shown effectiveness
cycle largely depends on the kinetics of the of iron oxide based catalysts for
catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acid. decomposition of sulfuric acid in temperature
Various catalysts reported to be active for range of 600-800°C [19]. Chromium
decomposition of sulfuric acid include noble substitution (~10 at.%) in iron oxide was
metal, metal oxides and mixed metal oxides found to improve the catalyst performance.
[9-16]. Besides activity the stability of the We now report results on long-term
catalyst is also very important as the reaction performance of Fe2O3 and Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 as
environment is extremely hostile like high catalyst for the same reaction using an
temperatures, presence of aggressive indigenously developed glass set up. Effect of
chemicals, including high temperature steam, sulfuric acid flux on catalyst performance was
oxygen and sulfur oxides. While noble metal also evaluated.
catalysts are highly active for SO3
decomposition reaction, loss of active metal
has been reported during their long term use

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202 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

Experimental

Catalyst Preparation and Characterization

Iron oxide and chromium substituted iron

oxide (Fe1.8Cr0.2O3) catalysts were
synthesized by precipitation/co-precipitation
routes. Aqueous solutions of ferric
nitrate/chromium nitrate were used as metal
precursors while ammonium hydroxide was
employed as a precipitating agent. After
filtration, washing and drying, the mass was
Fig. 1 XRD pattern of a) Fe2O3 and b)
calcined in air at 700°C for 2 hrs. Spherical Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 samples.
granules (4-6 mm) were prepared from the
powdered samples using Polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) as a binder and were again calcined at
750°C for 2 hrs. Powder XRD patterns for the
synthesized samples were recorded in 2q
range of 10-70° (step width 0.02° and step time
1.25 s) using a Philips X-ray Diffractometer
(model 1729) equipped with nickel filtered
Cu-Ka radiation. The XRD pattern of iron
oxide and chromium substituted sample
matched with the reported pattern (JC-PDS
card No. 33-0664) for hematite (Fig. 1). No
separate phase of Cr2O3 was observed. The
N2-BET surface area of catalyst samples as
Fig. 2 Schematic of a glass set up used for
measured by a Quantachrome Surface Area
sulfuric acid decomposition.
and pore size analyzer (model-Autosorb-1)
have shown almost similar values of ~17 m2 decomposition of sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid
g-1 on both samples. flux varied in range 0-2 mL/min by varying
Catalytic Activity the temperature of boiling zone while flux
values beyond 2 mL/min were achieved using
Catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acid a water pump at the outlet of the Iodine trap.
was carried out in temperature range of
600-825°C using 20 g of catalyst granules SO2 formed during decomposition
(near spherical, ~4-6 mm diameter) placed in reaction was collected in the Iodine trap (0.1 to
the annular space of the quartz reactor, as 0.6 M Iodine in KI) at room temperature and
shown in Fig. 2. This reactor was housed the un-reacted iodine was titrated with
inside a two temperature zone tubular furnace Sodium thiosulfate solution (0.1 M) using
with one zone operating at ~300°C used for the starch indicator. Un-reacted Sulfuric acid and
acid boiling and the other at ~800°C for that formed during reaction of SO3 and water

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Nuclear Hydrogen Production 203

Fig. 3 Temperature dependent activity for Fig. 4 Long-term activity of Fe2O3 and
decomposition of sulfuric acid over Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 for sulfuric acid
Fe2O3 and Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 catalysts decomposition at a temperature of 800
°C and a flux of 0.6 mL/min.
vapour was collected in a collector and
estimated by potentiometric titration above 700°C the SO2 yield increased
employing NaOH as a titrant. At each gradually with rise in catalyst temperature
temperature measurements were made after reaching a maximum value of ~78% and
about 45 min of equilibration. Percentage SO2 ~82% for Fe2O3 and Fe1.8Cr0.2O3, respectively
yield was calculated from the number of moles at a temperature of 825°C with a sulfuric acid
of SO2 produced out of the total number of flux of ~0.6 mL/min. It is pertinent to mention
sulfuric acid moles used as given below: here that no SO2 was produced under identical
Percentage SO2 Yield = conditions in absence of a catalyst.
No. of moles SO 2 produced Negligible deterioration in the catalyst
´ 100
Total moles of Sulfuric acid used performance was observed on both the
samples during long-term activity
Results and Discussion
measurements carried out with an acid flux of
Figure 3 presents the temperature ~0.6 ml/min at 800°C for 100 h. SO2 yield
dependent activity data on catalytic remained almost constant at ~70% and ~78%
decomposition of sulfuric acid over level on Fe2O3 and Fe1.8Cr0.2O3, respectively,
unsubstituted and chromium substituted iron during these runs. These results are presented
oxide samples in temperature range of in Fig. 4. Incidentally the measured SO2 yields
700-825°C. Both samples were found to be are quite close to the thermodynamic
active for decomposition of sulfuric acid equilibrium yield value (~80%) reported for
however the chromium substituted iron oxide sulfuric acid decomposition at 800°C.
sample showed higher activity than the
unsubstituted one. Negligible formation of Figure 5 shows the influence of sulfuric
SO2 was observed at catalyst temperatures of acid flux on catalytic activity of these samples
650°C and below on both the samples while at a catalyst temperature of 800°C. An
increase in sulfuric acid flux in the range,

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204 Nuclear Hydrogen Production

