Course Code : AEN 403

Course Title : Farm Structures and Surveying

Credit Hours : 3(2+1) Full Marks: 75 Theory: 50 Practical: 25

A. Lecture
S. N. Topic No. of Lectures
1. Introduction: Definition of surveying, classification, units of measurement, scale (graphical and shrunk 2
scale), conventional signs
2. Chain survey: methods of linear measurement (pacing, mileage, recorder, taping), types of chains and 4
tapes, ranging (direct and indirect), chaining on sloping ground, chain triangulation, survey lines,
offset, obstacles in chaining, and plotting
3. Compass survey: introduction, meridians, angles and directions, bearing, interior angles, types of 3
compass, use of prismatic compass, traversing, local attraction, and plotting traverse.
4. Definition, objective, principle, Leveling instruments, Temporary adjustment, Methods of leveling; 3
Booking and reducing levels (Height of Instrument and Rise Fall Method)
5. Contour (Introduction, characteristics), Topographic map and its uses 1
6. Construction materials used in the construction of agricultural structures; bricks, cement, sand, gravel, 3
timber, steel, CGI sheet, thatch, concrete, and Mortar, RCC, PCC, centering and shuttering
7. Components of farm buildings: Foundation, walls, floors, roof, openings (door &windows), beam and 2
column
8. Selection and Planning of Farmstead and thermal insulation and ventilation process and principle in 2
farm buildings.
9. Planning, layout and functional requirements of: Dairy cattle house; Poultry house; Swine house. 4
10. Sizing and Structural Details of Grain storage; Feed and fodder storage structure: Bag and Bulk Storage 3
Structures, Silo, trench, pit and tower silo; Functional requirements and constructional details of Green
House and Poly-House
11. Cost estimation: 3
a. Types and estimate (Approximate and detailed)
b. Procedure of preparing detail estimate of agricultural structures.
c. Analysis of rate.
Total 30

B. Practical
S. N. Topic sNo. of Practical
1. Concept of drawings, orthographic projections 1
2. Planning and layout of dairy cattle, poultry and swine housing 2
3. Planning and layout of Feed and fodder storage structure and Green House and Poly-House 2
3. Preparation of detailed quantity and cost estimate of a farm building 2
4. Working out quantities of materials 1
5. Working out areas based on: 2
1) Direct measurement on ground and
2)Drawing measurement applying graphical and instrumental method
6. Chain surveying 1
7. Surveying of a given plot of land and preparing map at suitable scale 1
8. Leveling: Instrument handling; profile leveling/longitudinal sectioning 2
9. Contour map; concept of drawings, orthographic projections 1
Total 15

REFERENCES
C.Punmia, Ashok. Kr. Jain and Arun Kr. Jain. 2005. Higher Surveying. 15th Ed. Laxmi Publications.
S. Kumar. 2008. Building Construction. Standard Publishers and Distributors.
Nepal National Building Code 201, 202, 203, Department of Buildings, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
Farm Buildings in Punjab by A.P. Bhatnagar. Punjab Agricultural University Publication Farm Building Design by
Neubaur L.W. Prentice-Hall Ltd. India
 paras-
taneja.blospo
t.in
By

Dr. B.C. PUNM IA

Formerly,
Professor and Head, Deptt. of Civil Engineeri ng, &
(VOLUME I) Dean, Faculty of Engineeri ng
M.B.M. Engineeri ng College,
Jodhpur

Er. ASHOK KUMAR JAIN Dr. ARUN KUMAR JAIN

Director, Assistant Professor
Arihant Consultan ts, M.B.M. Engineer ing College,
Jodhpur Jodhpur

SIXTEENTH EDITIO N

(Thoro ughly Revise d and Enlarg ed)

LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD

BANGALORE e CHENNAI e COCHIN e GUWAHATI e HYDERABAD
JALANDHAR e KOLKAT A e LUCKNOW e MUMBAI e RANCHI e NEW DELHI
INDIA e USA • GHANA e KENYA

......_
fl!
- I:!
i SI X

!!
Contents
PREFACE TO TilE SIXTEENTH EDITION
In !he Sixteenth Edition, !he subject matter has been thoroughly revised, updated and CHAYI'ER I FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
rearranged. In each chapter, many new articles have been added. ·Three new Chapters have I
1.1. SURV~YING : OBJECT
been added at !he end of !he book : Chapter 22 on 'Tacheomelric Surveying'. Chapter 1.2. PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF I
SURVEY
13 on 'Electronic Theodolites' and Chapter 24 on 'Electro-magnetic Disrance Measurement 1.3. CLASSIFiCATION 3
(EDM)'. All !he diagrams have been redrawn using computer graphics and !he book has 1.4. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING 4

been computer type-set in bigger fonnat keeping in pace with the modern trend. Account 1.5. UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS s
1.6. PLANS AND MAPS 8
has been taken throughout of !he suggestions offered by many users of !he book and grateful
1.7. SCALES .8
acknowledgement is made to !hem. The authors are thankful to Shri M.S. Gahlot for !he
1.8. PLAIN SCALE 10
fine Laser type setting done by him. The Authors are also thankful Shri R.K. Gupta. II
1.9. DIAGONAL SCALE
Managing Director Laxmi Publications. for laking keen interest in publication of !he book 1.10. THE VERNIER 12
and bringing it out nicely and quickly. 1.11. MICROMETER MICROSCOPES 18
1.12 SCALE OF CHORDS 19
Jodhpur 1.13 ERROR DUE TO USE OF WRONG SCALE 20
B.C. PUNMIA
Mabaveer Jayanti 1.14. SHRUNK SCALE 21
ASHOK K. JAIN 1.15. 22
SURVEYING - CHARACI'ER OF WORK
lsi July, 2005 ARUN K. JAIN
CIIAYI'ER 2 ACCURACY AND ERRORS
2.1. GENERAL '1:1
2.2. SOURCES OF ERRORS '1:1
2.3. KINDS OF ERRORS 28
2.4. TIIEORY OF PROBABILITY 29
ACCURACY IN SURVEYING ERROR 3()
2..5. PERMISSmLE
2.6. ERRORS IN COMPUI'ED RESULTS 31
CHAPTER 3 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
3.1. DIFFERENT METHODS 37
3.2. DIRECT MEASUREMENTS 37
3.3. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING 38
RA..'IJG!t-;G OL-; S0RVEY U.NJ;.s 46
3.5. CIWNING 49
3.6. MEASUREMENT OF LENGfH WITH TilE HELP OF A TAPE so
3.7. ERROR DUE TO INCORRECI' CHAJN. so
3.8. CHAINING ON UNEVEN OR SLOPING GROUND S4
3.9. ERRORS IN CHAlNING S7
3.10. TAPE CORRECTIONS 60
3.11. DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN CHAINING 70
70
~~~
PRECISE UNEAR MEASUREMENTS
4 CHAIN SURVEYING
4.1. CHAIN TRIANGULATION 8S
4.2. SURVEY STATIONS ss
4.3. SURVEY LINES 8S

"'

.___
I
 XIII
xn
G
8.3. CASE I ' BEARING. OR LENGTH, OR BEARIN 181
_;{4 LOCATING GROUND FEATURES : OFFSETS
87
92
AND LENGTH OF ONE SIDE OMIITED
G OF ANOTF.HR SIDE OMmE D
182
4.5. FIELD BOOK 8.4. CASE D : LENGTH OF ONE SIDE AND BEARIN 182
94 ED
4.6. FIELD WORK 8.l. CASE m ' LENGTHS OF TWO SIDES OMIIT 182
S 9S OMmE D
4.7. INSTRUMENTS FOR SEITING OUT RIGJIT ANGLE 8.6. CASE IV : BEARING OF TWO SIDES 183
98 SIDES ARE NOT ADJACENT
4.8. BASIC PROBLEMS IN CHAINING 8.7. CASE II, m, IV : WHEN THE AFFECTED
100
~. OBSTACLES IN CHAINING
4.10. CROSS STAFF SURVEY
lOS ~R 9 LEVELLING 19l
106 9.1. DEANIDONS -196
PLO'ITING A CHAIN SURVEY
/ 4.11.
5 THE COMPASS
_fl METHODS OF LEVELLING 197
VCH APTE R 9.3. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS 201
109
5.1. INTRODUCfiON 9.4. LEVELLING STAFF 204
110
5.2. BEAIUNGS AND ANGLES 9.5. THE SURVEYING TELESCOPE 211
116
mE 'I'HEORY OF MAGNETIC COMPASS TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF' A LEVEL
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
THE PRISMATIC
THE SURVEYOR'S COMPASS
COMPASS
118
120
7 9.6.

9.8.
THEORY OF D!RECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVEL
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
ING)
213
21l
216
124
S.6. WILD 83 PRECISION COMPASS 9.9. HAND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIONS 216
!25
5.1. MAGNETIC DECUNATION
127 '-)kf'( BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS 222
5.8. LOCAL ATTRACTION 9.11. BALANCING BACKSIGIITS AND FORESimiTS 226
133

/~R
SURVEY
ERRORS IN COMPASS ~ CURVATURE AND REFRAcriON 230
6 THE THEODOLITE 9.13. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING 233
137 AL SECfiONJNG)
6.1. GENERAL 9.14. PROALE LEVELLING (LONGITUDIN 23"?
THEODOLITE 137
6.2. THE ESSENTIALS OF THE TRANSIT 9.15. CROSS-SECTIONING 238
141
6.3. DEFINITIONS AND TERMS 9.16. LEVELLING PROBLEMS 240
142
6.4. TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS 9.17. ERRORS IN LEVELLING 243
S GENERAL PROCEDURE 144
MEASUREMENT OF HORlZONTAL ANGLE 9.18. DEGREE OF PRECISION 244
j {
6.l.
6.6. MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLE S ISO
Ill
9.19. THE LEVEL TUBE 244
6.7. MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS WITH THEOD
OLITE 9.20. SENSITIVENESS OF BUBBLE TIJBE 2"48
RElATIONS ISS
6.8. FUNDAMENTAL LINES AND DESIRED 9.21. BAROMETRIC LEVELLING 2l2
WORK ll6
SOURCES OF ERROR IN TI!EOD OLITE HYPSOMETRY

~
6.9.

CHAPTER 7 TRAVERSE SURVEYING 10 CONTOURING 257

, !!'l'TP0!"!U':'T!0!'J'
161
10.1. UE.i>it:RA.i.. '-"
161
7.2. CHAIN TRAVERSING 10.2. CONTOUR INTERVAL 2S9
METIIOD 162
7.3. CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE 10.3. CHARAcrERISTICS OF CONTOURS 260
162
7.4. TRAVERSING BY FAST NEEDLE METHOD 10.4. METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS 264
164
7.5. TRAVERSING BY DIRECT OBSERVATION OF
ANGLES IO.S. INTERPOLATION OF COtiTOURS 266
AND TAPE 16l
7.6. LOCATING DETAILS WITH TRANS IT 10.6. CONTOUR GRADIENT 267
167 MAPS
7.7. CHECKS IN CLOSED TRAVERSE _/ 10~7. USES OF CONTOUR
168
7.8. PLOTIING A TRAVERSE SURVEY \.QHAPTER 11 PLANE TABLE-SURVEYING 271
169
7.9. CONSECUTlVE CO-ORDINATES LATmJDE AND DEPARTURE GENERAL ACCESSORIES
171 11.1. 273
7.10. CLOSING ERROR 11.2. WORKING OPERATIONS 27S
172
7.11. BALANCING TilE TRAVERSE 11.3. PRECISE PLANE TABLE EQUIPMENT 27l
177
7.12. DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN TRAVERSING METHODS (SYSTEMS) OF PLANE TAD LING 276
CHAPTER
8.1.
8.2.
8 OMITIED MEASUREMENTS
CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES : LATITUDE
OMITfED MEASUREMENTS
AND DEPARTURE 179
ISO
i 6
.

.
INTERSECTION (GRAPHIC TRIANGULATION)
TRAVERSING
RESECITON
m
278
~ ',
~'

11.8. THE THREE-POINT PROBLEM:- .

""' "'
279 CHAPI'ER 16 PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS
11.9 TWO POINT PROBLEM 285 16.1. INTRODUCriON 365
11.10. ERRORS IN PLANE TABLING 287 16.2. ADUSTMENTS OF DUMPY LEVEL 365
~ 11.11. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLANE TABLING 289 372
16.3. ADJUSTMENT OF TILTING U:VEL
r/CIIAPI'E R 12 CALCULATION OF AREA 16.4. ADJUSTMENTS OF WYE LEVEL 373
12.1.
GENERAL 291 CHAPI'ER 17 PRECISE LEVELLING
12.2.
GENERAL METHODS OF DETERMINING AREAS
292 17.1. INTRODUCfiON 377
12.3. AREAS COMPIJTED BY SUB-OMSION IJ'IITO TRIANGLES
292 17.2. THE PRECISE LEVEL 377
~ AREAS FROM OFFSETS TO A BASE LINE : OFFSETS AT REGULAR INTERVALS
vz.5. OFFSETS AT IRREGUlAR INTERVALS
~ AREA BY DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCES
292
2'11
17.3.
17.4.
WILD N-3 PRECISION LEVEL
THE COOKE S-550 PRECISE LEVEL
378
378
298 17.S. ENGINEER'S PRECISE LEVEL (FENNEL) 319
12.7. AREA BY CO-ORDINATES
302 17.6. FENNEL'S FINE PRECISION LEVEL 319
12.8. AREA COMPUTED FROM MAP MEASUREMENTS
304 17.7. PRECISE LEVELLING STAFF 380
_/ -~--9. AREA BY PLANIMETER 305 17.8. FIELD PROCEDURE FOR PRECISE LEVELLING 380
._,.£HAYfER 13 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME 17.9. FlEW 381
NOTES
13.1 GENERAL 17.10. DAILY ADJUSTMENTS OF PRECISE LEVEL 382
315
~ MEASUREMENT FROM CROSS-SECTIONS
315 CHAPI'ER 18 PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF THEODOLITE
$ THE PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
~THE
319 18.1. GENERAL 385
TRAPEZOIDAL FORMULA (AVERAGE END AREA METHOD) 321 18.2. ADJUSTMENT OF PlATE LEVEL 386
.\....J¥5. THE PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION
322 18.3. ADJUSTMENT OF LINE OF SIGHT 386
13.6. THE CURVATURE CORRECTION
322 18.4. ADJUSTMENT OF THE HORIZONTAL AXIS 388
.JYI'/ VOLUME FROM SPOT LEVELS 327 18.5. ADJUSTMENT OF ALTITUDE LEVEL AND VERTICAL INDEX FRAME 388
__!)<'8. VOLUME FROM CONTOUR PLAN
332 CIIAPI'ER 19 PRECISE THEODOLITES
CIIAPI'ER 14 MINOR INSTRUMENTS
19.1. INTRODUCTION 391
14.1. HAND LEVEL 337 19.2. WATIS MICROPTIC THEOOOLITE NO. 1. 392
14.2. ABNEY CLINOMETER (ABNEY LEVEL)
338 19.3. FENNEL'S PRECISE THEODOUTE 392
14.3. INDIAN PATIERN CLINOMETER (l'ANGENT CLINOMETER)
340 19.4. WILD T-2 THEODOLITE 393
14.4. BUREL HAND LEVEL
341 19.5. THE TAVISTOCK THEODOLITE 394
14.5. DE LISLE'S CLINOMETER
341 19.6. THE WIW T-3 PRECISION THEODOLITE 395
14.6. FOOT-RULE CLINOMETER
342 10"" THE WU .n T~ TJNJVF-~SAL 396
THEOOOUJ'f.
L'f.l. L.c.li...VI''I LT.I1f\1 IHJ\.CI=.K
343
14.8. FENNEL'S CLINOMETER CIIAPI'ER 20 SETIING OUT WORKS
343
14.9. THE PANTAGRAPH 20.1. INTRODUCTION 398
344
14.10. THE SEXTANT 20.2. CONTROLS FOR SETilNG OUT 398
345
CIIAPI'ER 15 20.3. HORIZONTAL CONTROL 398
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
20.4. VERTICAL CONTROL 400
15.1. INTRODUCTION
349 20.5. SETIING OUT IN VERTICAL DIRECTION 400
15.2. BASE OF THE OBJECT ACCESSIBLf:
349 20.6. POSITIONING OF STRUCTURE 403
15.3. BASE OF THE OBJECT INACCESSIBLE : 'INSTRUMENT STATIONS IN
20.7. SETTING OUT FOUNDATION TRENCHES OF BUILDINGS 404
THE SAME VERTICAL PLANE AS THE ELEVATED OBJECT
352
15.4. BASE OF THE OBJECT INACCESSIBLE : INSTRUMENT STATIONS NOT CHAPI'ER 21 SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS
IN THE SAME VERTICAL PLANE AS 1HE ELEVATED OBJECT 21. 1. INTRODUCfiON 405
355
15.5. DETERMINATION OF HEIGHf OF AN ELEVATED OBJECT ABOVE THE 21.2. THE SITE SQUARE 405
GROUND WHEN ITS BASE AND TOP ARE VISIBLE BUT NOT ACCESSIBLE 21.3. AUTOMATIC OR AUTOSET LEVEL 406
359
15.6. DETERMINATION OF ELEVATION OF AN OBJECT FROM ANGLES OF 21.4. TRANSIT-LEVEL 408
ELEVATION FROM THREE INSTRUMENT STATIONS IN ONE LINE 21.5. SPECIAL COMPASSES 408
361
 f
21.6. BRUNTON UNIVERSAL POCKET
MOUNTAIN COMPASS-TRANSIT
XVI

TRANSIT 409
410
I []]
~~ 22 TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
411
~
22.1. GENERAL

Fundamental Defmitions and Concepts

22.2. INSTRUMENTS 411

22Jr DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

OF TACHEOMETRIC MEASUREMENT 412
PRINCIPLE OF ~ADIA METHOD 413
~: DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FORMULAE
FOR STAFF VERTICAL
416
INCLINED SIGIIT
FOR STAFF NORMAL
.J'-6. DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FORMULAE
417
1.1. SURVEYING: OBJECT
418 ons of poiniS on, above or
22.7. THE ANALLACfiC LENS
OD : Surveying is the an of detennining the relative positi measuremeniS of distance.
22.8. PRINCIPLE OF SUBTENSE (OR MOVABLE HAIR) METH direct or indirect
beneath the surface of the earth by means of
VERTICAL LI\SE OBSERVATIONS 431
includes the an of establishing poiniS by predetennined angular
~ direction and elevat ion. It also
HORIZONTAL BASE SUBTENSE MEASUREME
NTS 434
ying requires skill as well as the knowledge
22.10. HOLDING THE STAFF ~37 and linear measuremeniS. The application of surve
t, asttonomy.
OF READING TilE STAFF 438 of mathematics, physics, and to some exten
22.11. METHODS which is (i) to find the elevations
WORK 439 Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of
ed datum, and (ii) to eslablish poiniS at a
22.12. STADIA FIELD
dl3 . TANGENTIAL METHOD 442 of poiniS with respect to a given or assum
TilE
respect to a given or assumed darum. The
22.14. REDUCI10N OF STADIA NOTFS
446 given elevation or at different elevations with
to be designed while the second operation
22.15. SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS 449 first operation is required 10 enable the works
works. Levelling deals with measuremeniS
22.16. THE AliTO-REDUCfiON TACHE
OMETER (HAMMER-FENNEL) 452 is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering
22.17. WILD'S RDS REDUCI10N TACHEOME.TER 453 in a vertical plane.
in many phases of engineering. The
22.18. THE EWING STADI-ALTIMETER
(WATI'S) 455 The knowledge of surveying is advanlageous
land surve ying. Practically, every engineering
22.19. ERRORS IN STADI A SURVEYING 455 earliest surveys were made in connection with
schem es, railroads and transmission lines, mines,
22.20. EFFECf OF ERRORS IN STADIA TACHE
OMETRY, DUE TO MANIPULATION project such as water supply and irrigation
e plans and estima1es are prepared. boundaries
AND SIGHTING. • 456 bridges and buildings etc. require surveys. Befor
site should be ascenained. After the plans
CHAPTER 23 ELECTRONIC THEODOLITES should be determined and the topography of the
the ground. As the work progresses, lines
23.1. INTRODUCTION 465 are made, the strucrures must be staked out on
WILD T-1000 'TIJEOMAT' 465 and grades must be given.
horizonlal, or else are subsequently
23.2.
WILD T-2000 THEOMAT 467 In surveying. all measurements of lengths are
y lS to pn::pan: plan ur map so
23.3.
oi a surve
',V!LD T :C•X S :!-I£0:\-~'.:· -tiu reduced to horizontal distances. The oojecr
ntal plane. A plan or map is the horiZontal'·
:?.-1
MENT (EDM) that it may represent the area on a horizo
CHAPrER 24 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASURE distances of the points. Vertical di5tances
471 projection of an area and shows only horizonlal
24.1. INTRODUCTION r lines, hachures or some other methods.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 471 between the points are, however, shown by comou
24.2. means of vertical seciions drawn separately.
24.3. MODULATION 415 Vertical distances are usually represented by
24.4. TYPES OF EDM INSTRUMENTS 476
1.2. PRIMARY DMSIONS OF SURVEY
478 the length of iiS polar axis _{12,713.800
24.5. THE GEODIMETER The earth is an oblate spheroid of revolutions,
479 equaiorial axis (12, 756.750 merresl. Thus,
24.6. THE TELLUROMETER
mettes) being somewhal less than that of its
WILD 'DISTOMATS' 481 by 42.95 kilometres. Relative to the diamerer
24.7. the polar axis is shorter than the equatorial axis
488 If we neglect the irregularities at' rhe earrh.
of the earth this is less than 0.34 percent.
24.8. TOTAL STATION
493 d surface, every element of which is normal
APPENDIX
531 the surface of the imaginary spheroid is a curve
INDEX
 ' SURVEYING
I FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS 3

lI
to the plumb line. The intersection of such
1.3. CLASSIFICATION
a surface with a plaue passing through the
Surveys may be classified under headings which define the uses or purpose of the
centre of the earth will form a line continuous
around the earth. The portion of such a resulting maps.
(A) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE NATURE OF THE FIELD SURVEY
line is known as 'level line' and the circle
defined by the iD[ersection is known as 'great
circle'. Thus in Fig. 1.1, the distance be-
~ (1) Land Surveying
(1) TopofPYJPhical Surveys : This consists of horizontal and vertical location of certain
tween rwo points P and Q is the length \' points by linear and angular measurements and is made to determine the nanual feanues
0f the arc of the great circle passing through of a country such as rivers, streams, lakes, woods, hills, etc., and such artificial features
rbese poin£S 3nd is evidently somewhat more as roads, railways, canals, towns and villages.
than the chord intercepted by the arc. (it) Cud~tral Surveys : Cadastral surveys are made incident to the fixing of property
Consider three points P, Q and R lines, the calculation of land area, or the transfer of land property from one owner to
I Fig. I .I) and three level lines passing through another. They are also made to frx the boundaries of municipalities and of State and Federal
ti1ese points. The surface within the triangle jurisdictions.
PQR so formed is a curved surface and (iii) Cily Surveying : They are made in connection with the construction of streets.
rhP lin~!' fonning irs sides are arcs of great water supply systems, sewers and other works.
circles. The figure is a spherical triangle. (2) Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bndies
TI1e angles p, q and r of the spherical FIG. 1.1 of water for pwpose of navigation, water supply, harbour works or for the deiermination
uiangle are somewhat more than correspond- of mean sea level. The work consists in measurement of discharge of streams, making
ing angles p', q' and r' of the plane triangle. If the points are far away, the difference topographic survey of shores and banks, taking and locating soundings to determine the
will be considerable. If the points are nearer, the difference will be negligible. depth of water and observing the fluctuations of the otean tide.
As ro whether the surveyor must regard.Ahe eanh's surface as curved or may regard (3) Astronomical Survey. The astronomical survey offers the surveyor means of determining
it is as plane depends upon the character and magnitude of the survey, and upon the the absolute location of any point or the absolute location and direction of any line on
precision required. the surface of the earth. This consists in observations to the heavenly bndies such as the
Thus, primarily, surveying can be divided into two classes sun or any fixed star.
(I) Plane Surveying (2) deodetic Surveying. (B) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE OBJECT OF SURVEY
Plllne surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth (1) Engineering Survey. This is undertaken for the determination of quantities or to
;, considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by afford sufficient data for the designing of engineering . works such as roads and reservoirs,
survey lines are considered as plane triangles. The level line is considered as straight and or those connected with sewage disposal or water supply.
:1!1 plumb lines are considered parallel. fn everyd~y life we ar-:- ~"nc~rned with small portions (2) 1'-.:filiU:a.r.)' .S:ari1 ~J'. This is i.lStd for determining pubts of slrategic i!l1p'.Jrtance.
of earth's surface and the above assumptions seem to be reasonable in light of the fact
(3) Mine Survey. This is used for the exploring -mineral wealth.
that the length of an arc 12 kilometres long lying in the earth's surface is only I em
(4) Geological Survey. This is used for determining different strata in the earth's
greater than the subtended chord and further that the difference between the sum of the
•ngles in a plane triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one second crust.
(5) Archaeological ·Survey. This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity.
for • triongle at the earth's surface having an area of 195 sq. km.
Geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth (C) CLASSIFICATIONBASED ON INSTRUMENTS USED
is taken into account All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles An alternative classification may be based upon the instruments or methods employed,
are spherical triangles. It, therefore, involves spherical trigonomeuy. All geodetic surveys the chief typeS being :
include work of larger magnitude and high degree of precision. The object of geodetic (1) Chain survey
survey is to determine the prfdse position on Ihe suiface of the earth, of a system of (2) Theodolite survey
widely distanr points which fonn corurol stations 10 which surveys of less precision may (3) Traverse survey
be referred. (4) Triangulatiqn survey
!5) Tacheo111etric survey
(6) Plane table· survey
r 4 SURVEYING
r- FUNDAMENTAL DEPINITIONS AND CONC
EPTS

to illustraie the principles of detenninin

g
;

fJ'i: and
(7)
(8)
Phorogrammetric survey
Aerial survey.
Figs. 1.2 (b). (c) and (d) can also be used
relative elevations of points. Considering
these diagrams to be in vertical plane
iple of ordin ary spirit levell ing.
. with PQ
A horizontal
! as horiwntal. Fig./,2 (b) represents the
princ
and methods of the above types. gh P and the vertical height of R is
measured
The book mainly deals with the principles line PQ is instrumentally estab lished throu
of trigo nome trical
2 (c) and (d) represent tile princ iples
1.4. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING by taking staff reading. Similarly, Fig. 1.
are
the various methods of plane surveying levelling.
The fundamental principles upon which the follow ing two aspec1s :
based are of very simple nature and
can be stated under (2) Working from whole to part
from two points of reference whether plane or geodetic, is to work from
Location of a point by measurement The second ruling principle of surveying, S and to
(1)
sUIVeyed should be located by measurem
ent esrablish first a system of control poinl
The relative positions of the points to be . whole to part. It is very essential to then be established by less precise
alrea dy been fixed control points can
from at least two points of reference,
the positions of which have fix them with higher precision. Minor s by running
on the ground. The distance PQ can
be meas ured located using these minor control point
Let P and Q be the refer<ltl(;e points methods and the details can then be accum ulation of
the sheet to some ing in this way is to prevent the
accurately and the relative 'positions
of P and Q can be plotred on minor traverses etc. The idea of work d expan d to greater
relative positions r errors which. otherwise. woul
scale. The points P and Q will thus serve
as reference points for fixing the errors and to control and loCalise mino work unco ntrollable at the
of the follow ing direct followed, tl1us making the
of other points. Any other point, such
as R, can be located lly ony magnitudes if the reverse process is
J
methods (Fig. 1.2) · end.
! 1.5. UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
p p p F p l used in plane surveying:
There are four kinds of measurements
lI I. Horiwntal distance 2.
4.
Vertical distance
Vertical angle.
A Sf- T-A I A
'
,~R
r. )A 3. Horizontal angle, and
of Weights and Measures Act (India),

I
ards
Linear measures. According to the Stand
90•

b v j 1956 the unit of measurement of distance

of metric units in India, feet, tenths
is metres and centimetres. Prior to the intro
and hundredths of a foot were used. Table
while
1.1
Tabl
duction

es
gives
1.2
a 6 a' a a I the basic linear measures, both in metr
ic as well as in Britis h system,
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) i
. r,
and 1.3 give the conversion factors .
LENG TH
\ 'ABLE
---- BASIC
-·- ----
- 1.1 - UNIT -- ---
-- ---S OF -- --

AG. L2. LOCATION OF A POINT.

gmg
~ British Units
Metric Ullits
ured and point R can be plotted by swm 1
(a) Distances PR and QR can be meas very much "1 10 millimetres = I centimetre
same scale to which PQ has
the two arcs to the in.t?
been plotted. The principle is
·t I
12 inches = I fool
J..;-::;;:;,:l:~
I
used in r.hain sur,ev leel = I yaro i IV .A.:iiiiOii~(l,;;:,

ed on the reference line PQ and lengt

hs PS ' ;
I metre
(b) A perpendicular RS can be dropp ] 10 decimetres =
This princ iple ;! rod. pole or perch
then be plotted using set square. ! yards = I I
and SR are measured. The point R can '
is used for defining details. ~
4 poles = 1 chain (66 fee!) !w
I
metres = I decametre
d l
(c) The distance QR and the angle
PQR can be measured and point R is plotte I 10 decametres = I hectometre
is used in trave rsing. I furlong
nometrically. This principle 10 chains =
either by means of a protractor or trigo RPQ and ! 10 hecwmetres = 1 kilometre
(If) In this method, the distances
PR and QR are not measured but angle "k 8 furlongs = I mile
distance PQ,
angle-measuring instrumenL Knowing the i ! 1852 meues = I nautical mile (lntemationa\)
angle RQP are measured with an ion of triangle, PQR.' This >;.. 100 links = I chain
of a protractor or by solut I
. point R is plotted either by means meth od is used for ·very ·e:uensive = 66fee i I
on and the
principle is very much used in rn"angulali 6 feel = I fathom I
w"ork .. I
acting
ured and point R is plotted either by protr cable length I
(e) Angle RQP and distance PR are meas principle, used 120 fathoms = I

an angle and swinging anr arc from P or pJoned trigonometrically. This I nautical miie
I
utility. 6080 feet =
in lTaversing , is of mino
 6
SURVEYING FUND~AL DEFINJ"i10NS AND CONCEPTS 7
TABLE I.Z CONVERSION FACTORS
(Mnres, yards, feet and irrch2s) TABLE 1.6 CONVERSION FACTORS
(Ares, Acres and sq. yords)
Metns Y<Uds Feet IncMs
I Ares Acres Sq. yards
1.0936 3.2808 39.3701
0.9144 I I 0.0247 119.6 I
3 36

I'
0.3048 0.3333 I 40.469 I 4840
12
O.OZS4 0.0278 0.0833 I I 0.0084 0.00021 I

TABLE 1.3 CONVERSION FACTORS

(/(jfomerres, NauJical miles and Miles) I sq. mile = 640 acres= 258.999 hectares
Kilometres Nautiud miles
.
Miles I I acre
are
= 10 sq. chains
= I00 sq. metres
I 0.539% 0.6214 I Basic units of volume. The units of measurements of volumes are cubic decimetre.c:.
1.852
1.6093
I
0.869
1.1508
I I I and cubic metres. Table I. 7 gives the basic units of measurement of volumes holh in
metric as well as British units. Tables 1.8 and 1.9 give !he conversion factors.
TABLE 1.7 BASIC UNITS OF VOLUME
Basic units of area. The units of measurements of area are sq. metres, sq. decimetres, f
hectares and sq. kilometres. Table 1.4 gives the units of area bolh in metric as well as
l
British Unils Metric Units -1
British sysiems. Tables 1.5 and i.6 gives !he conversion factors. ~ 1728 cu. inches== cu. foot 1000 cu. millimwes cu. centime1res
-~
TABLE 1.4 BASIC UNITS OF AEEA
l 27 cu. 'feet cu. yards 1000 cu. cemimettes cu. <lecimenes
BriJWJ Unils
t44 sq. inches
Metric U11ils
1000 cu. decimelres cu. melres :
l
= I sq. f001 100 sq. millimerres = sq. cenrimeue
9 sq. feet = I sq. Yard TABLE 1.8 CONVERSION FACTORS
100 sq. centimetres=- sq. decimerre (Ql. metres. Ql. y<Uds and Imp. galloiU)
30} sq. yards = I sq. rod, pole or perch 100 sq. decimeues = sq. merre Cu. metres Cu. yards Gallons (Imp.) I
40 sq. rods = I rood 100 sq. metres are or I sq.
decametre
I
0.7645
1.308
I
219.969
168.178 l
4 roods = 1 acre 100 ares hectare or 0.00455 0.00595 I '
i
1 ~q hcctc:o.J<:l<~ •
640 acr.s = 1 sq. mile 100 hectares = I sq. kilometre TABLE 1.9. CONVERSION FACTORS
484 sq. yards
to sq. chains
= I sq. chain

= I acre
l Cu. metres
(Oibic merres, Acre feet, Imp. Galloru and Kilolitres)

Acrejeet Ga/lom (lmp.J Kilolitres

Sq."'""'
TABLE 1.5 CONVERSION FACTORS
(Sq. metres. Sq. y<Uds. Sq. feet and Sq. inches)

Sq. y<Uds Sq. feet Sq. i11ches

i
!
j
1233.48
0.00455
I 0.000811

0.00000369
219.969
271327

I
0.99997
1233.45
0.00455
I 1.196 10.7639 1550 I' 1.000028 0.000811
-----·
219.976 I
0.8361
0.0929
I
0.111 I
9
I
1296
144
I Basic units of angular measure. An angle is the difference in directions of two
intersecting lines. The radiml is the unit of plane angle. The radian is !he angle between
0.00065 0.00077 0.0069 two radii of a circle which cuts-off on the circumference of an arc equal in length to
I
I
the radius. There are lhree popular syslemS of angular measurements:
 . .
f 9

r
EP'TS
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONC
SURVEYING
given engineer's

I
R.F.) can be very easily found for a
I 8
representative fraction (abbreviated as
.
I em = 50 m
(a) Sexagesi111f1] System scale. For example, if the scale is
1 circumference = 360• (degrees of arc) 1 I
R.F. ""' ",7o-'--,o~"' = 5000.
I degree =60' (minutes of arc)
f also known as numerical scales.
1 minute = 60" (seconds of arc) The above two types of scales are a graphical
ng the scale is to draw on the plan
(b) Centesi111111 System
circumference = 400 8 (grads)
~ (3) An alternative way of representi
scale. A graph~cal scale is a line sub-divide
d into plan distance corre spon ding to convenient

units of length on the ground. s may

= 100' (centigrades) I after a few years, the nwnerical scale
grad If rhe plan or map is to be used hical scale
or paper shrinks. However, if a grap
(c)
centigrad·
Hours System
= 100cc (centi-centigrads)
l not ·giVe ~ccurare results if the sheer
is al~o .drawn, it will shrink proportio
Thai is why. scales are always draw
nately and the distances can be
n on all survey maps.
foun d accurately.

1 circumference = 24h (hours). !

~
Choice of Scale of a Map
hour = 60m (minutes of time) ' maps are those in which the nwnber
of metres
The most common scales for ordinary ry cons idera tion in
= 60' (seconds of time). J multiple of ten. The prelimina
minute and :'· represented by one centimetre is some be put, and (2) the extent
in United States, ·Great Britain, India to which the map will
The sexagesimal system is widely used and most choosing the scale are : (I) the use rules shou ld be follo wed
lete tables are available in this syste
m following two general
other parts of the World. More comp to facility in of territory to be represented. The nce from the
rding to this syste m. How ever, due enou gh so that in plotting or in scaling dista
surveying instruments are graduated acco Europe. The 1. Choose a scale large 0.25 mm.
sima1 system is gaining more favour in finished map. it will not be necessary
to read the scale close r than
computation and interpolation, the cente ation . eatio n of the smallest
nomy and navig istent with a clear delin
hours system is mostly used in astro 2. Choose as small a scale as is cons used in vario us surveys.
the common scales gene rally
1.6. PLANS AND MAPS derails to be plotted . Table 1.10 gives
or
to some scale, of the features on, near TABLE 1.10
A plan· is the graphical representation, ontal plane whic h is represente d R.F.
cted on a horiz
below the surface of the earth as proje the sutface of the Type or purpose of I Stale

by plane of the paper on which

the plan is drawn. However, since surve
plan or map is plane , no part of the surface can 1
earth is curved and the paper of the g, the areas involved (a} Topographic Survey
10 m or less
'ffiYS or less
distortion. In plane surveyin em =
be represented on such maps· without 1. Building sites It
henc e map is constructed 1 1
be regarded as plane and soo.rto lOCOO
are small, the earth's surface may distortion . 2. Town plaMing schemes. I 1 em = 50 m to lOOm
urable
by orthographic projection without meas d a plan reservoirs etc.
1
<;J¥ w2im )
1

The representation is called a map if the scale is small while it is calle :. ____ !.'- •'-· -~ . C:l'l ~- '(" 'ltYI ~

msta nces ana atrec nons are ; 1 I

II r.he scaae 1s targe. on
a pian, generaiiy, oruy horizomai d by contour
i
= 0.25 km to 2.5 km 25000' w EOOOO
the vertical dista nces are also repre sente 4. Small scale topographic maps I I em
shown. On a topographic map, however, 1 1
500 to 5000
lines. bachures or other systems. (bJ Catkistral maps II em = 5m to 0.5 km
1
1
1.7. SCALES = 5 km to 160 km 500000 to 16000000
scale. fcJ Geograplu·cal maps ! I em
therefore, plans are made to some
The area that is surveyed is vast and, ding distance
nce on the plan bears with correspon 1 t
Scale is. the fixed ratio thai every dista ods : fdJ U:mgiwdinnl seaio11s 10i50 to 20000
d by· the following meth = 10m to 200 m
on the ground. Scale can be represente ground.
I. Horizontal scale
I em I 1
some whole number of metres on the
t 100 to 200
(1) One em on the plan represents scale. 2. Venical scale em = 1m to 2 m
of scale is called engineer's ' 1
such as 1 em = 10 m etc. This type length
;
sents some number of same units of (e) 0os.J-.5ection.s I 1
(2) One unit of length on the plan repre ding ground I em = lmt o2m 100 ID 200
<Both horizomal and vertical 1
ratio of map distance to the correspon
on the ground, such as 1 ~, etc. This ion. The
scales equal)
urement and is called represemative fract
distance is independent of units of meas
 SURVEYING FUNDAMI!i'ITAL DEFINmONS AND CONCEPTS

Types of Scales 1.9. DIAGONAL SCALE

Scales may be classified as follows On a diagoual scale. it is possible to measure lhree dimensions such as metres. de<!imetres
I.
3.
Plain· scale
Vernier scale
2.
4.
Diagonal scale
Scale of cbords.
1I and centimetres; units, tenlhs and hundredlhs; yards, feet and inches etc. A short Jenglh
is divided into a number of parts by using lhe principle of similar
triangles in which like sides are proportioual. For example let a
1.8. PLAIN SCALE ! sbort Jenglh PQ be divided into 10 parts (Fig. 1.4). At Q draw
"
A plain scale is one on which it is possible to measure two dimensions only, such a line QR perpendicular to PQ and of any convenient Ienglh.
as units and lengths, metres and decimetres, miles and furlongs, etc. Divide it into ten equal parts. Join lhe diagonal PR. From each
Example 1.1. ConstrucJ a pillin scale 1 em to 3 metres and slww on it 47 metres. of lhe divisions, I, 2, 3 etc., draw lines parallel to PQ to cut lhe 4
C<lnstructWn : diagonal in corresponding points I, 2, 3 etc., lhus dividing lhe diagonal 5J----j 5
ij into I 0 equal parts. 6t..---.16

if;1~~~~:~ l~~~(~;;rr-r T·r·r--r··r-1 ' I

vision imo 10 equal parts, each 10 •0 10
•• 20
•• 30
•• 40
•• 50
-
i Thus.
1-1 represents .!.. PQ
10
2-2 represents 1. PQ P t~~I
9
8
9
a
reading I metre. Place zero SCale 1cm=3m • 10
FIG. 1.4
of the_ scale between lhe sub-
divided parts and lhe undivided
FIG. 1.3 PLAIN SCALE. 9-9 represents fo
PQ etc.
part and mark lhe scale as shown in Fig. 1.3. To take 47 metres, place one leg of Example 1.2 ConstruCI a diagonal scale 1 cm=3 metres to read metres and decimetres
lhe divider at 40 and lhe olher at 7, ·as shown in Fig. 1.3. and show on thal 33.3 metres.
Indian Standard on plain scales Construction :
IS : 1491-1959 has recommended six different plain scales in metric units used by Take 20 em Jenglh and divide it into 6 equal pans, each pan representing 10 metres.
engineers, architects and sorveyors. The scale designations along wilh lheir R.F. are given Sub-divide lhe first left band part into 10 divisions, each representing I metre. At the
in the table below: left of lhe first sub-division erect a perpendicular of any suitable .lenglh (say 5 em) and
divide it into 10 equal parts and draw lhrough lhese parts lines parallel to lhe scale. Sub-divide
DesiRrUJtlon I S<ok R.F.
lhe top parallel line into ten divisions (each representing 1 metre) and join lhese diagonally
1. Full size I
A I T to lhe corresponding sub-divisions on lhe first parallel line as shown in Fig. 1.5 wbere
I a distance of 33.3 metres has been marked.
2. SO em to a metre 2
3. 40 em to a metre I 1.0
B
- n 0.9

' ' 4. 20 em 10 a metre

5
I
j
0.8
0.7
0.6
S. 10 em to a metre I
l 0.5

