Module – 2:

MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
& INTERFACING : INTEL x86
• Timer is a specialized type of device that is used to measure timing
intervals.
• Timers can be categorized into two main types:
– A timer which counts upwards from zero for measuring elapsed
time is often called a stopwatch
– a device which counts down from a specified time interval is
more usually called a timer.
• Timers may be designed in software or in hardware.
• When the microprocessor needs to generate a time delay, the
processor can elapse time simply using a delay routine.
• When a specialized IC is used for the generation of delays and
waveforms of different frequencies, microprocessor becomes free
from these tasks and this minimizes the software overhead of the
processor.
• Computer systems usually have at least one hardware timer.
• These are typically digital counters that either increment or
decrement at a fixed frequency, which is often configurable, and
which interrupt the processor on reaching zero.
• 8253 is one such hardware timer.
 What is 8253 Timer?
• Intel 8253 programmable Timer/ counter is a specially designed chip for
Intel microcomputer applications which require timing and counting
operations.
• Designed for being compatible with INTEL microprocessors like
8085,8086, 80X86..
• 8254 is an advanced version of 8253.
• 8253/8254 are programmable using three 16-bit counters.
• Each counter has 2 input pins, Clock & Gate, and 1 pin for “OUT” output.
• To operate a counter, a 16-bit count is loaded in its register.
• On command, it begins to decrement the count until it reaches 0, then it
generates a pulse that can be used to interrupt the CPU.
• It has three independent 16-bit down counters.
• It can handle inputs clocks upto 10 MHz.
• These three counters can be programmed for either hexadecimal or
BCD count.
• It is compatible with almost all microprocessors.
• 8254 has a powerful command called READ BACK command, which
allows the user to check the count value, the programmed mode,
the current mode, and the current status of the counter.
 8253
• The timers are basically 16 - bit down counters that counts at HIGH
to LOW transition of the CLK input.
• Each timer may be programmed to operate in one of the six modes,
independent of the mode of operation of the other two timers.
• The timers are software programmable.
• Each counter can be programmed separately to divide the input
frequency by a number from 1 to 65536 (216)
Functional Block diagram of 8253
Pin Diagram and Address Decoding
• Data Bus buffer is a tri-state bidirectional buffer that communicates
with CPU whenever 𝐶𝑆 (Chip Select) is low.
• Data is transmitted or received by executing the OUT PORT and IN
PORT instructions.
• The functions of Data bus buffer are
1. Programming the counters through the control words
2. Writing count to the counters
3. Reading the count value from timers.
 Control Register
• The control word register is used to program the timers in different
modes and control their operations.
• It is selected when A0 and A1 pins are 1,1. If 𝐶𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑅 are low, it
accepts information from the data bus buffer and stores it in control
word register.
• The word stored in CR controls the operation mode of each counter,
selection of hexadecimal or BCD counting and loading of each
count register.
• This register can be written into only no read operation of this
content is available
 Counters
• Each of the timers has three pins associated with it. Clock (CLK)
input, gate (GATE) control input and output (OUT).
• CLK - This clock input causes the timer to decrement. Counters
operate at HIGH to LOW transition (the negative edge) of this clock
input.
• GATE - The gate input pin is used to initiate or enable counting.
The exact effect of the gate signal depends on which of the six
modes of operation is chosen.
• OUTPUT- The output pin provides an output from the timer. Its
actual use depends on the mode of operation of the timer. The
counter can be read “on the fly” without inhibiting gate pulse or
clock input.
Operations for Various Control Inputs
Control Word Format
 Modes of 8253
1. Mode 0 – Interrupt on Terminal Count
2. Mode 1 – Programmable Mono shot
3. Mode 2 – Rate Generator
4. Mode 3 – Square wave Generator
5. Mode 4 – S/w triggered Strobe
6. Mode 5 – H/w triggered Strobe
• Output is initially low after the mode is set.
• Output remains low even after the count value is loaded in the
counter.
• Counter starts decrementing after the falling edge of the
clock, if the GATE input is high.
• Output will remain low until the Counter reaches zero.
• OUT then goes high and remains high until a new count or a new
Mode 0 Control Word is written into the Counter.
• Whenever there is a rising edge at the gate, the counter starts down
counting. The output of the counter goes low and remains low during
down counting. The output is low for the no. of clock pulses whose value
is loaded in counter.
• OUT will then go high and remain high until the next count is loaded or a
trigger is applied.
• If a new count value is lowed while the output is low, it will not affect the
period of one shot pulse until the succeeding trigger.
• The one shot is retriggerable, hence the output will remain low for the full
count value after any rising edge of the gate input
• This Mode functions like a divide-by-N counter.
• OUT will initially be high. When the initial count has decremented to 1, OUT goes
low for one CLK pulse.
• OUT then goes high again, the Counter reloads the initial count and the process
is repeated.
• Mode 2 is periodic; the same sequence is repeated indefinitely. For an initial
count of N, the sequence repeats every N CLK cycles.
• Mode 3 is similar to Mode 2 except for the duty cycle of OUT signal.
• OUT will initially be high. When half the initial count has expired, OUT goes low
for the remainder of the count.
• Mode 3 is periodic; the sequence above is repeated indefinitely. An initial count of
N results in a square wave with a period of N CLK cycles.
• If the loaded count value N is odd, for (N+1)/2 pulses, OUT remains high and for
(N-1)/2 pulses, it is low.
• OUT will be initially high. When the initial count expires, OUT will go low
for one CLK pulse and then go high again.
• Similar to Mode 2, except that the counter is not reloaded automatically,
count has to be reloaded.
• OUT will initially be high.
• Counting is triggered by a rising edge of GATE.
• When the initial count has expired, OUT will go low for one CLK pulse and
then go high again.
• After writing the Control Word and initial count, the counter will not be
loaded until the CLK pulse after a trigger.
• Memory is device used to store the information or data