References
[1] K.E. Cox and J.R. Bartlit, Altern. Energy Sources,
3 (1983) 385.
[2] G.E. Beghi, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 11 (1986)
761.
[3] T. Kodama and N. Gokon, Chem. Rev., 107
(2007) 4048.
[4] S. Yalccin, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 14 (1989)
551.
[5] J. E. Funk, Int J Hydrogen Energy, 26 (2001)185.
Fig. 5 Effect of sulfuric acid flux on catalytic
[6] B. Yildiz and M.S. Kazimi, Int. J. Hydrogen
activity of Fe2O3 and Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 at a
Energy, 31 (2006) 77.
temperature of 800°C.
[7] L.C. Brown, J. F. Funk and S.K. Showalter,
GA-A23373 report, 2000.
0.2-1 mL/min, resulted in nominal loss in [8] J.L. Russell Jr., K.H. McCorkle, J.H. Norman,
activity (Fig. 5A) while drastic reduction in J.T. Porter, T.S. Roemer, J.R. Schuster and R.S.
the SO2 yield was observed at acid flux above Sharp in T.N. Vezirogulu (Ed.), Proceedings of
the First World Hydrogen Energy Conference,
1ml/min (Fig. 5B). This effect was more Miami Beach, Florida, 1976, pp 1A-105.
pronounced over the unsubstituted sample. [9] M. Dokiya, T. Kameyama, K. Fukuda and Y.
Kotera, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 50 (1977) 2657.
Conclusion
[10] D . R . O ’ K e e f e, J . H . N o r ma n a n d D . G .
Long-term performance of Fe2O3 and Williamson, Catal. Rev. Sci. Eng., 22 (1980) 325.
Fe1.8Cr0.2O3 catalysts was evaluated for [11] J.H. Norman, KJ Mysels, R. Sharp and D.
Williamson, Int. J. Hydogen Energy, 7 (1982)
decomposition of sulfuric acid for 100 hrs. in
545.
an indigenously built glass set up at 800°C [12] H. Ishikawa, E. Ishii, I. Uhera and M. Nakane, Int.
using an acid flux of ~0.6 mL/min. No J. Hydrogen Energy, 7 (1982) 237.
deterioration in the catalyst performance was [13] L.N. Yannopoulos and J.F. Pierre, Int. J.
observed for both the samples. Flux dependent Hydrogen Energy, 9 (1984) 383.
[14] H. Tagawa and T. Endo, Int. J. Hydogen Energy,
studies indicated nominal loss in catalytic
14 (1989) 11.
activity at sulfuric acid flux in range 0.6 - 1
[15] T.H. Kim, G.T. Gong, B.G. Lee, K.Y. Lee, H.Y.
mL/min but at higher flux (>1 mL/min) drastic Jeon, C.H. Shin, H. Kim and K.D. Jung, Appl.
reduction in SO2 yield was observed. Catal. A: General, 305 (2006) 39.
Chromium substituted iron oxide was found to [16] R.D. Brittain and D.L. Hildenbrand, J. Phys.
be more active than the pristine iron oxide at Chem., 87 (1983) 3713.
[17] D.M. Ginosar, L.M. Petkovik, A.W. Glenn and
all temperatures.
K.C. Burch, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 32 (2007)
Acknowledgment 482.
[18] D.M. Ginosar, H.W. Rollins, L.M. Petkovik, K.C.
Authors are grateful to Dr. T. Mukherjee, Burch and M.J. Rush, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 34
Director, Chemistry Group, and Shri C.S.R. (2009) 4065.
Prasad, Chemical Technology Division, for [19] A.M. Banerjee, M.R. Pai, K. Bhattacharyya, A.K.
Tripathi, V.S. Kamble, S.R. Bharadwaj and S.K.
their keen interest and constant
Kulshreshtha, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 33 (2008)
encouragement to this work. 319.

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 205

Bio-data of the Authors

Adak A.K. joined BARC after completing an advanced course in Nuclear and Chemical
Engineering. His research areas include thermal desalination processes such as MSF, MED,
VC, LTE, low grade and waste heat utilization for seawater desalination, nuclear desalination
and hybrid desalination processes. He has been associated with the commissioning of long
tube MSF plant of Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Project, Kalpakkam and IAEA for the
modification and further development of Desalination Economic Evaluation Program.

Aggarwal S.K. is presently Head, Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC, Mumbai. He joined BARC
in 1973 and Homi Bhabha Medal Winner of the 16th batch of BARC Training School. He
obtained his Ph.D. from Mumbai University in 1980 and did his post doctoral research at
University of Virginia, USA. He is a specialist in mass spectrometry and alpha spectrometry.
His other areas of interest are electrochemistry, solvent extraction and X-ray fluorescence. He
is the president of ISEAC.

Alamelu D. joined BARC from the 38th Batch of Training School (Physicis). Since then she has
been working at FCD, BARC. Her research interests include elemental mass spectrometry,
radiometry and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy. She has more than 100 publications to
her credit which includes 25 publications in peer reviewed journals.

Anantharaman K., joined BARC through the 15th batch of Training School in 1972. He has
been working on the development of nuclear fuels for the past three decades. He is responsible
for the design of AHWR fuel and is associated with co-ordination of activities for the AHWR
Fuel Cycle Facility. He has been involved in the thoria fuel cycle studies, advanced fuel (MOX)
design for BWRs and PHWRs.