~~~~:••m !rln~
c Tii 0.4
I 0.3
6. 5 em to a metre 0.2

I
20 0.1
7. 2 em to a metre I 0.0
D 51i
I ·l
8. 1 em to a metre
TOO ~ Scale1cm=3m
9. S mm to a metre I l
E 200 l FIG. 1.5 DIAGONAL SCALE.

F
10. 2 mm to a metre

11. I mm to a metre
I
500
I
I Indian_ Standard on diagonal scales
IS : 1562-1962 recommends four diagonal scales A, B. C and D. as sbown in lhe
TiiOO
12. O.S nun w a metre I table below :
----- - - ~QQ9 --
~~ 13
I2. SURVEYING FUNDAMENTAL DEFINmONS AND CONCEPTS

Let s = Value of one smallest division on main scale

De~ignation R.F. Graduated ltng!h
v =.Value of one smallest division ·on the vernier.
A I ISO em
T ! n = Number of divisions on the vernier.
I.
100iXXl
I II Since a length of (n - I) divisions of main scale is equal
to n divisions of vernier,
100 c~ l we have
8
2.
5<XXXJ
I
I ! nv = (n- 1) s
3. 2500)
I
I .
i V=
n-
( -.-
1) S
I !
I ~ n- 1 s
!.
100Xil' Least count= s- v = s- -n- s =-.
c

I
n
I 2.
I
51iXii'f I
50 om
Thus, the least count (L.C.) can be found by dividing the value of one main scale
I I
3. division by the total number of divisions on the vernier.
23000
;
I ,:;
'I
100iXXl
150 em
I II v OJ II v 01
"tll" I
D I ,,,d!!!l l!!!l!!!l
'11,,·"'' "'II'13 t "'I(
I
2.
8liD I
I
I ("I'2 II IIIII
s
II II II
12
I
3.
I
4li'ii' I .~
1 0 14.
(a) (b)
1.10. THE VERNIER
'
!
_-.-;:
The vernier, invented in 1631 by Pierre Vernier, is a device for measuring the fracrional FIG. 1.6 DIRECT VERNIER READING TO 0.01.
part of one of the smallest divisions of a graduated scale. It usually consists of a small Fig. 1.6(a} shows a direct vernier in which 9 parts of the main scale divisions coincide
auxiliary scale which slides along side the main scale. The principle of vernier is based with 10 parts of the vernier. The total number of the divisions on the vernier are 10
on the fact that the eye can perceive wilhow strain and with considerable precision when and the value of one main scale division is 0.1. The least count of the vernier is lherefore,
two graduations coincide to jonn one continuous straight line. The vernier carries an index
mark which forms the zero of the vernier. ~·~ = 0.01. The reading on the vernier [Fig. 1.6(b)) is 12.56.
If the graduations of the rp.ain scaJe are numbered in one direction only. the vernier Fig. 1.7 (a) shows a double vernier (direct type) in which the main scale is figured
used is called a single vernier, extending in one direction. If the graduations of the main in both the directions and the vernier also extends to both the sides of the index mark.
scale are numbered in both the directions, the vernier used is called double vernier, extending
in both the directions, having its index mark in the middle.
The division.~t C'f the vernier are either j~1st a little smal!f':- r-r :- litt!r 12rgcr th:m L... :. c ; ~l.·

the divisions of the main scale. The finen~ss of reading or least count of the vernier II, I , I 1" 11
J, , I I II I ' I I I

is equal to the difference between the smallest division on the main scale and smallest
~~I \'i'i'i'Uii~l \'iII liill''''''f
division on the vernier. 1 70 80 90 (30 6U
(b)
IU\

Whether single or double, a vernier can primarily be divided imo the following two •i (a)
classes : l
(a) Direct Vernier ~i FIG. !. 7. DOUBLE VERNIER (DIRECI).
~,

(b) Retrograde Vernier. ' The 10 spaces on. either half of the Vernier are equivalent to '9 scale divisions and hence
(a) Direct Vernier
A direct vernier is the one which extends or increases in the same direction as
that of the main scale and in which the smallest division on the vernier is shoner than
the smallest division on the main scale. It is so consrrucred that (n - 1) divisions of the
main scale are equal in length of n divisions of the vernier.
l
1
least count is ~ = ~
figures on the
1
main
=0.1. The· left-hand vernier is used in conjunction with the upper
scale (those sloping to the left) and the right-hand vernier is used
in conjunction with the lower figures on the scale (those sloping to the rigbt). Thus, in
Fig. 1.7 (b), the reading on the left vernier is 40.6 and on the rigbi vernier is 59.4.

l
1
 (b) Retrograde Vernier SURVEYIN9 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINmONS AND CONCEPTS

A retrograde vernier is the one which extends or increases in opposite direction as

thal of the main scale and in which rhe smallest division of the vernier is longer than
r I I I, I II ,I I ,I , ,I IfI II I II III II I II I'1 ,
160
10
30

5
0

0
30

5 10
60J

1
the smallest division on the main scale. It is so · constructed that (n + 1) divisions of the
(•)
main scale are equal in length of n divisions of the vernier.
Thus. we have. for Ibis case
n+ 1
I r 30 o 30 ~
nv=(n+ l)s : or v=--s
n
I I I I I I I ~ I I I
\Ill 11111111 111 ljl II
I
I I'' IJ
I
I lfr!j

The least count

(n+t]
=v-s=l-. - s-s=ns I 15 10 5
(b)
0 5 10

which is the same as before. I

Fig. 1.8 (a) illustrates a retrograde vernier in which 11 pans of the main scale
divisions coincide with 10 divisions of the vernier. The value of one smallest division on
the main scale is 0.1 and lb~ number of division on the vernier are. 10. Therefore, the
least' counr is = ~-~ = 0.01. The reading on the vernier [Fig.I.8 (b)] is 13.34.
I ;

~
~I ) I
10
l60
I
I I I I
I I
30
I
I ))) l '
5
I
I
0

(<)
I
0
.j.
I ) I
I
I
5
I
I I I 1
30
I .I

10
I
rr' ' r--'{
601
Jl.
j
15

\
lo ' IOj- I"~"II ,II""!OJ j•
FIG. 1.9 EXTENDED VERNIER .

, r+••••••• .. 1
··!····~~~~~; 111111111!' ·r )'1111111' n r 1111111"1
14 13 n
..:'
~
;
i
The reading on the vernier illustrated in Fig. 1.9(b) -is 3' 20' and that in Fig. 1.9(c)
is 2°40'.
In the case of astronomical sextant, the vernier generally provided is of extended
(•) w ~ type having 60 spaces equal to 119 spaces of the main scale, each of 10'. the least count
l
FIG. 1.8 RETROGRADE VERNIER. ' being ~ minutes or 10 seconds.
SPECIAL FORMS OF VERNIERS i
~
The Double Folded Vernier. The double folded vernier is employed where the length
• of the corresponding double vernier would be so great as to make it impracticable. This
The Extended Vernier. It may happen that the divisions on the main scale are very
' type of vernier is sometimes used in compasses having the zero in Ihe middle of the
close and it would then be difficult, if the vernier were of normal length, to judge the
~ length. The full length of vernier is employed for reading angles in either direction. The
exact graduation where coincidence occurred. In this case. an extended vernier may be -~
used. vernier is read 'from the index towards either of the extreme divisions and then from the
He-r'=' r?_ '7 _ !) ri!Yl"'k-."1s :~-:: i.L ..
.. .:. ~..: ..u..: .:.:'-[ual 'o ;1 lhvisruns on [fie vernier. ''
~
other extreme division in !hE" s::f!ie direction w the centre.
so that Fig. 1.10 shows double folded vernier in which 10 divisions of vernier are equal
nv = (2n- 1) s -l to 9! divisions of the main scale '<or 20 vernier divisions= 19 main scale divisions). The
l
2n-l 1 1\ "l least count of the vernier is !!qual to !._ = __!_ degrees = 3'. For motion w the right. the
Of V=--S=I 2--jS '
i
n 20 ·
n ~ n, i
The difference between two main scale spaces and one vernier space = 2s - v :~
2n- l s --~
30
= 2s - - s = - = least count. -~
n n
The extended vernier is, therefore. equivalent to a simple direct vernier to which
•
only every second graduation is engraved. The extended vernier is regularly employed in
We asuonomical sextant. Fig. 1. 9 shows an extended vernier. lr has 6 spaces on the vernier f (•) (b)

equal to 11 spaces of the main scale each of 1o . The least count is therefore = f,. degree = 10'. J
~ FIG. 1.10 DOUBLE-FOLDED VERNIER.
~
~~
j
1
 I 16
SURVEYING FUNDAMENTAL DEFINmONS AND CONCEPTS ii
vernier is read from 0 to 30 at the right extremity and then from
30 at the left extremity Solution
to 60 (or zero) at the centre. Similarly, for motion to the left,
the vernier is read from
0 to 30 at the left extremity and then from 30 at the right extremit 30
= 30' • L .C. = 30" = 60
y to the 60 (or zero) Leasi Count=:!. ; S - minutes
at the centre. The reading on the vernier illustrated in Fig. 1.10 n
(b) is 112' 18' to the
right and 247' 42' to the left.
Verniers to Circular Scales
I
~
..
30 30
60=• or n =60.
Fifty-nine such primary divisions should be taken for the length

I
of the vernier scale
The above examples of verniers were for linear scales. Verniers are also and then divided into 60 ·parts for a direct vernier.
extensively
used to circular scales in a variety of surveying instruments such as Example 1.4 Design a vernier for a theodolite circle divided imo degrees
theodolites, sextants, and one-tlzirJ
clinometers etc. Fig. 1.11 (a), (b) shows two typical arrangements of degrees to read to 20 ".
double direct verniers.
In Fig. 1.11 (a), the scale is graduated to 30' and the value of n
= 30 on the vernier. " Solution.
Hence. least count =sin= 30' 130 = 1'.
I s
L.C.=; ; s=3=2 0'; L.C. = 20" = ~ minutes
1'
i
~ 20 20
I,' -oo=• or
divisions should be
II= 60
Fifty-nine taken for the length of the vernier scale and divide-d
~ into 60 parts for a direct vernier.
Example 1.5. The value of che smallest division of circle of a repeating cheodolite
10 ..... is 10'. Design a suitable vernier to read up to flY'.
(A) Graduated to 30°: Reading to 1'
Solution
L.C.= ~; s = 10' ; L.C. = 10" = !~ minutes
10 10
.. 60=• or n = 60
Taite 59 such primary divisions from the main scale and divide it into 60 pans.
Example 1.6. The circle of a theodolite is divided inro degrees and 114 of a degree.
Design a suitable decimal vernier to read up to 0.005°.
(B) Graduated to 20' : Reading to 30" Solution
s
L.C. =-; s = ~' ; L.C. = 0.005'
FIG. 1.11. VERNIERS TO CIRCULAR SCALES. n
m ~1g. 1.11 (b), the scale is graduated to 20 minutes, and the number of I I·
vernier 0.005 =-.-
divisions are 40 . 4 n
Hence, least count~ sin= 20' 140 = 0.5' = 30". l or n= I
=50
Thus, in Fig. 1.11 (~), the clockwise angle reading (inner row) is 342' 30\
and counter clockwise angle reading (outer row) is 17' 0' + 26' = 17'
+ 05' = 342' 35'
26'. Similarly. in Fig.
I for the vernier.
4 X 0.005
Take 49 such primary divisions from lb.e main scale and divide
it into 50 parts
1.11 (b), the clockwise angle reading (inner row) is 49' 40' + 10'30"
counter, clockwise angle (outer row) is 130' 00'+ 9' 30" = 130' 09' 30".
= 49' 50' 30" and the 1l Example 1.7 Design an extended vernier for an Abney level to to
read up to JO •.
In both the cases. The main circle is divided into degrees.

I
1he vernier is always read in rhe same direction as the scale.
Examples on Design of Verniers Solution
Example 1.3. Design a vernier for a theodolite circle divided inro L.C.=!. .; s=l 0 L.C. = 10'
degrees and half n
;

degrees to read up to 30". j

10 I
=; or n=6
1
~
60

.;
1
...

I
'

·····
20 SURVEYING FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
"
•
E .

'
3. Measuremem of an angle with 1.14. SHRUNK SCALE
the scale of chords If a graphical scale is not drawn on the plan and the sheet on which the plan
I
I. Let the angle EAD be measured. F. is drawn shrinks due to variations in the atmospheric conditions, it becomes essential to
On the line AD. measur~ AB = chord of ,.
r
.~
find the shrunk scale of the plan. Let the original scale (i.e. I em= x m) or its R.F.
60~ from the scale of chords. be known (stated on the sheet). The distance between any two known points on the
2. With A as cenrre and AB as plan can be measured with the help of the stated scale (i.e. I em = x m) and this length
radius. draw :m ·arc to cur line AE in can be compared with the acrual distance between the two points. The shrinkage ratio
F. or shrinkage factor is then equal io the ratio of the shrunk length to the actual length.
3. With the help of dividers take • B D
The shrunk scale is then given by
the chord distance BF and measure it on A "Shrunk scale = shri11kage factor x origilli11 scale."
scale of chords to get the value of the FIG. Ll6 MEASUREMENT OF AN ANGLE For example, if the shrinkage factor is equal to :~ and if the original scale is
angle ij, WITII TilE SCALE OF CHORDS ..
1 , the shrunk scale will have a R.F = :~ x ; = ~ (i.e. I em= 16m).
1.13 ERROR DUE TO USE OF WRONG SCALE 15 00 1 00 16
If the! length of a line existing on a plan or a map is determined by means of Example 1.9. The area of the plan of an old survey plolled to a scale of /0 metres
m~suremem with a wrong scale. the length so obtained will be incorrect. The []Jle or w 1 em measures now as 100.2 sq. em as found by a planimeter. I11e plan is found
corn!ci lt!ngrh of the line is given by the relation. to have sllru11k so that a line originally 10 em long now measures 9. 7 em only. Find
R . F . of wrong scale (i) the shrunk scale, (ii) true area of the survey.
Correct length = if x measured length.
R . F . o correct scale Solution
Similarly. if the area of a map or plan is calculated with the help of using a wrong (t) Present length of 9.7 em is equivalent to 10 em original length.
scale. rhe correct area is given by
.' R. F. of wrong scale V
, Shrinkage factor = ~·~ = 0.97
~
Correct area = ! al 1 x calculated area.
\R. F. ofcorrectsc e 1 .I I I
True scale R.F. - x -
Example 1.8. A surveyor measured the distance between rwo points 011 the plan drawn J. 10 100 1000
ro a scale of I em = .JO m and tile result was 468 m. Later, however, he discovered that I I
hi! used a scale of 1 em = 20m. Find the true distance between the points. R.F. of shrunk scale= 0.97 x = .
1000 1030 93
Solution (it) Present length of 9.7 em is equivalent to 10 em original length.
Measured length =468 m Present area of 100.2 sq. em is equivalent to

R.F. of wrong scale used

t t ·l
l ;.?
' '0 '
J x 100.2 sq. em= 106.49 sq. em= original area on plan.
'20 X 100 = 2000 '

R.F. of correct scale

40 X 100 4000
II Scale of plan is I em = 10 m
Area of the survey = 106.49 (10)' = 10649 sq. m.
Example 1.10. A rectangular plot of land measures 20 em x 30 em on a village

' I /2000 '! x 468 = 936 m.

~i map drawn to a scale of 100 m to 1 em. Calculate its area in l1ectares. If the plo!
is re-drawn on a topo sheet ro a scale of 1 km to 1 em. what will be its area on
Correct length
=ll/4000} ' :·~

I
the. topo sheel ? Also determille tlze R.F. of the scale of tile villa!{e map as well as
AltemaJive Solution on the topo sheet.
Map distance between two points measured with a scale of 1 em to 20 m = ~~ = 23.4 em
Solution
(i) Village map :
Acrual scale of the plan is I em = 40 m 1 em on map= 100 m on the ground
:. True distance between the poinrs = 23.4 x 40 = 936 m
I em' on map= (100) 2 m2 on the ground.
!8 SURVEYING r FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
,.
Take eleven spaces of the main scale and divide it into 6 spaces uJ ·the vernier. is to. increast; t~ precision of centering over graduations.
l.ll. MICROMETER MICROSCOPES 1.12 SCALE OF CHORDS
Generally, verniers are used when the finest reading to be taken is riot less than A scale of chords is used to measure an angle or to set-off an angle, and is marked
20'' or in some:: exceptional cases up to 10". The micrometer microscope is a device which either on a recmngular protractor or on an ordinary box wood scale.

lI
enables a measurement ro be taken to a srilJ finer degree of accuracy. Micromerer microscopes · 1. Construction or a chord scale
generally provided in geodetic theodolites can read to 1" and estimate to 0.2" or 0.1 ". I. Draw a quadrant ABC. making AB
The micrometer microscope consists of a small low-powered microscope with an object l = BC. Prolong AB to D. making AD = AC.
glass, an eye-piece and diaphragm which is capable of delicately controlled movemem at 2. Divide arc AC in nine equal parts,
right angles to the longitudinal axis of the tube. Fig. 1.12 shows a typical micrometer each part representing 10'. ''

l
and one tbnn of the field of view in taking a reading is shown in Fig. 1.13. The circle
3. With A as the centre, describe arc ''
'-J . \
in Fig. .1.13 is divided into lO miri.utes divisions. The micrometer has an objective Jens
close to lhe circle graduations. It fonns an enlarged image of the circle near the micrometer
from each of the divisions, cutting ABD
into points marked 10' , 20' , ... 90'.
'
'
'
''
'
'
'
''
' .' .
eye-piece, which further enlarges the image. One pair of wires mounted on a movable ' ' '
''
frame is also in the image plane. The frame and the wires can be moved left and right
i
4. Sub-divide each of these parts, if
required, by first subdividing each division .' '
'' '
''
'
'•
'
' . '
by a micrometer screw drum. One complete revolution of the gradu.:ted drum moves the
vertical wires across o1:1e division or 10' of lhe circle . The graduated drum is divided
s~
of arc AC, and then draw arcs with A as
' '
B
'
'
__D_'
imo 10 large divisions (each of I') and each of the large divisions into 6 small ones
·.;; centre. as in step 3.
ao• so· so· 1o• so· 90"
of I 0" each. Fractional parts of a revolution of the drum, corresponding to fractional parts ~ 5. Complete the scale as shown in
10" 20" 40"

of a division on the horizontal circle, may be read on the graduated drum against an ~ Fig. 1.14. II should be noted that the arc
~ througll the 6ff' division will always pass
index mark fined to the side. r: through the point 8 (since the chord of FIG. !.14. CONSTRUCTION OF A CHORD SCALE.
The approximate reading is determined from the position of the specially marked V-notch. -~'
60' is always equal to radius AB). The

I
In the illustration of Fig. 1.13 (a), the circle reading is between 32' 20' and 32' 30' and
distance from A to any mark on the scale is eqnal to the chord of the angle of thar
the double wire index is on the notch. Tum the drum until the nearest division seems
mark. For example, the distance between A to 40' mark on the scale is eqnal to the
ro be midway between the rwo vertical hairs and note the reading on the graduated drum,
as shown in Fig. 1.13 (b) where the reading is 6' 10". The complete reading is ~; chord of 40'.
n the scale of chords. (Fig. 1.15)
32' 26' 10". The object of using two closely spaced parallel wires instead of a single wire ;~ 2. Construction of angles 30' and 80' with
) I. Draw a line AD, and on that
1 ~
mark AB. = chord of 60' from the scale
/
,--, 1. ObJective ·~
of chords.