• Most of the memories used are semiconductor memories

because of their small size, high speed, reliability and low
cost

• It consist of mostly flip flops and some other additional

circuits for buffers
• Memory capacity
• The no of bits that a memory can store is called its capacity

• Memory organization
– Each memory chip contains 2N memory locations, where N is
the no of address pin on the chip

– Each location contains M bits, where M is the no of data pins

on the chip
– The entire chip will contain 2N X M bits
Address pins
• Address Lines: The input lines that select a memory
location within the memory device.
• Decoders are used, inside the memory chip, to select a
specific location
• The number of address pins on a memory chip
specifies the number of memory locations.
Address pins
Data pins
• The data pins are typically bi- directional in read-write
memories.
• The number of data pins is related to the size of the
memory location.
• For example, an 8-bit wide (byte-wide) memory device
has 8 data pins
• The number of data lines (m-bits) determines the size of
each location in the memory.
Enable Lines:
• All memory devices have at least one Chip Select () or Chip
Enable () input, used to select or enable the memory device.
• If a device is not selected or enabled then no data can
be read from, or written into it.
• The input is usually controlled by the microprocessor through
the higher address lines via an address decoding circuit.
Control Lines:

• RAM chips have two control input signals that specify the type
of memory operation: the Read () and the Write ()
signals.

• Some RAM chips have a common Read/ Write (R/) signal.

• ROM chips can perform only memory read operations

• If the microprocessor has ‘n’ address lines, then it is possible
to address 2n =N memory locations.

• If only P memory locations are to be interfaced, then least

significant p address lines out of n lines are required

• The remaining (n-p) higher order address lines may be

used to generate chip select signal using decoding circuit
Address decoding
• In general all the address lines are not used by the
memory devices to select particular memory location

• The remaining lines are used to generate chip select logic

• Two commonly used techniques for decoding address are

1) Absolute or full decoding
2) Partial or linear decoding
Full Decoding
• All of the higher address lines are decoded to select memory
chip, and the chip is selected only for the specified

Partial Decoding
• All the address lines are not used to generate chip select,
basically used in small systems
• Individual high order address lines are used to decode the chip
select for the memory chips using less hardware
• Disadvantages: Each memory location has more than one
address called roll-over addresses (fold back or shading)
• Used to perform some very useful functions, such as displaying data
to monitor, reading data from keyboard.