Anek Kumar graduated from 46th Batch of BARC Training School. He is working in various
aspects of nuclear data processing and sensitivity studies for reactor physics application,
specially, for thorium fuel cycle. He has performed sensitivity studies using different nuclear
data libraries for different reactivity coefficient of AHWR.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

206

Arun Kumar, a Metallurgical Engineering Graduate from B.I.T. Sindri (Ranchi University);
joined the Radiometallurgy Division, BARC in 1973 after completing orientation course from
the16th Batch of BARC Training School. At present he is the Head, Radiometallurgy Division.
His field of specialization is manufacture of plutonium bearing fuel for thermal and fast
reactors, development of novel fuels, and design of fuel manufacturing facilities.

Arvind Kumar graduated from 15th Batch of BARC Training School and joined Theoretical
Physics Division. He has developed codes based on nodal expansion method, which are used
for core analysis of PHWR and AHWR. He has designed the fuel clusters for AHWR
equilibrium core as well as the initial core of AHWR. He has contributed significantly towards
physics design of AHWR for achieving negative void reactivity and self-sustenance in 233U.

Ashok Kumar joined BARC in 1970 after completing one year graduation course in Physics
from the BARC Training School. He has been working in the field of physics design of nuclear
systems and in particular generating nuclear data for use in nuclear technology. He is involved
in the physics design of Compact High Temperature Reactor assimulating exact geometry of
the system in different conditions using the Monte Carlo method.

Banerjee Atindra Mohan joined Chemistry Division of BARC, Mumbai in 2005 after
graduating from 48th batch of BARC Training School. He is involved in the development of
catalyst for sulphuric acid decomposition reaction in thermochemical cycle for hydrogen
generation by water splitting and photocatalytic water splitting. He has 8 publications in
International journals and Symposia/conferences.

Banerjee J. joined Radiometallurgy Division of BARC after graduating from 34th batch BARC
Training School in 1991. His field of interest is in the field of development, fabrication and
out-of-pile thermo-physical property evaluation of nuclear fuel materials for thermal and fast
reactors and of fuel-clad-coolant chemical compatibility.

Banerjee S. obtained B.Tech (Met. Engg.) in 1967 and was awarded Ph.D. (Met. Engg.) in
1974 from IIT, Kharagpur. After graduating from 11th batch of the Training School, BARC, he
joined Metallurgy Division of BARC in 1968. He is internationally well known for his work in
the field of physical metallurgy and materials science, especially in zirconium and titanium
based alloys. Dr. Banerjee has been the recipient of many awards and honours. These include
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award, G. D. Birla Gold Medal, INSA Prize for Materials Science
and many more. Notable among the international awards received by him are Acta
Metallurgica Outstanding Paper Award and Humboldt Research award. Dr. Banerjee is fellow
of Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences, Indian National Academy of Engineering and
National Academy of Sciences. Currently he is serving as Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission and Secretary,
Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.

Advanced Reactors and Applications

 207

Bansal S., is from 36th Batch of BARC Training School. He worked for qualification of the
fuelling machines for 220 MWe PHWRs and design & development of fuel handling system of
AHWR. Currently he is working for design and development of AHWR fuelling machine, fuel
handling channel components and development of high temperature elastomer seal.

Basu Manidipa after graduating from 40th batch of BARC Training School joined the erstwhile
Applied chemistry Division, presently Chemistry Division, and started research work on high
temperature thermochemistry of nuclear fission product compounds. She completed her Ph.D
in the same field. Currently she is engaged in transport and thermochemical studies on metallic
fuels.

Bhagat R.K., is working in Radiometallurgy Division and his area of interest includes,
thermophysical and thermo mechanical Properties of Nuclear Materials, Fuel-clad chemical
compatibility and Development of Metallic Fuels for Fast Reactor.

Bharadwaj Shyamala after graduating from the 20th Batch of BARC joined Chemistry
Division in 1977. She has worked as Guest Scientist at Juelich Research Centre, Juelich,
Germany. Her current interests are in the field of Intermediate Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel
Cells and generation of hydrogen by water splitting by thermochemical and photocatalytic
methods. She has more than 200 publications to her credit, with about 100 publications in
reputed international journals. She has been bestowed with NETZSCH-ITAS Award 2006 for
her contribution in the field of thermodynamics and thermal analysis.

Bhattacharyya K.P., joined Desalination Division, BARC after successfully completing OCES
in chemical engineering. He has been involved in R&D of membrane based separation and
desalination plants. He was associated in design and fabrication of continuous casting
machine assembly for preparation of TFCP RO membranes; in design and construction of
1800 m3/d SWRO plant, NDDP, Kalpakkam and 50 m3/d barge mounted RO desalination unit.

Chafle S.B. joined Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1988 after graduating from the 31st
batch of BARC Training School. He was responsible for the design & commissioning of various
process systems of Critical Facility. He is involved in the design and detailed engineering
coolant systems of Apsara Reactor Upgradation Project, Low Conductivity Water system of
LEHIPA and the coolant systems of proposed 30 MW High Flux Research Reactor.

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Chatterjee Barun joined BARC from 23rd batch of training school. He was involved in
development of PHT system model for nuclear power plant simulator for RAPS-1 and
Simulation model for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) using RELAP5 for safety
analysis. His area of expertise is reactor safety analysis, and studies on thermal hydraulic, Heat
Transfer, Fluid Flow.

Chaturvedi Monesh joined BARC in 2000 from 43rd batch of BARC training school. He is
working mainly for design & development of fuel handling system for AHWR. He contributed in
detail engineering of AHWR fuelling machine and other fuel handling components like snout
plug, ram adaptor, collet joint etc. He also designed Channel Isolation Plug for 540 MWe
PHWR. Currently he is working on design of AHWR under water fuel transfer equipment.