·-+
,, 2.t., i';.,;c.;,
3. Drum
'·'/ ''<1//.////_~ :.- '/,;.~ '//..
~: ) 2. With A as centre and AB as
4. Index radius, draw an arc.
1.11
:"·1
;.·:~·~~:;?-.
j 3. With B as centre and radius
·'l equal to chord of 30' (i.e. distance from
o• to 30' on the scale of chords) draw
(a)
J
~
an arc to cut the previous arc in E.

~~~b!.klM.,~!J,'J.J"'~'-+
. '~ Join AE. Then L EAB = 30' .
t 'Y,-.;'///h'P', :j 4. Siniilarly, with B as centre and eo·
lmnmml•
I2
3 .32 radius equal to chord of so· (i.e .• distance
t
2
from o· to so· on the scale of chords) B D
Plan draw an arc to em previous arc in F.
Join A and F. Then LFAB= SO'.

I
FIG. 1.13 FIG. !.15. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ANGLE WITH
FIG. 1.12. MICROMETER
MICROSCOPE. TilE SCALE OF CHORDS.

1
!
 22 SURVEYlNG I FUNDAMENTAL DEANmONS AND CONCEPTS

Field notes. Field nmes are written records of field work made at the time work
The plo1 measures 20 em ~ 30 em i.e. 600 em2 on lhe map.
is done. It is obvious that, no matter how carc:fully the field measurements are made.
Area of plol = 600 x 104 = 6 x 106 m' =600 hectares. the survey as. a whole may be valueless if some of those measurements are not recorded
(il) Topo sheet or if any ambiguiry exists as to lhe meaning of lhe records. The competency of the surveyor's
1 km
2
is represemed by 1 em' or (1000 x 1000) m' is represemed by I em' planning and his knowledge of the work are reflected in the field record more than in
any other element of surveying. The field notes should be legiSie. concise and comprehensive.
. . 6 x 10 m is represented by . ~~-
6 2 1
. A-- x 6 x 106 -= 6 cm2 written in clear. plain letters and figures. Following are some general imponant rules .for
note-keepers :
1 I. Record directly in lhe field book as observations are made.
(iii) R.F. of lhe scale of village map
100 X 100 = J0000 2. Use a sharp 2H or 3H pencil. Never use soft pencil or ink.
3. Follow a consistem simple sryle of writing.
I

I
R.F. of lhe scale of topo sheer 4. Use a liberal number of carefully executed sketches.
1 X 1000 X !00 = 100000
5. Make the nares for each day's work on the survey complete with a title of the
1.15. SURVEYING - CHARACTER OF WORK survey, dare,. weather conditions, personnel of the crew, and list of equipmem used.
The work of a surveyor may be divided inlo lhree distincl pans ! 6. Never erase. If a mistake is made, rule one line through the incorrect value
1. Field work
2. Office work i
i
and record the correction above the mistake.
7. Sign lhe notes daily.
3. Care and adjusbnenl of lhe instrumenrs. !I The field notes may be divided into three parts :
1. FlEW WORK s
··'j
1. Numerical values. These include lhe records of all measurements such as lengths
The field work consisrs of lhe measuremem of angles and dis1ances and lhe keeping of lines and offsets, sraff readings (or levels) and angles or directions. All significant figures
of a record of whal has been done in lhe form of field notes. Some of lhe operations ~ should be recorded. If a lenglh is measured 10 lhe nearest 0.01 m. it should be so recorded:

I for example, 342.30 m and not 342.3 m. Record angles as os• 06' 20". using a1 leaSI
which a surveyor has IO do in !he field work are as follows :
1. Esrablishing srations and bench marks as points of reference and lhus 10 esrablish two digits for each pan of the angle.
a system of horizontal and vertical· control. 2. Sketches. Sketches are made as records of outlines, relative locations and topographic
~
2. Measuring dislance along lhe angles between lhe survey lines. features. Sketches are almost never made to scale. If measurements are put directly on
~
3. Locating derails of lhe survey wilh respecl lo lhe srations and lines between srations. f the skerches. make it clear where they belong. Always make a skerch when it will help
derails sucb as ·boundary lines, streeiS, roads, buildings, streams, bridges and olher narural l to settle beyond question any doubt which otherwise might arise in the interpretation of
or anificial features of the area surveyed. J nares. Make sketches large, open and clear.
4. Giving lines and elevations (or setting our lines and esrablishing grades) for a ~ 3. Explanatory notes. The object of the explanatory notes is to make clear rha!
greal vanety of construction work such as that for buildings boundaries, roads, culverts. which is not perfectly evident from numerals and skerches. and to record such information
bridges. sewers and waler supply schemes. concerning important features of the ground covered and the work done as might be of
5. Derermining elevalions (or heighiS) of some existing points or esrablishing points ;1 possible use later.
at given elevations. I 2. OmCE WORK
6. Surveying comours of land areas (topographic surveying) in which the field work The office work of a surveyor consist of
involve both horizonral and vertical control. .\I 1. Drafting

j
7. Carrying out miscellaneous operations, such as 2. Computing
ti) Esrablishing parallel lines and perpendiculars 3. Designing
(iz) Taking measurements m inacessible points. The drafting mainly consists of preparations of lhe plans and secrions (or plouing
(iir) Surveying paSI lhe obsracles. and carrying on a grea1 variery of similar field measurements to some scale) and to prepare topographic maps. The computing is of two
work thar is based on geometric or trigonometric principles. kinds : (!) !hat done for purposes of plotting, and (it) that done for determining area>

I
8. Making observations on the sun or a star to determine the meridian. latirude or and volumes. The surveyor may also be called upon to do some design work specially
longirude. or to deterntine lhe local time. in the case of route surveying.

1
-,
I' I
l.j
24 SURVEYING FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPI'S

3. CARE AND ADJUSTMENTS OF INSTRUMENTS 10. In the case of a compass, do not let the compass needle swing needlessly. When
The practice of surveying requires experience in handling the equipment used in field not in use, it should be lifted off the pivot. Take every precaution to guard the point
and office work, a familiarity with the care and adjustment of the surveying instruments. and to keep it straight and sharp.·
and an understanding of their limitations. Many surveying insttuments such as level, theodolite,
compass etc. are very delicate and must be -handled with great care since there are ml11ly
pans of an instrument which if once impaired cannot be restored PROBLEMS
10 their original efficiency. I
I
Before an insnumem is taken out of the box. relative position of various parts should
be carefully noted so that the instrument can be replaced in the box without undue strain I. Explain the following terms
on any of the parts. The beginner is advised to make a rough sketch showing the position {l) Representative fraction.
of the insttument in the box. Following precautions must be taken : (i1) Scale of plan.
(iii) Graphical scale.
I. While taking out the instrument from the box, do not lift it by the telescope 2. Give the designation and representative fraction of the following scales
or with hands under the horizontal circle plate. It should be lifted by placing the hands (i) A line 135 meues long represented by 22.5 em on plan.
under the levelling base or the foot plate. (i1) A plan 400 sq. metres in area represented by 4 sq. em on plan.
2. While carrying an instrument ftom one place to the other, it should be carried 3. Explain, with neat sketch, the construction of a plain scale. Construct a plain scale l em = 6 m
on the shoulder, sening all clamps tightly to prevent needless wear. yet loose enough so and show 26 metres on it.
that if the parts are bumped they will yield. If the head room available is less. such 1 4. Explain, with neat sketch. the construction of a diagonal scale. Construct a diagonal scale
as carrying it through doors etc.. it should be carried in the arms. If the distance is
long, it is better to put it in box and then carried. I! I em = 5 m and show 18.70 metres on it.
5. Discuss in brief the principles of surveying.
3. When the telescope is not in use, keep the cap over the lens. Do not rub lenses ! 6. Differentiate clearly between plane and geodetic surveying.
--~
with silk or muslin. Avoid rubbing them altogether ; use a brush for removing dust.
7. What is a vernier ? Explain the principle on which it is based.
4. Do not set an instrument on smooth floor without proper precautions. Otherwise

l
the tripod legs are lilcely to open out and.· to let the instrument fall. If the instrument 8. Differentiate between :
has been set up on a pavement or other sn;ooth surface, the tripod legs should be inserted (a) Direct vernier and Retrograde vernier.
(b) Double vernier and Extended vernier.
in the joints or cracks. The tripod legs should be spread well apart. 9. The circle of a theOdolite is graduated to read to 10 minutes. Design a suitable vernier
5. Keep the hands off the vertical circle and other exposed graduations to avoid to read to 10" .
ramishing. Do not expose au insaument needlessly to dust, or to dampness, or to the £

l
10. A limb of an instrument is divided to 15 minutes. Design a suitable vernier to read
bright rays of the sun. A Water proof cover should be used to protect it.
to 20 'ieCOnds.
6. To protect an instrument from the effects of salt water, when used near tile sea
11. Explain the principles used in the cowtruction of vernier.
coast, a fine film of watch oil rubbed over the exposed parts will often prevent the appearance
of oxide. To remove such oxide-spots as well as pm:sible, apply some watch-oil and allow Construct l! vemier to read to 30 seconds ro be used with a scale graduated to 20 minutes.
n to remain tor a tew hours, then rub dry with a soft piece of linen. To preserve the 12. The arc of a sextant is divided to 10 minutes. If 119 of these divisions are taken for
the length of the vernier, into bow many divisions must the vernier be divided in order to read
outer appearance of an instrtunent, never use anything for dusting except a fine camel's
hair brush. To remove water and dust spots, first use the camel's hair brush. and then :) to (a) 5 seconds. and (b) 10 seconds ?
rub-off with fine watch oil and wipe dry : to let the oil remain would tend to accumulate 13. Show how to consuuct the following verniers
dust on the instrument.
7. Do not leave the insrrument unguarded when set on a road. street. foot-path or
,I
'll
(I) To read to 10" on a limb divi~ to 10 minutes.
(i1) To read to 20" on a limb divided to 15 minutes
in pasture. or in high wind.
8. De not force any screw or any part to move against strain. If they do not
~_1 14. (a) Explain the function of a vernier.
turn easily, the parts should be cleaned and lubricated.
9. The steel tape should be wiped clean and dry after using with the help of a
j (b) Consr:ruct a vernier reading 114.25 rom on a main scale divided to 2.5 nun.
(c) A theodolite is fitted with a vernier in which 30 vernier divisions are equal to
dry cloth and then with a slightly oily one. Do not allow automobiles or other vehicles B w· 30' on main scale divided to 30 minutes. Is the vernier direct or retrograde. and what is its
least count ?
to run over a tape. Do not pull on a tape when there is kink in it, or jerk it unnecessarily.
26

2.
9.
10
(1)
n=60
n:::4S
6m[olcm ; ~;
ANSWERS

(il) 10 m to 1 em ; "Wk
SURVEYING

m
11.
12
n=40
(a) 11 = 120 (direct vernier)
Accuracy and Errors
(b) 11 = 60 (exlended vernier)
13. (i) 11=60 (i~ 11=45
14. (c) Direct ; 1 minute.

2.J.. GENERAL
In dealing with measurements. it is important to distinguish between accuracy
and
,,
used in the instrumen ts, the methods and
precision. Precision is the degree of perfection
the observations. Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained.
Accuracy depends on (1) Precise instruments, (2) Precise methods and (3) Good
planning.
the work, save time and provide economy . The
The use of precise instruments simplify
or try to reduce the effect of all types of errors. Good
use of precise methods eliminate
includes proper choice and arrangem ents of survey control and the proper
planning. which
the possibility
choice of instruments and methods for each operation, saves time and reduces
-of errors.
measured
The difference between a measurement and the true value of the quantity
the value of the
is the true e"or of the measurement. and is never known since true
of a surveyor is to secure measurem ents
quantity is never known. However. the important function
of error prescribed by the nature and purpose
.' · which are correct within a certain limit
of a particular survey.
A discrepancy is the difference between two measured values of the same quantity;
if e~h of
it is nor an error. A discrepancy may be small, yet the error may be great
ents contains an error that may be large. It does not reveal the magnirude
the two measurem
of systematic errors.
2.2. SOURCES OF ERRORS

-,.
'f··
~--~'~.
; ..
Errors may arise from three sources :
(1) Instrumental. Error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the
instrument with which measurement is being taken. For example, a tape may
or an angle measuring instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors
be too long
are known as
'

1
instrumental errors.
sight in
; _: (2) PersonaL Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human
an error may be there
. Observing and of touch in manipulating instruments. For example.
the circle of a theodolite . Such errors
''
in taking the level reading or reading an angle on
are known as personal errors.
il; (3) Natural. Error may also be due to variations in narural phenomena
such as
and magnetic declination. If they are not
temperarure. humidity, gravity, wind, refraction
(27l
~­

¥1

...._ .·
i!~'-
T'l
'.

r
29
28 SURVEYING .o..CCURACY AND ERRORS

properly observed while taking measurements, the results will be Incorrect For example, 2.4. THEORY OF PROBABILITY

I
a mpe may be 20 metres at 20'C but its length will change if the field temperature is Investigations of observatioru of various types show that accidental errors follow a
differenr. definite law, the law of probability. Tbis law defines the occurrence of errors and can
2.3. KINDS OF ERRORS be expressed in the form of equation which is used to compute the ptobable value or

Ordinary errors met with in all classes of survey work may be classified as : !r the probable precision of a quantity. The most imponanr features of accident!l (or compensating)
errors which usually occur. are :
(a) Mistakes ! (z) Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large ones; that is. they are
(b) Systematic errors (Cumulative errors) ~ more probable.
(c) Accidental errors (Compensating errors). 'r (ii) Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency ;
that is they are equally probable.

I
(a} Mistakes. Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness
and poor_ judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer. If a mislake is undelected, (iii) Large errors occur infrequently and are improbable.
it produces a serious effect upon the final result. Hence, every value to be recorded in Probability Curve. The theory of probability describes these featutes by saying that
the field must be checked by some independent field observation. the relative frequencies of errors of different extents can be represented by a curve as
,~

I in Fig. 2.1 . This curve, called the curve of error or probability curve. forms the basis
{b) Systematic Errors (Cumulative Errors). A systematic error or cumulative error
is an error that, under the same conditions, will always be of the same size and sign. ''fr' for the mathematical derivation of theory of errors.
Principle of L<ast Square. According to the principle of least square, the most probable
A systematic error always follows some definite mathematical or physical law. and a cOrrection •t
can be determined and applied. Such errors are of constam character and are regarded . value of an observed quantity available from a given set of observations is the one for
as positive or negative according as they make the result too gr;at or too small. Their ~ whicll the sum of the squares of errors (residuals) is a minimum.
effect is, therefore, cumulative. For example. if a tape is P ern shan and if it is stretched. Most Probable Value. The most probable value of a quantity is the one wbich
;;
N times. the total error in the measurement of the length will be P.N em. l: has more chances of being correct than has 401
>'
any other. 17re most probable error is defined •
If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore : (1) all surveying equipment
'' as that quantity which when added to and subtracted •
must be designed and used so that whenever possible systematic errors will be automatically
eliminated. (2) All systematic errors that cannot be surely eliminated by this means must
I from. rlre most probable value fixes the limits •
~ 310
• P.
! within which it is an even clzance the true value 0 0 1/
..•
be evaluated and their relationship to the conditions that cause them must be determined. ~ •
"2'
For example, in ordinary levelling, the levelling instrument must first be adjusted so that ~ of the measured quantity must lie. ~ I\
the line of sight is as nearly horizontal as possible when bubble is centered. Also, the The probable error of a single observation ~
10
I/ •
horizontal lengths for back-sight and fore-sight from each instnunent position should be kept is calculated from the equation. v •
1'\.
'\-...
as nearly equal as possible. In precise levelling, every day the actual error of the instrument ,,--;:;,- 0 :.-1 •
' +0.2 +0.4 .
must be determined by careful peg test, the length of each sight is measured by stadia E.=
.
± 0.6745 'J ::='-;-
11- 1
... (2.1) -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0
and a ;.;0n·;,;;;riur, iV i.i.it lc.Suhs is applied. Size of error
The probable error of the mean of a number
(c) Accidental Errors (Compensating Errors). Accidental errors or compensaJing errors
are those which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminared and are :j of observations of the same quantity is calculated
from the equation :
FIG. 2.t PROBABILITY CURVE.

caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to control. They
rend sOmetimes in one direction and sometimes in the other. i.e. they are equally likely .~ l:v 2 E, ... (2.2)
Em= ± 0.6745 ._;
n (n- I) = vr.n
to make the apparent result too large or too small. An accidental error of a single determination
is the difference between (1) the true value of the quantity, and (2) a determination that
iS free from mistakes and systematic errors. Accidental errors represent the limit of precision
I1 where Es = Probable error of single observation
v = Difference between any single observation and the mean of the series
in the determination of a value. They obey rile laws of clzance 011d therefore, must be

I
/zandled according to the mathematical laws of probability. Em = Probable error of the mean
As srated above, accidemal errors are of a compensative nature and tend to baJance n = Nwnber of observations in the series.
out in the final results. For example, an error of 2 em in the tape may flucruare on
.' Example 2.1. ln carrying a line of levels across a river. tlze following eight readings
either side of the amount by reason of small variations in the pull to which it is subjected. were taken with a level under identical conditions : 2.322, 2.346, 2.352. 2.306. 2.312.
2.300, 2.306, 2.326 metres.
11
I
 30. SURVEYING ACCURACY A.."'D ERRORS

l
Calculate (I) the probable error of single observation, (il) probable error of t!Je mean.
Solution.
The computations are arranged in the tabular form :
~-~odrrading--

~
1
' ~
' - - - - -- .,/ ---~

I
I~
p
'
As a rule, the field measurements should be consistent, thus dic1ating the number
of significant figores in desired or computed quantities. The accuracy of angular and linear
values shoJild be compalible. For small angles, arc= chord= R 9" 1206265, where 9 is expressed
in seconds of arc. Thus for !" of arc, the subtended value is I mm ar 206.265 m while
for I' of arc, the subtended value is I mm at 3.438 m or I em at 34.38 m. In other
words, the angular values _measured to I" require dislances to be measured to 1 rom.
2.322 I O.llOt '
I 0.000001 '. while the angular values measured [O 1' require dis[ances to be measured to 1 em .
2.346 i 0.025 !' 0.000625 Accumulation of Errors: In the accwnulation of errors of known sign, the summation
2.352 I 0.031 I 0.000961
is algebraic while the swnmation of random errors of ± values can only be compmed

I ' ' by the root mean square v~a::,lu~e....:..:- - - - - -

I
~·
2.306 0.015 0.000225
2.312 0.009 0.000081
-J±
er = e12 ± el ± e32 ± ......·. ± ei ... (2.3)
2.300
I 0.021 0.000441 I
~
2:6. ERRORS IN COMPUTED RESULTS
The errors in .computed results arise from (1) errors in mea.iured or derived data.
2.306 I O.oi5 0.000225
2.326 0.005 0.000025 ;'
;
or (il) errors in trigonometrical or logrithmcial values used. During common arithmetical -
process (i.e. addition, sub[racrion, mulriplication, division etc), the resultant values are frequently
I~
Mean : 2.321 I !:v2 = 0.002584 given false accuracies as illustrated below.
From equation (!), , . . - - - -
' (a) Addition.
0 ·~ 0~~84 Let s = x + y, where x and y are measured quantities.
£, = ± 0.6745 ...j = ± 0.01295 metre
Then s + os = (x + &x) + (y + oy)
E, 0.01295 ··. where 5s may be + or - .
and E., = Tn = ±~ = ± 0.00458 metre.
Considering probable errors of indefinite values,
2.5. ACCURACY IN SURVEYING : PERMISSffiLE ERROR s ± es = (.r ± e.t) + (y ± ey) or s ± es = (x + y) ± 1 e} + e/
~
... (2.4)
The pemJissible error is the maximum allo'Yable limit that a measurement may vary Probable Error ± es = i/ e} + e/
from the Ulle value, or from a value previously adopted as correct. The value of lhe Subtraction.
~ (b)
permissible error in any given case depends upon the scale, the purpose of the survey. t.
t1 Let S=X-y
the insuuments available. class of work etc. The surveyor may be handicapped by rough
country, roo shan a time, too small a party. poor instruments. bad wearher and many· s + os = (x - v) + (ox + ov)
ot.her unfavourable conditions. The limit of error, therefore. cannot be given once for all. The maximum error= os = (ox + oy)
Examples of the permissible error for various classes of work have been mentioned throughout
this book. However, the best surveyor is not he who is extremely accurate in all his
..~ Considering probable errors of indefinite value. s -± e s = (.r - y) ± { e} + e_v!
wuJk., but lie )vhq does it just accurately enough for the purpose without waste of time
·I ... (2.5)
±es = Ve} + e/
or money: A swveyor should m~e the precision of each step in the field work corresponding
to the importance of that step.
'
·~ Probable error
which is the same as in addition.
Significant ,FigUres in Measurement J (c) Multiplication
In surveying, an indica[ion of accuracy attained is shown by number of significant ¥" Lets=x.y
figores. Each such quantity, expresse<) in n number of digits in which n - I are the digits

I
OSx=Y. ox and os,. =X. oy
of definite value while the last digit .is the least accurate digit which can be estimated The maximum error os=yox+xoy
and is subject to error. For example, a quantity 423.65 has five significant figures. with
Considenng probable errors of indefinite values,
four certain and the last digit 5, uncertain. The error in the last digit may. in this case,
be a maximum value of 0.005 or a probable value of ± 0.0025 ... (2.6 a)
es=Ye.x+xey
"</ ' ' ' '

1~.
!"I!
! 32 Sl'RVEYING r ACCURACY AND ERRORS

probable limits of the quantity

33

or .e, = xy Y(e ,!x)' + (e y ly)' ".(2.6 b) Hence the most probable error = ±0.00251 and most
um limits of quantity ase 10.52is and
(s) are 10.5195 and 10.5145. Similasly the maxim
and error ratio '!!. = ..fce,lx)' + (eyly)' .... (2.6) 10.5115.
s of the sum of two quantities
(d) Division From the above, it is cleas that the quantity s, consisting
that the second decimal place is the
may be expressed either as 10.52 or as 10.51, and
X
quantity (s) may be quoted. Hence it is concluded
Let S=-
y most probable limit to which the derived
that the accuracy of the suin must not exceed the
least accurate figure used.
Bx Bs, x By
&s.r = - and =
Example 2.3. A quantity s is given by
y y' s = 5.367 - 4.88
The maximum error Bs= Bx+x
. By and maximum limits of
Find the most probable error, and the most probable limits
.y y'
the quantity.
Considering probable errors of indefinite values, Solution.
le errors will be± 0.0025 .
The maximum errors will be 0.0005 and 0.005 and probab
e, = '!/(~)' + ( 7J' ... (2.7 a)
.. s +lis= (x- y) ±(Bx + liy) = (5.367 - 4.88) ± (0.005 + 0.0005)
2
=0.487 ± 0.0055 =0.4925 or 0.4815
or e =-x~(e\
1
(e)'
2)+1. ..!. ".(2. 7 b)
y X \ y
Also s ±e, = (x- y) ± ..J e} + e}= (5.367 - 4.88) ± Y(0.00025)' + (0.0025)>

and error ratio : ~

= ..f(e,f x)' + (ey/y)' ".(2. 7) = 0.4925 ± 0.00251 = 0.4950 or 0.4900
s
which is the same as for multiplication. Hence the most probable error= ± 0.00251
(e) Powers.
Let s =X'
'J
.i
Most probable limits of s = 0.4950 and 0.4900 and maximum
Here again, the quantity s can only be 0.48 or 0.49,
is the most probable limit to which a derived quamity (s)
limits of s = 0.4925 .and 0.4815.
and the second decimal place
can be given. Hence the accuracy
Bs = n x"-'Bx figure used.
. . Error ratio
Bs nBx
S X
... (2.8)
j of a subtraction must not exceed the least accurate
Example 2.4. A derived quantity s is given by produc
t of two measured quamities,

Example 2.2. A quanJity s is equal to the sum of two measured quantities x and I as under :
S= 2.86 X 8.34
y given by i Fit.J Joi: :r.w.in~m r.;rror and ll!DSI probable error
in rhe derived quanrf~·
s = 'l.dd + 5.037
Solution
probable limits of the
Find the most probable error, the maximum limits and most be 0.005 and 0.005, while
quantity s. J The maximum errors in the individual measurements will
the most probable errors will be ± 0.0025 and± 0.0025 respectively.

-;J~-­
Solution.
Now max. error lis= y Bx + x By= (8.34 x 0.005) + (2.86 x 0.005)
0.0005 and the probable errors
The maximum errors (Bx and By) will be 0.005 and =0.0417 + 0.0143 = 0.056 ~ 0.06
will be ± 0.0025 and± 0.00025.
The most probable error r'i"-s_ __
s +lis= (x + y)± (Bx +By)= (4.88 + 5.637) ± (0.005 + 0.0005) 5
~(-~ )' + ( 7)' = (2.86 x 8.34) ~( OZ0~~5 )'+ (!!8~~~ )'
..
= 10.517 ± 0.0055 ... (!) e, =X y
= 10.5225 and 10.5115
2
= (4.88+5.637)± Y(0.0025) +(0.00025)
2 = ± 0.02
Also s ±e, = (x + y) ±..J :1 + e,' ='x X y = 2.86 8.34 = 23.85
Now S X
= 10.517 ± 0.00251 ... (2)
= 10.5195 and 10.5145
rI 34 I ACCURACY AND BRRORS
Eumple. 1.7 'lire long and shan sides
I SURVEYING
I
of a rectangle measure 8. 28 m and 4. 36
Hence the most probable limits are thus 23.87 alld 23.83, alld by rounding off prOCO$S.
value may be given as 23.85, i.e. to the same accuracy as the least accurate figUre m, wilh erron of :1:5 ml/1. Express the area to correct number qf significant figures.
used. Solution
2
Example 2.5 A derived quanJity s is given 1Jy A= 8.28 x 4.36 = 36.1008 m
23.9 Maximum error in individual measurements = 0.005 m
s =8.34
0,00, . I d 0.005 I
Find the maximum error and most probable error in the qudHiity. :. Error ra tlos are : ~ 8Ts • 'i6So an = 4_36 ~ 872

BA = 36.1008 ( : + ; 2 ) ~ ± 0.06 m
Solulion
The maximum error Ss is given by 1 50 8
Bs=fu:+x.By Hence area has limits of 36.16 and 36.04 m' alld the answer can be quoted as
y y' 36,10 m' correct to iwo significant figures compatible with the field measurements.
where Bx and By (maximum errors in illdividual measurements) are 0.05 alld 0.005 Example 2,8 A .rectangle has sides approximately 380 metres and 260 metres. If
respectively rhe area ino be dettl'llllneil to the neatest /0 m' whol wiU be maximum error permined in
Bs = 0.05 + 23.9 x 0.005 ,. 0.006 + 0.0017 = 0.0077 each line and tiJ wi!Dt accuracy should the lines be measured. Assume equal precision r01io
8.34 2
(8.34) for each length ..
The probable errors in individual measurements are ± 0.025 and ± 0.0025. Hence the Solution.
probable error in the derived uanti is A = 380 • 260= 98800 m'

(~!!.)' +(~)' =~..Ji(o,02S

__ ,.-
e,=! )+(0.0025 )'. SA= 10m'
y X y 8.34 23.9 8.34 M H) I fu: By
=-+-
= ± 0.003
'A = 98800 = 9880 X y
a.=~
~~
But
Now s = 23 ·9 = 2.8657 ~ 2.866 X y
8.34
fu: By 2fu: I .
Hence the most probable limits of s are 2.869 and 2.863. For practical putpeses, ~+-=-=-
xyx9880
adopting rounding off, the value may be given as 2.87.
fu: I I
Example 2.6 A derived quantity s is given 1Jy -=2x9880 19760
X
s = (4.86) 2 "
:.··.1:

Find rhe ·mtrr;mum wr!ra• of c'·-··-;.•· -_--::-:d ;r:,_..,.s! p,-,_>Z;c.;!;; .J.I.:.;;; t'
"J
.. ,. ' '
~-' ......
' Hence precision ratio of each line ~ 19~60
Solution
s = (4.86)2= 23.6196
Now maximum error in the individual measurement is 0.005 and. probable error in
measurement ·is 0.0025.
iI :. Max. 'error in 380 m length=

Max. error in 260 m length=

1 !~~- 0.0192 m
~~~0 - 0.0131 m
Now, maximum error Ss is given by
os = n t•-• Bx = 2(4.86)2' 1 x 0.005
t If the number of significant figures in area is 5 ( i.e. nearest to 10m' ). each
line must be measured to atleast 5 significant figures, i.e. 380.00 m and 260.00 m.
= 0.0486
The most probable value of error is
PROBLEMS
e, = n x"''e, = 2(4.86)2' 1 x 0.0025 = ± 0.0243.
The most probable limits of s are thus 23.6~39 and 23~5953. and rounding these l. Explain the folloWing tellllS :
off, we get s, practically·, equal to 23.62. (/) Accuracy (ii)' Precision (iii) Discrepancy (iv) True error.
rr f
I
36

2. Distinguish clearly between cumulative and compensating errors.

3. Discuss in brief lhe differem sources of errors in surveying.
4. What are the characteriSlic features of accidental error ? Explain how will you
probable error in a qu.a.mity measured several (imes in lhe field.
SURVEYING

find out me
m
5. An angle has been measured under clifferent field conditions, with results
28° 24' 20" 28° 24' 00"
as follows :
Linear Measurements
28° 24' 40" 28° 23' 40"
28° 24' 40" 28° 24' 20"
28° 25' {)()" 28° 24' 40"
28° 24' 20" 28° 25' 20" 3.1. DIFFERENT METHODS
relative merit
Find (I) the probable error of single observation (il) probable error of the mean. There are various methods of making linear measurements and their
ANSWERS depends upon the degree of precision required.
They can .be mainly divided into three heads :
5. (i) 19".34 (il) 6".11..
1. Direct measurements.
2. Measurements by optical means.
3. Electro-magnetic methods.
In the case of direct measurements, distances are actually measured on the ground
:,.-1
with help of a chain or a rape
or any other instrument. In the optical methods, observations
uy
are mken through a telescope and calculations are done for the distances, such as in tacheome
methods, distances are measured with instrumen ts
or trian&U:Iation. · In the electro-magnetic
reflection and subsequent reception of either radio waves, light
that rely on propagation,
Jf.c waves or infrared waves. 1
tric
For measurement of distances by optical means, refer chapter 22 on Tacheome
chapter 24
Surveying'. For measurement of distances by electro-magnetic methods, refer
on 'Electro-magnetic Distance Measurement (EDM)'.
3.2. DIRECT MEASUREMENTS
The various methods of measuring the distances directly are as follows
1. Pacing·
2. Measurement with passometer
..
:J_··· 3. Measurement with pedometer
~ ·' 4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer

iI
5. Chaining .
ry
(1) Pacing. Measurements of distances by pacing is chiefly confined to the prelimina
·
•• ~ swveys and explorations where a surveyor is called upon to make a rough survey
as quickly
other means.
as p<\ssible. It may also be used to roughly check the distances measured by
of a line.
The method consists in counting the number of paces between the two points
of the pace.
The length of the line can then be computed by knowing the ·average length
with the nature of the ground,
The length of the pace varies with the individual, and also
speed of pacing. A length· of pace more nearly that
the slope of the country and the
(37)
 3'1
" SURVEYING UNBAR MEASUREMENTS

of one's natural step is preferable. The length of one'1 natlmll alql may be detennined the length of the chain is measured from the outside of one handle to the ou<Side of
by walldng on fairly level ground over various lines of known length&:· One can soon the other handle.
learn to pace distances along level, unobstructed ground with a degree of ·accuracy equivalent
Following are various types of chains in common use :
apprmtimately to I in 100. However, pacing over rough ground or on slopes may be (if) Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain
difficult .. (1). Mellie chains
(ii!) Engineer's chain (iv) Revenue chain
{2) Passometer. Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is carried
in pocket or attached to one leg. The mechanism of the instroment is operated by motion (v) St<:el band or band chain.
of the body and it automatically registers the number of paces, thus avoiding the monotony ~letric d)alns. After the introduction of metric units in India. the metric chains are
and strain of counting the paces, by the surveyor. The number of paces registered by widely used. Metric chains are generally available in lengths of 5. !0, 20 and 30 merres.
the passometer can then be multiplied by the average length .of the pace to get the distance. IS : 1492-1970 covers !be requirements of metric surveying chains. Figs. 3.2 and 3.3 show
5 m and 10m chains r!l'pectively, while Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 show the 20 m and 30 m
(3) Pedometer. Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except that, adjusted
to the length of the pace of the person carrying it, it registers the total distance covered chains respectively.· Fig. 3.6 shows the details of a metric chain.
by any number of paces. .
(4) Odometer and Speedometer. The odometer is an instrument for registering the 1: 5m±3mm 'I
number of revolutions of a wheel. The well-known speedometer works on this principle. · 1m ·:-4--1 m__,..}t--1 m--+l+---1 m--.:

~++++~
The odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled along the lirie whose length is required.
The number of revolutions registered by the odometer can then be multiplied by the circumference 1
!
of the wheel to get the distance. Since the instrumeDI registers the length of the ·surface
acrually passed over, its readings obtained on undulatlpg ground are Inaccurate. If the route •
1 fiG. ).Z. 5-METRE CHAIN
is smooth, the speedometer of an automobile can be used to meas.ure· the 'distailce approximately. •-"tt
I<--~.-1m 1m~1m~1m-.
'

I
(5) Chaining. Chaining is a renn which is u5ed to denote measuring distance either 1
I I I ..:I ~
,,

~+++~1m>/
with the help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct
measurements. For work of ordinary ptecision, a chain can be used, but for higher precision
a tape or special bar can be used. The distances determined by chaining form the basis

~ ~)l>,
of all surveying. No matter how accurately angles may be measured, the survey can
be no more precise than the chaining. w
''
~c ~ TTT -~---.,;m
3.3. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAJNING !1
The various instruments used for the detennination of the length of line by chaining
are as follows
Chain :.;;: w.p;.: ~- Arrows
t ... ...

'
i· i
'
i
'
.I
'·.

IIll 1 m--Jo.+-1 m---++-1 ml

j
3. Pegs 1m
4. Ranging rods
5. Offset rods 6. Plasterer's lath& and whites FIG. 3.3. !o-METRE CHAm
7. Plumb bob.
I. CHAIN i To enable the reading of fractions of a chain without much difficulty, tallies are
fixed at ev~ry metre length for chains of 5 m and 10 m length& (see Fig. 3.2 and 3.3)
Chains are fanned of straight links of gal-
vanised mild steel wire bent into rings at the ~ and at every five-melle length for chains of 20 m and 30 m lengths (see Figs. 3.4 and
3.5). In the case of 20 m and 30 m chains, small brass rings are provided at every
ends and joined each other by three small circular
or oval wire rings. These rings offer flexibility 3 metre length, exeep{ where ~llies are attached. The shapes of tallies for chains of 5 m
and 10 m length& for different positions are shown in Fig. 3.7. To facilitate holding of
to the chain. The ends of the chain are provided arrows in position with the handle of ihe chain, a groove is cut on Ute outside surface
whh brass handle at each end with swivel joint,
of the handle, as shown in Fig. 3.6. The tallies used for marking distances in the metric
so that the chain can be htrned without twisting. cha4J,s are marked with the letters 'm · in the order to distingui~h theqt from non~melfic
The length of a link is the distance between chains. The length· of chain, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m or 30 m as the case may be. are engraved
the centres of two consecutive middle rings, while FIG. 3.t CHAIN AND ARROWS.

J.
et·
~··II
' l
40 SURVEYING
r LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
41

Gunter's Chain or Surveyor's Chain

1: 5m 20m:!::.-5m I I 5m :1 A Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain is 66 ft. long and consisiS of 100 links. each
1m •' : : : link being 0.6 ft. or 7.92 inches long. The leng1h of 66 ft. was originally adopted for
[>o--ooo- 1 1 i ~ convenience in land measurement since 10 square chains are equal to I acre. Also. when

Bmsn'9JTTT
every meter length
linear measuremeniS are required in furlongs and miles, it is more convenient since 10
Gunter's chains = I furlong i!Dd 80 Gunter's chains = I mile.
Engineer's Chain
FIG. 3.4. 20-METRE CHAIN The engineer's chain is 100 ft. long and consisiS of 100 links, each link being I
ft. long. At every I0 links, brass tags are fastened, with notches on the tags indicating
3 8 the number of 10 link segmeniS between the tag and end of the chain. The distances
):
1m
5m
Jd
,,. sm ::'s .:.:.._5.,___5m"
: I : : 1
Sm :1 measured are recorded in feet and decimals.
[)o-ooo. iii i ·[~ Revenue ,Chain
2i6
Bmssringa/TTTTT . The. revenue chain is. 33 ft. long and consisiS of 16 links, each link being
long. The chain is mainly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey.
ft.

I
every meter length
Steel band or band chain (Fig. 3.8)
FIG. 3. S. 30-MIITRE CHAIN

1+---t"'S:,... 200 ' 200

58~::
:+--- 93 ± 1---+:
74 ± 1-+:
'' :' I 161±11----+
''!

I
: : :)ing Link, snlill 4 ;:
i75 l :A" I :

·-h~
1 _
Collar
EnQrava length
Eye bolt Ring 4! i
of the chain (oval shaped)

FIG. 3.6. DETAILS OF A METRIC CHAIN f flG. 3.8 STEEL BAND.

un both the hantiles to indicate the length and also to distinguish the chains from non-metric
chains. J The steel band consisiS of a long !lalTOW strip of blue steel, of uniform width of
t 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. Metric steel bands are available in lengths
of 20 or 30 m. It is divided by brass studs at every 20 em and numbered at every
metre. The first and last links (20 em leng1h) are subdivided into em and mm. Alternatively •
in the place of putting brass studs, a steel band may have graduations etched as metres.
decimetres and centimetres on one side and 0.2 m links on the other. For convenience
in handling and carrying, steel bands are almost invariably Wound on special steel crosses
or metal reels from which they can be easily unrolled.
For accurate work, the steel band should always be used in preference to the chain,
16..l 4-soo-\ fso~ fso';} 22 but it should only be placed in the hands of careful chainmen. A steel band is lighter
For 1 metre For2 metres For 3 metres For4 metres For5 metres than the chain and is easier to handle. It is practically unalterable in length, and is not
and 9 metres and 8 metres and 7 metres and 6 metres liable to kinks when in use. liS chief disadvantage is that it is easily broken and difficult
FIG. 3.7. SHAPES OF TALUES FOR 5 m AND 10 m CHAINS. to repair in the field.
II
I '
42

Testing and Adjusting CbaiD

SURVEYING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Cloth or linen Tape. Clolb tapes of closely woven linen, 12 to 15 mm wide varnished
43

~~
!!

During continuous use, the length of a chain to resist moisrure, are light and flexible and may be used for taking comparatively rough
gets alrered. Its length is shortened chiefly due to and subsidiary measurements such as offsets. A cloth tape is commonly available in lengths
the bending of links. Its length is elongaled eilber of lO metres, 20 metres, 25 metres and 30 metres, and in 33 ft., 50 ft., 66 ft. and
due to stretching of the links and joints and opening ~// 100 ft. The end of the tape is provided with small brass ring whose length is included
t/ftfl/11 in the total length of lbe tape. A cloth tape is rarely used for making accurate measurements,
out of the small rings, or due to wear of wearing · r::
~
1
surface. For accurate work, it is necessary to rest ~ because of the following ieasons : (1) it is easily affected by moisture or dampness and
the length of the chain from time to time and make thus shrinks ; (il) its length gets altered by stretching ; (iii) it is likely to twist and
adjustments in the length. FIG. 3.9 FIELD TESTING OF CHAIN. tsngle ; (iv) it is not strong. Before winding up the tape in the case. it should be cleaned
A chain may either be tesled with reference to a standard. chain or with reference and dried.
to a steel tape. Sometimes, it is conveniem to have a P.mianent resr gauge established
and the chain tesled by com- ·
r 20 Cf11 X 20 Cl11 Q;ased StOne&

'fu:~ ~30m
paring with the test gauge from
time to time. In field, where
no permanent test gauge exists,
mo [!]10m

a test gauge is established by +--10m +------

10m 10m ---+1
driving two pegs the requisire
distance apart, and inserting nails FlO. 3.10 PllRMANBNT TEST GAUGE.
into their tops to mJ!fk exact poinla, as showtl in Fig. ~.9. FiJ. 3:10 shows a pennanent
;J Fi&3.11 McuUcT•pc Fig:UlSlHIT•pt
PE.
test gauge, made of messed stones 20 em x 20 em.
Metallic Tape. A metallic tape is made of varnished strip of wate!]lroof linen interwoven
The overall length of a chain, when measured at 8 kg pull and checked against
with small brass, copper or bro1120 wires and does not stretch as easily as a cloth tape.
a sreel tape standardized at 20'C, shall be within the following limits :
Since metallic tapes are light and flexible and are not easily broken, !hey are particularly
20 metre chain : ± 5 min and 30 metre chain : ± 8 mm useful in cross-sectioning and in some methods of topography where small errors in length
In addition to Ibis, every metre length of the chain shall !Je accurare to within 2 mm. of the tape are of no consequence. Metallic tapes are made in lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20,
On testing, if a chain is found to be long, it can adjusled by 30 and 50 metres. In the case of tapes of 10, 20, 30 and 50 m lengths a metal ring
(1) closing the joints of . the rings if opened out is attached to the outer ends and fastened to it by a metal strip of the same width as
(il) reshaping the elongaled rings the tape. This metal strip protects the tape, and at the same time inspector's stamp can
{iii) removing one or inore SMall circular rings be pm on it. In addition to the brass ring, the outer ends of these tapes are reinforced
(iv) replacing worn out rings by a strip of leather or suitable plastic material of the same width as the tape, for a
~ ·, ·) ldjusri.!lg ~:.; !~ ~l u.... .;;u.~. ~.
length of atleast 20 em. Tapes of 10, 20 , -30 and 50 metre lengths are supplied in
If, on the other band, a chain is found to be short, it can be adjusted by a metal or leather case fitted with a winding device (Fig. 3.ll).
(!) straigbrening the links Steel Tape. Steel tapes vary in quality and accuracy
(i1) flattening the 'circular rings of graduation, but even a poor steel tape is generally
(iii) replacing one or more small circular rings by bigger ones superior to a cloth or metallic tape for most of lbe linear
(iv) inserting additional circular rings measurements that are made in surveying. A steel tape
(v) adjusting the links at the end. consists of a light strip of width 6 to lO mm and is
However, in both the cases, adjustment must be done symmetrically so that the position more accurately graduated. Steel tapes are available in
of the cenrral peg does not alter. lengths of I, 2, 10, 20, 30 and 50 metres. The tapes
2. TAPES of 10, 20, 30 and 50 metre lengths, are provided with
Tapes are used for more ~ccurate measurements and are classed according to the a brass ring at the outer end, fastened to it by a meml
strip of the swne width as the tape. The length of the
material of which they are made, such as follows:
(!) clolb or linen tape (il) metallic tape
tape includes the metal ring. It is wound in a well-sewn ~
leather case or a corrosion resisting metal case, having
(iii) steel tape and (iv) invar tape. FIG. 3.13. STEEL TAPE ON REEL

'2;.
 ,, ,.

[
.

'·'I
44
SURVEYTNG

a suitable winding device (Fig. 3.12). Tapes of longer length (i.e., more than 30) m are
r LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ·~
I H2.5or3 cm
wound on metal reel (Fig. 3.13).
A steel tape is a delicate insnumem and is very Jight, and therefore, cannot withsrand LJ~or3cm
rough usage. The tape should be wiped clean and dry after using, .and should be oiled
with a little mineral oil, so that it does not get rusted.
Invar Tape. Invar tapes are used mainly for linear measuremenrs of a very high
degree of precision, such as measurements of base lines. The invar tape is made of alloy
of nickel (36%) and steel, and has very low coefficient of thermal expansion-seldom more
than about one-tenth of that of steel, and often very much less. The coefficient of thennal 4mm
expansion varies a good deal with individual bands but an average value of 0.0000005 dia. wire
black
per I • F may be taken. The other great advantage of invar is that bands and wires made enamelled
of invar enable base lines to be measured very much more rapidly and conveniently. Invar 15cm
tapes and bands are more expensive, much softer and are more easily deformed than steel
400mm±5
tapes. Another great disadvantage of invar tape is that it is subjected to creep due to

l
which it undergoes a small increase in length as time goes on. Its coefficient of thermal
expansion also goes on changing. It is therefore, very essential ro derennine irs l~ngth
and coefficient of expansion from time to time. fnvar tapes are nonnally 6 rnm widf: and
are available in lengths of 20, 30 and 100 m.
The difficulty with invar tapes is that they are easily bent and damaged. They must,
therefore, be kept on reels of large diameter, as shown in· Fig. 3.14.
i
FIG. 3.t5. An-OW. FIG. 3.16. WOODEN PEG.