• Used by identifying the interrupt option type, which is the value

stored in register AH.
MS-DOS and the PC’s BIOS provide a
software connection between Application program
application program and the
underlying hardware
DOS Support
One can access the IBM PC system
hardware at one of three general
levels from assembly language BIOS Support
1. Program the hardware directly
2. Use ROM BIOS routines
3. Use MS-DOS calls I/O peripheral Devices
• MS-DOS provides all of the basic file manager and device
manager functions (required by most application programs)
• MS-DOS handles
– file I/O,
– character I/0,
– memory management, and other miscellaneous function

• MS-DOS is called via the int 21h instruction

• To select an appropriate DOS function, load ah register with a
function number before issuing the int 21h instruction
• Most DOS calls require other parameters as well
• Other parameters are passed in the CPU’s register set
• When MS-DOS is loaded in the computer INT 21H is used to provide an
interrupt to perform some important functions.
• These are called DOS INT 21H function calls.
• Main function calls are data input/output through keyboard
• Example:

1. Option 1- Input a single character from keyboard

Register used:
AH=1
AL= the character inputted from keyboard
Ex:
MOV AH, 01 – option to input one character
INT 21H -invoke interrupt
• Option 2- output a single character to the monitor
• Register used:
AH =2
DL = character to be displayed

EX:
MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, ‘A’
INT 21H
• Option 9: output a string of data terminated by $ to the
monitor.
• Register used:
• AH=9
• DX = offset address of data to be displayed
Ex:
• MOV AH,09 ;option 9 to display string of data
• MOV DX, OFFSET mess1
• INT 21H ; invoke the interrupt
• Option 4CH: Terminate a process, by returning control to a
parent process or to DOS.
• Register used:
• AH=4CH
• AL= binary return code
Ex:
• MOV AH,4CH ;
• INT 21H ;
• To call a BIOS routine, one use one of the80x86’s int software
interrupt instructions
• The int instruction uses the following syntax: int value
• Value is some number in the range 0..255.
• Execution will cause the 80x86 to transfer control to one of 256
different interrupt handlers
• The interrupt vector table, starting at physical memory location 0:0,
holds the addresses of these interrupt handlers
• Each address is a full segmented address, requiring four bytes
• int 0 transfers control to the routine whose address is at location 0:0
• int 1 transfers control to the routine whose address is at 0:4
• int 2 via 0:8
• int 3via 0:C, and
• int 4 via 0:10

• The IBM PC BIOS uses software interrupts 5 and 10h..1Ah to

accomplish various operations
• Therefore, the int 5, and int 10h.. int 1ah instructions provide the
interface to BIOS
INT Function
• 5h Print Screen operation
• 10h Video display services
• 11h Equipment determination
• 12h Memory size determination
• 13h Diskette and hard disk services
• 14h Serial I/O services
• 15h Miscellaneous services
• 16h Keyboard services
• 17h Printer services
• 18h BASIC
• 19h Reboot
• 1Ah Real time clock services.
• The INT 10H BIOS of the 8086 are used to communicate with the user
through the screen.

• Manipulation of screen text is done through INT 10H

• Example  changing colors of characters, background, changing

cursor locations, clearing screen.
• It Controls The Video Display
• Function Call 00: Select Video Mode

• Input Parameter:
• AH = 00H
• AL = Mode Number

• Function: It Changes The Display Mode And Clears The Screen

• AL = 00 40 X 25 Black And White
• AL = 04 320 X 200 Color
• AL= 10 640 X 350 X 16 Color
Example 1
 Example 2
• What instructions are needed to program Counter 0 for BCD
counting in mode 4? Initial count is 4788H.
• Solution :
Control Word = 00 11 100 1 = 39H
• Counter 0 LSB & MSB Mode 4 BCD
• MOV AL,39H
• OUT CWR,AL
• MOV AL,88
• OUT Counter0,AL ; Counter0 =8-bit address of counter0
• MOV AL,47
• OUT Counter0,AL
 Example 3
• What instructions are needed to program Counter 2 for binary counting in
mode1, with an initial count of A0H?
• Solution
• Control Word = 10 01 001 0 (92H)
• Program
• MOV AL, 92H
• OUT CWR,AL ; CWR= Address of Control Register
• MOV AL,0A0H
• OUT Counter2,AL ; Counter2 = 8-bit address of counter2