Das D., joined Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1975 following completion of one year
Training School Course. He did his Ph.D.(1985) from Mumbai University. In his 35 years of
research career in BARC, he has worked in diversified areas of high temperature science. Some
of his notable contributions are in thermodynamic evaluation of nuclear fuels, fuel cell
materials, glasses for nuclear waste immobilization, and in the development of high
temperature materials of uranium vapor generator cum processor for the fissile isotope
production.

Dehadraya J.V., Joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC in 1981. He did his Ph.D. in Nuclear
Chemistry in 1998. His field of interest is development of sol gel process for the synthesis and
characterisation of uranium carbide and nitride. Currently he is engaged in the preparation of
(U-Pu)O2 MOX type fuel. He has a number of research journal publications.

Dey P.K. joined BARC in the year 1971 and since then he is associated with the activities of
spent fuel reprocessing of the department. He is having vast experience in construction,
commissioning and operation of reprocessing plants. He is leading a team for development of
an innovative process flow sheet for reprocessing of spent fuel containing three component
system (Pu, U and Th). Presently he is Head of Fuel Reprocessing Division of BARC and is
responsible for operation of all the reprocessing plants of the country. He has been awarded
DAE special contribution award-2006 and group achievement award -2008. He is also
member of many safety committees of DAE.

Dhara Sangita joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC, in 2004 after graduating from 47th bach
of BARC Training School and is currently working in the area of TXRF and EDXRF
applications for trace element determinations in different matrices and solid state chemistry of
alkali metal uranates and their solid solutions. She has 25 publications in international
journals, national and international symposia / conferences.

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Dulera I.V., joined Reactor Engineering Division (RED) in 1987 after graduating from 30th
batch of BARC training school. His field of interest is design and development work related to
advanced nuclear systems and components; and energy related studies especially,
non-electricity applications of nuclear power. Currently he is involved in carrying out design
and development work related to Compact High Temperature Reactor, Nuclear Power Pack,
and Innovative High Temperature Reactor for hydrogen production by splitting water.

Dwivedi D.K., graduated from 50th Batch of BARC Training School and joined Reactor Physics
Design Division, BARC in 2007. His current interests are Physics Design of Advance Reactors
(particularly, High Temperature Reactor), Computational Neutron Transport and Reactor
Kinetics.

Ghosh A. K., joined BARC from 15th batch of BARC Training School. He is currently heading
the Reactor Safety Division of BARC. His areas of expertise include Stress Analysis, Shock and
Vibration Analysis, Structural Dynamics, Earthquake Engineering - Seismic ground motion,
seismic analysis of structures, Seismic isolation, Seismic Risk, Seismic Fragility; Structural
reliability; Analysis of Tsunamis; Heat transfer and fluid flow; Atmospheric dispersion;
Process and Heat exchanger dynamics; Reactor Safety; Analysis of reactor containments;
Probabilistic Safety Analysis; Ageing studies; Reactor Siting.

Gupta A.K. joined BARC through 17th batch of Training School. Since then he is involved in
operation, performance analysis and design improvements of Reprocessing Plants. He is also
involved in the design of new Reprocessing Plants. He is a leading expert in the Design Safety
Evaluation of Reprocessing and Waste Management Plants.

Gupta Anurag graduated from 40th Batch of BARC training school. He was awarded Ph.D. in
Physics from Mumbai University for his research work on “Krylov Subspace Methods in
Reactor Physics”. His research interests are Neutral particle Transport, Computational
Reactor Physics and High Temperature Reactors.

Gupta Pradeep K. , Ph.D. is at Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore, India
and heads its Laser Biomedical Applications and Instrumentation Division & Laser Materials
Development and Devices Division. His research interests include biomedical applications of
lasers, laser materials and use of carbon aerogels for catalytic and desalination applications

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Gupta Satish C. joined BARC in 1972 after graduating from 15th batch of BARC training
school. He has published a large number of publications in international journals. He is a
recipient of prestigious Indian Nuclear Society award and DAE Special Contribution award.
His research interests are in the field of behavior of high energy density matter and response of
materials to dynamic compression at high strain rate using shock wave. Presently he is heading
the Applies Physics Division.

Halder P., joined BARC in 1989 after successful completion of 32nd batch of BARC Training
School. He was involved in the design of Spent Fuel Transport System of 540 MW(e) PHWR.
Presently he is involved in design of Fuelling Machine of AHWR.

Hari Prasad M., is working in BARC and involved in development of Risk Monitor, a software
for Monitoring the risk of NPP, which is being planned to install at KAPS Site. His area of
expertise includes Level 1 PSA Analysis, System Reliability, Level-3 PSA of NPPs.

Jaison P.G., joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC, Mumbai after graduating from 41st Batch
of Training School in 1998. His fields of interest are thermal ionisation mass spectrometry,
liquid chromatography and pre-concentration studies.

Jha K.K., joined Refuelling Technology Division, BARC in 1994 after graduating from 37th
batch of BARC Training School. He was involved in acceptance testing of PHWR Fuelling
Machine (FM). He designed & developed metallic face seal for AHWR FM. Presently, he is
working for design of fuel handling system of Advance Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) viz.
Inclined Fuel Transfer Machine (IFTM) and Oil & Water Hydraulic System for FM Head.