4. PEGS
Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the stations or terminal points of
a survey line. They are made of stout timber, generally 2.5 em or 3 em square and
15 em long, tapered at the end. They are driven in the ground
with the help of a wooden hammer and kept about 4 em
projecting above the surface.
S. RANGING RODS
Ranging rods have a length of either 2 m or 3 m,
ilie 2 meuc le;ugili being more eommon. They are shod at

~b ,J.~
the bottOm with a heavy iron point, and are painted in alternative
•.. ..
bands of either black and white or red and white or black,
red and white in succession, each band being 20 em deep Black or Red
FlG. 3.14. INVAR TAPE ON REEL so that on occasion the rod can be used for rough measurement Bands ~
'L. of short lengths. Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate
3. ARROWS points in the survey tine. They are circular or octagonal in White Bands
Arrows or marking pins are made of stout sreel wire. and genera1ly. 10 arrows
are supplied with a chain. An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain length
cross-section of 3 em nominal diameter, made of well-seasoned,
straight grained timber. The rods are almost invisible at a
"'-..I
"i;~
measured on the ground. Arrows are made of good quality hardened and tempered steel f distance of about 200 metres; hence when used on long lines
wire 4 mm (8 s.w.g.) in diameter, and are black enamelled. The length of arrow may each rod should have a red, white or yellow flag, about 30
vary from· 25 em to 50 em, the most common length being 40 em. One end of the to 50 em square, tied on near its top (Fig. 3.17 (a)]. (a) (b)
Ranging offset
arrow is made sharp and other end is bent into a loop or circle for facility of carrying. Ranging poles. Ranging poles are similar to ranging rod rod
Fig. 3.15 shows the details of a 40 em long arrow as recommended by the Indian Standard. rods except that they are longer "and of greater diameter and FIG. 3.1·7.
:I
46 SURVEYING l LlNEAR Mi!ASUREMBNTS

are used in case of very long lines. Generally, they are net painted, but in all cases to be established In line with the two terminal points before chaining is started. The process
they are provided with a large flag. Their length may vary from 4 to 8 metres, and of fixing or establishing such intenitediate points is known as ranging. There are two methods
f
diameter from ·6 to 10 em. The foot of each pole is sunk about m into the ground,
of ranging : (1) Direct ranging, (il) Indirect ranging.
(1) DIRECT RANGING
the pole being set quite vertical by aid of a plumb bob. Direct ranging is done when the two ends of the survey lines are intervisible. In
6. OFFSET RODS such cases, ranging can eltitet be done by eye or through some optical instrument such
An offset rod is similar to a ranging rod and has a length of 3 m. They are
round wooden rods, shod with pointed iron shae at otle end, and provided with a notch
as a //lie "'"rtJngbet or a t~DdO/ite. 4------t-----·-----]
Ran6"'3 Y eye : 1dA. 3.20) surveyor
or a hook at the other. The hook facilitates pulling and pilshing the chain through hedges Let A and B be the two points at the ends of a ,
and other obstructions. The rod is mainly used for measuring rough offsets nearby [Fig. survey line. One ranging rod is erected at the point 3.20. RANGING BY EYE.
F!O.
3.17 (b)]. It has also two narrow slots passing through the centre of the section. and B while the surveyor stands with another ranging rod at point A. holding the rod at about
set at right angles to one another, at the eye level,. for aligning the offset line. balf metre length. The assistant then goes with another ranging rod and establishes die
Butt rod. A butt rod is also used for measuring offsets, but it is often used by . rod at a point appro~ately In the llrte with AB (by judgment) at a distance not greater
building surveyors or architects. It generally consists of two laths, each of I yard or I thaJi one chain length from
A. The surveyor at A then signals the assistant to move transverse
m in length loosely riveted together. The joint is also provided with a spring catch to to the cbaln line, till be is In line with A and B. Similarly, other intermediate points
keep the rod extended. The rod is painted black. The divisions of feet aod inches are can be established •. Tiie code of signals used for this purjlOse ii given in the table below:
marked out with white aod red paint.
CODE OF SIGNALS FOR RANGING
7. PLASTERER'S LATHS
· · SfRMI b1 the Surveyor Aclior1 In the Assislalll
In open level ground, intermediate points on a line may also S.No.

be lined out with straight laths, f

to I metre long, made of soft l.__j.+-- t Rapid sil'e<p witl1 rl8fn._hiond Move considerably to the right
Move slowly to die right
wood. They are light both in colour and welght, and can be easily 2 StoW sweep with dgtit band
Rlsht arm extended Continue 10 move to dlc right
carried about and sharpened with a knife whell required. They are \\.V//\\1 ~//\\V/1\\\ 3
Plumb the rod to lhe right
also very useful for ranging out a line when crossing a depression 4 Rloht '"" "" ·.ro nioYol.to the rlRht
from which the forward rod is invisible, or when it is hidden by Move considerably 10 the left
obstacles, such as hedges etc. FIG. 3.18. WHITES. e s Rspkl &we.p wHit left hand
Move slowly to the left

~.•t~-
6 SloW sweep With left hahd
Whites. Whites are pieces of sharpened thin sticks cut from Continue to move to rhc left
the nearest edge, and are used for the same purpose as the laths, 7 Left ann extended
Left amtuo and moved -to the.lcft Plumb the rod to lhe left
though not so satisfactory in use. They are. sharpened at one end
and split with the knife at the top, and pieces of w)lite paper .. '
i ::: ::·;~=:~ :~:~~,::~;c depress~ bris~y i ~:rr:! rOO
9
aie ir.serted in rhe clefts in order to make them more visible when J
~ -
hurls
10
stuck up in the grass. They are also useful in cross-sectioning or
. ••
in temporary marking of contour points. RANGING BY LINE RANGER
.
8. PLUMB BOB A line ranger consists of either two plane mirrors or two right angled isosceles prisms

I
While chaining along sloping ground, a plumb-bob is required placed one above the other, as shown in Fig. 3.21. The diagonals of the two prismS
.
to transfer the points to the ground. It is also used to make ranging are silvered so as to reflect the Incidental rays. A handle with a hook is provided •t
poles vertical and to transfer· points from a line ranger to the ground. the bottom to bold the instrument in hand to transfer the point on the ground with the
.
In addition, it is used as centering aid in theodolites, compass, help of plumb-bOb.
FIG. 3.19. PLUMB BOB
plane rable and a variety of other surveying instruments. To range a point P, two ranging rods are fixed at the ends A and B. and the
surveyor at P holds the line ranger very near to the line AB (by eye judgment). The

I
3.4. RANGING OUT SURVEY LINES
lower prism abc receives· the rays from A which are reflected by the diagonal ac towards
While measuring the length of a survey line or 'chain line', the chain or tape must
the observer.· Similarly, the upper prism dbc receives the. rays from B which are reflected
be stretched straight .'ong the line joining its two terminal stations. If the length of line
by the diagonal bd towards the observer. Thus, the observer views the images of ranging
is less than the length of the chain, there will be no difficulty, in doing so. If, however, rods at A and B, which may not be in the same vertical line as shown in Fig. 3.21 (C).
the length of the line exceeds the ·length of the chain, some intermediate points will have'

l
t
"!I
48
SURVEYING f LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ...
Image
of pole
person at N, then directs the
person at M 1 to move to a ----- .. -----~ ~
new position M2~· in line with .. ---------~-----------i
N, A. Thus, the two persons
N··~
are now at M, and N, which
B
are nearer to the chain line A
than the positions lt{ and N 1•
The process is repeated till A M N 8
the poinlS M and N are located
in such a way that the person
at M finds the person at N
----.::~::::.-:~~~~~~~~~~~~:::::~;-~~~::~~:---~:::--

I
(a) Plan· (b) Pictorial view
in line with MB. antl the person -'N2
...................
at N finds the person at M
I• II Topprism II •
in line with NA. After having
es<ablished M and N, other ~~,..........
...............
.
I•
points can be fixed by direct N,
Bottom prism
rapging. FIG. 3.22. REQPROCAL RANGING.
Case
f 3.5, CHAINING
(c) (d) ~~ TWo chainmen are required for meaSuring the length of a line which is great~r than
a chain length. The more experienced of the chainmen remains at tht: zero end or rear
FIG. 3.21. OPTI<;AL LINE RANGER
entl of the chain antl is called the follower. The other chainmen holding the forward handle
· The surveyor then moves the instnunent sideways till the two images are in the same
vertical line as shown · in Fig. 3.21 (d). The point P is then transferred to the ground
with the help of a plumb bob. Thus, the instnunent can be conveniently used . for fixing 1 is known as the leader. To s<art with. the leader lakes a buntlle of the arrows in one
hantl and a ranging rod, and the handle of the chain in tbe other hand.
Unfolding the chain. To unfold the chain. the chainmen keeps both the bandies

I
intermediate points on a long line without going to either end. Also, only one person, in the left hand and throws the reS< of the portion of the chain in the forward direction
holding the line ranger, is required in this case. with his right hand. The other chainman assists in removing the knots etc. and in making
Fig. 4.18 shows a combined line ranger antl a prism square. the chain straight.
Adjustment of Line Ranger Lining and marking. The follower holds the zero end of the chain at the terminal
O!k! of the .min:v1:s Oi pr~ms is co~nly made adjustable. To test che perpendicularity pomt while the leader proceeds forward with the other end in one hand and a set of
between the reflecting surfaces, . three poles are ranged very accurately with the help of 10 arrows and a ranging rod in the other hantl. When he is approximately one chain
a theodolite. The line ranger is held over the middle pole. The instnunent will. be in length away, the follower directs him to" fix his rod in line with the terminal poles. When
perfect adjustment if the ima~es of the two end poles appear in exact coincidence. If not, the point is ranged, the leader makes a mark on the ground, holds the handle with botb
they are made to do so turning the movable prism by means· of the adjusting screw. the hands and pulls the chain so that it becomes straight between the terminal point and
(ir) INDIRECT OR RECIPROCAL RANGING ?t tbe poiru fixed. Little jerks may be given for this purpose but tbe pull applied must be
~::-· just sufficient to make the chain straight in line. The leader then puts an arrow at the .
Indirect or Reciprocal ranging is resorted to when both the ends of the survey entl of tbe chain, swings the chain sli~htly out of the line and proceeds further with tbe
line are not intervisible either due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between
handle in one hand and the rest of the arrows and ranging rod in the otber hand. The
them. In such a case, ranging is done indirectly by selecting two intermediate points M,
follower also takes the end handle in one hand and a ranging rod in the otber hand.
antl N1 very near to the chain line (by judgement) in such a way that from M,. ·both ?··
follows the leader till the leader bas approximately travelled one chain len!,~h. The follower
N, and 8 are visible (Fig. 3.22) antl from N,, both M, and A are visible. puts the zero end of the chain at first arrow fixed by. the leader, and ranges the leader
Two survej·ors station themselves at M1 and N1 with ranging rods. The person. at who in turn, stretches the chain straight in the line and fixes the second arrow in th~
M1 the~- ·~irec~ _the, ~rson at N 1. tq move )o a new positi~n N2 in line wi~ M 1 B. The grountl and proceeds further. The follower takes the first arrow and the ranging rntl in

I
 SURVEYING
one hand and the handle in the other
f LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

and follows the leader. At the end of ten chains, Similarly, if the chain is too shan, the measured distance will be more, !he
error will
the leader calls for the 'arrows'. The follower takes our the tenth arrow from pO.iitive
the ground, aod the correction will be negative.
puts a ranging rod there and haods over ten arrows to the leader. The transfer Let L = True or designated length of !he chain or rape.
of ten
arrows is recorded by the surveyor. To measure the fractional length at the
end of a L' =Incorrect (or actual) length of the chain or rape used.
line. the leader drags the chain beyond the end station, stretches it straight and
tight and
reads the links. (z) Correction w measured length :
3.6. MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH WITH THE HELP OF A TAPE Let I' = measured length of the line
For accurate measur~mems and m all irnponam surveys, the lengths an: now measured I= actual or rrue length of the line.
with a mpe. and nor with a ..:hain. However, the operation of measurement of L'
the length Then, rrue length of line = measured length of line X-
of the line with the help of a rape is also conventionally called chaining and L
the two
persons engaged in the measurement are called 'chainmen'. The following procedure L"
is adopted: or I= I' ( L J
... (3.1)
I. Let the length of a line AB be measured, point A being the sraning
point. Place
a ranging rod behind the point B so that it is on the line with respect to (iz) Correction w area
the starting
point A. Let A' = measured (or computed) area of the ground
2. The follower stands at the point A holding one end of the tape while the A = actual or rrue area of the ground.
leader
moves ahead holding zero end of the rape in one hand and a bundle of arrows
in the L' ''
other. When be reaches approximately one rape length distant from A, the follower Then, true area = measured area x ( L j
him for ranging in the line. The rape is then pulled our and whipped
gently to make
sure that irs entire length lies along the line. The leader then pushes the arrow
directs
l
!> ... (3.2)
into the or A=A' (LL' )'
ground, opposite the zero. The pin is usually inclined from vertical about 20 or i
30 degrees,
starting at right angles to the line so that it slides under the rape. with irs centre L' L+M.. M..

I
opposite Allernatively, -=-=1+-
the graduation point on the rape. L L L
3. The follower then releases his end of the rape and the two move forward where M.. = error in length of chain
along
the line. the leader dragging the rape. When the end of the rape reaches the I!.L
arrow jusr Let
placed, follower calls our "tape". He then picks up the end of rape and lines T=e
the leader
in and the procedure is repeated as in srep 2.
(L )'
I
A= /} x A' =(I + e)' x A'
4. When the second arrow has been established by the leader. the follower
picks
up the first arrow, and both the persons move ahead as described in srep 3. The (I + e)2 = I + 2e + e' ~ I + 2e , if e is small
procedure Bur
is repeated until ten rape lengths have been measured. At this stage, the ... (3.2 a)
leader will be A= (I+ 2e)A'
out of arrows. while the follower will h?.ve nine arrows. The leadc~ wili then call
"arrows"
or "ten". When the leader moves further after the rape length has been measured (iii) Correction to volume :
. and Le~
reaches the rape length ahead, the follower rakes our the tenth arrow, erects V' = measured or computed volume
rod or a nail in irs place aod then transfers 10 arrows to the leader. The surveyor
.the transfer of arrows in the field bock.
a ranging
records J V = actual or rrue volwne.

5. At the end of the line, at B, the last measurement will generally be a panial Then, true volume = measured volume x( ~j
rape length from the last arrow set to the end point of the line. The leader
holds the L' ".(3.3)
end of the rape at B while the follower pulls the rape back rill it becomes taut
and then
or V=V' [ L )'
re~ds against the arrow.
L' L+I!.L I!.L
3.7, ERROR DUE TO INCORRECT CHAIN A/Jernatively, -=-=1+-
L L L
If the length of the chain used in measuring length of the line is not equal I!.L
to Let -=e
the true length or the designated length, the measured length of the line will nor L
be correct
and suitable correction will have 10 be applied. If the chain is too long, the
distance will be less. The error will, Jherefore, be negative and the correction
measured .V=( ~ )' V' =(I +e)' V'
is positive.

I
·~
 ~ SURVEYING 53
LlNP.AR MEASUREMEI'ITS

(I + e) = I + e' + 3e' + 3e ~(I+ 3e), if e is small

3
But 4
Hence 11 = zc;-~ x 1400.= 1409.80 m
V =(I + 3e)ll' ... (3.3 a)
Total length= I=!,+ I,= 1503.75 + 1409.80 = 2913.55 m.
Example 3.1. The length qJ a line measured with a 20 metre chain was found 10
be 250 mmes. Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 em too long. Example 3.4. A surveyor measured the distance· be/Ween two poims on the plan drawn
Solution. to a . scaie of l em = 40 m and the result was 468 m. lAter, however, he discovered that
he used a scale qJ 1 em = 20. m. Find the true distance between the two poims.
Incorrect length of the chain = L' = 20 + _!Q_ = 20.1 m Solution. Distance between two points measured with a scale of I em to 20 m
100
Measured length =I'= 250m 468
=-=234
20 . em
Hence true length of the line =I' (f) = 250 [~(/) = 251.25 metres. Actual scale of the plan is I em = 40 m
True distance between the points = 23.4 x 40 = 936 m
Example 3.2. The length of a survey line was measured with a 20 m chain and
was found to be equal to 1200 metres. As a check, the length was again measured with · Example 3.5. A 20 m chain used for a· survey was found to be 20.10 m at the
a 25 m chain and was found to be 1212 m. On comparing the 20 m chain with the beginning and 20.30 m at the end of the worL The area of the plan drawn to a scale
test gauge, it was found to be 1 decimerre too long. Find the actual length- of the 25 of l em = 8 m was measured with the help of a planimeter and was found to be 32.56

I
m chain used. sq. em. Find the true area of the field.
Solution. Solution.
With 20 m chain : L' = 20 + 0.10 = 20.10 m . . 20.10 + 20.30
L'= Average length of the cham= · _ = 20.20 m
"(L' 1 ?O 10
1=1' -1=1200x=-.:_ =1206m=True length of line. i Area of plan= 32.56 sq. em
L) 20
! 1
I Area of the ground= 32.56 (8) = 2083.84 sq. m =A' (say)
With 25 m chain I=[ f)/' 'L')'
I l-
True area= A = '20201'1 x 2083.84 = 2125.73 sq. m.
A'=(-·-
"1206 = ( ~~ )1212
or L 20 J .

Alternatively, from Eq. 3.2 (a),

L' _ 1206 X 25 = A=(l +2e)A'.
24"88 m.

I
1212
where e= ll L = 20.20-20 _ 0.20 =O.OI
Thus, the 25 m chain was 12 em too short. L 20 20
Example 3.3. A 20 m chain was found to be 10 em too long after chaining a A= (I + 2 x 0.01) x 2083.84 = 2125.52 m'
distance of 1500 m. It was found to be 18 em too long at the end of day's work after chaining . metre~
of the plan of an. old :Jur.-ey pivlied oo u .swl.c. uf i 0
E).:.am.pi::: 3.1:. Tlw ~rea.
"" !Nf1' d;;rrmre r'f '! (}') .Ti.. Ffrzd £h~.J i:-~ diJ;.,.;l(;<; if <lie i:.h~.U,, ww currecJ bejore 1he
0

commencemenJ of the work.

'i to I em measures now as 100.2 sq. em as found by planimeier. The plan is found to
have shrunk so Chat a line originally 10 em long now measures 9. 7 em only. There was
Solution.
For first 1500 metres I also a note on the plan that the 20 m chain used was 8 em too slwn. Find the true
area of the survey.
0 + 10 Solution : Present length of 9.7 em is equivalent of 10 em original length.
Average error= e= - - = 5 em= 0.05 m
2
' L' = 20 + 0.05 = 20.05 m .. Present area of 100.2 sq. em is equivalem to (
1
~ \)' x 100.2 sq. em= 106.49 sq. em

Hence /, =
20 05
· x 1500 = 1503.75 m
20
J \. 9.1
= original area on pJan
Scale of the plan is I em = 10 m
For next 1400 metres .·. Origina1 area of survey = (106.49) (10)1 = !.0649 x {o' sq. m
10 + 18 Faulty length of chain used = 20- 0.08 = 19.92 m
Average error= e = - - - = 14 em= 0.14 rn
2 19.92 1' x !.0649 x 10• sq.m.= 10564.7 sq. m
L' = 20 + 0.14 = 20.14 m Correct area = l' 20)
 54 SURVEYING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
ss

3.8. CHAINING ON UNEVEN OR SLOPING GROUND essentially consists of (!) A line of sight, (il) a graduated arc, (iii) . a ·light plumb bOb
For all plotting works, horizontal distance between the points are required. It is therefore, with a long thread suspended at the centre.
necessary either to directly measure the horizontal distance between the points or to measure Fig. 3.25. (a) shows a
the sloping distance and reduce it to horizontal. Thus, there are two methods for getting semicirular graduated arc with
the horizontal distance between two points : (!) Direct method, (2) Indirect method. two pins at A and B fornting c
A B
1. DIRECT METHOD the line of sight. A plumb bob
I, is suspended from C. the central
In the direct method or the method
of stepping, as is sometimes called, the point. When the clinometer is
distance is measured in small horizontal 3 horizontal. the thread touches
the zero mark of the ealibrated
~
stretches or steps. Fig. 3.23 (a) illustrates
circle. To sight a point, the (a) (b)
the procedure, where it is required to
measure the horizontal distance between .•
•
Stepplng
o ______...Je c
...... 2~ clinometer is tilted so that the
line ofsightAB may pass through
FIG. 3.25 .
the two points A and B.
The follower holds the zero end {a)
the object. Since the thread still remains vertical. the reading against the thread gives the
(b)
of the tape at A while the leader selects slope of the line of sight.
any suitable length I, of the tape and FIG. 3.23. METHOD OF SfEPPING. There are various forms of clinometers available. using essentially the principle described
moves forward. The follower directs the leader for ranging. The leader pulls the tape tight, above, and for detailed study, reference may be made to the Chapter 14 on minor instruments.
makes it horizomal and the point I is then transferred to the ground by a plumb bob. Method 2. Difference in level measured
Sometimes, a special form of drop a"ow is used to transfer the point to the surface, f
r
Sometimes, in the place of measuring the
as shown in Fig. 3.23 (b). ne procedure is then repeated. The total length D of the
line is then equal to (1, + 1, + .\ ... ) . In the case of irregular slopes, this is the only
angie e. the difference in the level between the
points is measured with the help of a levelling Tfh:
I
suitable method. instrum.em and the_ horizontal distance is compmed.
It is more convenient to measure down-hill than to measure uphill. because in the
latter case the follower end is off the ground and he is to plumb the point as well as
to direct the leader. The tape must he kept horizontal either by eye judgment or by using
have
Thus, if h is the difference in level, we

~
l •
•
•
l __ ---------------------
o----->1
i D= ... (3.4)
a hand level. Sufficient amount of pull must he applied to avoid the sag otherwise the

I
Method 3. Hypoteousal allowance FIG. 3.26
measured distance will he more. The lengths 11, I, etc.. to be selected depend on the
In this method, a correction is applied in the field ar every chain length and at
steepness of the slope ; steeper the slope, lesser the length and vice versa.
every point where the slope changes. This facilitates in locating or surveying the intermediate
2. INDIRECT METHOD
pr-int!i Vlhen the chain is strerched on th~ slope, the
!n the l'it::c Df .1 regul:i.r Vl ;;;. ·r~u. slvpc, t.he sioping distance can be measured and A
I arrow is not put at the end of the chain but is placed
the horizontal distance can be ~alcuJated. In such cases, in addition to the sloping distance, in advance of the end, by of an amount which allows
the angle of the slope or the difference in elevation (height) between the two points is for the slope correction. In Fig. 3.27, BA' is one chain
to he measured. -I length on slope. The arrow is not put at A' but is put
Method 1. Angle measured
In Fig. 3.24. let 11 = measured inclined distance
between AB and e, = slope of AB with horizontal. The
j at A, the distance AA • being of such magnirude that the
horizontal equivalent of BA is equal to 1 chain . The
distance AA' is sometimes called lzypotenusal allowmzr.e.
tl{ '''f'Jh...a
..J

horizontal distance D 1 is given by D1 = 11 cos 91• FIG. 3.27. IIYPOTENUSAL

Thus, BA = 100 sec 9 links
Similarly, for BC, D, = I, cos 92 ALLOWANCE.
BA' = 100 links
The required horizontal distance between any two e- I) (3.5)
poinES = !;J cos 9. ~~c Hence AA' = 100 see e- 100 links = 100 (sec links
2 ··.
The slopes of the lines can he measured with the
14----D,-->j e' se•
Now sec 9=1+2+24+ ..... . (were
h e IsmraJaDI::ll_ e '
. . d" l . 1 "~"2!
help of a clinometer. A clinometer, in its simplest form.
FIG. 3.24.

j
~'
 l6 57
SURVEYING LII'EAR MI!ASUREMI!NfS

9' '
AA'= 100 ( I +2-!Jiinks (il) tan9= 2~=~=0.2 or 9=11'19'

or AA' =50 9' links Hypotenusal allowance = 100 (sec 11' 19'- I) links
... (3.5 a)
If. however. 8 is in degrees, we have = 1.987 links = 0.4 m.
A/Jenwlive approximole solulion
sec a~( 1 + 10 ':~ e') (r) From Eq. 3.5 (b),

M' = 100( I+ ~9 2 - I ]links Hypotenusa1 allowance =~ 9' links

10.000 • 100
9= 10'
AA'=~O' Here

l
or links ... (3.5 b).
~~ (10)1 = 1.5
100
Hypotenusal allowance = links= 0.3 m.
Thus. if 9 = 10 '. AA' = 1.5 links.
(il) Slope is 4 min 20m or 1min5m or lminnm where n = 5.
If !he slope is measured by levelling. it is generally expressed as in n. meaning
!hereby a rise of I unit vertically for n units of horizontal distance. Hence from Eq. 3.5 (c),
Thus

Hence from Eq. 3.5 <a). AA'

0 =.!. radians
n
=50 a'= 50
,,; ... 13.5 c)
I
It
Hypotenusal allowance

Example 3.9. In chaining a line, what

=
50
n'
links = ~1 links

= 2 links = 0.4 m•
(5)

is the maximum slope (a) in degrees. and

Thus. if !he slope is I in 10, '- which can be ignored if the error from this source is not to exceed 1
(b) as 1 in n,
M' = · '~ = 0.5 links. in 1()()1).

I
•'j ~)~
Solution.
The distance M' is ao allowance ;vhich must be made for each chain lenglb measured While chaining on !he sloping ground, !he error is evidently equal to !he hypotenusal
on !he slope. As each chain lenglb is measured on !he slope. !he arrow is set forward allowance if this is not taken into account. The value of Ibis error (i.e. hypotenusal allowance)
by .. Ibis amount. In !he record book, !he horizontal distance between 8 and A is directly is given by Eq. 3.5 (a), (b) and (c).
recorded as I chain. Thus, !he slope is allowed for as !he work proceeds. (a) Error per chain= 1 in 1000 = 0.1 link
Example 3.7. TilE distance between the points measured along a slope is 428 m. Hence from Eq. 3.5 (b),
Final the lwriwntal distance bern~en them if (a) tiJe angle of slope benveen the points f
~~ e' = o.1
is 8 •. (b) the difference in level is 62 m (c) tile slope is 1 in 4 .
Solution. I•'
link
S'= 0.1 X)()()
Let I = measured lenglh · = 428 m or
D = horizontal lenglh ; 1.5
. (a) D =Leos 9 =428 cos 8 • = 423.82 m From which 0 ~ 2.6°.
(b) D= ~1'-h'=..j (428)2 - (62)1 = 4Z3.48 m :i (b) Error per chain = 0.1 link
(c) For I unit vertically, horizontal distance is 4 units. Hence from Eq. 3.5 (c),

tan 9 =.!.4 = 0.25 or 9 = 14' 2' .f 50

-,=0.1
n
or n' = ~=500
0.1
L =I cos 9 = 428 cos 14' 2' = 415.Z3 m. I From which n = 22.4.
Example 3.8. Find the hypotenusal allowance per chain of 20 m <ength if (I) the
:. Max. slope is 1 in 22.4.
angle of slope is 10" (ii) the ground rises by 4 m in one chain length. ·
3.9. ERRORS IN CHAINING
Solution.
(r) Hypotenusal allowance A general classification of errors is given in Chapter 2 and it is necessary in studying
= 100( sec 9- 1) links
Ibis article to keep clearly in mind !he difference between lbe cumulative and compensating
= 100( sec 10'- I)= 1.54 links= 0.3! m. errors, and between positive and negative errors.

I
 58
SURVEYING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
A cumulative error is thar which occurs in lhe same direction and tends 8. Variatio n in Pull. (Compensating ± , or Cumulative + or-).
to accwnuJate If the pull applied
while a compensadng error may occur in either direction and hence tends in straightening the chain or tape is not equal to that of the
to compensate. standard pull at which it
Errors are regarded as positive or negative according as they was calibrated, ·its length changes. If the pull applied is not
make the result too greaJ measured but is irregular
or too small. (sometimes more, sometimes less), the error tends to compensate.
A chainman may. however.
Errors and mistakes may arise from apply too great or too small a pull every time and the error

l
becomes cumulative.
I. Erroneous length of chain or tape. 2. Bad ranging 9. Persona l Mistakes. Personal mistakes always produce quite irregular
effects. The
3. Careless holding and marking. 4. Bad straightening. following are the most common mistakes :
5. Non-horizontality 6. Sag in chain. (r) Dispblcemenl of arrows. If an arrow is disturbed from its
position either by
7. Variation in temperature. !mocking or by pulling the chain, it may he replaced wrongly.
8. Variation in pull. To avoid this. a cross
9. Personal misrakes. must also be marked on the ground while inserting the arrows.
(ir) Miscounling chain length. This is a serious blunder but may l
1. Erroneous. Length of Chain or Tape. (Cumulative + or-). The
the wrong length of the chain is always cumulative and is the
error due to
most serious source of
systematic procedure is adopted to count the nwnber or arrows
.
be avoided if a
\
.

error. If the length of the chain is more, the measured distance (iir) Misreading. A confusion is likely between reading a 5 m
will he less and hence tally for IS m taliy.
the error wilJ be negative. Similarly, if the chain is too short, since both are of similar shape. It can he avoided by seeing the
the measured distance. will central tag. Sometimes.
. a chainman may pay more attention on em reading on th~ tape

I
he more and error will be positive. However, it is possible to and read the metre rt:ading
apply proper correction
if the length is checked from time to time. wrong. A surveyor may sometimes read 6 in place of 9 or
28.26 in place of 28.62.
Z. Bad Ranging. (Cumulative. + ). If the chain is stretched (iv) Erroneous booking. The surveyor may enter 246 in place of
out of the line. the < 264 ere. To avoid
such possibility, the chaimnan should first speak out the reading
measure d distance will always be more and hence rhe l!rror will ' loudly and the surveyor
and every stretch of the chain. the error due to bad ranging will
be positive. For each ~. should repeat the same while entering in the field book.
be cumulat ive and the
effect will be roo grear a result. The error is nor very serious in ordinar
{
Summar y of errors in chaining
the length is required . But if offsetting is to be done, the error
y work if only I Cumulative + or-
3. Careless Holding and Marking (Compensating ± ). The follower
is very serious.
i !. Incorrect length of tape
Cumulative +

l
may sometimes 2. Bad ranging
hold the handie to one side of the arrow and sometimes to the
other side. The leader 3. Tape not stretched horizontally Cumula tive +
may thrust the arrow vertically into the ground or exactly at the
end of chain. This causes -~ Tape not stretched tight and straight , but both ends in line Cumula
a variable systematic error. The error of marking due to an
inexperienced chainman is
4. tive +

I
often of a cumulative nature, bur with ordinary care such errors 5. Error due to tempera ture Cumula tive +or-
rend to compensate.
4. Bad Straight ening. (Cumulative, + ). If the chain is not straight 6.' Variatio n in pull Compen sating ±
but is lying
in an irregula r horizontal curve. the measured distance will always Cumulative +
be too great. The error 7. Error due to sag
is, therefor e. of cumulative ch~racrer and pm:itl•;e
8. Error in marking tape lengths Compen sating ±

i
5. Non-Horizontality. (Cumulative, + ). If the chain is not horizon
tal (specially in Disturbing arrows after they are set Blunder
case of sloping oF irregula r ground) , the measured distance will 9.
always be wo grt~ar. The Errors in reading the tape Mistake
error is, therefor e, of cumulative characte r and positive. 10.
11. Incorrect counting of tape lengths Blunder
6. Sag in Chain. (Cumulative, + ). When the distance is measure
d by 'stepping·
or when the chain is stretched above the ground due to undulati Relative Importa nce of Errors

·I;
ons or irregula r ground.
the chain sags and takes the form of a catenary. The measure 1. Cumulative errors are more important lhan compensating errors.
d distance is. therefore.
too great and the error is cumulative and positive. 2. Not all the cumulative errors are equally impona.nt.
7. Variatio n in Temper ature. (Cwnulative, + or-). When a chain 3. ln a short line, a compensating error fails to compensate because
or rape is used such an error

I
ar remperarure different from that ar which it was calibrated, its may occur only once or twice. The more tape lengths there
length changes. Due to are in a line,
the rise in lhe remperarure. the length of the chain increases. the more likely are such errors to be truly compensating.
The measured distance is
thus less and the error becomes negative. Due to the fall in temperat 4. The more times a line is measured, the more likely are
ure. the length decreases. accidental errors to
The measured distance is thus more and the error becomes negative disappear from the mean.
. In either cases tht:
error is cumulative.
.,,
'·.
~ :
"'
 60 61
SURVEYING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

5. One cumulative error sometimes balances other cumulative error. For example, the correction is therefore, additive. Similarly, if the temperature is less, the length of
a greater pull may offset sag, or high temperature may offset a slight shortage the tape decreases, measured distance becomes more and the correction is negative. The
in the length of the tape.
temperature correction is given by
All things being equal it is most important to guard against those errors which
6. C, =a. (Tm- To) L ... (3.7)
are most likely to occur.
where a = coefficieru of thermal expansion
3.10. TAPE CORRECTIO NS
Tm = mean temperature in ··the field during measurement
We have seen· the different sources of errors in linear measurements. In most of To = temperature during standardisation of the tape
the errors, proper corrections can be applied. In ordinary chaining, however corrections
L = measured length.
are not necessary bur in important and precise work, corrections must be. applied. Since
in most of the cases a tape is used for precise work, the corrections are sometimes called If, however, steel and brass wires are used simultaneously, as in Jaderin's Method,
as 'tape corrections', though they can also he applied to the measurements taken with a the corrections are given by
chain or with a steel band.
c, (brass)_ "'a.":•:':<L::.'..,-::.:L"'-•) ... [3.8 (a))
A correction is positive when the erroneous or uncorrected length is to be inc~eased nb as
and negative when it is to he decreased to get the uue length.
After having measured the length, the correct length of the base is calculated by and c, (steel)= a., (L, - Lb) ... [3.8 (b)]
ab-a.s
applying the following corrections :
To lind the new standard temperature T0' which will produce the nominal length of
1. Correction for absolute length
temperature the tape or band
2. Correction for
./ Some times, a tape is not of standard or designated length at a given standard temperature
3. Correction for pull or tension
T0• The tape/band will be of the designated length at a new standard temperature T0.
4. Correction for sag
Let the length at standard temperature T0 he I± 81, where I is the designated length
5. Correction for slope
of the tape.
6. Correction for alignment
Let I:J.T he the nuroher of degrees of temperature change required to change the
7. Reduction to sea level.
length of the ta.P" by = 81
8. Correction to measuremem in vertical plane
Then 81=(1±81)a.I:J.T
I. Correction for Absolute Length
absolute length (or actual length) of the tape or wire is not equal to
If the I:J.T= 8/ .n. ~
Ia. (1±81)a
its nominal or designated length, a correction will have to he applied to the measured
length of the line. If the absolute length of the tape is greater than the nominal or the (Neglecting 81 which will he very small in comparison to I)
designated le:>.gi.b., til,;: n:.ea.surcd W::;~.ance wiiJ be too shan and the correction will be If To' is the new standard temperature at which the length of the tape will he exactly
additive. If the absolute length of the tape is lesser than the nominal or designated length. equal to its designated length I, we have
the measured distance · will be too great and the correction will he subtractive. To'=To±I:J.T
Thus, Ca=~ ... (3.6) 81 ... (3.9)
I or To'=To±
correction for absolute length
Ia.
where Ca = Xf.
L = measured length of the line See example 3.17 for illustration.
3. Correction for Pull or Tension
c = correction per tape length
If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the tape was
I = designated length of the tape
Standardised, the length of the tape increases, measured distance becomes less, and ~
C, will he of the same sign as that of c. correction is positive. Similarly, if the pull is less, the length of the tape decreases,
2. Correction for Temperature measured distance becomes more and the correction is negative.
If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape If c, is the correction for pull, we have
was standardised, the length of the tape increases, measured distance becomes less. and ,,i!
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS 63
SUI!.VEYING

C _ (P-Po)L Ph = wl, x ~ - wl, d,

... (3.10) 2 4--8-
' AE
where P = Pull applied during measurement (N) h= w/1 d, ... (2) t.
or
8P
Po = Standard pull (N)
Substituting the value of h in (1), we get I~;
L = Measured length (m) i:_

~ _ ~ _I_ ( wl, = ~ (wl,)'

·'
C, = ~ (wl,)' = 11W.'
~
A =Cross-sectional area of !he tape (em') d, )' ... (3.11)
2
E =Young's Modulus of Elasticity (N/cm2)
I 3 "' 8P 24P' 24P 241"
The pull applied in the field should be less than 20 times the weight of the tape.
If I is !he total lenglh of rape and it is suspended in n equal number of bays, !!
!he Sag Correction (C,) per tape length is given by
4. Correction for Sag : When !he tape is stretched on supports between two points,
it takes !he form of a horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be lesS !han !he C, = n C,. = nl, (wl,)' = l (wl,)2 l (wl)' =~ ... (3.12)
distance along !he curve. The difference between horizontal distance and the measured 24P 2 24P' 24n'P' 24n'P'
length along catenary is called the Sag Correction. For !he purpose of determining !he where C, = tape correction per tape length
correcdon, the curve may be assumed to be a parabola. I = total lenglh of !he tape
P, W = total weight of !he tape
n = number of equal spans :~
"'---------------------------··r·
\ P = pull applied
,ifj
~I,
.
;
If L = .!he total lenglh measured f,,,
M
~· and N = !he number of whole lenglh tape "fj
!hen : Total Sag Correction = NC, + Sag Correction for any fractional tape lenglh. ~
i~
Note. Normally, the mass of !he tape is given. In that case, the weight W (or
(a) wl) is equal to mass x g, where !he value of g is taken as 9.81. For example, if the
AG. 3.28. SAG CORRECTION mass of tape is 0.8 kg, W = 0.8 x 9.81 = 7.848 N.
It should be noted that the Sag_ Correction is always negative. If however, rhe wpe
Let 1, = length of !he tape (in metres) suspended between A and B
M = centre of the tape
was standardised on catenary, and used on flat, the correction will be equal to 'Sag
Correction for standard pull- sag correcion at the measured pull', and will be positive m
~
h = vertical sag of !he tape at its centre if the measured pull in the field is more than the standnrd pull.
w = weight of !he tape per unit lenglh (N/m) For example, let !he tape be standardised in catenary at 100 N pull.
C,. = Sag correction in metres for !he length 1,
lf Lht: pull applied ill i.he ti.dd. b 120 N, lht:: Sag Correction will De = Sag C..urrccuon
C, = Sag com:cnon in metres per tape length I
for 100 N pull - Sag Correction for 120 N pull
W, = wl 1 = weight of the tape suspended between A and B
J
2
d, =horizontal length or span berween A and B. I, W,' I,(W,)
The relation between !he curved length (11) and the chord lenglh (d 1) of a very 24 (100)2 24 (120)2

flat parabola, [i.e., when~ is small) is given by

··.·l.
..
=
I1W1' [
24
I
(100) 2 -
.1
(120) 2
l
I, = d, [ 1 + H:J l and is evidemly posmve
If the pull applied in !he field is 80 N, !he Sag Correction will be
1, w? w,1- = 1, w? r 1
Hence c,. = d11 = - - -
1-
3 d,
8 h'
... (ll - - - -t1-
24 (100) 2 24 (80) 2 24 (100)2 (80) 2
--l-- ---
1 ] an d zs
. evzdent
. 1y negatrve.
.