Joshi K.D. joined BARC after graduating from the 36th of BARC training school. He was
awarded the DAE Special Contribution award. He has contributed in about 50 publications in
various journals and conference proceedings. He is involved in theoretical as well as
experimental study of response of material to high pressures.

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Kamath H.S., obtained his B.E (Met. Engg.) from Regional Engineering College, Surathkal
and is from the 13th Batch of, BARC Training School. Presently he is Director, Nuclear Fuels
Group, BARC, Mumbai. He has made pioneering contributions to the field of metallurgy of
plutonium and its application as fuel for research reactors and fast reactors.

Kamble V.S. joined BARC in 1974. He initiated his research career in the area of
heterogeneous catalysis by studying the CO and CO2 adsorption/methanation over supported
metal catalyst and evaluated the role of gamma irradiation in enhancement of catalytic
activity. His current interest lies in the S-I processes for hydrogen production specifically in
development of catalyst for decomposition of H2SO4.

Kannan S. joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC after successful completion of 29th batch of
BARC Training school. His fields of specialization are complex chemistry and solid state
chemistry of actinides. Dr. Kannan has more than 75 international journal publications.

Kannan Umasankari has graduated from the 29th batch of BARC Training School. She is
involved in the physics design of AHWR, lattice physics being her primary field of interest. She
has significant contributions in nuclear data for thorium fuel cycle and has designed several
fuel clusters for irradiation in research reactors. She also has 16 years of teaching experience
in all training schools.

Khardekar R.K. is Head of Targets Laboratory at Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced
Technology (RRCAT) Indore, India. He joined Department of Atomic Energy in 1971. He has
worked in the fields of nuclear fission reactor physics, nuclear fusion technologies, laser
plasma interactions, Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) targets, and in the fields of
nano-materials including photo-luminescent Silicon nano particles and Nd:YAG nano
powders.

Kohli D.K. is working at Targets Laboratory, LMDDD at Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced
Technology (RRCAT) Indore, India. He joined Department of Atomic Energy in 1989. He has
worked on the development of Surgical CO2 laser, CW-Laser power detectors and metallic thin
films. Currently, he is working on the development of Carbon Aerogels for applications such as
water desalination, hydrogen – isotope separation and hydrogen storage.

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Kolay Siddhartha joined Chemistry Division, BARC after graduating from 50th batch BARC
Training School. He started research work on diffusion study of nuclear fission products.
Currently he is engaged in transport and thermochemical studies on metallic fuels.

Krishnani P.D., is working in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre since 1974. He currently Heads
Reactor Physics Design Division of BARC. He has developed a number of lattice analysis
codes for PWRs, BWRs, HTRs and PHWRs. He has contributed towards the study of utilization
of thorium and MOX fuel in TAPS-1/2 as well as 220 MWe PHWR. Presently, He is associated
with the physics design of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor, Compact High Temperature
Reactor and Innovative High Temperature Reactor for Hydrogen production.

Kulkarni Milind P., joined BARC in 1988 after successful completion of 31st batch of BARC
Training School. He is involved in various R&D and testing for 540MWe PHWR including
Design of Shuttle transfer Station. He is also involved in Design of Inclined Fuel Transfer
Machine for AHWR. Currently he is working in Target development for ADS.

Lele H.G., graduated from 19th batch of BARC Training School and is currently working in
Reactor Safety Division, BARC. His fields of research are experimental and analytical
simulation of phenomena related to thermal hydraulics of nuclear reactors. He has vast
experience of 33 years in development, validation and application of thermal hydraulic safety
evaluation computer codes for different Indian nuclear reactors. He has more than 150
publications in national and international journals.

Mammen S., joined BARC in 1985 after graduating from the 28th batch of BARC training
school. Earlier he had worked in Dhruva reactor. Subsequently he was involved in design &
commissioning of various reactor systems of Critical Facility. He is presently working as Head,
Project Planning and Co-ordination Section of RRDPD and is responsible for planning,
co-ordination and monitoring of various activities related to the projects of Reactor Group.

Misra N.L. joined BARC, Mumbai in the year 1983 and has been working in the area of
application of X-ray Spectrometry: mainly TXRF, EDXRF and WDXRF for trace and major
element determinations in nuclear, environmental, forensic and strategic matrices. Another
area of his research is solid state chemistry. He worked as a Post Doc. Fellow at Paul Scherrer
Institute, Switzerland during 2000 to 2001. Presently he is a member of editorial board of the
journal “X-ray Spectrometry”. He has published about 75 papers in international journals,
national and international conferences.

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Mukerjee S.K. joined Department of Atomic Energy after graduating from 24th batch of BARC
Training School. He has been mainly associated with the development of ceramic materials for
application in nuclear technology. He has extensively studied sol-gel processing of nuclear
materials for advanced fuel fabrication. He has obtained PhD in the year 1993. He has more
than 70 scientific publications.

Mukhopadhyay D., joined BARC after graduating from 34th batch of training school. He was
involved in developing process Design for Leak Test facility, Channel Heatup facility, Fuel
Coolant Interaction and Blowdown Test Setup. His area of interest includes Safety and Severe
Accident Analysis and experimentation.

Pai Mrinal R. joined BARC after graduating from 40th batch of BARC Training School. She
initiated her research activities in field of catalysis. She has 17 publications in international
journals. She is a recipient of TA instruments ITAS- Young Scientist Award 2008 for her
contribution in investigating thermo physical properties of vast number of oxide catalysts using
TPDRO and other techniques.