The value of h can be found from statics [Fig. 3.28 (b)]. If !he. tape were cut If, however !he pull applied in the field is equal to the standard pull, no Sag
at !he centre (M), the exterior force at the point would be tension P. Considering !he Correction is necessary. See Example 3.13.
equilibrium of half !he length, and talcing moments about A, we get

,,,.,
ilc
!I !
64 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS 65
SURVEYING
1
Equation 3.12 gives lhe Sag Correction when lhe ends of lhe tape are at lhe same · h.= difference in elevation between lhe ends i
level. If, however, lhe ends of lhe tape are not at lhe same level, but are at an· inclination f
a wilh lhe horizontal, lhe Sag Correction given is by lhe formula, Cv=.slope correction, or correction due to venical aligmnent
Then Cv=AB -AB, = L- ~L'- h2
I+~ sinS)
Cs'=Csco s 8(
2

when tension P is applied at lhe higher end ;

... [3.13 (a))
=L- L ( I - h
2

2L2 - 8L4
h'] =h+ 2
2L
h'
8L3 + ....

and C/ = C, cos' 6 ( I - ~sin B) The second term may safely be neglected for slopes flatter !han about I in 25.
... [3.13 (b))
h' (subtracnve
C = 2L . )
when tension P is applied at lhe lower end. Hence, we get ... (3.16)
If, however, 8 is small, we can have Let L,, L, .... etc.= lenglh of successive uniform gradients
c; = c, cos' a .... (3.14) h,, h2, ... etc.= differences of elevation between lhe ends of each.
irrespective of whelber lhe pull is applied at lhe higher end or at lhe lower end. It 2
1
slwuld be noted that equation 3.14 includes the co"ections both for sag and slope, i.e. 0 hl hl h
The total slope correcnon = 2L, + 2L, + .. .. .. = l: 2L
if equation 3.14 is used, separate co"ection for slope is not necessary. See Example
3.~. 2
.
Noi'Dllll Tension. Normal tension is lhe pull which, when applied to lhe tape, equalises
If lhe grades are of uniform lenglh L, we get total slope correction= ~
lhe correction due to pull and lhe correction due to sag. Thus, at normal tension or pull, If lhe angle (B) of slope is measured instead of h. the correction is given by
lhe effects of pull and sag are neutralised and no correction is necessary.
Cv=L -Leos 6 =L (1- cos B) = 2Lsin 2 ~ ... (3.17)
The correction for pull is Cp= (P, ~;o) 1
' (additive) Effect of measured value of slope 6
. , 11 (wl1)
2 2
11 W1 Usually, lhe slope 6 of lhe
The correction 10r sag . C51 =- - - = ::-:-1 (su btracnve
. )
line is measured insmunenrally, s,
24 P,2 24 p, ~~ .... ~~ T
wilh a lheodolite. In !hat case
where P,= lhe normal pull applied in lhe field. .... ~~~~ ..9"" :h, -h
lhe following modification should _.-- oV '5::: .i. .
Equating numerically lhe two, we get be made to lhe measured value ........ ------ 18,
h,
(P, -Po) I, 1, W12 of lhe slope. See Fig. 3.30.
B
AE = 24PJ Let h1 = height of lhe

P,-
0.204
~
w, ..fiE instrument at A
P"- P.. ... (3.15) h~ = height of the targer

r~~'
... 1

I
at B
The value of P, is to he determined by trial and error with lhe help of lhe above
a = measured vertical
equation.
angle
5. Correction for Slope or Vertical
6 = slope of lhe line FIG. 3.30
Alignment •
The distance measured along
A
·-a·-· -·-·-·- ·-·-·-- -·-·-·a, AB

~
I = measured lenglh of lhe line
lhe slope is always greater !han lhe
horizontal distance and hence lhe cor- Then a= a+ Ba. From A A,s,s,, by sine rule, we get
rection is always subtractive. 1. . (h, - h,) sin (90" + a) "(h"-1 _-c:ch,,_)ccco:.:.s~a

'~1.
smBa- --
Let 1 I
AB = L = inclined lenglh measured lia." = 206265 (h, - h,) cos a ... (3.18i
I
AB, =horizontal lenglh The sign of. Ba will ..be obtained by lbe above expression itself.
FIG. 3.29. CORREGnON FOR SLOPE.
 :·(
66 SURVEYING 1 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS 67

6. Correction for horizontal alignment or i+c'-h'=-2accos ~

·•.[
(a) Bad ranging or misalignment Adding 2ac to both the sides of the above equation, we get
If the tape is stretched out of line, measured distance will always be more and a'+ c'-b' +2ac=2ac- 2accos ~ or (a+ c)'- b' = 2ac (1- cos~)
hence the correction will be negative. Fig. 3.31 shows the effect of wrong aligmnent. . 2 I A
in which. AB = (L) is the measured length of the line, which is along the wrong aligmnent 2ac (1 - cos ~) 4ac sm 2 "
.. (a + c)- b = (a + c)+ b - (a + c) + b
while the correct aligmnent is AC. Lerd be the perpendicular
deviation. B 4ac sin2
c. =(a + c) - b =-,----.,..._,=..:._
!p ... [3.21(a)]
~d
Then Ll-ll=dz (a+ c)+ b
or (L+l)(L-l)=d' A 1 C Taking sin ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ and expressing ~ in minutes, we get
Assuming L = I and applying it to the first parenthesis 2
acP sin 1' 2

only, we get c. = '-:'-'"-"=--:-

(a+ c)+ b
... [3.21(b)]
FIG. 3.31
2L(L-l)!! d 2 Taking b"' (a+ c) we get
d' 2
ac J} sin I' 2
or L-1!!-
2L c. = ---:;:-'-;--,---:-
2 (a+ c)
... [3.21]

d'
Hence correction c. = 2L ... (3.19) = ac ~' x 4.2308 x 10'' ... [3.21(c)]
'
~
(a+ c)
It is evident that smaller the value of d is in comparison to L, the more accurate 8
will be the result. ' Where ~ Sin2 1' = 4.2308 X 10- .
(b) Deformation of the tape in horizontal plane 7. Reduction to Mean Sea Level
If the tape is not pulled straight and the length The measured horizontal
L, of the tape is out of the line by amount d, then c distance ihould be reduced to the
dl dl distance at the mean sea level,
C•=-+- ... (3.20) A a called the Geodetic distance. If
2 L, 2L, A
the length of the base is reduced
(c) Broken base
to mean sea level, the calculated
Due to some obstructions etc., it may not be length of all other triangulation
possible to slot out the base in one continuous straight lines will also be corresponding
line. Such a base is then called a broken base. to that at mean sea level
~Fig. 3.33, le~ AC=~uaight base
Let AB = L = measured
AB and BC = two sections of the broken base horizontal distance
~=exterior angle measured at B. A'B' = D = equivalent
AB=c ; BC=a ; and AC=b. length at M.S.L. =Geodetic
The correctiOJ;l M.S.L. ·
( Ch) for horizontal align-
h = mean equivalent
ment is given by
of the base line above
Ch =·(a+ c)- b M.S.L.
.... (subtractive) R = Radius of earth
The length b is given
by the sine rule
a = angle subtended at
the centre of the earth, by
b2 =a 2 + c2 + 2 ac cos~ AB.
FIG. 3.33. CORRECTION FOR HORIZONTAL AL!GN~:ENT FIG. 3.34. REDUCTION TO MEAN SEA LEVEL

.)
i._
.!·
il' ~
 68
II
!r
SURVEYING UNEAR MEASUREMENTS 69 . 'I'

Then D L
9=-=--
R R+h
Example 3.10. A tape 20m long of standard length a1 84 'F was used to measure
a line, the mean temperature during measurement being 65°. The measured distance was
[
,,
R
D=L R+h=L ( I+R Lh
h =L-R
h )-' =C ( I-R l 882.10 metres, the following being the slopes :
2 ' 10' for IOO m
J.
,,
1_'1

for I 50 m j
:. Correction (Cm,,) = L- D = ~h (subtractive)
4'12'
... (3.22)
I ' 6' for 50 m '
:il
8. Correction to measurement in vertical plane 7' 48' for 200 m :11
Some-times, as in case of measurements in mining shafts, it is required A 3'0' for 300 m :I
1

.1
to make measurements in vertical plane, by suspending a metal tape vertically. 5 ' 10' for 82.10 m
When a metal tape AB, of length I, is freely suspended vertically, it will
I
Find the true length of the line if the co-efficient of expansion is 65 X 10- 'per I' F. ,
lengthen by value s due to gravitational pull on the mass ml of the tape.
In other words, the tape will be subjected to a tensile force, the value Solution. Correction for temperature of the whole length = C, "'i·.I
of which will be zero at bcttom point (B) of the tape, and maximum 7 !1
=La (Tm ~To)= 882.1 X 65 X 10- (65- 84) = 0.109 m (Subtractive) :'I
value of mgl at the fixed point A, where m is the mass of the tape ~
Correction for slope= J:/(1 - cos 9)
per unit length. 1.1

"+1'
= !00 (I -cos 2' 10') + !50 (I -cos 4' 12') +50 (I -cos I' 6')
Let a mass M be attached to the tape at its lower end B. Consider II"
+ 200 (I -cos 7' 48') + 300 (I - cos 3') + 82.10 (I - cos 5' 10') ~!
a section C, distant x from the fixed point A. It we consider a small
length Bx of the tape, its small increment Ss.f in length is given by Hooke's
law 1
B..,
= 0.071 + 0.403 + 0.009 + 1.850 + 0.411 + 0.334
= 3.078 (m) (subtractive)
•ii,,6

I
p (8x) Mass M Total correction= 0.109 + 3.078 = 3.187 (subtractive)
OSx=AE ,
:. Corrected length= 882.1- 3.187 = 878.913 m.
where P =pull at point C, the value of which is given by, FIG. 3.35
Example 3.11. (SI Units). Calculflte the sag correction for a 30 m steel under a
P=Mg +mg (1-x)
I•
pull of IOO N in three equal spans of 10 m each. Weight of one cubic em of steel
Substituting this value, we get =0.078 N. Area of cross-section of tape =0.08 sq. em.
os, I Solution. Volume of tape per metre run = 0.08 x 100 = 8 em'

I I
or AE-=Mg+mg -mgx
ox Weight of the tape per metre run= 8 x 0.078 = 0.624 N 'I
mor 2
Integrating, AE s, = Mg x + mglx - "-'=- + C
2
:. Total weight of the tape suspended between two supports = W = 8 x 0.078 x 10 = 6.24 N
j
'1f:(•P!.) 1 r:!!W 2 3 ~- J0 Y (6.2!")
2
,-_ -.
Whot:-n r.,... n :!!"!~ ~ ,... " ~ril::? -,,:::: t.:.·. _ ,. . ~~uw ~..:orrecnon or sag= Ls = - - - = - -2 = = 0.004H7 m. "
24 P2 24 (100)2

I
24 P
s,=~ [M +-2 m (21-x)]
t
1
AE ... (3.23 a) Example 3.12. A steel tape 20 m long standardised at 55' F with a pull of 10
kg was used for measuring a base line. Find the correction per tape length. if the temperature
lfx=l, s=~[ M+~] ... (3.23 b) ar the time of measurement was 80 'F and the pull exened was I6 kg. Weight of I cubic
When M=O, S-
_ mgl 2
2AE ... (3.23)
em of steel = 7.86 g, Wt. of rape= 0.8 kg and E = 2.I09 x IO' kg/em'. Coefficient of
expansion of tape per I'F=6.2xio-•. I
Taking into account the standardisation tension factor, a negative exrensi~n must be Solution. Correction for temperature= 20 x 6.2 x 10 - 6(80 - 55) = 0.0031 m {additive)
'allowed ,initially a< the tape is not tensioned up to standard tension or pull {P0). Thus,
. (P- Po)L
the general equation for precise measuremems is Correcuon for pull- AE
gx[ M+ t m(21
s,= AE 2
Po]
-x>--g ... (3.24) 3
Now, weight of tape= A (20 x 100)(7 .86 x 10- ) kg = 0.8 kg (given)
8
See example 3.19 for illustration. A= _°6 x = .0.051 sq. em
78 2
 70 SURVEYING UNEAR MEASUREMENTS 11
j;
6 20 or at night, and should be repeated several times to overcome errors due to the expansion
Hence, c, = (! - 10) = 0.00112 (additive)
of the structure. li
0.05! X 2.JQ9 X 106 li,
'
20 2 2. Equipment. The equipment for one taping party should consist of the following: "
Correction for sag= l,(wl,y = <0·8\ = 0.00208 m (subtractive) One tape ; five to ten chaining tripods; one spring balance": two standardized thermometers: f!
24 P' 24 (16) c
two tape stretchers ; two rawhide thongs ; five to ten banker's pins for marking; two plumb
:. Total correction= + 0.0031 + 0.00112-0.00208 = + 0.00214 m bobs ; adhesive tape, 112 in. and I in. widths ; one keel ; fifty stakes, 2 in. by 2 in. u
~.~
3.11. DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN CHAINING by 30 in ; one transit, preferably with attached level ; one self-suptiorting target ; one level !:,.
Some conditions affecting the accuracy are (I) fineness of the graduations of the (if no transit level is available) ; one level rod, graduated to hundredths of a foot ; two
chain (ii) nature of !he ground, (iii) time and money available, (iv) weather etc. The error folding rules graduated to tenths of feet ; one brush hook, one hatchet ; one machete ; ~
may be expressed as a ratio such as 1In which means there is an error of 1 unit in one 6 lb. or 8 lb. hammer to wooden maul ; one or two round-end shovels ; record books
and pencils.
I
the measured distance of n units. The value of n depends upon the purpose and extent
3. Personnel. The minimum taping party consists of the chief (who acts as marker),
~
of the different conditions:
(I) For measurement with invar tape, spring balance, thermometers, etc. I in 10,000 recorder, tension man, rear tapeman and instrument man. A level man must be added if iH
the transit is not equipped with a level or if a hand level is used. n
(2) For ordinary measurements with steel tape, plumb bob, chain pins etc.! iti 1,000 ~
4. Field Procedure : tape supported at two points. A target is set at the point I
(3) For measurements made with tested chain, plumb bob, etc. I in 1.000 ~
towards which measurement is to be made, and the tripods are distributed roughly in
(4) For measurements made with chain under average conditions I in 500
(5) For measurements with chain on rough or hilly ground 1 in 250
posirion. The transit is set up at the point of beginning and sighted on the target. Although
alignment by transit is not necessary, it increases the speed of the party greatly. If the
~
J[

3.12. PRECISE LINEAR MEASUREMENTS beginning point is not readily accessible to the tape, a taping tripod is placed under the !f'
In the linear measurements of high degree of precision, errors in measurements must r instrument. carefully in order not to disturb it, and the starring point is transferred to •~
be reduced to a far degree than in ordinary chaining. The method of linear measurements the edge of the top of the taping tripod by the instrument plumb bob. The tripod is
can be divided into three categories : (1) Third order (2) Second order, (3) First order not removed until the taping of the section is completed.
measurements. 11Urd order measurements, generally used in chain surveying and other minor The tape is stretched out in the line of progress with the 100 ft. mark forward,
surveys have been described in the previous articles. Second order measurements are made and a thermometer is anached at the 2 ft. mark with adhesive tape so that the bulb is
in lhe measurement of traverse lines in which theodolite is used for measuring directions. in contact with the measuring tape, but free from adhesive tape. A loop of rawhide or
Firsc order measurements are used in rriangulation survey, for the determination of the string is passed through the eye of the tape at the zero end, and tied 6 to 18 in. from
length of base line. the tape. The tape end is laid on the starting tripod. A rear tapeman passes his stretcher
1. SECOND ORDER LINEAR MEASUREMENTS through the loop and places the lower end of the stretcher on the ground against the
The following specifications of second order chaining• are taken from Monual 20. outside of his right foot. The upper end is under his right arm and behind his shoulder.
;.;;;.;.iJ..,;J. Ho.HiiVJliaL Co;w-ui Surveys Io supplemem liZe .furutamemal Net, published by American
In ihis posiuon, he ieans over the tape to see rhat the zero graduation Is held exactly
Society of Civil Engineers. · on the mark. This is readily controlled by adjusting his stance. However, he may find
,J it helpful to grasp the tape near its end and behind the mark, applying a slight kinking
1. Method. Length measurements should be made with 100 ft. tapes of invar or
force, just sufficient to control the position of the zero graduation.
of sreel, supported either at the 0 ft. and 100 ft. marks only, or throughout the entire
The tension man passes his stretcher through a 6-in. loop of rawhide anache<\ to
tape. The two point support method can be adapted to all ground conditions and, therefore.
is used almost exclusively. The supported throughout method should be used chiefly for the spring balance, snaps the spring balance to the tape, and using the same position employed
measurements on rail road rails. It can be used on concrete road surfaces, but even wberi by the rear tapeman, applies a 200 lb. tension.
great care is taken, the wear on the tape is excessive. Reduction in cross-sections due The chief of the party who acts as marker places a tripod in line (as directed by
to wear increases the length of the tape under wnsion because of the increased srrerch the instrument man) and under the 100 ft. graduation. The tension man slides his rawhide
and decreased sag. thong until the tape just clears the top of the tripod. The marker must see that the
tape is dry, clean and free from all obstructions and may run a light sag along its entire
If possible, measurements should be made on hazy days, unless an invar tape is
used. Measurement over bridges or other structures should always be made on cloudy days. length at this time to remove any moisture or dirt. The marker gently depresses the tape
to touch the marking surface of the forward tripod and, on a signal from the tension
man that he has exactly 20 lb., and from the rear tapeman lhat the mark is right. he
• "Surveying Theory and Practice" by John Clayton Tracy.
 73

72 SURVEYING lJIIEAR MEASUREMENTS

An extra man should be available when the hand level is used. He should carry
marks the tripod at !00 ft. mark. When· the tripod has a wooden top, the mark may a Ught notched stick to support the level, and standing near the 50 ft. mark. should take
be made with hard pencil or with a T-shaped banker's pin which is forced into the a reading to tenths of a foot on both tripods for each tape length, recording the difference
wood to mark the point, and is always left sticking in the tripod. Bristol board of the in elevation. Collapsible foot rules, graduated to tentha of a foot, should be carried by
thickness of the tape may be secured to the top of the tripod with Scotch marking tape, the tension man and the rear tapeman for the leve!man to sight on. The clinometer is
so that the edge of tape butts against the edge of the Bristol board. The terminal mark most successfully employed when 4 ft. taping tripods are used. It is placed on one tripod
of the tape can then be transferred to the board with a marking awl or a sharp, hard and sighted on a small target on ·the next tripod. The angle of inclination or the percentage
pencil. The Bristol board can be renewed at any time. On the heavier type of tripod.
grade is recorded.
the mark may be made on the strip of white adhesive tape attached temporarily to the measurements should be reduced as soon as possible.
8. Field Computations. The
top of the tripod. Tension is released slowly, then re-applied for a check on the marking, office. A fonn for computation is given below
signals from the tension man and rear tapeman being repeated. The recorder obtains either in the field or in the field
..........,........... --··- ----- ON FOR REDUCING MEASUREMENTS

!~ Ii i• II
the temperature from the rear tapemen, holds the rod on the tops of the chaining tripods

..e
for the insoument man and records the rod readings. A record is made for each individual Com eli on
tape length or partial tape length, which includes the length used. the temperature and l Unco"ected
length

I~-
~

'"
the inclination. 0

-.
c

~ *-
8. a~
li I a-s I
h

"I-
~

The .marker moves back to support the centre of the tape. and it is then carried .§ J! !:.
forward, the tape being held clear of all contacts by the marker, the tension man and _§ ' E e ~ ~.§
I~
!:.
the rear tapeman. After the second tape length is measured, the recorder may begin picking j !H ! ~ ~c ~
~
c
~~
'-'8 ~ i
up the tripods. He can carry about five of these, to be distributed later to the entire
party. When it is necessary to bring the transit up, one of the tripods is placed accurately
on line and the instrument is set up over it. For distance of less than a tape length,
I
I
I
I
"'!:.
....• ~ ~
!:.
E

(m)
I
(m)
!a
(m)
g-+ ~
J! ~ ~
(m) (m) (m)
I

I
I .
(m)
the tape is read independently by both the chief of party and the recorder. If the reverse
side of the tape is graduated in metres, the .. metric reading should be recorded as well.
I I
I I
The bead of the tape is carried beyond the end point, the zero mark being at the back
:' I i I

tripod as usual. If the set up is more than 50 ft., a 20 lb. tension is used; otherwise I I I II I!
a ·pull of !0 lb. is used ; this affords a close approximation for proportional application I I I !
of the standard tape correction.
5. Field procedure : tape supported throughout. When the tape is supported throughout.
l i
l I
! i i

the procedure is much the same as in the foregoing description. except that no transit
aligmnent is necessary on railroad rails. The rails themselves are sufficiently accurate. 2. FIRST ORDER MEASUREMENTS : BASE LINE MEASUREMENTS
_.:-,.~co h~~~ '!"le::~c:nrinP" ::l!'naratus : (A) Rigid bars, and
(B) Flexible
Stretchers are placed in from the foot. which is nlaced on the base of the fulcrum. The TI-:.-:-:-e .. :~
...,;

recorder must aid the rear rapeman in making conract. On railroad rails or asphalt roads. apparatus.
marks can be made with a sharp awl, but on concrete surfaces a piece of adhesive tape
should be smck to the pavement and marked with a bard pencil. .., .
'.•l·
(A) Rigid Bars
Before the introduction of invar tapes, rigid bars were used for work of highest l
!
6. Backward Measurement. It is best to measure' each section in two directions. precision. The rigid bars may be divided into two classes :
Although this is not demanded by the accuracy required, it provides the only proper check . (I) Contact apparatus. in whi~h the ends of the bars are brought into successive
against blunders. The results, reduced for temperature and inclination should agree within .-: contacts. Exatnple ; The Eimbeck Duplex Apparams.
one part in 30,000. (i!) Optical apparatus, in which the effective lengtha of the bars are engraved on
7. Levelling. Levelling may be done with a surveyor's level. the attached level '·t them and observed by microscopes. Example: The Colby apparatus and the Woodward Iced
on a transit, or hand level or a clinometer. All have been used successfully, but the first Bar Apparatus.
two increase both speed and precision. When a surveyor's level or a transit level is used. The rigid bars may also be divided into the following classes depending upon the
readings are taken to hundredth's of a foot on the tops of the tripods. A reading is taken way in which the uncertainties of temperature corrections are minimised :
on the same tripod from each of the two instrument positions, when the instrument is (i) Compensating base bars, which are designed to maintain constant length unde1
moved. and care. taken to denote which reading was obtained from each position. varying temperature by a combination of two or more metals. Example : The Colby Apparatus.
 LINEAR MEASL'REMENTS 75
74 SURVEYING

(B) Flexible Apparntus

(il)Bimeto11ic non;compensating base ban, in which two measuring bars act as a
l>imetallic thermometer. Example : The Eimbeck Duplex Apparatus (U.S. Coast and Geodetic In the recent years, the use of flexible instrumentS bas increased due to the longer
Survey), Borda's Rod (French system) and Bessel's Apparatus (German system). lengths thst can be measured at a time without any loss in accuracy. The flexible apparatus
(iir) Monometallic base bars, in which the temperature is either kept constant at
consistS of (a) steel or invar tapes, and (b) steel and brass wires. The flexible apparatus
bas the following advamages over the rigid bars :
melting point of ice, or is otherwise ascertained. Example : The Woodward Iced Bar Apparatus
(r) Due to the greater leng91 of the flexible apparatus. a wider choice of base sites
and Struve's Bar (Russian system).
is available since rough ground with wider water gaps can be utilised.
The Colby Apparntus (Fig. 3.36). This is compensating and optical type rigid bar
apparatus designed by Maj-Gen. Colby to eliminate the effect of changes of temperature (ii) The speed of measurement is quicker, and thus less expensive.
upon the measuring appliance. The apparatus was employed in the Ordinance Survey and (iii) Longer bases can be used and more check bases can be introduced at closer
the Indian Surveys. All the ten bases of G.T. Survey of India were measured with Colby intervals.
Apparatus. The apparatus (Fig. 3.36) consistS of two bars, one of steel and the other Equipment for base line measurement :
of brass, each 10 ft. long and riveted together at the centre of their length. The ratio The equipment for base line measurement by flexible apparatus consistS of the following:
of co-efficientS of linear expansion of these metals baving been determined as 3 : 5. Near I. Three standardised tapes : out of the three tapes one is used for field measurement
each end of the compound bar, a metal tongue is supported by double conical pivotS held and the other two are used for standardising the field tape at suitable intervals.
in forked ends of the bars. The tongue projectS on the side away from the brass rod.
On the extremities of these tongues, two minute marks q and a' are put, the distance
2. Strairting device, marking tripods or stakes and supporting tripods or staking.
between them being exactly equal to 10' 0". The distance ab (or (a' b') to the junction 3. A steel tape for spacing the tripods or stakes.
with the steel is kept ~ ths of distance ac (or a' c') to the brass junction. Due to cbange 4. Six thermometers : four for measuring the temP.,ature of the field and two
in temperature, if the distance bb' of steel change to b, b,' by an amount x, the distance . ,/ for standardising the four thermometers.
cc' of brass will change to c1c,' by an amount ~ x, thus unahen'ng the positions of dots
S. A sensitive and accurate spring balance.
a and a'. The brass is coated with a special preparation in order to render it equally The F1eld Work
susceptible to change of temperature as the steel. The compound bar is held in the box The field work for the measurement of base line is carried out by two parties
at the middle of itS length. A spirit level is also placed on the bar. In India, five compound (I) The setting ow pany consisting of two surveyors and a number of porters, have
bars were simultaneously employed in the field. The gap between the forward mark of the duty to place the measuring tripods in alignment in advance of the measurement, and
one bar and the rear bar of the next was kept .constant equal to 6" by means of a framework at correct intervals_.
based on the same principles as that of the 10' compound bar. The framework consists (2) The measun'ng pany, consisting of two observers, recorder, leveller and staffman,
of two microscopes, the distance between the cross-wires of which was kept exactly equal for actual measurementS.
to 6". To stan with. the cross-wires of the first microscope of the framework was brought The base line is cleared of the obstacles and is divided into suitable sections of
':!0!, ~"'~ lr:~c the centre cf the ::me e~treT.ity l")f the
;!"....., !:'"~!1~~1e~':'~ •.·.. :~~ the plarlr,~~
i to I kilometre in length and is accurately aligned with a transit. Whenever the alignment
base line. The platinum dot a of the first compound bar was brought into the coincidence
with the cross-hairs of second microscope. The cross-hairs of the first microscope of the
second framework (consisting two microscopes 6" apan) is then set over the end a' of
the first rod. The work
is thus continued till a 14----- --to·o·- ------> 1
l changes, stout posts are driven firntly in the ground. The setting out pany then places
the measuring tripods in alignmentS in advance of the measurement which can be done
by two methods :
(i) Measurement on Wheeler's method by Wheeler's base line apparatus.
length of a'~ (ir) Jaderin's method.
''"
·"<i
(IQ' X 5 + 5 X 6") =52' 6" (r) Wheeler's base line apparntus (Flg. 3.37)
''
'' '' ·~[
The marking stakes are driven on the line with their tops about 50 em above the
is .measured at a time with ' '\
the help of 5 bars and
: surface of the ground, and at distance apan slightly less than the length of the tape. On
2 frameworks. The work
b1 teel !!.fR=ib•' the tops of the marking stakes, strips of zinc. 4 em in width, are nailed for the purpose
is thus continued till the
end of the base is reached.
II ~·· of scribing off the extremities of the tapes. Supporting stakes are also provided at interval
of 5 to 15 metres, with their faces in the line. Nails are driven in the sides of the
supporting stakes to carry hooks to support the tare. The pointS of supportS are set either
FIG. 3.36. TilE COLBY APPARATUS.

'I
f•'
 71
SURVEYING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
76

Measurement by Steel and Brass Wires : Principle of Bimetallic Thermometer

on a uniform grade between the marking stakes or at the same level. A weight is attacbed
to the other end of the straining tripod to apply a uniform pull. The method of measurement by steel and brass wire is based on laderin's application
of the principle of bimetallic thermometer to the flexible appararus. The steel and brass
n Stralnlng
1 1pote