Pai Rajesh V. joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC after graduating from the 40th batch of
BARC Training School in the year 1997. He is mainly associated with the development of
sol-gel process for nuclear materials and high technology ceramics. He has developed
Microsphere Impregnation Technique, and established a process flow sheet to obtain defect
free high density (Th,U)O2 pellets containing 3-4 mole% of uranium suitable for AHWR type of
reactors.

Parab A.R. is working in Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC for more than three decades. His
scientific interest is in the area of thermal ionisation mass spectrometry & alpha spectrometry
for Isotopic Composition and Concentration of various elements which are important in
Nuclear Technology. He is a coauthor of more than 70 research publications in various
journals.

Patel R.J. joined BARC in 1979. He has contributed in the design and development of systems
for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors. Presently he is responsible for the design of Fuel
Handling System for AHWR and Inclined Fuel Transfer Machine for PFBR. He is actively
involved in design safety review of different reactors and other nuclear facilities. He is a
receipient of Technical excellence award and Group achievement awards.

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Prabhakar S. joined 16th batch BARC Training School in and later obtained Ph.D from
Mumbai University. His experience in pressure driven membrane processes is unique
encompassing the entire membrane life-cycle. Presently he is working in Desalination Division
and engaged in the development of capillary and tubular membrane based systems for UF and
NF application.

Prasad C.S.R., Head, Chemical Technology Division, BARC, joined through 17th batch of
Training School in 1974. He has been involved in indigenous development of front-end process
technologies of nuclear cycle including Fluorine Technology. His current research interests
include design and development of Nuclear based Thermo chemical Processes for production
of hydrogen from water.

Pushpam Neelima Prasad graduated from 32nd Batch of BARC Training School and joined
RED in 1989 and since then she is associated with the physic design of AHWR. She carried out
all the design calculations and safety analysis for the Critical Facility. She carried out the
optimization of AHWR core for achieving self-sustaining characteristics in Th-233U fuel cycle.

Raha A., is presently working in the Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
on low-temperature evaporation desalination for low grade and waste heat utilization, zero
liquid discharge desalination process and nuclear desalination systems. His research interests
include hybrid and advanced desalination systems.

Raina V.K., Director, Reactor Group, joined BARC in 1971 after graduating from the 14th
batch of BARC Training School. He is responsible for management of operating research
reactors of BARC. He is responsible for construction, commissioning of new research reactors
and upgradation of existing research rectors. He is also involved the design and operational
safety review of power reactors and other nuclear installations.

Ram Sankar P. obtained his M.Sc. in Chemistry from Bharathidasan University. He is

working as a scientific officer in Chemical Treatment Facility, Proton Linac &
Superconducting Cavities Division at Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced Technology,
Indore, India. His current research interests are deposition of various metallic coatings and its
characterisation by electrochemical methods.

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Rana D.S., joined BARC in 1972 after successfully completing 15th Batch of BARC Training
School. Currently, Chief Design Engineer in NRG, his areas of responsibility include design,
engineering, construction and commissioning of radio-chemical plants including waste
management plants. He specializes in development of materials for back-end fuel cycle and
regulatory reviews of radio-chemical plants. He is an expert in engineering consultancy and
contracts management.

Rao I.S., is working in the Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
His research interests include thermal desalination, low-grade and waste-heat utilization,
nuclear desalination and hybrid desalination system.

Roy Shyamal, joined BARC in 1981. He acquired through knowledge of Fuelling Handling
System for Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR). He has been instrumental in developing
important man-rem saving tools. He was also engaged in establishing the Gas Gun facility and
propellant gas facility in India. Presently he is engaged in detail engineering of fuel storage bay
for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor.

Saha Dilip, after completing 15th batch of BARC Training School, joined Reactor Engineering
Division in 1972. Ever since he has been involved in research and development work in the
area of thermal hydraulics and safety of nuclear reactor systems. Right from its inception, Shri
Saha has been involved in the design and development of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor.
Currently, he is Head of Reactor Engineering Division, BARC.

Sanjay Kumar S. joined BARC, Tarapur in the year 1987. He has been involved in
metallographic studies of PHWR and BWR fuel end plug welds and pellets for their
qualification. He joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC, Mumbai in the year 2006 and now he
is working in the area of Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence of nuclear materials.

Sant V. L. is specialized in the field of solid-state mass spectrometry and involved in chemical
quality control (CQC) of nuclear fuels and other high purity nuclear grade materials. His other
sphere of activity comprises utilization of g and a spectrometry, determination of burn-up of
uranium and thorium based fuels and recovery of Pu from the scrap/wastes.

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Sanyasi Rao V.V.S. graduated from 17th batch of BARC Training School in 1973 and obtained
his Ph.D. in Physics, from Mumbai University, in 1998. His research interests include Common
Cause failure modeling, Human Reliability Analysis, Uncertainty Analysis, Probabilistic
Safety Analysis, level 3 PSA and application of PSA techniques to risk informed decision
making. Dr. Sanyasi Rao is presently involved in aging related studies of control and
instrumentation cables and equipment that are used in nuclear power plants.

Sasi Bhushan K., after completion of Category - I training joined Fuel Chemistry Division,
BARC, Mumbai in 2006. Since then he has been actively involved in the analysis of isotopic
composition and the concentration determination of various elements at trace levels by
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry.

Sasidharan K., Head, Research Reactor Design & Projects Division, joined BARC in 1974
after graduating from the 17th batch of BARC Training School. He is responsible for the design,
construction & commissioning of new research reactors and upgradation of existing research
reactors. He is also involved in the design safety review of power reactor projects.

Sengupta A.K., has joined Radiometallurgy Division, BARC after completion of the 17th batch
of Training School, BARC in the year 1974. He is specialised in the evaluation of fuels and
structural materials based on thermo physical and thermo chemical properties. His current
interest is development of metallic fuels for fast reactors.

Sengupta Samiran is from the 1st batch of orientation course for engineering postgraduates
(OCEP) from BARC Training School. He is working in Research Reactor Design & Projects
Division. He is presently involved in design of LCW system of LEHIPA project and design &
thermal hydraulic analysis of process systems of 30 MW High Flux Research Reactor.

Shah Raju V. joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC, in 2006 after completion of Category –I
training. He is involved in the thermal ionization mass spectrometric analysis of nuclear
materials.

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Sharma Girdhar joined BARC in 2002. He is involved in design of various fuel handling and
Reactor In-Service Inspection related activities and developed high temperature metallic
radial seal element and special sealing plug and SSAP adaptor for BARCIS-540. He has
written a multi-body dynamics code for simulation and control.

Shirole Archana joined Chemistry Division BARC after completion of Category-I training.
She is involved in development of catalyst for sulphuric acid decomposion reaction in
thermochemical cycle for hydrogen generation by water splitting and Photocatalytic water
splitting.

Shirsat A.N. joined Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1994. His research areas cover high
temperature thermochemistry of fission products, thermal transport properties of xenon,
iodine and tellurium in oxide fuel matrices and materials of solid oxide fuel cell.

Shivakumar V., joined BARC through the 35th batch of Training School in 1992. He joined
Reactor Engineering Division of BARC and has been working in the area of nuclear fuel design
and fuel cycle related activities and involved in studies related to in-pile behavior of thoria
based fuel, fuel development for AHWR and fuel irradiation experiments.

Singh M.K., working at Targets Laboratory, LMDDD at Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced
Technology (RRCAT) Indore, India. He has worked as process engineer in Heavy Water Plant-
Kota and development of high power Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser in RRCAT. Currently, he
is working on the development of Carbon Aerogels for applications such as water desalination,
hydrogen – isotope separation and hydrogen storage.

Singh Rashmi is working at Targets Laboratory, LMDDD at Raja Ramanna Center for
Advanced Technology (RRCAT) Indore. She is working on the development of carbon aerogels
and metal loaded carbon aerogels and their characterization. These materials have potential
use in many applications such as water desalination, hydrogen – isotope separation and
hydrogen storage.

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Sinha P.K., B.E. (Chemical Engineering) joined Beryllium Pilot Plant, BARC in 1985. He has
worked in development of beryllium technology in India and made an outstanding contribution
in powder metallurgy of beryllium. He is currently heading Energy Conversion Material
Section, Materials Group, BARC. His area of interest involves the development of composite
materials and shape forming through powder metallurgy route. In recognition of his
contribution towards beryllium technology, he was conferred with Special contribution Award
in 2008.

Sinha R.K., Director, BARC joined Reactor Engineering Division of BARC in 1973 after
graduating from 16th batch of Training School. He has handled wide variety of engineering
projects related to degradation modelling, inspection, repair, life extension and rehabilitation
of coolant channels, calandria internals and other reactor systems of PHWRs. He has been
guiding design and development activities related to mainly thorium fuelled Advanced Heavy
Water Reactor (AHWR). He has initiated design of Compact High Temperature Reactor
(CHTR).

Srivastava V.K., is working in Desalination Division, BARC. His research interests include
membrane technologies and thermal technologies for desalination and water reuse,
separation technologies for industrial separation and process stream concentration, water
management and augmentation of water resources. He is a recipient of an Indo-US Science &
Technology Fellowship. He has more than 50 research publications to his credit in journals,
proceedings and books.

Telmore Vijay M. joined Fuel Chemistry Division, BARC in 2006 after completing Category –I
Training. Since then he has been actively involved in the field of separation of lanthanides and
actinides using high performance liquid chromatography.

Tewari P.K. completed PhD in Chemical Engineering from IIT, Bombay and is presently the
Head of Desalination Division, BARC and Professor, HBNI. He is providing expert services to
IAEA for sea water desalination through coordinated research programmes. He has provided
consultancy services to a number of organizations on desalination & water reuse. He has more
than 150 research publications. He is the recipient of IDA award and Hari Om prerit
S.S.Bhatnagar award on desalination.

Thangamani I., joined BARC from 12th batch of OCEP training school. He was involved in
development of code for power plant steam condenser dynamics and development of thermal
hydraulic condensation model for reactor containment His area of interest include studies on
Containment Thermal hydraulics, steam condensation, thermal stress analysis.

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Tripathi A.K. joined Chemistry Division, BARC, in 1984 after graduating from 27th Batch of
BARC Training School. His research interests include supported metal catalysts, host-guest
chemistry in micro/mesoporous molecular sieves hosts, entrapment of nanosized oxides in
mesoporous materials and evaluation of their catalytic/photocatalytic behavior towards
reactions of environmental importance. Presently, he is actively engaged in studies related to
catalyst development for various steps of S-I thermochemical cycle for hydrogen production.