l
~~~
,),\,,,,,!:tl l__
Zink strip
(]
wire are each 24 m long and-1.5 to 2.6 mm in diameter. The distance between the measuring
tripods is measured first by the steel wire and then by the brass wire by Jaderin metbod
as explained above (Fig. 3.38) with reference to invar tape or wire. Both the wires are
nickel plated to ensure the same temperature conditions for both. From the measured lengthS
given by the steel and brass wires, the temperanue effect is eliminated as given below:
Let Ls = distance as computed from the absolute length of the steel wire
L, = distance as computed from the absolute length of the brass wire
marking stake as = co-efficient of expansion for steel
stake o.• = c<HOfficient of expansion for brass
FIG. 3.37. WHEELER'S BASE LINE APPARATUS. D = corrected distance
Tm = mean temperature during meas~:~rement
To measure the length, the rear end of the tape is connected to the straining pole Ts = temperature at standardisation
and the forward end to the spring balance to the other end of which a weight is attached. T = Tm - Ts = temperature increase
The rear end of the tape is adjusted to coincide with the mark on the zinc strip at ihe ... (0
top of the rear marking slake by means of the adjusting screw of the side. The position
of the forward end of the tape is marked 01i the zinc strip at the top of the forward I or
Now D =L,(l + a., T) = Lb(l + a., T)
T(Lb a,- L, o.,) = L, -L,
marking slake after proper tension has been applied. The work is thus continued. The
thermometers are also observed. ! T- L,-L,
Lb ctb Ls O.s
... (2)

I
(iz} Jaderin's method (Fig. 3.38) Substituting this value of T in (1) for steel wire, we get
In this method introduced by Jaderin, the measuring tripods are aligned and set at
a distance approximately equal to the length of the tape. The ends of the tapes are attached
D=L) I+ o.,(L,-L,)
l Lbab-Lsas
l
to the straining tripods to which weights are attached. The spring balance is used to measure . . Correction for steel wire = D - Ls
the rension. The rear mark of ¢.e tape is adjusted to coincide with the mark on rear + L, o.,{L, - L,) ~ + o.,{L,- L,)
= ... (3.25)

I
measuring tripod. The mark on the forward measuring tripod is then set at the forward Lb ctb Ls as --=o.:-,----:o.:-,~
mark of the tape. The tape is thus suspended freely and is subjected to constant tension.
Ao aligning and levelling telescope is also sometimes fitted to the measuring tripod. The with sufficient accuracy.
levelling oh~ervations ~re m::~de J,y ::~ level :md ::. li?-ht !ltaff fitted with ::~ mbber p~d for ~uniiariy, ~.;omxuon 1ur Drass win:= D- Lt, ~ ;- 'Jt/!.-- !.L' ... .;).26)

I
contact with the tripod heads. The te~ion applied should not be less than 20 times the ctb- as
weight of the tape. The corrections can thus be applied without measuring the temperature in the field-
The method has however been superseded by the employment of invar tapes or wires-
Example 3.13. A nominal distance of 30 metres was ser our wizh a 30 m sreel

1
Straining Straining
tripod tripod rape from a mark on rhe rop of one peg ro a mark on rhe rop of anozher, rhe rape
being in catenary under a pull of 10 kg and ar a mean temperature of 70 " F. '[he

A\/~-- 71\/t\ top of one peg was 0. 25 metre below rhe rop of rhe other. The top of rhe higher peg
was 460 metres above mean sea level. Calculate the exact horizontal distance between the
marks on rhe rwo pegs and reduce ir ro mean sea level, if rhe rape was standardised at
7771CIIII///I//IIII/IIIIII!IIIIIIII/IIIIl/177777TT T17 a temperature of 600F, in catenary, under a pull of (a) 8 kg, (b) 12 kg, (c) JO kg.
Rear Forward
measuring tripod measuring tripod Take radius of earth = 6370 km
Density of rape = 7.86 g/cm'
FIG. 3.38. JADERIN'S METHOD.
 .,
78 SURVEYING ~ LINEAR MEASUREMB!<YS 79 ll
l
'
Section of tape = 0.08 sq. em Solution.
From expression for sag, we have
Co-ejfident of expansion
Young's modulus
=6x Jtr per l'F
= 2 x 10' kg/cnr.
h = wl, d1 1!
8P
Solution. h = 20.35 em (given)
I
But I
=nil
(i) Correction for slalldardisation
h' (0 25)
2
Taking 1, = d1 (approximately), we get I
{il)

(iir)
Correction for slope

Temperature correction
= L =
2
~
2 30
= 0.0010 m (subtractive)
6
= L a (Tm- To)= 30 X 6 X 10- (70- 60)
0
h = wl?
8P Il
or w = 8Ph = 8 x 100 x 20.35 N/m = 0.407 N/m
= 0.0018 m (additive) /1l 20 X 20 JOO . I
(P- Po)L I
(iv) Tension correction
AE Example 3.15. Derive an expression for correction to be made for the effeds of !
sag and slope in base measurement, introducing the case where the tape or wire is supponed i
(a) When Po = 8 kg aJ equidisrant points. between measuring pegs or tripods.

Tension correction (10 - 8)30 6 = .0.0004 m. (additive) Solution. (Fig. 3.39)

0.08 x2~ 10 In Fig. 3.39, let tape be sup-
(b) When Po= 12 kg, ported at A and B, and let C be
(10- 12)30 _ 0 _0004 m (subtractive) the lowest point where the tension
Tension correction - 6
0.08 X 2 X 10 is horizontal having value equal to
(c) When Po = 10 kg, Tension correction = zero P. Let the horizontal length be s,
/ 1 and 11 such that /1 + I, = I. Let
. LW'
(v) Sag correcnon = P'- s1 and s, be the lengths along the curve
24
such that s, + s, = s = total length along
Now weight of tape per metre run = (0.08. x I x 100) x ~a: kg= 0.06288 kg/m the curve. Let a = difference in
t----- r,----
:. Total weight of tape = 0.06288 x 30 = 1.886 kg elevation between A and C, and b
. 30 X (1.886)') 30(1.886)
0 = difference in elevation between B FIG. 3.39
(a) When Po = 8 kg, sag correction and C. Let h = b - a = difference
24(8)2 24(10)2
in level between B and A. Treating approximately the curve to be parabola. the equations
= 0.0695 - 0.0445 = 0.0250 (additive) are :
30(1.886)' 33(1.886)' y=k,x', for CA and y =kzx', for CB
(b) When Po = 12 kg, sag correction
24(12>' 24(10)1 where the origin is at C in beth the cases.
= 0.0309 - 0.0445 = - 0.0136 m (subtractive) J Now, when x=l1, y=a; .. kl = .!!._
I(
(c) When Po= 10 kg = P, sag correction is zero.
Final correction and, When x=h. y=b; k, = .!'..
[,'
(a) Total correction=- 0.0010 + 0.0018 + 0.0004 + 0.0250 m = + 0.0262 m.
=- 0.0132 m Hence the equations are
(b) Total correction=- 0.0010 + 0.0018 - 0.0004- 0.0136
(c) Total correction=- 0.0010 + 0.0018 + 0 + 0 = + 0.0008 m ax'
y=- for CA and '
Y -_bx' for CB
Example 3.14. (Sl units). It is desired to find the weight of the rape hy measuring
1.' [,

its sag when suspended in CJllenary with both ends level. If the rape is 20 metre long !!l = 2ar for CA and !!l__ 2bx for CB
and the sag amounts to 20.35 em aJ the mid-span under a tension of 100 N, what is d:t. 1.' d:t. - 1,'
the weight of the tape ? Thus. the length of the curve .
 ~'-
81
80 SURVEYING UNBAR MEASUREMEN'!S

~ !I + ( ~ J' )dx + II + ( Z~x J' ldx

s = S1 + s, =
1
t ·:·~
OM of ,the tape, of lengths, such
that the horizontal tension at 0
is H. aod the tension P at point
T
;
'
: ..
.·a
'
1
T

~3 a'II +b')]
2 M makes an angle IV with the ' ' '
= [ 11+1,+ - - =1+-
[,
2(a'
3 II
- +b-
I,
)
J
... (I)
x-axis. Resolving forces vertically 0' ----·-·-·---"~~.l.-J
Again, from the statics of the figure, we get and horizontally for this portion 1+----.: "
2 of tape, L=2x'------+1
P x a= T
wl 2
for C4, aod P x b = T
w/
for CB P sin IV = w . s ... (I) (a)

2 Pcos IV=H ... (2)

P= wl1 = wll ... (2) p

~ey
2a 2b w. s
taniV=n
a b ... (3) (From I and 2)
and
l;l = 11 Differentiating with respect
H
o
dx

Substiruting these values in (1), we get

s-1=~3 1(~)
' l1 +(~) I,')-.!.
- 6 w'
3
p' (li +It)
2
to x,
2 diV_~d< ... (3)
(b) (c)

2P . 2P seciVdx-Hdx
FIG. 3.40.
Now, writing 1~=~1-e aod l,=~l+e, we get Now, from the elemental
niangle [Fig. 3.40 (c)]
(s-f)= (sag + level) correction
ds =sec IV
= !w'
P' [( tz- e)'+ n I+ e) 3
] = 6wp'
'i'
1~+~I (I,- 11)
2 '
i 2
seciV.dx-H
dx
dl.jl_~secw
w2 l 2(iz -l1)2 l (wli
2
w2l 3 w2 U· t?l ... (4)
= - - + - -2 = - -2 + - - . dl!l -~ ... (4)
24P 2 8 P • I 24P 8 P' I or seciV.dX-H
b I ' I'1 ' _a'
Now from (3), --a_,-
---- and fr om (2) , -w-2 - -4 Let x' be half the length of tape, and IV' be the inclination of tangent at the end.
a It' 4.P /1
lmegrating Eq. (4) from 0 to B, we get
~ . (1,' -li)' _ a' . ( b - a . 11, )'!. = (b - a)' = /i
f•. f" ~
2
:.
8 P' I 2 11' a I 2I 2I sec IV diV = dx
Substimting in (4), we get •
(s-f)=--+-
I (wl)' h' ··t,
·.
[log.(sec IV+tan IVl]: =-jjx'
24 P' 2 I H[ .s.ec=._:o:IV,_'+:_tan::::_IV!_' )
Thus, the total correction is the swn of the separaJe corrections for sag and slope. .; .·. or .t' = - loge-
w 1 +0
Example 3.16. A flexible. uniform, inextensible tape of total weight 2W hangs freely ... (5)
between two supports at the same level under a tension T at each support. Show that or x ' =!!. log, (sec IV' + tan IV')
w
·horizo/IJIJJ distance between the supports is -~·"
Again, resolving vertically for one-half of the tape,

=r·w
H T+W
-logc-- or sin w'
'~··
w T-W T sinw'=W
H = horizol!lal tension at the cel!lre of the tape and w = weight of tape per unit .,1,
where
length. cos 111' = ~sini lV' = ..fr'::: W'
Solution
Also, tan \II' = ___!r
Fig. 3.40 (a) shows the whole tape, being hung from two suppons A aod B. Let . =-r'
-W .
0 be the lowest point, which is the origin of co-ordinates. Fig. 3.40 (b) shows a portion •;II

'111=-
·""t~:
 SURVI!YING
82

Substituting lhe values in Eq. (5), we get .

x' = w
H log, [ ~T' T- W' + ~Tl - W W' lw
H [ T+ W
= log, yT' - W'
l (b) s=E-[M+ !'!.(21-x
AE

s 9.81
2
)- Po]
g
Here x = 999.126, M = 0 and Po= 175
999.126 [ 0 + O.Q75 (2
X X 1000- 999.126 )- 175 ]
H -~ 1H
=-log,"'/~-- =--lo g,--
T+W 10.2 X 2 X JO' 2 9.81
w T-W 2w T-W = 0.095 m
The IOta! horizontal distance = 2 x '
PROBLEMS
H T+W (Hence proved)
=-1og e--
w T- W 1. Describe different kinds of chains used for linear measurements.
Example 3.17. A field rape, standardised at 1B•c measured 100.0056 m. Explain lhe melhod of testiDg and adjusting a chain.
of 100 2. (a) How may a chain be standardized 1 How may adjustments be made to
the chain if
Detennine the temperature at which it wiU be exactly of the nominal length
long 1
m. Take a= 11.2 X w-• per ·c. it is found to be toO
(b) A field was surveyed by a chain and the area was found to be
127.34 acres. If lhe
Solution : Given 81 = 0.0056 m ; T, = 18° C per cent 100 long, what is the correct area of lhe field?
chain used in lhe measurement was 0.8
(A.M.l.E.)
81
New standard temperature To' = To ± Ia
3. Explain, wilh neat diagram, the working of lhe line ranger.
not interVisible.
0 0056
· = 18•- 5• = 13• c Describe bow you would range a chain line between two points which are
= 18• - l allowance?
100 X 11.2 X 10-0 4. Explain the different methods of chaining on sloping ground. Wbat is bypotenusa
·;'
Example 3.18. A distance AB measures 96.245 m on a slope. From a theodolite 5. What are different sources of errors in chain surveying?
1. 675 m with Distinguish clearly between cumulative and compensating errors.
set at A, with instrument height of 1. 400 m, staff reading taken at B was
e the horizontal length of the line AB. What will 6. Wbat are different tape corrections and bow are !hey applied?
a venical angle of 4" 30' 4()", Determin
7. The lenglh of a line measured wilh a chain having 100 links was found to
be 2000 links.
be the error if the effect were neglected.
Solution : Given h, = 1.400 m; h, = 1.675 m; a = 4• 30' 20" ; I = 96.245
m If the chain was 0.5 link too shon, find the true length of line.
with
8. The nue length of a line is known to be 500 metres. The line was again measured
Sa"_ 206265 (h,- h,) cos a 206265 (1.400- 1.675) cos 4• 30' 20" a 20 m tape and found to be 502 m. Wbat is lhe correct lenglh of the 20 m tape ?
· I 96.245 and found to be
9. The distanCe between two stations was measured with a 20 m chain
1476 melres. If the
= - 588n = - 0° 09' 48" 1500 metres. The same was measured witll a 30 m chain and found to be
9 =a+ Oa = 4° 30' 20" - oo 09' 48" = 4°20' 32" 20 m cbain was 5 em too short, what was the .error in the 30 metre chain?
and found to
l<>n~l. 1 ,... / ... nc-A- o.< "!-1" ':'"~,to ?I)' ?7"- o~_oe;,c;
10 A 3(' 11! chain was t~terl J:o.efnre the com_rnencement of !he day's work
J..Jn..;·mm~~ found to be half decimetre too long. At the
be correct. After chaioing 100 chains, the chain was

I
If lhe effect were neglected, L = 96.245 cos 4• 30' 40" = 95.947 m end of day's work, after chaining a total distance of 180 chains, the chain
was found to be one
decimetre too long. Whai: was the true distance chained ?
Error= 0.019 m 20 metres.
11. A chain was rested before starting the survey, and was found to be exactly
Example 3.19. (a) Calculate the elongation at 400 m of a 1000 m mine shaft measuring and was found be 20.12 m . Area of the plan

l
At the end of the survey, it was teSted again to
elasticit y is area of the field
tape hanging vertical ly due to its· own mass. The modulus of of the field drawn to a scale of 1 em = 6 m was 50.4 sq. em. Find the true
cross-sectional area of the
2 x Jo' N/mm , the mass of the rape is 0.075 kglm and the
1 in sq. metres ..
12. The paper of an old map drawn to a scale of 100 m to 1 em has
shrunk. so that
. tape is 10.2 "'"''· 9.6 em. The survey was done with a 20 m chain 10
a line originally 10 em has now betome
(b) 1f the' same· tape is .randordised as 1000.00 m at 175 N tension,
what is the on the ground.
em too shan. It the area measured now is 71 sq. em, find the correct area
shoft recorded as 999.126 m ? to a scale
,true length of the 13. The surveyor measured the distance between two stations on a plan drawn
the result was 1286 m. later, however, it was discovered that he used
Solution of 10 m to 1 em and
a scale of 20 m to 1 em. Find the true distance betwCen the stations.
(a) Taking M = 0, we have
s_, = mgx (21 _ x) _ O.Q75 x 9.81 x 400 (2000- 400) 0 _115 m
2AE 2 X 10'
10.2 X 2 X

'··'
84

14. The distance between two points measured

distance between them, if (a) the angle inof4.slope
in level is 30 m, (c) the slope is I
15. Find the hypotenusal allowance per chain of
aJong a slope is 126 m. Find the horizontal
between the points is 6° 30', (b) the difference

30 m length if the angle of slope is 12 o 30'.

SURVEYING

m II
tspe under a pull of 8 kg in three equal •I
16. Find the sag correction for a 30 m steel = 7.86 g. Area of cross-section of the Lape
spans of 10 m each. Weight of l cubic em
of steel Chain Surveying I;
= 0.10 sq. em.
of 65°F when lying horizontally on the ground
. iI'
17. A steel tape is 30m long at a temperature x 10-' per I
t 2 kg and the co-efficient of expansion 65
Its0 sectional area is 0.082 sq. em, its weigh tions i
three equal spans. Calculate the acruallength ber.veen the end gradua
l f. The rape is stretched over
pull 18 kg. Take £:;; 2.109 X 10 6 kg/cm 1 4.1. CHAIN TRIANGULATION 1
under the following conditions : temp. 85°F, in which only linear measurements are il
rdized on the flat and was found to be exactly 30
m Chain surveying is that type of surveying (f
18. A 30 m steel tape was standa
The temperature is suitab le for surveys of small extent on open
under no pull at 66°F. It was used in catem
ry to measu re a base of 5 bays. made in the field. This type of surveying to
pull exerted during the measurement was 10
kg. The of the boundaries of a piece of land or
during the mearurement was 92 o F and the ground to secure data for exact description

II
The specific weigh t of steel is 7.86 g/cm 3.
area of cross-section of the tape was 0.08 sq. em. take simple details.
6 2.
The principle of chain survey or Chain
Triangulation, as is sometimes called, is
a. =0.0000063 per l°Fand £=2.1 09 x 10 kglcm of a number of connected triangles, as triang
le
Find the true lenglb of the line. to provide a skeleton or framework consistin of tiS Stdes measu red in
is the only sunp e gure can be plotted from the lenijibs
errors in long chain iine? which
19. {a) What are the sources of cumulative the framework should consis t of triangles
able in chain surveying? the field. To get good results in plotting,
(b) What is the limit of accuracy obtain areas-D early equilateral as possible.
too long after chaining 5,000 ft. The
same
(c) An engineer's chain was found to be 0'6" ft. Find the correct
ng a tola.l. distan ce of 10,000 4.2. SURVEY STATIONS

I
chain was found to be 1' 0" too long after chaini (A.M.I.E. May, 1966) chain line and can be either at the
length at the commencement of cbaining. A survey station is a prominent point on the
Such statio is known as main station. Howe
ver,
lenglb to be applied when chaining on a beginning of the chain line or at the end.
n
20. Derive an expression for correction per chain gradient expressed as 1 in n. subsid iary
and (b) the here on the chain line and
regular slope in terms of (a) the slope angle
exceed subsidiary or tie station can also be selected anyw ;,,,
What is the greatest slope you wouldangleignore if d:te error from this source is not to or tie lines may be run through them.
gradie nt. li,,
1 in 1500 ? Give you answer {a) as an.
(b) as a '' ground by driving pegs if the ground is
A survey station may be marked on the
survey station can be marked or located I'
soft. However. on roads and streets etc., the
ANSWERS with respect to some pennanent reference il
by making two or preferably three tie measurements points
the lines joining the peg to the reference
2 (b) 129.34 acres
fr objects near the station. The more nearly
!he more definitely will the station be fixed.
~mcr.o::cc~ .1t ~~g~r ~ng!e~.
A diagram of lhe \I

should be inserted in the beginning o!" the ilela

I. lWU hnks survey lines with main stations numbered
8. 19.92 m note book.
9.
10.
41 em too long
180.28 chains or 5408:4 m
I 4.3. SURVEY LINE S
called main survey lines. The biggest
II. 1825 sq. m. The lines joining the main survey stations are
and the various survey .stations are planed
12. 0. 763 sq. km. of the main survey line is called the base line
has more than three straight boundaries.
13. 643 m. with reference to this. If the area to be surveyed down the
that they can be plotted by laying
14. (a) 125.19 m (b) 122.37 m (c) 122.24 m the field measurements must be so arranged
15. 0.71 m triangles as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a) or (b).
are the lines which are run in the field
16. 0.01206 m Check lines. Check lines or proof lines
length of the check line measured in the fteld
17. 30.005 rn to check the accuracy of the work. The apex
A check line may be laid by joining the
18. 30.005 rn must agree with its length on the plan. (85)
19. 10.050 ft.
20. (a) 2. w (b) I in 27.4.
86 SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING

of point C to be plotted. Let !here be some error in !he measuremeru of side AC so

of !he triangle to any point on
!hat c' is !he wrong position. The corresponding displacement of !he plotted position of
!he opposite side or by joining
C will depend upon the angle ACB. Fig. 4.4. {a) shows !he case when acb is a right
two points on any two sides of

~
a triangle. Each triangle ·must angle : in !his case the dis-
bave a check line. For !he frame- placement of C will be
work shown in Fig. 4.1 (a), !he nearly equal to !he error
various arrangements of !he check in !he side AC. Fig. 4.4.
lines are shown in Fig. 4.2 (a), (b) shows the case when
(b), (c) and (d) by dotted lines. ACB is 60' ; in this case /c
In Fig. 4.1 (b), !he dotted lines (a) (b) !he displacement of C will rtf;_ .. ,
show !he arrangements of check
FIG. 4.1.
be nearly 1.15 times !he -~00~...
lines for !he framework. error. In Fig. 4.4 (c), !he ·'
angle ACB is 30' ; !he dis- a b a b a

~QE;3
(b) (C)
(a)
:' ' ........ placement of C will be
/ ' ! ...... nearly t~ice the error. FIG. 4.4. WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLES.
' Hence, to get more accurate
(a) (b) (c) (d) result, angle C must be a
right angle. If, however, !here is equal liability of error in all !he lhree sides of a triangle.
FIG. 4.2 !he best form is equilateral triangle. In any case, to get a well-proportioned or well-slwped
Tie lines. A tie line is a line which joins subsidiary or tie stations on !he main triangle, no angle should be less !han 30'.
line. The .main object of running a tie line is to take !he details of nearby objects but CONDmONS TO BE FULFILLED BY SURVEY LINES OR SURVEY STATIONS
it also serves !he purpose of a check line. The accuracy in !he location of !he objects The survey stations should be so selected that a good system of lines is obtained
depends upon the accuracy in laying the tie- line. A framework may have One or more
fulfilling !he following conditions :
tie lines depending upon the circumstances (Fig. 4.3).
(I) Survey stations must be mutually visible.
(2) Survey lines must be as few as possible so !hat the framework can be plotted
conveniently.
(3) The framework must bave one or two base lines. If one base line is used.
0

it must run along the lenglh and lhrougb !he middle of !he area. If two base lines are

~~0
~ \P o_?~.fi:~~~~":·oooo,. used, !hey must intersect in !he form of letter X.

il
(4) The Jines musr run through level ground as possiuic::.

I
1 ,"' <(_r§'_o e
(5) The main lines sho_uld form well-conditioned triangles.
I "' "' • (6) Each triangle or portion of skeleton must be provided wilh sufficient check lines .
.;--0~ (7) All the lines from which offsets are taken should be placed close to !he corresponding
0 ,.,"'"'I
e..'J"•?
........ o
........ Gil
c'
-~~
i='I
I swface fearures so as to get shan offsets.
~8) As far as possible, !he main survey lines should not pass lhrough obstacles.
(9) To avoid trespassing, !he main survey lines should fall wilhin !he boundaries
of !he propeny to be surveyed.
Land boundary 4.4. LOCATING GROUND FEATURES: OFFSETS
FIG, 4.3 An offset is !he lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from a
ARRANGEMENTS OF SURVEY LINES survey line. By melhod of offsets, !he point or object is located by measurement of a
Let us ·take !he case of plottiog a simple triangle ABC. Let a and b represent two distance and angle (usually 90') from a point on the chain line. When !he angle of offset
points A and B correctly plotted wilh respect to each olher and c be the correct position is 90', it is called perpendicular offset [Fig. 4.5 (a), (c)] or sometimes. simply, · offser
 '~
S9 II
SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING 11
88
Degree of Precision in Measuring the Offsets f
and when the angle is other

~ l__ o ~L,
Before commencing the field measurements, one should know the degree of precision
than 90', it is called an oblique
offset [Fig. 4.5 (b)]. Another
method of locating a point is
called the method of 'ties' in P-·--·-s P-·-·-·-s
to be maintained in measuring the length of the offset. This mainly depends on the scale
of survey. Normally, the limit of precision in plotting is 0.25 mm. If the scale of plotting
. I em = 2 m, 0 .25 mm on paper wdl
IS
2 0 25
X ·
. correspond to---w--= 0 .05 m on the ground. Hence,
'
l
'
~

which the distance of the point (a) Perpendicular (b) Oblique

offset offset in such a case, the offsets should be measured to the nearest 5 em. On the other hand, •I
is measured from two separate if the scale of plotting is I em= 10m, 0.25 inm on paper \viii correspon·ct to
!i
points on the chain line such it
that the three points form, as 10 X0.25 = 0.25 m on the ground. Hence the offset should be measured to the nearest
nearly as possible an equilateral 10 is likelihood of changing the scale of plotting at a later stage.
oiangle [Fig. 4.5 (d)]. The 25 em. However, if there
than to be under-accurate.
method of perpendicular offsets it is better always to be over-accurate
yl'l.
involves less measuring on the Long Offsets .,( b \
ground.
(c) Perpendicular (d) Ties
The survey work can be accurately and expeditiously
accomplished if the objects and features that are to be surveyed /~
/ I
/~
/
Offsets should be taken offset \~,
are near to the survey lines. The aim should always be to \'\
in order of their chaioages. In ..,.,.,. a c 1-
offsetting to buildings, check can
FIG. 4.5. make the offset as small as possible. Long offset may be
be made by noting the chainages largely obviated by judiciously placing the main lines of the FIG. 4.S.
at which the directions of the walls cut the survey line, as shown by dotted lines in survey near the object or by running subsidiary lines from
the main lines. Fig. 4.8 shows a well-proportioned subsidiary
Fig. 4.5 (c), (d). r· triangle abc run to locate the deep bend of the outline of the
fence. The base of the
In general, _an offset should be taken wherever the outline of an object changes.
In the case of a straight wall or boundary, an offset at each end is sufficient. To locate triangle is on the main line and bd is the check line.
irregular boundaries, sufficient number of offsets are taken at suitable interval and at such LIMITING LENGTH OF OFFSET
point where the direction suddenly changes, as shown in Fig. 4.6 (a). In the case of The allowable length of offset depends upon the degree of accuracy required, scale,
a nallah, offsets should be taken to both the sides of its width, as shown in Fig. 4.6 method of setting out the perpendicular and nature of ground. The only object is that
(b). However, in the case of regular curves with constant width, the offsets should be the error produced by taking longer lengths of offsets should not be appreciable on the
taken to the centre line only and the width should also be measured. paper.
(1) Effect of error in laying out the direction. Let us first consider the effect
~
-1 I I I I I I I I I I I
of error in laying out the perpendicular.
! ! : : ~ ! ! ! ! 1 : : .... ha~l li.i.;.. ~v i..i.~.- :J~j:.:--.. !' .
Let the offset CP be laid out from a poinL L: uu i.iu;;
(a) '-!...-
FIG. 4.6.
(b)

I and let the angle BCP be (90 •- a) where a is the error

in laying the perpendicular. Let the length CP be I. While
plotting, the point P will be plotted at P, , CP, being perpendicular
P,
p2~----------­
:

I
Taking Perpendicular Offsets to AB and of length I. Thus, the displacement of the point ''
' al
Fig. 4. 7 illustrates the procedure for finding the length
p P along the chain line is given by ''' I
and position of the perpendicular offset. The leader holds the " l sin a '' I
''''' PP,=-- em '
'' I
zero end of the tape at the point P to be located and the '' ' s I
'' '' ''
follower carries the tape box and swings the tape along the I = length of offset in meters : I
'' ' ''
'
where
' I
chain. The length 'of the offset is the shortest distance from '' s =scale (i.e. I em= s metres) •a
'' I
the object to the chain obtained by swinging the tape about '' ' ''
' Taking 0.25 mm as the limit of accuracy in plotting,
I

the object as centre. Such an offset is called swing offset. '' ''
we have ~._._.f.V_·-·-·-·lo___ .-~
The position of the offset on the chain is located by the
FIG. 4.9.
point where the arc is tangential to the chain. FIG. 4.7
 SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING
'lO
'Yr. (c) Given the maximum error In the length of the offset, the maximum length
I sin a 0.25 ofllie offset and the scale, to lind the maximum value of a so that maximum displacement
-s-=w or I= 0.025 s e<>sec a ... (4.1)
on the paper mny not exceed 0.25 mm.
Also, displacement of the point perpendicular to the chain line is e = maximum error in measurement of offset (metres)
I-I rosa Let
P, P2 = CP, - CP,- em (on the paper) ... (4.2) PP, = e metres (given)
s
(il) Combined effect of error due to length and direction
....,p P, P, = I sin a (approx)
•' •'
(Fig. 4.10). /
•' pp, = ~ t!- + 12 sin' a Approximately (on ground)

Let P = actual position of the point .. pp, on paper=.!.~ e' + 12 sin' ex = 0.025
s
CP = true length of the offset
CP, =I= measured length of the offset Hence sin' a = ( 6.25s' - t!-) .!_ 2
... (4.5)
1002 1
CP2 = I = ploned length of the offset
From which a can be calculated.
a = angular error '-i!xample 4.1. An offset is laid out 5' from its troe direction on the field. Find
PP2 = total displacement of P A B the resulting displacement of the plotsed point on. the paper (a) in a direction parallel
in r =the accuracy in measurement of the offset FIG. 4 _10 to the chain line, (b) in a direction perpendicular to the chain line, given that the length
1 em = s metres (scale). of the offset is 20 m and the scale is 10 m to 1 em.
~ (a) Given the angulnr error, to find tbe degree of accnracy with which the le~gth Solution.

I
of offset should be measured so that the error due to both the sonrces may he equal. . . I sin a. 20 sin SQ
(a) DISplacement parallel to the cham =--em = . - 0.174 em
Displacement due to angular error = P1 P, = I sin a (nearly) s
. . th ha' I (1 - C<lS a) 20 (I
ir s em = 10 - cos 5')

I
Displacement due to linear error = (b) D!Splacement perpendicular to e c m=
= 0.0076 em {inappreciable).
Assuming both the errors equal, we get I sin a = ir
./Example 4.2. An offset is laid oUl 2' from its troe direction on the field. If the

I
or r = cosec a ... (4.3) scale of plotting is I 0 m to I em. find the maximum length of the offset so that the
If a = 3', cosec 3' = 19 = r. Hence lhe degree of accwacy in linear measurement displacement of the point on the paper may not exceed 0. 25 mm.
should be 1 in 19. . Solution
. l sin a l sin 2°
Similarly, if r = 100, ex= cosec- 1100 = 34' i.e., the offset should be laid out with = - - - = - --"- em
Displacement ~f ~~f" .ry0!nr "'!l t'h~ p<!per
. s 1u
Q..U. iiiA;WQ...,) ui. i.lCGJ.i,Y z,
This should not exceed 0.025 em.
length of tbe offset so !bat error due
}{., (b) Given the scale, to fmd the Umiting
exceed 0.25 mm I sin 2' = 0_025 .
to both the sources mny not on the paper. Hence 10
Taking p, p, = p, P and LPP, P, = 90' we have
0.025 x 10 = 7.16 m
or l = sin 2o
pp, = {2 pp 1 = {2 i
r
, on the ground.
v'Example 4.3. An offset is laid oUl I' 30 'from its troe direction on the field. Find
Hence the corresponding displacement on the paper will be equal to -f2 ir . .!..s If the degree of accuracy with which the offset should be measured so that the maximum
displacement of the point on the paper from both the sources may be equal.
this error is not to be appreciable on the paper. we have
Solution.
{2 .!...=0.025 Displacement due to angular error =lsina
rs
I
0.025 Displacement due to linear error
or I= --:;r2 rs metres ... (4.4) r

·•,
r
' 92 SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING

UneADends
93

Taking both these equal, I sin a =_I_ UneDE Uneoc lineAB ends
r 0 B
r = cosec a = cosec l o 30' = 38.20 11218
or
Hence, the offset should be measured with an accuracy of I in 39.
1624
1fo'o f-·~-~<--,.
171.30
.fil!xample 4.4. An offset is measured with an accuracy of 1 in 40. If the scale of 17.21
158.10
plotting is I em = 20 m, find the limiting length of the offset so· thai the displacement of
153.80
the point on the paper from both sources of error may not exceed 0. 25 mm. 15.86.
Solution 140.00
-f2I 14.53 8.12 135.00
The total displacement of the paper = - · - em
rs 130~~·
127.30 -a. .
But this is not to exceed 0.025 em. 123.50
1~·00
120.00 3.2 ~
6.1 ::,..~
{21 .10
Hence - - = 0.025 UneT.!!.L-,.

or
" I= o~w; X 40 X 20 = 14.14 m "'•-:q; cwr~~~tlon
T,
3.60,92.70
_fixample 4.5. The length of an offset is 16 m and is measured with a 11UJXimum 3.10 84.50
error of 0. 2 m. Find rhe maximum permissible error in laying off the direction of the Tre line
75.10
T1T2
offset so thai the 11UJXimum displacement may not exceed 0. 25 mm on the plan drawn to a scale /
70.00
of Icm=40m.
_45.1
Solution
• 2 a=-
sm 2
6.25s~ -e2
I (-
1 100 2
l Bali Roae1
42·
4m
55.90
50.50
45.60

(~~2 (40) 1~ ~ 0.96 = 0.0612

1
sin a= ..J
2 2
- (0.2) =
16 36.00
or a=3 o 30'·.
25.40
4.5. FIELD BOOK
The book in which the chain or tape measurements are entered is called the field
bt;c_l· fr ::- ~~ ~-hlcng book of size s.b01Jt ::!0 em Y ~2 em and opem kngt.i.·,vise. ~h: :~i.a[:::
requirements of the field book are that it should contain good quality stout opaque paper.
it should be well·bound and of a size convenient for the pccket. The · chain line may
'· . ':<~o
" 6'..c-

. ,.
.:1; Une AB begins
be represented either by a single line or by two lines spaced about 1,J; to 2 em apart,
.•.
·~! -·
-:
ruled down the middle of each page. The double line field book (Fig. 4.12) is most commonly
Une AD 5tarta
used for ordinary work, the distance along the chain being entered between the two lines it;
;;.· FIG. 4.12. DOUBLE LINE BOOKING.
of the page. Single line field book (Fig. 4.11) is used for a comparatively large scale
and most detailed dimension work. A chain line is started from the bottom of the page
,,., FIG. 4.tl. SINGLE LINE BOOKING.

tlj At the beginning of a particular chain survey, the following details must be given:
and works upwards. All distances along the chain line are entered in the space between i;t:
the two ruled lines while the offsets are entered either to the left or to the right of ,,.., (1) Date of survey and names of surveyors
the chain line, as the case may be. Offsets are entered in the order they appear at the ' (if) General sketch of the layout of survey lines
(iii) Details of survey lines
_.,...~

chain line. As the various details within offsetting distances are reached, they are sketched
and entered as shown in Fig. 4.11 and Fig. 4.12. Every chain line must be staned from (iv) Page index of survey lines
a fresh page. All the pages must be machine numbered. (v) Location sketches of survey stations.
 95
SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING

At the starting of a chain or survey lines, the following details should be given: (c) Running Survey Unes. After having com-
(I) Name of the line (say, AB) pleted the preliminary work, the chaining may be G;ree b~.~
(il) Name of the station marked either by an oval or by a triangle.
started from the base line. The work in running a \\5.38m ..........
(iii) Bearing of the line (if measured)
survey line is two-fold : (I) to chain the line, and
(il) to locate the adjacent details. Offsets should be
''
,~----a.ssm
-- -
(iv) Details of any other line meeting at the starting point of the survey line. taken in order of their chainages. To do this, the
4.6. FIELD WORK chain is stretched along the line oti the ground. Offsets /
Equipment. The foDowing is the list of equipment required for chain survey or chain are then measused. After having assused that no offset '
/' 6.55m
triangulation : has been omitted, the chain must be pulled forward. /
(1) A 20 m chain The process of chaining and offsetting is repeated (V' Elec. pole
(il) 10 arrows
until the end of the -line is reached. The distances
along the surVey line at which fences, streants, roads, FIG. 4.13.
(iit) Ranging rods and offset rods
etc., and intersected by it must also be recorded.
(iv) A tape (10 m or 20 m length)
(v) An instrument for setting right angles : say a cross staff or optical square 4.7. INSTRUMENTS FOR SETIING OUT RIGHT ANGLES
(VI) Field book, pencil etc., for no1e-keeping There are several types of instruments used to set out a right angle to a chain line,
(vit) Plumb bob the most CODIIDOD being (I) cross staff (il) optical square (iii) prism square (iv) site square.
(viit) Pegs, wooden hammer, chalks, etc. (1) CROSS STAFF
A chain survey may be done in the following steps : The sintplest instrument used for setting om right angles is a cross staff. It consists
(a) Reconnaissance (b) Marking and fixing survey stations (c) Running survey lines. of either a frame or box with two pairs of venical slits and is mounted on a pole shod
Reconnaissance. The first principle of any type of surveying is to work from
(a)
for fixing in the ground. The CODIIDOn forms of cross staff are (a) open cross staff (b)
whole to part. Before starting the actual survey measurements, the surveyor should walk French cross staff (c) adjustable cross staff.

I
around the area to fix best positions of survey lines and survey stations. During reconnaissance, (a) Open Cross Staff. Fig. 4.14. (a) shows an open cross staff. It is provided
a reference sketch of the ground should be prepared and general arrangement of lines, with two pairs of vertical slits giving two lines of sights at right angles to each o!her.
principal features such as buildings, roads etc. should be shown. Before selecting the stations, ~ The cross staff is set up at a point
the surveyor should examine the intervisibility of stations and should nole the positions on the line from which the right angle

1Rmrm
of buildings, roads, streants etc. He should also investigale various difficulties that may is to run, and is !hen turned until one
arise and think of their solution. line of sight passes through the ranging
(b) Marking and Fixing Survey Stations. The requirements for selection of survey pole at the. end of the survey line. The
.::r~tirm5: h1.1v~ ~!r~i.ldv ~" !'fi<~~~!'lser! ~e-r ~.,.,,:~'! ~t"'lerter! the survey ~t!:!rk•n'l fhev <!h!'u!d line of sight through the other two vanes
i
A.

be marked to enabie them to be easily discovered during the progr~ of the s...;ey. The will be a line at right angles to !he

1rli
following are some of the methods of marking the stations : -~ sunrey line and a ranging rod may be
• established in that direction. If, however,
(1) In soft ground, wooden pegs may be driven, leaving a small projection above
it is to be used to take offsets, it is
the ground. The name of the station may be written on the top.
held vertically on the chain line at a
(it) Nails or spikes may be used in the case of roads or streets. They should be point where the foot of the offsets is
flush with the pavement. FIG. 4.14. VARIOUS FORMS OF CROSS SfAFF.
likely to occur. It is then turned so
(iit) In hard ground, a portion may be dug and filled with cement mortar etc. that one line of sight passes through
(iv) For a station to be used for a very long time, a stone of any standard shape the ranging rod fixed at the end of the survey line. Looking through the other pair of
may be embedded in the ground and fixed with mortar etc. On the lop of the stone, slits, it is seen if the point to which· the offset is to be taken is bisected. If not, the
deScription of the station etc. may be written. cross staff is moved backward or forward till the line of sight· also passes through the
Whenever possible, a survey station must be fixed with reference to two or three point.
permanent objects and a .reference or location sketch should be drawn in the field boo~. (b) French Cross Staff. Fig. 4.14 (b) shows a French cross staff. If consists of