Venugopal V. joined the Department of Atomic Energy in the year 1971 from 14th Batch of
Training School. He is currently the Director, Radiochemistry & Isotope Group. He is a
specialist in the field of high temperature thermodynamics and chemical quality control of Pu
based fuels. He has been honoured with NETZSCH-ITAS award and ISCAS award for his
outstanding contributions in the field of thermal science and solid state chemistry, respectively.
He is presently the President of ITAS, IANCAS.

Verma Vishnu joined BARC from 35th batch of training school. He was involved in design and
analysis of Vitrified Waste Storage Facility at Kalpakkam and also on design, fabrication and
commissioning of Containment Studies. His area of interest includes Thermal hydraulic
analysis in Reactor Safety, Analysis of transportation casks for lead melting due to accident in
case of FIRE using CFD code, Condensation heat transfer, FAC, Thermo-mechanical
analysis.

Vinod Gopika joined with Reactor Safety Division, BARC after graduating from 37th batch of
Training School. She received her Ph.D from Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. She has
been actively involved in Reliability, Safety and Risk analysis of Indian Nuclear Power Plants.
Her other areas of research activities include risk informed in-service inspection, reliability of
computer based systems.

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Author Index

Adak, A. K. . . . . . . . . 175 Kulkarni, M. P. . . . . . . 103

Aggarwal, S. K. . . . . . . 14, 20 Lele, H. G.. . . . . . . . . 113
Alamelu, D. . . . . . . . . 14 Mammen, S. . . . . . . . . 122
Anantharaman, K. . . . . . 89 Misra, N. L. . . . . . . . . 20
Anek Kumar.. . . . . . . . 128 Mukerjee, S. K. . . . . . . 27
Arun Kumar. . . . . . . . . 40, 89 Mukhopadhyay, D. . . . . 113
Arvind Kumar. . . . . . . . 95, 128 Pai, M. R. . . . . . . . . . 193, 200
Ashok Kumar. . . . . . . . 144 Pai, Rajesh. V. . . . . . . . 27
Banerjee, A. M. . . . . . . 193, 200 Parab, A. R. . . . . . . . . 14
Banerjee, J.. . . . . . . . . 40 Patel, R. J. . . . . . . . . . 103
Banerjee, S. . . . . . . . . 49 Prabhakar, S. . . . . . . . . 157
Bansal, S. . . . . . . . . . 103 Prasad, C. S. R. . . . . . . 185
Basu, M. (Ali). . . . . . . . 34 Pushpam, Neelima. Prasad. 128
Bhagat, R. K.. . . . . . . . 40 Raha, A. . . . . . . . . . . 164
Bharadwaj, S. R. . . . . . . 193, 200 Raina, V. K. . . . . . . . . 122
Bhattacharyya, K. P. . . . . 157 Ramshankar, P. . . . . . . 180
Chafle, S. B. . . . . . . . . 122 Rana, D. S. . . . . . . . . . 89
Chatterjee, B. . . . . . . . 113 Rao, I. S. . . . . . . . . . . 164
Chaturvedi, M. . . . . . . . 103 Roy, S. . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Das, D.. . . . . . . . . . . 34, 200 Saha, Dilip . . . . . . . . . 55, 136
Dehadraya, J. V. . . . . . . 27 Sanjay Kumar, S. . . . . . 20
Dey, P.K.. . . . . . . . . . 1 Sant, V. L. . . . . . . . . . 14
Dhara, Sangita.. . . . . . . 20 Sanyasi Rao, V. V. S. . . . 113
Dulera, I. V. . . . . . . . . 136, 185 Sasibhushan, K. . . . . . . 14
Dwivedi, D. K.. . . . . . . 144 Sasidharan, K. . . . . . . . 122
Ghosh, A. K. . . . . . . . 113 Sengupta, A. K. . . . . . . 40
Gopika, V. . . . . . . . . . 113 Sengupta, Samiran. . . . . 122
Gupta, A. K. . . . . . . . . 89 Shah, R. V.. . . . . . . . . 14
Gupta, Anurag.. . . . . . . 144 Sharma, G. . . . . . . . . . 103
Gupta, P. K. . . . . . . . . 180 Shirole, A. R. . . . . . . . 200
Gupta, Satish. C. . . . . . . 49 Shirsat, A. N. . . . . . . . 34
Halder, P. . . . . . . . . . 103 Shivakumar, V. . . . . . . 89
Hari Prasad, M. . . . . . . 113 Singh, M. K. . . . . . . . . 180
Jaison, P. G. . . . . . . . . 14 Singh, Rashmi. . . . . . . . 180
Jha, K. K. . . . . . . . . . 103 Sinha, P. K. . . . . . . . . 200
Joshi, K. D. . . . . . . . . 49 Sinha, Ratan. Kumar. . . . 55, 66, 95, 136
Srivastava, V. K. . . . . . . 164, 175
Kamath, H. S. . . . . . . . 40
Kamble, V. S. . . . . . . . 200 Telmore, V. M. . . . . . . 14
Kannan, S. . . . . . . . . . 20 Tewari, P. K. . . . . . . . . 149, 157, 164, 175
Kannan, Umasankari. . . . 128 Thangamani, I. . . . . . . . 113
Khardekar, R. K. . . . . . . 180 Tripathi, A. K. . . . . . . . 193, 200
Kohli, D. K. . . . . . . . . 180 Venugopal, V. . . . . . . . 14, 20
Kolay, Siddhartha . . . . . 34 Verma, V. . . . . . . . . . 113
Krishnani, P. D. . . . . . . 78, 95, 128, 144

Advanced Reactors and Applications