Fig. 4.13 shows a typical locaiion sketch for a survey station. a hollow octagonal box. Vertical sighting slits are cut in !he middle of each face, such

ii<'
 CHAIN SURVEYL'IG
w l
I
96 SURVEYING
'
direction roughly perpendicular to the chain line, to move tili the two images described
that the lines between the centres of opposite slits make angles of 45° with each other.
It is possible, therefore, to set out angles of either 45° or 90 o with this instrument. above coincide.
(c) Adjustable Cross Staff. The adjustable cross staff [Fig. 4.14 (c)] consists of
Testing the Optical Square (Fig. 4.16) l
{
(I) Hold the instrument in hand at any intennediate point C on AB, sigbt a pole l
two cylinders of equal diameter placed one on top of the other. Both· are. provided with \
held at A and direct an assistant to fix a ranging rod at a. such that the images of
sigbting slits. The upper box carries a vernier and can be rotated relatively to the lower
by a circular rack and pirtion arrangement actuated by a milled headed screw. The lower the ranging rods at a and A c0incide in the instrument. A c 6 ~
~~
box is graduated to degrees and sub-divisions. It is, therefore, possible to set out any (il) Tum round to face B and sigbt the ranging rod at a.
angle with the help of this instrument. If the image of the ranging rod at B coincides with the image of I'
(u) OPTICAL SQUARE ranging rod at a, the instrument is in adjusnnent.
Optical squ~e is somewhat more convenient and accurate instrument than the Cross (iii) If not, direct the assistant to move to a new position
staff for setting out a line at rigbt angles to another line. Fig. 4.15 (a) illustrates the b so that both the iruages coincide. Mark a point d on the ground
principle on which it works. ...,c ntid-way between a and b. Fix a ranging rod at d. a d b n
It consists of a circular box with ~"'7 (iv) Tum the adjustable mirror till the iruage of the ranging ::r
~!

Ja Effi
three slits at E, F and G. In line with - --:; ' rod at d coincide with the iruage of the ranging rod at B. Repeat FIG. 4.16

the openings E and G, a glass silvered the test till correct.

at the top and unsilvered at the bottom, (E "'2\ From a (iil) PRISM SQUARE
The prism square shown in Fig. 4.17 works on the same principle as that of optical
is fixed facing the opening E. Opposite ~ 1 G
to the opening F, a silvered glass is fixed square. It is a more modem and precise insuument and is used in a similar manner.
at A making an angle of 45° t? the previous It has the merit that no adjusnnent is required since the angle between the reflecting surfaces
glass. A ray from tho rangmg rod at Q (i.e. 45°) carmot vary. Fig. 4.18 shows a combined prism square as well as line ranger.
passes through the lower unsilvered portion F a
of the mirror at B, and is seen directly
by eye at the slit E. Another ray from • From p
the object at P is received by the mirror
at A and is reflected towards the mirror (a) (b)
at B which reflects it towards the eye. FIG. 4.15. OPTICAL SQUARE.
Thus, the images of P and Q are visible
at B. If both the iruages are in the same vertical line as shown in Fig. 4.14 (b), the
line PD and QD will be at rigbt angles to each other.
L·:t :he .r:::.~· PA r.;,~;U~~ ~ "-iig~c ..... ..vill.1 . .;,•. :. ulli:iVi: at .ti, ~-· -" -2: ii
•:
LACB=45° or LABC = 180 o- (45° +a)= 135°- a I b, '
By law of reflection
Hence
LEBb, = LABC = 135° - a
LABE = 180° - 2(135° - a) = 2a - 90° ... (1)
I p
Also LDAB = 180°- 2a ... (il)
From 1:!. ABD ,.LADB = 180°- (2a- 90°)- (I80°- 2a) FIG. 4.18. COMBINED PRISM SQUARE AND
FIG. 4.17. PRISM SQUARE.
= 180°- 2a + 90°- 180° +2a = 90° UNE RANGER.
Thus, if the images of P and Q lie in the same vertical line, as shown in Fig. (iv) SITE SQUARE (Fig. 4.19)
4.14 (b), the line PD and QD will be at right angles to each other. A site square. designed for setting out straigbt lines and offset lines at 90 o, consists of
To set a right angle. To set a rigbt angle on a survey line, the instrument is a cylindrical metal case containing two telescopes set at 90 o to each other, a fine sening
held on the line with its centre on the point at witich perpendicular is erected. The slits screw near the base, a circular spirit levei at the top and a knurled ring at the base.
F and G are directed towards the ranging rod fixed at the end of the line. The surveyor It is used in conjunction with a datum rod screwed into the base of the instrument.
(holding the instrument) then directs person, holding a ranging rod and stationing in a_ ·

I
98 SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING ""
(B) To Drop a Perpendleular to a Chain Line from a Point outside it : .
1 Telescopes Let it be required to drop a perpendicular to a chain line AB from a point D outside
2 Clamp it.
3 Tripod (•) First method [Fig. 4.21 (a)]. Select any point E on the line. With D as centre
4 Cylindrical case and DE as radius, draw an arc to cut the chain line in F. Bisect EF at C. CD will
5 Fine setting screw
be petpendicular to AB.
5
(il) Second method [Fig. 4.21 (b)]. Select any point E on !he line. Join ED and
6 Knurled ring
bisect it at F. With F as centre and EF or FD as radius, draw an arc to cut the chain
7 Datum rod
line in C. CD will be perpendicular to !he chain line.
8 Clamp arm
(u•) Third method [Fig. 4.21 (c)]. Select any point E on !he line. With E as centre
and ED as radius, draw an arc to cut the chain line in F. Measure FD and FE. Obtain

FIG. 4.19. THE SITE SQUARE. D D

~ .L.D.
4.8. BASIC PROBLEMS IN CHAINING
(A) To Erect a Perpendicular to a Chain Line from a Point on it :
The method of establishing perpendiculars wilh !he tape are based on familiar geomenic
constructions. The following are some of !he melhods most commonly used. The illustrations
A E "·c-· F B
(b) (c)
given are for a 10 m tape. However, a 20 m tape may also be used. (a)

(1) The 3-4·5 method. Let it be required to erect a petpendicular to !he chain line FIG. 4.2!
at a point C in it [Fig. 4.10 (a)]. Establish a point E at a distance of 3 m from C.
Put !he 0 end of !he tape (10 m long) at E and !he 10 m end at C. The 5 m and !he point C on !he line by making FC = ;~~. Join C and D. CD will be petpendicular
6 m marks are brougbt togelher to form a loop of I m. The tape is now stretched tight :[:
by fastening !he ends E aod C. The point D is !bus established. Angle DCE will be to the chain line.
90". One person can set out a right angle by this melhod. (C) To run a Parallel to Chain Line througb a given Point :
D D Let it be required to run a parallel to a chain line AB through a given point C.

~~ 11) (I) First method [Fig. 4.22 (b)]. Through C, drop a perpendicular CE to !he chain

\1.
5

A l+3m+l
4m

li"
B A
A
1
E C
! ~F B Aee3c a
\J/
line. Measure CE. Select any olher point F on line and erect a perpendicular FD. Make
FD = EC. Join C and D.
(U) Second meihod _[fig. 4.22 (a)j. Selecl any po1ul F on the chain line;. Jo~u CF
and bisect at G. Select any other point E on the chain line. Join EG and prolong it to
E c D such !hat EG = GD. Join C and D.
(a) (b) (c) (iii) Third method [Fig. 4.22 (c)]. Select any point G outside !he chain line and
FIG. 4.20. away from C (but to !he saroe side of it). Join GC and prolong it to meet !he chain
(il) Second metlwd [Fig.4.20 (b)]. Select E and F equidistant from C. Hold !he G
'
:rero end of !he tape at E, and 10 m end at F. Pick up 5 m mark, stretch !he tape
tight aod establish D. Join DC.
c 0
'
c/\o
• • .
'
•• •• .
X
(w) Third method [Fig. 4.20 (c)]. Select any point F outside !he chain, preferably '' ••
'' •
• :' •• .
·at 5 m distance from C. Hold !he 5 m mark at F and zero mark at C, and wilh F '' '' •'
.as centre draw an arc to cut !he line at E. Join EF and produce it to D such !hat
'' '• •' •
••
' ' '
EF= FD = 5 m. A E F B FB A E ~----- FB
(a) (b) (c)
Thus, point D will lie at !he 10 m mark of tape laid. along EF wilh its zero eod
at E. Join DC. FIG. 4.22
 ~
101
SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING
100
B (ii)When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle, e.g. a river.
line in E. With G as centre and GE as radius, draw A
.J:L ----
Case (I): Following are the chief methods (Fig. 4.25).
~

an arc to cut. AB in F. Join GF and make

~ c
~
\ C D
GD = GC. Join C and D. I

~
\

~?L>£1i»loo·
II '\ I I
(C) To run a Parallel to a giveo Inaccessible
---f<AA~
I \ I I
I I
Line through a Giveo Point : \ \
I A~B ·
I \ /
Let AB be the given inaccessible line and C be I \ I I
(c)
(a) (b)
the given point through which the parallel is to be drawn '' I

(Fig. 4.23). c

~~.A
Select any pointE in line with A and C. Similarly, I
.l
select any other convenient point F. Join E and F. Through T
C, draw a line CG parallel to AF. Through G, draw G______ FI
~
E __
a line GD parallel to BF, cutting BE in D. CD will
then be the required line. D D C
FIG. 4.23 (d) (e) (fj

4.9. OBSTACLES IN CHAINING FIG. 4.25. OBSTACLES TO CHAINING.

between two points
Obstacles to chaining prevent chainman from measuring directly perpendiculars
and give rise to a set of problems in which distances are found by indirect measurements. Method (a) : Select two points A and B on either side. Set out equal·
Obstacles to chaining are of three kinds : AC and BD. Measure CD; then CD= AB [Fig. 4.25 (a)].
AC and BC [Fig.
(a) Obstacles 10 ranging Method (b) : Set out AC perpendicular to the chain line. Measure
AB = ..J BC'- AC' .
{b) Obstacles to chaining 4.25 (b)]. The length AB is calculated from the relation ;J'
i
(c) Obstacles to both chaining and ranging. Method (c) : By optical square or cross staff. find a point
C which subtends
(a) OBSTACLE TO RANGING BUT NOT CHAIN
ING AB is calculated from
90° with A and B. Measure AC and BC [Fig.4.25 (c)]. The length
quite common except
This type of obstacle, in which the ends are not intervisible, is the relation : AB = ..J Ac' + BC'
in flat country. There may be two cases of this obstacle .
in the same line.
on the line. Method (d) : Select two points C and D to both sides of A and
(!) Both ends of the line may be visible from intermediate points BD [Fig. 4.25 (d)]. Let angle BCD be equal to 9.
Measure AC, AD, BC and

I
on the line
(il) Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points 2 2
From t:. BCD, Brl = BC + CD - 2BC x CD cos 9
(Fig. 4.24).
Case (!) : Method of reciprocal ranging BC 2 + CD'-B D' (j"\
.~"';~ q, -
w
3.3 .r;-'!J' !.Jt: l.l.S~~- B 2 BC: X

II
I
M
-· 0

BC' + AC' -AB

2
CCI1ie (ii) : In Fig. 4.24, let AB be the ... (ii)
line in which A and B are not visible from intermediate Similarly from t:. BCA, cosS- 2BCxA C
point on it. Through A, draw a random line AB 1
Equating (!) and (il) and solving for AB ·we get
in any convenient direction but as nearly towards
B as possible. The point B1 should be so chosen A C D B ~ (BC X AD) + (BD' X AC) - (AC X AD)
AB = . CD
thar (I) B, is visible from B and (il) BB, is per- FIG. 4.24 f making AE = EC.
pendicu lar to lhe random line. Measure BB 1 • Select Method (e) : Select any point E and range C in line with AE,
C and D1 D on it. = ED. Measure CD ; then AB =CD [Fig. 4.25 (e)].
points C1 antl D 1 on the random line and erect perpendicular C1 Range D in line with BE and make BE
. AE and BE. Mark C and
AC AD, and prolong. Method if) : Select any suitable point E and measure
Make CC, = - · . BB, and DD, = - . BB,. Jom C and D.
AB 1 AB, CD ; then
D on AE and BE such that CE = AE and DE= BE. Measuren n
(b) OBSTACLE TO CHAINING BUT NOT, RANGING
AB = n . CD. [Fig. 4.25 (f)].
There may be two cases of !his obstacle :
a pond, hedge etc.
(!) When it is possible to chain round the obstacle, i.e.
 103
102 SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING
0

c
lr to any convenient point D. At D,

~
Case (II) : (Fig. 4.26)
Method (a) : Select point B on one side and A and C on the other side. Erect set a right angle DE such that
AD and CE as perpendiculars to AB and range B. D and E in one line. Measure AC, DE= DB. Chocse another point F on
AD and CE [Fig. 4.26 (a)]. If a line DF is drawn parallel to AB, coning CE in F DE such that DE = DC. With F as
centre and AB as radius, draw an arc. B A G E
perpendicularly, then triangles ABD and FDE will be similar.
AB DF With E as centre, draw another .arc (a) (b)

AD= FE of the same radius to cut the previous

arc in G. Join GE which will be in
But FE= CE- CF = CE- AD, andDF=AC.
range with the chain line Measure
AB AC . ACxAD CF [Fig. 4.27 (b)]. Then AG = CF.
AD - CE _ AD From which AB - CE _AD
Method (c) : Select two points
Method (b) : Erect a perpendicular AC and bisect it at D. Erect perpendicular CE A and B on the chain line and construct
ai C and range E in line with BD. Measure CE [Fig. 4.26 (b)]. Then AB = CE. an equilateral triangle ABE by swinging 'K
' ' s·' ' arcs. Join AE and produce it to any

=k'' ~ ~ ~
I,
·A--
-·, point F. ·On AF, choose any point H
and construct an equilateral triangle
F
(c) (d)

:' !''

1r ir
-\ FIG. 4.27. OBSTACLES TO CHAINING.
~ FHK. Join F and K and produce it

Ai o~C~ . '<;'
to D such that FD=FA. Chocse a point
G on FD and construct an equilateral triangle CDG. The direction CD is ifi range with
·the chain line [Fig. 4.27 (c)]. The length BC is given by
. F
I i E
BC =AD- AB- CD= AF- AB- CD
i
(a) (b) (c)
Method (d) : Select two points A and B on the chain line and set a line CBD
at any angle. Join A and C and produce it to F such that AF = n . AC. Similarly join
FIG. 4.26. OBSTACLES TO CHAINING. A and D and produce it to G such that AG = n. AD. Join F and G and mark point
Method (c) : Erect a perpendicular AC at A and chocse any convenient point C. E on it such that FE = n . BC. Similarly, produce AF and AG to H and K re>pectively
With the help of an optical square, fix a point D on the chain line in such a way that such that AH=n' .AC and AK=n' .AD. Join Hand K and mark· I on it in such a
BCD is a right angle [Fig. 4.26 (c)]. Measure AC and AD. Triangles ABC and DAC way that HJ = n' . CB. Join EJ, which will be in range with chain line. The obstructed
AB AC distance BE is given by ,!Fig.4.27 (d)) :
are similar. Hence Therefore, AB = AC'
AC =AD AD BE=AE-AB But AE=". AB
Method (d) : Fix poim C in such a way that it subtends 90° with AB. Range J, BE= n. AB-AB = (n- l)AB.
D in. line with AC and make AD= AC. At D. erect a perpendicular DE to cut the line
in E [Fig. 4.26 (d)]. Then AB = AE.
(c) OBSTACLES TO BOTH CHAINING AND RANGING
J Example 4.6. To continue a survey line AB past an obstacle, a line BC 200 metres
long was set out perpendicular to AB, and from C angles BCD and BCE were sec our
at 600 and 45° respectively. Detennine the lengths which must be chained off along CD
and .CE in order thai ED may be in AB produced. Also, c
A building is the typical example of this type of obstacle. The problem lies in prolonging
~I(; detemtine the obstructed length BE.
the line beyond the obstacle and detennining the distance across it. The following are :;.
some of the methods (Fig. 4.27). Solution. (Fig. 4.28).
Method (a) : Choose two points A and B to one side and erect perpendiculars AC L ABC is 90 o

and BD of equal length. Join CD and prolong it past the obstacle. Cbocse two points From t. BCD, CD = BC sec 60° = 200 x 2 = 400 m.
E and F on CD and erect perpendiculars EG and FH equal to that of AC (or BD). Join From tJ. BCE, and CE = BC sec 45° = 200 x 1.4142
GH and prolong it. Measure DE. Evidently, BG=DE [Fig. 4.27 (a)]. 90"
= 282.84 m. 0
Method (b) : Select a poim A and erect a perpendicular AC of any convenient length. A B
BE= BC tan 45° =200 x I =200 m.
Select another poim B on the chain line such that AB = AC. Join B and C and prolong FIG. 4.28
,.-
~'
104/ SURVEYING CHAIN SURVEYING

CB BE CB 60
lOS

Example 4.7. In_,passing an obstacle in the form of a B

or -=c=lJo::+-::BH== = HG + GD
06
CB+ 80 = 40 + 60 = '
pond, stations~ and D; on the main line,.,;rere take~j..,~n the
or

opposite sides of the pond. On the left of''li}r g line AK, 200 .. CB=0.6 CB+48 or C8=12 0m
m long was laid down and a second b'ne ~'·· 250 I!' long, 4.10. CROSS STAFF SURVEY
was ranged on the rig/u of AD, the points B, if and C ·being determine its
in the same straig/u line. BD and DC were then chaJ'ned and Cross staff survey is done to locate the boundaries of a field and to
through the centre of the area whicb is divided into a number
found to be 125 m and 150 m respectively. Find the length c area. A chain line is run
s.
order of their chainage
of AD. FIG. 4.29 of triangles and trapezoids. The offsets to the boundary are taken in
chain, tape, arrows and a cross staff.
Solution . (Fig. 4.29). In ll. ABC, Let L AQJ= 8 The instruments required for cross staff survey are
After the field work ~ over, the survey is plotted to a suitable scale.
AC = 250 m ; AB = 200 m ; BC = BD +DC= 125 + 150 = 275 m calculate
Example 4.10. Plot the following cross staff survey of a field ABCDEFG and
2 2 2 2
Now, s 8 = AC' + CB'- AB _ (250) + (275) - (200) = 9.813 = O 7137 its area [Fig. 4.32 (a)].
co 2 A c X CB 2 X 250 X 275 13.75 .
From tl.ADC, AD'= AC' +CD'- 2 AC. CD cos 8 750 Io
2 C
= (250) +(!50) - 2(250) (J50) X 0.7!37 = 31474.5
2 650 210 E

Hence
Example 4.8.
AD= 177.41 m.
A survey line BAC crosses a river, A and
C180l4 90l ~
I 5 : 6 l 7
C being on the near and distant banks respectively. Standing at --·.d_·--f ·-~D
D, a point 50 metres measured perpendicularly to AB from A, the
i
l~ 300 1250 F A4t·_j~~--
2 3 4 1 I
l
bearings of C and B are 320 • and 230 • respectively, AB being .~~'. 5 : -::= a tso I tso I l
25 metres. Find the widJh of the river.
., ' '' ''
'-.. ']

~
Solution. (Fig. 4.30), too ISO G
"-
In ll.ABD ,AB=2 5m; AD=50 m ~A F
25 0.5 (b)
tan LBDA = = or LBDA = 26' 34' (a)
50 B
LBDC = 320' - 230' = 90' and LADC = 90' - 26' 34' = 63' 26' FIG. 4.30 PIG. 4.32
26' =100 m the area are
Again. from ll. ADC, CA =AD tan ADC =50 tan 63' Solution. Fig 4.32 (b) sbows the field ABCDEFG. The _calculations for
and C. and
: Example 4.9. A survey line ABC cuts the banks of a river at B give11 i!! the table helow ·
set out roughly parallel ro the
ro de<emune rhe aistance BC, a line BE, 60 m long was
river. A point D was then found in CE produce d and middle point F of DB derermin ed. I S.No.l Figure Chainage Base Offseu Mean I Arra
rnr'J
1 (m) (m) (m) (m)
I
EF was then produced to G, making FG equal to EF,
line in H. GH and HB were found to be 40 and 80 metres
and DG produce d to cut the survey
I I. AjG 0 & 100 100 0 & so 2S 2.SOO

long respe~rively, :ind the distance from B to C . ~)· ::= 2. jGFm 100 & 300 200 so & 2SO !SO 30,000
Solullon. (F1g. 4.31) . \ 350 250 & 210 230 80,SOO
3. mFEP 300 & 650
In BEDG, BF = FD and GF =FE 650 & 750 100 210 & 0 lOS IO,SOO
4. pED
14.400
Hence BEDG is a parallelogram. s. ABk 0 & 180 180 0 & 160 80 '

170 52.700
Hence GD =BE= 60 m 6. BknC 180 & 490 310 160 & 180
180 & 0 90 23.400
HD =HG+ GD =40 + 60 =100m 7. CnD 490 &750 260
Total 214.000 J
From similar triangles CHD and CBE, we get
2
CB BE AI . . Area of Field= 214000 m = 21.4 hectares.
CH= HD
FIG. 4.31

~su'
106

4.11. PWTIING A CHAIN SURVEY

Generally, the scale of plotting a survey is decided before the survey is started.
In general, the scale depends on the purpose of survey, the extent of survey and the
SURVEYING
CHAIN SURVEYING

having zero mark in the mid-

dle. The zero of the long
scale is kept .in !inc '':'ith
the zero of the cham hne.
[§] rna
~ * ~
[J]
--._,___
'i

finances available. Chainages are then marked

O•m Streams and Pond
The plan must be so oriented on the sheet that the north side of the survey lies against the working edge of WalerFaU Forn

towards the top of the sheet and it is centrally placed. The way to achieve this, is to the offset scale and the offsets

~ ~rn
first plot the skeleton on a tracing paper and rotate it on the drawing paper. After having are measured along its edge.
oriented it suitably, the points may be pricked through. To begin with. base line is first Thus, the offsets can be plot- *'if.*
plotted. The other' trian- ted to both the sides of the Jf*if.
gles are then laid by in- TTTT line. )f. *'if.
--~­
Board Fence
tersection of arcs. Each Stone Fence Telt Line Different features on ~ •..
--*""~~~----
triangle must be verified (Chain Une)
Balbed Wire
f!IIQI:O: I'+»Q
the ground are represented Level Crossing Pine Tree Church
""""
by measuring the check by different symbols. Figs.
------------· Power LJne

(\.~~·~~::x~ ~
~
Haclge (Green)
~125
Pipe Railing
line on the plan and com- 4.33 and 4.34 shows some
Boundaries Fence Fence & Hedge Lines
paring it with its meas- convenJional symbols com- T.B.M_ .;.
ured length in the field. . .:·'
~
-----or::::::: monly used.
If the discrepancy is not Path Single Una
.,
within the limits. meas- -----------·
-----------·
G,T_S.
Bench Marks ~~
Unfenced Road Aetuse Heap Sand PI! Rocks
urements may be taken
again. If it is less, the
.c~ndoe TTTTI I I I
FIG. 4.34. CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS.
t
~
Fenced Road
Double Line r!
error may be adjusted
Road and Path Railway Embankmenl Cu11ing PROBLEMS
suitably.

~....
After having
~~

~~
,,•• tJ,,, ,,,,,,,,, 1. Explain the principle on which chain survey is based.
drawn the skeleton con- -li
,,,,11,,, ,,,,h,,, 2. Explain, with neat diagrams the construction and working of the following
·~•I
~ ~
b
sisting a nwnber of tri-
,,,,h,,, ,,,,,,,,,
angles, offsets may be (a) Optical square (b) Prism square (c) Cross staff. '"
plotted. There are two ~ ~ t ,,,,11,,, ·'''"''• 3. What are the insliUIDents used in chain surveying ? How is a chain survey executed in
methods of plotting the
offsets. In the first
DeciUuous Tr~s Evergreen Trees Rough Pastures Marsh lhe field ?
d. Whar is a well conditil)mll triangle ? Why is it necessary ,., use well-c:nnditioned triang:les.?
:i
methM. !he ('halmtges of ..
the offsets are marked on I WI-I ~d i 5. (a) Explain clearly the principle of chain surveying. ,i
'
the chain line and per- Hous~

"(( (b) How would you orient in direction a chain survey plot on the drawing sheet.
~";~ I
I
. . [J
pendicular to the chain
(Small Shed (c) Set out clearly the precautions a surveyor should observe in booking the field work of

I
line are erected with the 15 (A.M.l.E.)
Scale) U>ko a chain survey.
help of a set-square. In Cultivated land Buildings River, Lake Conlours 6. Illustrate any four of the following by neat line diagrams (explanation and description not
the othc. method, the required) :
~

~
plotting is done with the
help of, an offset scale. =IIH!H!HIHI=
Fairy r
0Triangulation
(a) Permaneru reference of a survey station. (b) ConsUllction and working of eilher an optical
square or a prism square. (c) Melhods of checking the triangle of a chain survey. (d) Methods
A long scale is kept par- of setting out a chain line perpendicular to a given chain line and passing through a given point
allel to the chain line and 'r------{
,... ......" I :::::2:.L: I I r,.,.,,. 8 laying outside the latter. (e) The prismatic reading arrangement in a prismatic compass.
a distance equal to half Tunnel L__J (/) Map conventional signs for a meralled road, a hedge with fence, a tram line. a house
Brfrlges C;mal Lock SlalfC"~ and a rivule<. (A.M.l.E.)
the length of the offset
scale. The offset scale 7. (a) What factors should be cons!dered in deciding the stations of a chain survey ?
coJ]si:;ts of a small scale FIG. 4.33. CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS.
108
(b) What detailed instructions would you give oo a fresh trainee surveyor regarding the care
and use of his field book for recording survey measurements?
8. Explain !he following rerms : (a) Base line (b) Check line (c) Tie line (d) Swing offset
(e) Oblique offset IJ) Random line.
SURVEYING

m
9. Explain how will you continue chaining past the following obstacles
(a) a pond (b) a river (c) a hill (d) a Ia!! building. The Compass
10. Explain Various methods for determining the width of a river.
11. Find the maximum length of an offset so that the displacement of a point on the paper
should not exceed 0.25 mm, given that the offset was laid out 3° from its true direction and the
scale was 20 m to 1 em. 5.1. INTRODUCTION
12. To what accuracy should the Qffset be measured if the angular error in laying out lhe Chain surveyn;g can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small
direction is 4° so that the maximum displacement of the point on the paper from one source of and is fairly flat. However, when large areas are involved, methods of chain surveying
error may be same as that from the other source. a/one are not sufficieii( and conveniem. In such cases, it becomes essential ro use some

~
13. Find lhe maximum length of offset so that displacement of the Point on the paper from sort of insUlllD.erit which enables arigles or direcriOris of the survey lines ro be observed.
bolb sources of error should not exceed 0.25 mm, given that the offset is measured with an accUracy In engineering practice, following are the instruments used for such measuremems :
of 1 in SO and scale is I em = 8 m.
14. Find the maximum permissible error in laying off lhe direction of offset so that the maximum
(a) Instruments for the direct measuremeJU of directions :
(i) Surveyor's Compass
i'
displacement may not exceed 0.25 mm on the paper, given that the length of the offset is 10 metres,
the scale is 20 m to. 1 em and the maximum error in the length of the offset is 0.3 m. (il) Prismatic Compass
~I(

15. A main line of a survey crosses a river about 25 m wide. To find the gap in lhe (b) Instruments for measurements of angles
line, stations A and B are established on lhe opposite banks of lhe river and a perpendicular AC.
60 m long is set out at A. If the bearings of AG and and CB are 30° and 270° respectively, (1) Sextant ·
and the chainage at A is 285.1 m, find the chainage at B. (ii) Theodolite . J . - _,.

16. A chain line ABC crosses a river, B and C being on the near and distant banks respectively. Traverse Survey. Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected
The respective bearings of C and A taken at D. a point 60 m measured at right angles to AB survey lines ·rann the framework and me directionS' and lengths of the survey line are
from B are 280° and 190°, AB being 32 m. Find the width of the river. measured with the help of an angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or l'
17. In passing an obstacle in the forin of a pond, stations A and D, on the main line, chain) respectively. ·When the lineS fonn a circuit which ends' at the starting point.· it is
were taken on the opposite sides of the pond. On the left of AD, a line AB, 225 m long was known as a closed lraverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, ·it~ is said to be an open traverse.
laid down, and a second line AC, 275 m long, was ranged on the right of AD, lhe points B, The various methods of traversing have been dealt with in detail in Chapter 1.
D and C being in the same straight line. BD and DC were then chained and found to be 125 TTnjfc: f'f A!lgle Measurement . .A.n angle is rhe difference in directions of tw0 intersecriny
m and 1~7 5 m r~ecrivel~· Finr! ~h~ '~!"!gr!"o ,...f 1n
18. (A) What are the conventional signs used to denote the following ; (1) road, (i1) railway double
line. (iii) cemetery. (iv) railway bridge, and (v) canal with lock ?
(b) Differentiate between a Gunter's chain and an Engineer's chain. State relative advantages
of each. (A.M.l.E. May. 1966)
lines. There are three popular systems of angular measurement
(a) Sexagesimal System : I Circumference
I degree
l minute
= 360°(degrees of arc)
= 60'tminures of "arc)
= 60" (second of arc)
I
19. B and C are two points on lhe opposite banks of a river along a chain line ABC which (b) Centesimal System : l circumference = 400' (grads)
crosses the river at right angles to the bank. From a point P which is 150 ft. from B along the
~·; grad = IOO' (centigrads)
baok, !he bearing of A is 215" 30' and !he beariog of C is 305° 30' If !he Ienglh AB is 200 cendgrad =100~~ (centicentigrads)
ft., find Ihe widlh of !he river. (A.M.l.E. May 1966)
circumference = 24h (hours of time)
(c) Hours System
ANSWERS hour :.: 60m (minutes of time
ll. 9.5 m 12. l in 14.3 13. 7.07 m 14 zo 18' 15. 386 m 16 112.5 m
minute = 605 (seconds of time:
17 212.9 m 19 ll2.5 ft. (109)

••
 "1R""~
,,(I"
~ III
SURVEYING THE COMPASS
110
is
The sexagesimal system is widely used in United States, Great Britain, India
and direction. The value of the bearing thus varies from oo to 360°. Prismatic compaSs
_,.';,' is measured clockwise with magnetic
available in this system and most surveying graduated on this system. In India and U.K., the W.C.B.
other pans of the world. More complete tables are _31
on north.
insrruments are graduated according to this system. However, due to facility in computati
illi

and interpolation, the centesimal system is gaining more favour in Europe. The Hours system Referring to Fig. 5.1, the W.C.B. of AB is 8 1 , of AC is 82 , of AD is 93 and
is mostly used in astronomy and navigation. of AF is a,.
(b) The Quadrantal Bearing System: (Reduced bearing)
5.2. BEARINGS AND ANGLES
each In dtis system, the bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north
The direction of a survey line can either be established (a) with relation to
will give the angle between two or south, whichever is nearer. Thus, both North N
other, or (b) with relation to any meridian. The first
of the line. and South are used as reference meridians and
lines while the second will give the bearing the directions can be either clockwise or anti- B
'l;j
Bearing. Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given ~- A meridian clockwise depending upon the position of the line.
Meridian.
is any direction· such as (I) True Meridian (2) Magnetic Meridian (3) Arbitrary In this system. therefore, the quadrant, in which
(1) True Meridian. True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane,
the line lies, will have to be mentioned. These
surface of the earth. It,
passing that point and the norlli and south poles, intersects wiih bearings are observed by Surveyor's compass.
direction of true meridian through a 01{ e
thiiS,- passes through the true north and south. The Referring Fig. 5.2, the Q.B. of the line w
point can he established by astronomi cal observatio ns. AB is a and is written as N a. E, the bearing ·
Tru~g. True hearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it
makes with being _measured with refer~!lte to _North meridian
the direction of- true Ill II
the true meridian through one of the extremitie s of the line. Since (since ·it is nearer), towards East. The bearing
point rematns fixed, the rrue bearing of a line is a constant quantity. of AC is ~ and is writt~~ as S ~ E, it being
mendtan ihiougti a
)"
(2) Magnetic Meridian. Magnetic meridian through a point is
the direction shown measured with reference of South and in an-
magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. ticlockwise direction towards East. Similarly, the c
by a freety floating and balanced
d with the help of a magnetic compass. bearings of AD and AF are respectively SaW
1ge d~rection of magnetic meridian can he establishe s
..ri
Magnetic Bearing. The magnetic hearing of a line is \l!e horizontal angle which andN~ W. FIG. 5.2 Q.B. SYSTEM. ,,..,
it makes wrth the magnetic mendran. passing through One of the extrenunes o'
·<- ' Thus, in the quadrantal system, lhe reference
affixed
A nfagnetic compass is used to measure it. meridian is prefiXed and the direction of measurement (Eastward or Westward) is
(3) Arbitrary Meridian. Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction
towards a to the numerical value of the bearing. Tbe Q.B. of a line varies from 0° to 90° . The
f
permanent and prominen t mark or signal, such as a church
postttons
spire
of
or
lines
top
in a
of a
small
chimney.
area.
bearings of this sysrem are known as Reduced
CONVERSION OF BEARINGS FROM ONE SYSTEM TO THE OTHER
Bearings. (R.B.)
i
~.,
Such mendtans are used to Cfefermine the relative
. Arbitrary Bearing. Arbilrary bearing of a The bearing of a line can be very easily converted from one system lO the other,
!b-: is t-Ile horizontal ang!e \'ihkh it !!1.akes ·.viLlt i~ with the aid of a diagram. Referring w Fig.~ 5.1, the conversion of W.C.B.
into .R.B.
an,z arbitrary· mendlan passtng throuijh onO: of the l can be expressed in the following Table : -· · -· !I
exrremities._A theodolite or1extant is used to measure
it. -
,..J;
!(~
TABLE S.t. CONVERSION OF W.C.B. INTO R.B ~

!
IV Quadram

j Une W.C.B. between Rule for R.B .

DESIGNATION OF BEARINGS .
- I
The conunon systems of notation of hearings w E
-
AB 0° and90° R.B.= W.C.B. I
I
NE
are
(a) The whole circle hearing system (W.C.B.) ,,, AC 9(1° and 180° R.B.= 180"- W.C.B.
I

I SE
1
or Azimuthal system. il ,AD 180° and 270° R.B.= W.C.B.- 180°.
SW
'

(b) The Quadrantal hearing (Q.B.) system. II ._,., NW

Ill AF 270° and 360° R.B.= 360°- W.C.B. i
(a) The Whole Circle Bearing System. (Az- : 1
'JI' '--------
imuthal system).
s ·.;t.
In this system, the hearing of a line is measured
with magnetic north (or with south) in clockwise FIG. 5.1 W.C.B. SYSTEM.
"''""'
'
\ll
 ~I'
113
SURVEYING TilE COMPASS
112
CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS
Similarly, referring to Fig. 5.2, the conversion of R.B. into W.C.B. can be expressed
int the following Table ··; Knowing the bearing of two
TABLE 5.2. CONVERSION OF R.B. INTO W.C.B.
lines, the angle between the two
can very easily be calculated with
line I R.B. Rule for W.C.B.
!
W.C.B. between the help of a diagram,
Ref. to Fig. 5.5 (a), the in
•
NaE W.C.B. = R.B. 0° and 90° cludc;d angle a. between the lines
AB
ACandAB = e,- 9 1 = F.B. of one c·
AC I S~ E W.C.B. = 180°- R.B.
90" and 180°
line- F.B. of the other line, both
A,

AD saw W .C. B. =180° + R.B. 180° and 270° bearings being measured from a
I 270° and 360° common point A, Ref. to Fig. c
AFj NoW W.C.B. = 360'- R.B.
5. 5 (b), the angle (b)
i I (a)
a= (180' +-e,}- e, =B. B. of FIG. 5.5 CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS.
FORE AND BACK BEARING previous line- F.B. of next line.
The bearing of line, whether expressed in W.C.B. sySiem or in Q.B. system, differs Let us consider the quadrantal bearing. Referring to Fig. 5.6 (a) in which both the
according as the observation is made from. one end of the line or from the other. If bearings have been measured to the same side of common meridian, the included angle
the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B. it is known as forward bearl;:;-g a.= e,- e,. In Fig. 5.6 (b), both the bearings have been measured to the opposite sides
or Fore Bearing (f. B). It the bearmg of the line Ali is measured from B towards
A,
in bacKward • B

~·
itls kiiown as backward bearing or Back Bearing (B.B.), smce it is measured

~ ¥
"
-
direction.
Considering first the W.C.B.
• c

'•
system and referring to Fig. 5.3
(a}, the back bearing of line AB
c '
is $ and fore bearing of AB is (o) (d)
1•1 (b)
e . Evidently $ = 180 • +e. Simi-
larly, from Fig. 5.3 (b), the back (a) (b) FIG. 5.6 CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS.
CD and fore bearing
of. the common meridian, and included angle a.= e, + 92 • In Fig. 5.6 (c) both the bearings
bearing of is $
FIG. 5.3 FORE AND BACK BEARINGS.
e. hence. $ = e- 180 '. Thus, in angle
have been measured to the same side of different meridi~ns and the included
general, it can be stated that
B. B.= F.b. :r: idu~, usmg ptus sign when r.D. 1s u:,),) wur1 JbV uiid itWU4,J .J'O" rvii.C.i1 l· .... - .. .:..v \."'2 ' "IJ• ......... 'b'
~ .. '..
.... ~ ,_,,

sides of differet!l meridians, and angle a.= 180 •- (e, - 9,).

~~- --
·~ ... . .. •---- -------~..>
----c- --· --··· --------•--
-~
TP·-:-~fr('

F.IJ. is greater than 18{) 6

•

Again, considering the Q.B.· system and .·-1-. CALCULATION OF BEARINGS FROM ANGLES
c In the case of a traverse in which incLuded angles between successive lines have
referring to Fig. 5.4 (a), the fore bearing of any
line AB is NeE and, therefore, the back bearing been mea>llfed, the bearings of the lines can be calculated provided the bearing of
is equal to sew. Similarly. from Fig. 5.4 (b), one line is also measured.
::·t:
the fore bearing of the line CD is sew and Referring to Fig.
back bearing is equal to NeE. Thus, it con ~... 5.7, let a..~.y.li, be
~.included angles meas- ---M- ./"I ""'- hJ_/e,
be srated thar ro conven the fore bearing to
back bearing, it is only necessary to change 0
ured clockwise from back
the cardinal poinrs by substituting N for S, srations and 9 1 be lhe meas-
ond E for W ond vice versa, the numerical ured. bearing of the line
(b) AB.
value of the bearing remaining the same. (a) FIG. 5.7. CALCULATION OF BEARINGS FROM ANGLES.
FIG. 5.4. FORE AND BACK BEARINGS.
 SURVEYING 115
ll4 THE COMPASS

The bearing of the next line BC = e, = e, + a - 180' ... (1) Axample 5.3. The following bearings were observed with a compass. Calculale the
The bearing of the next line CD = a, = a, + ~ - 180' ... (2) interior angles.
The bearing of the next line DE= a, = a, + y - 180' Line Fore Bearing
... (3) 60' 30'
The bearing of the next line EF =a,= e, + 1i + 180' AB
... (4) 122' 0'
BC
As is evident from Fig. 5.7, (a,+ a), (a,+~). and (a,+ y) are more than !80' while
CD 46° 0'
(a,+ li) is Jess than 180'. Hence in order to calculate the bearing of the next line, the 205' 30'
DE
following statement can be made : EA 300" 0'.
"Add the measured clockwise angles to the bearing of the previous line. If the Solution. Fig. 5.8 shows the plotted traverse.
sum is more than 180°1 deduct 180°. If the sum is less than 180°, add 180° ".
In a closed traverse, clockwise angles will be obtained if we proceed round the
traverse in the anti-clockwise direction. .. ,122°0'
' '
~...'205°30'
E~LES ON ANGLES AND BEARINGS '
c.A(xample 5.1. (a) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings:
(i) 22' 30' (ir) 1700 12' (iir) 211' 54' (iv) 327' 24'.
(b) Convert the following quadrantal bearing to whole circle bearings :
(i)Nl2'24'E (ir)S31'36'E (ii1)S68'6'W (iv)N5'42'W .
Solution.
(a) Ref. 10 Fig. 5.1 and Table 5.1 we have
(1) R.B.= W.C.B. = 22' 30' = N 22' 30' E.
(ir) R.B.= 180'- W. C. B . = 180'-170' 12' = S 9' 48' E.
(iii) R.B.= W. C. B.- 180' = 211' 54 -180' = S 31' 54' W.
(iv) R.B.= 360'- W.C.B. = 360'- 327' 24' = N 32' 36' W. \,Jj/
(b) Ref. 10 Fig. 5.2 and Table 5.5 we have FIG. 5.8.
(1) W.C.B.= R.B.= 12' 24' Included angle = Bearing of previous line- Bearing of next line
(ir) W.C.B.= 180'- R.B.= 180'- 31' 36' = 148' 24' LA = Bearing of AE - Bearing of AB
(iir) W.C.B.= 180' + R.B.= !80' + 68' 6' = 248' 6' = (300' - 180')- 60' 30' = 59' 30''
(iv)/ W.C.B.= 360'- R.B. = 3UO'- 5' 42' = 354' 18' -q.,. .... ;..,., ,..,; rJr

i ,....~
/D . 0".,,.;..,,.. DA

_;EXample 5.2. The following are observed fore-bearings of the lines (1) AB 12' 24' (ii) = (60' 30' + 180')- 122' = ll8' 30'.
BC 119' 48' (iir) CD 266' 30' (iv) DE 354' 18' (v) PQ N 18' 0' E (vi) QR Sl2' 24' E (vii) L C = Bearing of CB - Bearing of CD
RSS59' 18'W (viii) ST N86' 12'W. Find their back bearings. = (122' + 180')- 46' = 256'
Solution : 8.8.= F. B.± 180', using+ sign when F.B. is Jess than 180' ,and- sign LD = Bearing of DC - Bearing of DE
when it is more than 180°. = (46' + 180') - 205' 30' = 20' 30'.
(r) B.B. of AB = 12' 24' + !80' = 192' 24'. LE = Bearing of ED - Bearing of EA
(ii) B.B. of BC = 119' 48' + 180' = 299' 48' = (205' 30' - 180') - 300'+ 360' = 85' 30'
(iii) B. B. of CD= 266' 30'- 180' = 86' 30'
(iv) B.B. of DE= 354' 18' - 180' = 174' 18' Sum = 540' 00'.
(v) B.B. of PQ =S 18' 0' W Check : (2n - 4) 90' = (10 - 4) 90' = 540'.
fvl) B. B. of QR = N 12' 24' W
~xam.ple 5.4. The following interior angles were measured with a se.aanr in a closed
(vii) B.B. of RS = N 59' 18' E
traverse. The bearing of the line AB was measured as 60° 00' with prismaJic compass.
(viii) B.B. of ST = S 86' 12" E
 J
117
SURVEYING THE COMPASS
116
features are
if LA ~ 140' 10'; LB ~ 99' 8'; ;L C ~ 60" 22'; The various compasses exhibiting the above
Calculate the bearings of all other line
(l) Surveyor's compass
LD ~ 69' 20~
(2) Prismatic compass
Solution.
(3) Transit or Level Compass.
Fig. 5.9 shows the plotted ttaverse.
Earth 's Magnetic Field and Dip
To fmd the bearing of a line, add any magnet, fonns a field of magnetic
The earth acts as a powerful magnet and like
the measured clockwise angle to the bearing magnetised bar of steel or iron. lf any slender
force which exerts a directive influence on a
of the previous line. If the sum is more at its centre of gravity so that it is free to
symmetrical bar magnet is freely suspended
than 180', deduct 180'. If the sum is on parallel to the lines of magnetic force
tum in azimuth, it will align itself in a positi
less than 180', add 180'.
* ~ of the earth at that point.
Clockwise angles will he obtained
if we proceed in the anticlockwise direction f
-
. "' <u
~ C The Jines of force of earth's magnetic
field run generally from South to North
round the traverse.
(Fig. 5.10). Near the equator, they are
Starting with A and proceeding to- FIG. 5.9 parallel to the earth's surface. The horizontal
ward D, C, il etc., we have projections of the lines of force define the
Bearing of AD~ Bearing of BA + 140' 10'-
180'
magnetic meridian. The angle which these
~ (180' + 60') + 140' 10'- 180' ~ 200'
10'
lines of force make with the surface of
Bearing of DA ~ 20' 10' the earth is called the angle of dip or
Bearing of DC~ Bearing of AD + 69' 20' - 180' ( simply the dip of the needle. In elevation,
~ 200' 10' + 69' 20'- 180' = 89' 30' these lines of force (i.e. the North end
Bearing of CD.= 269' 30' of the needle), are inclined downward towards
the north in the Northern hemisphere and
Bearing of CB = Bearing of DC + 60' 22' +
180'
downward towards South in Southern hemi-
= 89' 30' + 60' 22' + 180' ~ 329' 52'
sphere. At a place near 70' North latitude
Bearing of BC = 149' 52'
and 96' West long itude , it will dip
fll&=

I
Bearin g of CB + 90' 8' - 180'
Bearing of 90'. This area is called North magnetic
~ 329' 52' + 90' 8' - 180' ~ 240' pole. A similar area in Southern hemisphere
Bearing of AB = 60' (check). is called the South magnetic pole. At any
5.3. THE THEORY OF MAGNETIC COM
PASS other place, the magnetic needle will not
Q.
pomt towaros rne Norm magneuc pou:, Uul
V)

bearings of lines. The bearings may

Magnetic compass gives directly the magnetic
either be measured in the W.C.B. system
or in Q.B. system depending upon the fonn ,I it will take a direction and dip in accordance
with the lines of force at the point. Since
FIG. 5.10. CROSS-SECTION OF EARTH'S
FIELD.
MAGNETIC
entirely independent on any other measurement. .·1
of the compass used. The bearings so measured are the lines of force are parallel to the surface
depends upon the fact lhat if a long, needle will he zero at equator and the needle
The general principle of all magnetic compass of the earth only at equator, the dip of the
and is suitably suspended or pivoted about one end of the needle will dip downwards
.
narrow strip of steel or iron is magnetised, will remain horizontal. At any other place,
te freely about the vertical axis, it will teild needle may be brought to a horizontal position.
a point near its centre so that it can oscilla By suitably weighting the high end of the
at the place of observation.
to establish itself in rbe magnetic meiidian The Magnetic needle
The most essential features of a magnetic comp
ass are : symmetrical bar of magnetised steel or
"~' The compass needle is made of a slender
(a) Magnetic needle, to establish the magn
etic meridian. ing supported on a sharp, hardened steel pivot.
iron. It is hung from a conical jewel-bear does
to sight the other end of the line. rotate both vertically and horizontally and
(b) A line of sight,
the box or to the needle, to read Before magnetisation, the needle is free to is originally pointed. When it
(c) A graduated circle, either attached to not tend to move away from any direction
in which it
etic meridian.
the directions of the lines. a definite direction of magn
is magnetised, it will dip downwards and take force tending to make
(d) A compass box to house the above parts. A small coil of brass wire is wrapped aroun
d it to balance the
be used to support the box. .·•·
Tn addition, a tripod or suitable stand can
11'
 H!
SURVEYlNG THE COMPASS H:
118
I
the needle dip. The position of the coil is
adjustable for the dip in the locality where
the compass is to be used.
Fig. 5.11 shows a typical needle in
section, which can either be a "broad needle"
~rmr

weight
-

:wr -
rJewel

Pivot
n~
N
-~· - - · I
I
ffr
tr.
or "edge bar" needle type. FIG. 5.11. THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. •I

~1!
The pivot is a sharp and hard point
and the slightest jar will break its tip or make it blunt. A lever arrangeme
nt is usually
provided for lifting the needle off its bearing when not in use, so as to prevent unnecessary
wear of the bearing with consequent increase in friction.
Requirements of a Magnetic Needle
The following are the principal requirements of a magnetic needle :
(I) The needle should be straigbt and symmetrical and the magnetic axis of the needle
16
~f:,.
with
should coincide with the geometrical axis. If not, the bearing reading will not be.
reference to the magnetic axis, and, therefore, will be wrong. However, the included angles
calculated from the observed bearings will be correct.
(2) The needle should be sensitive. It may loose its sensitivity due to (ti) loss of
polarity, (b) wear of the pivot. If the polarity has been lost, the needle should be remagnetis
The pivot can either be sharpened with the belp of very fine oil stone or it may be
completely replaced. Suitable arrangement should be provided to lifr the needle off the
pivot
ed.
l 1. Box
2. Needle
3. GradL•aled ring
4. Object vane
5. Eye vane
6. Prism
7. Prism cap
8. Glass cover
·g. Lifting pin
10. Ufting lever
11. Brake pin
12. Spring brake
13. Mirror
14. Pivot
15. Agate cap
16. Focusing stud
17. Sun glass

when not in use.

FIG. 5.12. THE PRISMATIC COMPASS.
(3) The ends of the needle should lie in the same horizontal and vertical planes
that
as those or' the pivot point. If the ends are not in the same horizontal plane as an angle which the line makes with the magnetic meridian. A triangular prism is
fitted
of the pivot point, they will be found to quiver when the needle swings, thus causing arrangeme nt for focusing to suit different eye sights.
below the eye slit, having suitable
inconvenience in reading. The prism has both horizontal and vertical faces convex.. so that a magnified image of
(4) For stability, the centre of the gravity of the needle should be as far below the ring graduation is formed. When the line of sight is also in the magnetic meridian,
The
the pivot as possible. the South end of the ring comes vertically below the horizontal face of the prism.
0° or 360° reading is. therefore, engraved on the South end of the ring, so that bearing
In addition to the above requirements of the needle, · the compass box along with
:.: :h·: ;-;-:~- .,_.~~r!"l i~ verticr!llv
01 the magm::Lil: mtuulCl.Li iS 1C"~ ..., ;: · ..... ~ .:.~ :.~~~
nthP.r acce.,.~orif'5; shouM he nf nnn-m~~t'.tic. snh!l.tanc~ so that needle is uninfluenced hv
all other attractive forces except that of the earth's.
5.4. THE PRISMATIC COMPASS
Prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable fonn of magnetic compass
which can either be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. The
main
I ~'
'%. q./ \
Angle
reqd (330")

parts of the prismatic compass are shown in Fig. 5.12.

/
---- ~-- -- ,--
--~---
As illustrated in the diagram, the magnetic needle is attached to the circular ring J ,.,.....Angle

or compass card made up of alnmioium, a non-magnetic. substance. When th~ needle

is / read (330°)
meridian and, therefore, the N and S
\
' .... -l:
on the pivot, it will orient itself in the magnetic
by the object .:s
' \
'
ends of the ring will be in this direction. The line of sight is defined
of
vane and the eye slit, both attached to the compass box. The object vane consists
the eye slit consists of a vertical slit
a vertical hair attached to a suitable frame while (b)
an
cut into the upper assembly of the prism unit, both being hinged to tke box. When (a)
object is sighted, the sigbt vanes will rotate with respect to the NS end of ring through FIG. 5.13. SYSTEM OF GRADUATION IN PRISMATIC COMPASS.
 12t
SURVEYING THE COMPASS
t20

above South end in thiS particular pos1t10n. The readings increase in clockwise direction
from 0' at South end to 90' at West end, 180' at North end and 270' at East end.
This has been clearly illustrated in Fig. 5.13 (a) and (b).
When nm in use, the object vane frame can be folded on the glass lid which covers
the top of the box. The object vane, thus presses against a bent lever which lifts the
needle off the pivot and holds it against the glass lid. By pressing knob or brake-pin
placed at the base of the -object vane, a light spring fitted inside the box can be brought
into the contact with the edge of the graduated ring to damp the oscillations of the needle
when about to take the reading. The prism can be folded over the edge of the box.
A meral cover fits over the circular box, when not in use. To sight the objects which
ar.e too high or too low to be sighted directly, a hinged mirror capable of sliding over
the object vane is provided and the objects sighted by reflection. When bright objects are
sighted, dark glasses may be . interposed into the line of sight.
The greatest advantage of prismatic compass is that both sighting the object as well
as reading circ1e can be done simultaneously without changing the position of the eye.
The circle is read at the reading at which the hair line appears to cut the graduated ring. 7. Counter weight
1. Box
Adjustment of Prismatic compass 2. Magnetic needle 8. Metal pin
The following are the adjustments usually necessary in the prisinatic compass. 3. Sight vanes 9. Circular graduated arc
./ 10. Lifting pin
(a) Station or Temporary Aqjustments: 4. Pivot
5. Jewel bearing 11. Lifting lever
(I) Centring (ii) Levelling (iii) Focusing the prism.
6. Glass top
(b) Pennanenl Adjustments. The permanent adjustments of prismatic compass are almost FIG. 5.14. THE SURVEYOR'S COMPASS.
the same as that of the surveyor's compass except that there are. no bubble rubes to be §
adju.<ted and the needle cannot be straightened. The sight vanes are generally not adjustable. bar needle freely floats over the pivot. Thus, the as~·
11
~~:!,
(See the pennanent adjusnnents of Surveyor's compass). graduated card or ring is not oriented in the magnetic
Temporary Adjustmenls meridian. as was the case in the prismatic compass.
g
Temporary adjustments are those adjustments which have to be made at every set The object vane is similar to that of prismatic compass.
up of the instrument. They comprise the following:
(I) Centring. Centring is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over the
The eye vane consists of a simple metal vane with
a fine slit. Since no prism is provided, the object
i
;~ fr ~ .. d:'h.!"'~ oh .... t •vith tl,~ 0n;~,.t ::~nrl PVP v::~rv·~
3~:;·=~- 1"'\ •• r~::::_:~· .-·-·-::~. ----r--- ·· ··-· c-·- :.::.:.:. .. ::.:. :. ..• -----·o .:.:·.: •. -- ·- :;,•··-·-••J Heao oeanng nere
and the reading is then taken against the North
fitted to engineer's theodolite. The centring is invariably done by adjusting or manipulating
end of the needle, by looking vertically thsough
the legs of the tripod. A plumb-bob may be used to judge the centring and if it is not
the top glass. Fig. 5.15 shows the plan view of
available, it may be judged by dropping a pebble from the centre of the bottom of
a surveyor's compass.
the instrument.
When the line of sight is in magnetic meridian,
(i1) Levelling. If the instrument is a hand instrument, it must be held in hand in
the North and South ends of the needle will be
such a way that graduated disc is swinging freely and appears to be level as judged from
over the 0' N and 0' S graduations of the graduated
the top edge of the case. Generally, a tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement
card. The card is graduated in quadrantal system
with the help of which the top of the box can be levelled.
having 0' at N and S ends and 90' at East and
(i1) Focusing the Prism. The prism attachment is slided up or down for focusing
West ends. Let us take the case of a line AB
till the readings are seen to be sharp and clear. which is in North-East quadrant. In order to sight
5.5. THE SURVEYOR'S COMPASS the point B, the box will have to be rotated about
Fig. 5.14 shows the essential parts of a surveyor's compass. As illustrated in the the vertical axis. In doing so, the pointer of. the
5.15. SURVEYOR'S COMPASS (PLAN).
fignse, the graduated ring is directly attached to the box, and not with needle. The edge needle remains fixed in position (pointing always FIG.
122 SURVEYING THE COMPASS iii
"
to tbe magnetic meridian) while lhe o• N
graduation of tbe card moves in a clockwise
direction. In olher words. the North end of the needle moves in the anti-clockwise direction
with relation to the o• N graduation of the card. Taking the extreme case when the line
Temporary Adjustments. Same as for prismatic compass, except for the focusing
of the prism.
Permanent Adjustments of Surveyor's Compass
a
4

~~
has a bearing of 90° in East direction, the pointer appears to move by 90° from the Permanent adjustments are those adjustments which are done only when the fundamental
relations between the parts are disturbed. They are, therefore, not required to be repeated
o• N graduation in anti-clockwise direction ; in this position, therefore, the pointer must
read the reading 90" E. Thus, on lhe graduated card, the East and West are interchanged. at every set up of the instru~ent. These consist of :
(I) Adjustment of levels. (ii) Adjustment of sight vanes.
See Fig. 5.16 (a) and (b). !U
(iii) Adjustment of needle. (vi) Adjustment of pivot point.
(1) Adjustment of levels t
Object To make the levels, when they are fitted, perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Test. Keep the bubble tube parallel to two foot screws and centre the bubble. Rotate ~
the instrument through 90° about the vertical axis, till it comes over the third foot screw
and centre the bubble. Repeat till it remain central in these two positions. When the bubble
..ll'i
is central in any of these positions, tum the insaument through 180° about vertical axis.
i
If the bubble remains central, it is in adjustment. If not, -~
~
Adjustment. Bring the bubble half way by foot screws and half by adjusting the
screws of the bubble tube.
Note. If the instrument is not fitted with the levelling head, the bubble is levelled ,--~

with the help of ball and socket arrangement, turned through 180' and tested. In case ··j
j
it needs adjustment, it is adjusted half way by the adjusting screw of the bubble tube
(a) Una of sight In (b) Line of sight towards B
and half by the ball and the socket. Generally, this adjustment is an unnecessary refinement
l
magnetiC meridian bearing N 30" E
FIG. 5.16. SYSTEM OF GRADUATIONS IN THE SURVEYOR'S COMPASS. and the levels are not provided on the instrument.
(il) Adjnstrnent of Sight Vanes
The difference between surveyor's and prismatic compass is given in Table 5.3. Object. To bring the sight vanes into a vertical plane when the instrument is levelled. '1
TABLES 5.3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURVEYOR'S AND PRISMATIC COMPASS I
Test. Level the instrument properly. Suspend a plumb line at some distance and look
llem I Prlsmolic COI!!J!liSS Surveyor's Comntus
at it. first through one of the sight vanes and then through the other.
'.II
Magnetic ! The needle is of 'broad needle' type. The needle The needle is of' edge bar ' type. The needle acts
~I
(1)
Nee tOe idoes not act as index. as the index also. Adjustment. If the vertical hair in the object vane or the slit in the eye vane is
(2) Graduated~ (1) The graduated card ring is attached with the (1) The graduated card is attached to the box and not seen parallel to the plumb line, remove the affected vane and either file the higher
Ctutl needle. The rine dot$ nm ror:ne alon~ with the !ine nnt rn rhe needle. The card rnr!lr~s l!!nnl' wirh rhP lineo ~lUI:: 01 Ult:: Oeti Ul ll~H 111 ;;uii.4bl~ paw~iu5, ....,..J.;..i o1....,; :.... ·.~ ;:;~ s.:J~.
10t Slgnt. of sight.
{it) The gradualions are in W.C.B. system, having (it) The graduations are in Q.B. system, having
(iz) Adjnstrnent of Needle
oo at South end, 90° at West. 18QG at North and oo at N and S and 90g at East and West. East and The needle is adjusted for : (a) Sensitivity, (b) Balancing the needle, (c) Straightening :i
270° at East. West are interchanged.
!
J vertically, and (d) Straightening horizontally.
(ii1) The graduations are engraved inverted. (iit) The Rraduations are engraved erect.
(a) Sensitivity. The needle may loose its sensitivity either by the loss of its magnetism
(3) Sighting (1) The object vane consists of metal vane with a (l) The object vane consists of a metal vane wilh a
vertical hair.
or by the pivot becoming blunt. To test it, level the instrument and lower the needle
Vanes vertical hair.
on its pivot. If it comes to rest quickly, it shows the sign of sluggishness. To adjust
(ii) The eye vane consisr.s of a small metal vane (ir) The eye vane consists of a metal vane with a
Iwith slit. fine slit. it find the reason, whether it is due to loss of magnetism or due to the blunt pivot.
(4) Reading (1) The reading is taken wilh the help of a prism (t) The reading is taken by directly seeing through Remagnetise the needle, if necessary. The pivot point can be sharpened with the help of
provided at the eye slit. the 1op of lhe glass. fine oil stone or can be completely replaced.
(it) S•ghtmg and readmg taking can be done (i1) Sighting and reading taking cannot be done (b) Bakzncing the needle. Due to the effect of the dip, the needle may not the
Slmultane-ouslv from one oositLOn of the observer simultaneouslv from one oosition of the observer.
balanced on its pivot. To test it, level the instrument and lower the needle on its pivot.
(5) Tripod Tripod may or may not be provided. The The instrumem cannot be used without a tripod.
instrument can be used even by holding suitably in Note the higher end, remove the compass glass and slide the counter weight towards the
hand. higher end, till it balances.
124 SURVEYING
~~I THE COMPASS
125 n
I
position so that the damage
'
vertically, a vertical is lifted automatically off the pivot and is held again in a fixed
(c) Straightening the needle vertically. If the needle is bent
swing when the needle is to the pivot cannot occur during transport.
seesaw motion of the ends will take place with its horizontal used as a simple angle
lowered on the pivot. In such a case, the needle may be taken
off the pivot and may With the circle in the clamped position, the B3 can be
telescope allows slopes to be
be suitably bent in the vertical direction so that the seesaw
motion ceases. measuring instrument. The small vertical arc alongside the
(iv)Straightening Horizontally measured within a range of ± 70%.
sharp and made of
Object. To straighten the needle so that its two ends shall lie in
the same vertical The circle has a spring mqunted sappire bearing. The pivot is
instrum ent can be adjuste d for earth's magnet ic field (i.e. for
plane as that of its centre. extremely hard metal. The
circle so that it will swing
s of the graduated dip) by moving tiny adjustment weights, thus balancing the
Test. Note the reading of both ends of the needle in different position
arc. ·horizontally in any part of the world.
hairs for approximate
constant quantity -other The small sighting telescope has 2 X magnification and stadia
If lhe difference between both end readings is always some
bent horizontally but the pivot coincides the centre of the graduations. distance measurement from a staff.
than 180°, the needle is
both in the needle as well 5.7, MAGNETIC DECLINATION
On the other hand, if the difference varies, the error may be
the needle is straight or Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between
the true meridian
as in the pivot. In order to know, in such a case, whether
any position. Revolve the tion. If the magnetic
·and the magneuc mendtan shown by me needle at
not, level the instrument and read both ends of the needle in the ume of observa
previous reading of the North meridian, declination is said
compass until the South end of the needle comes against the meridian is to the nght stde (or eastern side) of the true
end now. If the reading at the North end is the same as that of 5.19 (a)]; if it to be the left side (or western side),
end; read the North to be easrem or positiye [see Fig.
Otherwise, it is bent and
the South end in the previous position, the needle is not bent. the declination is said to be western or negative [see Fig. 5.19 (b)].
needs adjusnnent. .,.
Mariners call declination oy we name True Magnetic M.M. T.M.
pivot and bend
Adjustment. If not, note the difference. Remove the needle from the
the North end halfway towards the new position of the original
reading at the South end. ' variation.
The declination at any particular location
meridian
(T.MJ
meridian
(M.M)
Replace and repeat till correct.
can be obtained by establishing a true meridian
(v) Adjustm ent of the Pivot from astronomical observations and then read-
graduated circle.
Object, To bring the pivot point exactly in the centre of the ing the compass while sighting along the
the North o•
Test aiUl Adjustment. (I) Bring the North end of the needle against true meridian.
end of the needle. If it does Isogonic line is the line drawn through
mark of the graduated circle. Note the reading of the South (b) Declination west
in a direction at right the points of same declination. The distribution (a) Declination east
not read 0°, correct the error ·by bending the pivot pin slightly
zeros. • of earth's magnetism is not• regular and con-
angles to the line between the North and South F1G. 5.19. MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
(2) Bring the North end of the needle exactly against 90• mark.
and note the reading sequently, the isogonic lines do not fonn 'Com-
th~;" hP-nrlin~ t~P. .:--ivnr • ~''*" :'"""t ,.;'!""'"'(' ~ut r~rti~tiT10 frnm thP
Nnrth ~nrl ~nuth ma£metic reg-ions thev follow
a~ainst the South Pnrl. Tf it <inP:.~ nnt rP~rl <mo rnrrPrr
PrTnr h,,
a zero declination.
two 90°. marks. Repeat (I) irregular paths. Agonic line is the line made up of points having
pin in a direction at right angles to the line between the remains constant
Variations in Declination : The value of declination at a place never
and (2) until the readings for the opposite ends of the needle
the needle.
5.6. WILD B3 PRECISION COMPASS
agree for any position of
1 bm changes from time to time. There are four types of
(a) Diurnal variation (b) Annual variation (c) Secular variatio
variations in declinat
n (d) Irregular variation.
the systematic
ion

It is a precision compass (a) Diurnal Variation : The diurnal variation or daily variation is
Fig. 5.18 shows the photograph of Wild B3 tripod compass. departure of the declination from its mean value during a period
of 24 hours. It generally
er a small, light weight survey
for simple, rapid surveys. It is particularly valuable whenev d varies with the phase of the sunspot period. The difference in declination between morning
pivot system, the balance
instrument is required. It derives its precision from the" fine and afternoon is often as much as 10' of arc. The extent of daily
variations depend upon
circle and the strong magnet.
and circular bubble the following factors:
The B3 is set up on a tripod and levelled with foot screws the (1) The Locality : More at magnetic poles and less at equator
.
the magnet brings
like other surveying instruments. On pulling out the circular clamp, target (il) Season of the year : Considerably more in summer than in
winter.
magnetic bearing to the
zero graduation of the circle to magnetic north, and the (iii) Time: More in day and less in night. The rate of variatio
n during 24 hours
has been taken, the circle
can be read to 0.1 •. On releasing the· clamp, after the reading is variable.

;<'c'
 ~-·-
·SURVEYING
126
....£xampl e 5.7. In an old map, a line AB was drawn to a magnetic bearing
of
(iv) The amount of daily variation changes from year to year. r magnetic bearing should
(b) Annual Variation
s• 30' the magnetic declination at the time being East. To what
the line be set now if the present magnetic declination is 30' East.a·
The variation which has a yearly period is known as annual variation. The declination
has a yearly swing of about 1' or 2' in amplitude. It varies from place to place. Solution
True bearing of the line = 5" 30' + I" = 6" 30'
(c) Secular Variation
Due to its magnitude, secular variation is the most important in the work of surveyor. Present declination = + s• 30:. (East)
It appears to he of periodic 'haracter and follows a roller-coaster (sine-<:urve) pattern.
It Now, True hearing= Magnetic hearing + s• 30'
For a given place, the compass needle after moving continuous ly
swings like a, pendu1um. :. Magnetic hearing= True hearing - 8" 30'
for a period of years in one direction with respect to the true North, gradually
comes = 6° 30'- go 30' =- 2° (i.e. 2° in the anti-clockwise direction)
direction. Secular change from year
to a stand still and then begins to move in opposite J = 358".
and is different for different places. Its period
to year is not uniform for any given locality
to ~xample 5.8. if the magnetic bearing of
Find the magnetic declination at a place
is approximately 250 years. In Paris, the records show a range from 11• E in 16BO the sun at noon is (a) 184 • (b) 350" 20~
22" W in I820. This magnitude of secular variation is very great, it is very important
Solution. (a) AI noon, the sun is exactly on the geographical meridian. Hence. the
in the work of the . surveyor, and unless otherwi§e specified, it is the change commonly to the
true hearing of the sun at noon is zero or lBO" depending upon whether it is
referred to. of the place. Since the magnetic hearing of the sun
North of the place or to the South
·(d) Irregular Variation 180".
earthq~kes is 184", the true hearing will be
The irregular variations are due to what are known as 'magtfetic storms'.
Now True bearing = Magnetic hearing + Declination
and other solar influences. They may occur at' any time and cannot be predicredc Change
of lhis kind amounting to more than a degree have been observed. 180° = 184° + Declination
Dete~ation of True Bearing. or Declination = - 4° = 4° W
(b) Since the magnetic hearing of the sun is 350" 20', it is at the Norrh of
the
All important surveys are plotted with reference to uue meridian, since lhe direction be 360".
place and hence the true hearing of the sun, which is on the meridian, will
of magnetic ·meridian at a place changes with time. If however, the magnetic declination
at a place, at the time of observation is known, the true hearing can he calculated from Now, True bearing = Magnetic hearing + Declination
the observed magnetic hearing by the following relation (Fig. 5.19): 360° = 350° 20' +Declination
Tru: bearing bearing + declinaqon.
= magnetic or Declination= 360" - 350" 20' = 9" 40' = 9" 40' E.
Use plus sign if the declination is to the EaSt and minus sign if it is to the West. 5.8. LOCAL ATTRA~TION
The above rule is valid for whole circle hearings only. If however. a reduced hearing A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle which is uninfluenced
bas --~- ,o~~erv__~· ~ is alway~ ~dvisable ,.to ~aw ~~~~~~ram""' ~d. ~~alculat~' ~i~~.', by other attracting forces. However. sometimes. the magnetic needle may be attracted
and
•
~-~P·~ .., . .., . . ,.~ ··-o··~··- . . _.. ,, ..6 .. ••••- . . . . .., -· '--·--·-·<- .!.~ ··-" :.J6uJ,,.b
prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian when it is in proximity to certain
l
"J

if the magnetic declination is 5° 38' Easr. magnetic subsrances. Local attraction is a tenn used to denote cury influence, such as the
Solution. Declination= + 5" 38' M.M.. •I>T.M.
:l above, which prevents the needle from pointing ro the magnetic North in a grven localiry.
+ 5• 38' =54" 02'~ Some of the sources of local attraction are : magnetite in the grourid, wire carrying electric
: True hearing= 48" 24'
current, steel strucrures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles,
--{xamp le 5.6. The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S metal buttons, axes, chains, steel tapes etc., which may he lying on the ground
nearby.
28 • 30' E. Calculate the true bearing if the declination is 7 • 30' ··I'
:; Detection of Local Attraction . The local attraction at a particular place can he
West. detected by observing the fore and back bearings of each line and finding its difference.
Solution. The positions of true meridian, magnetic meridian .>t If the difference between fore and back bearing is lBO", it may he taken that both
the
and the line have been shown in Fig. 5.20. Since the declination stations are free from local attraction, provided there are no observational and instrumental
j•'-
is to he West, the magnetic meridian will be to the West of errors. If the difference is other than ISO•, the fore hearing should be measured
again
true meridian. ---~;.;; B
from the articles on
'Oe?J.~ to find out whether the discrepancy is due to avoidable attraction
Hence, true heariog = S 28" 30' E + 7 • 30'. person, chains, tapes etc. It me difference still remains, the local attraction exists at one
= S 36• 00' E. FIG. 5.20. or both the stations. ·

~I
.$1
T 129
~
~
128 SURVEYING THE COMPASS
it will be noticed that
le auraction due Solution. On exammmg the observed bearings of the lines.
Strictly speaking, the temz local mtraction does not include avoidab is exactly 180'. Hence both
rhe place where rhe difference between back and fore bearings of the line DE
ro things abour the person or ro other sources nor connected wirh bearings measured at these
needle is· read. statio.ns D and E are free from local attraction and all other
stations are also correct. Thus, the observed bearing of DC
(i.e 209' 10') is correct. The
n at a station, all the
Elimination of Local Attraction. If there is local attractio
bearings measured at that place will be incorrect and the amount
of error will be equal correct bearing of CD will, therefore, be 209' 10 •- 180' = 29 '
10' while the observed bearing "I
in all the bearings. There are two methods for eliminat ing the effects of local attraction. is 29 o 45'. The error at C is ~erefore + 35' and a correct
ion- 35' must be applied to :t.
of CB thus becom es 277'
First Method. In this method, the bearings of the lines
are calculated on the basis all the bearing s measu red at C. The correct bearing s (~
The observed bearing of BC ;i
of the bearing of that line which has a differen ce of 180 ' in its fore and back bearings. 5' - 35' = 276' 30' and that of BC as 276' 30' - 180 ' = 96' 30'.
of - 25' must be applied
It is, however, assumed that there are no observational and other
instrumental errors. The is 96' 55' . Hence the error at B is + 25' and a correction '.·f;

of the affected station is correc t bearin g of BA thus becom es

amount and direction of 'error due ro local attraction at each to all the bearin gs measu red at B. The
the two bearings differ by 180 ', the of AB as 225' 45'-18 0' = 45' 45' which is the same as
found. If. however, there is no such line in which 226' !0'- 25' = 225' 45', and that \··
that line in which attraction.
corrections should be made from the mean value of the bearing of the observed one. Station A is, therefore, free from local
there is least discrepancy between the back sight and fore sight reading s.
The results mav be tabulated as under · [
'
!
If the bearings are expressed in quadrantal sysrem,
in proper direction. In 1st and 3rd quadran
in
ts,
anti·clo
the.
ckwise
numeric
the
al
directio
correcti

n
value
in
ons

2nd
of
and
must
bearing
4th
be applied
s increase
quadrants.
Une Observed bearing Comclion Corrected bearing Remarks
ll1
in clockwise direction while they increase 0 a1 A 45° 45'
ons counter~ clockwis e. AB 45° 45'
Positive corrections are applied clockwise and negative correct( -25'atB 225° 45' i'
Examples 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11 completely illustrate the procedu
corrections by the first method.
re for applying the
;<
BA
BC
226° 10'

96° 55' -25'aiB 96° 30' B and

S~a-1ions
C are affeqed
r
on the fact that though
Secood Method. This is more a general method and is based CB 217° 5' -3S'atC 276° 30' by local auraction
ar a station may be incorrec t due to local attractio n, lhe included
the bearings measured 29° 45' - 35'at C 29 ° 10'
amount of error is the same CD I
angle calculated from the bearings will be correct since the
angles between the lines are 0 atD 209 ° 10'
for all the bearings measured at the station. The included DC 209° 10'
closed one, the sum of the internal included
calculated at all the stations. If the traverse is a DE 324° 48' 0 a1D 324° 48'
If there is any discrepa ncy in this, observa tional and
angles must be (2n- 4) right angles.
instrumental errors also exist. Such error is distribu ted equally to all the angles. Proceed ing ED 144° 48' 0 atE 144° 48' '!
now with the line, the bearing s of which
are calculated, as illustrated in example 5.12.
differ by 180', the bearings of all other lines
Example 5.10. Apply rhe corrections if the bearings of rhe
measured in the quadrantal system as under :
previous example are
.j.•
Special case : Special case of loca! attraction may arise when
Y.'e find no line which I ;; ... ., R R.
': .. ~
-- ·-
~D D D
""
~
usuv m us rore ano oacK oeanngs . Jn that case select the line in
nas a daterence or N 45' 45' E j CD N29'4 5'E S 29' JO'W
to 180'. The mean value AB S 46' IO'W
which the difference in its fore and back bearings is closest
·t· N35' 12'W S 35' 12'E
I
·~
on to both the fore and ;.
N82'5 5'W DE
of the bearing of that line is found by applying half the correcti ! ;
.-.-
BC S83'0 5'E
,,
back bearings of that line
back bearings of that line, thus obtaining the modi/ied fore
and and E are free from
Solution By inspection of the observed bearings, stations D
differing exactly by 180'. Proceeding with the modifie
bearings of other lines are found. See example 5.13
d

Example 5.9. The following bearings were observed while traversi

for
bearings
illustrat
ng wirh a compass.
of
ion.
that line, corrected

~t·
~-
l i
.
local attraction and hence bearings of ED, DE and
CD will, therefore, be N 29 ' 10' E. Since
the magnetic needle at C is deflected by
the
35'
DC
observed
towards
are correct.
bearing
West.
of
The
The correct bearing of
CD is N 29 '45' E,
corrected bearings of
I ~l
~
line F. B. B. B. Line F. B. B.B. CB will, therefore, be N 82' 55' W + 35' = N 83' 30' W.
,.E
observed bearing of BC
The corrected bearing of BC will be S 83' 30' E. Since the
,• ~
AB 45' 45' 226' 10' CD 29° 45' 209' 10' f;
Hence the corrected bearing
is S 83° 05' E, the needle at B is deflected by .25' towards East.
~: l.
277 ° 5' DE 324' 48' 144° 48'
,..
BC 96° 55'
g of line AB will beN
of BA will be S46' lO'W- 25'oiS 45'45' W. The bearin
e the corrected A is, therefore. not affec[ed
Mention which stations were affected by local auraction and determin :0.1.· 45o 45' E. which is the same as the observed one. Station
(U.B.) 1
bearings. by local attraction.
~

'
rr SURVEYING THE COMPASS
131

Example 5.11. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse:
~pie 5.12. The folhlwing are bearings tak8n on a closed compass traverse
B.B.
Une F. B.
Une F.B. B.B. 80. 10' 259. 0'
AB·
AB 75" 5' 254. 20' '120. 20' 301 • 50'
BC
115" 20' 2fJ6" 35' 170. 50' 350. 50'
BC CD
230. 10' 49. 30'
CD 1QZ}5' 345" 35' DE
310. 20' 130"15'
DE E4 ·50' ,44 ° 5' 4.4
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the
304. 50' 125" 5'
EA observed bearing of the line CD to be correct adjust the bearing of the remaining sides.
At what stations do you suspect the local OJtraaion ? Deiermine- the correct magnetic Solution. LA= Bearing of AE- Bearing of AB = no• 15'- so• 10' = so• 5'
bearings. q declination was 5" 10' E, what are the true bearings ? LB =Bearing of BA - sOaring. of BC-, = 259"- 120" 20' = !3S" 40'
Solution. LC=Bearing of CB- Bearing of CD =301"50'-17 0"50'= 131"0'
By inspection of the observed bearings it will be noticed that stations C and D LD = Bearing of DC- Bearing of DE = 350" 50'- 230" 10' = 120" 40'
are free from local 'attractions since the B.B. and F.B. of CD differ by ISO". All the
LE =Bearing of ED- Bearing of EA = 49" 30'- 310" 20' + 360" = 99" 10'
bearings measured at C and D are, therefore, correct. Thus, the observed bearing of CB
(i.e. 296" 35') is correct. The correct bearing of BC will be 296" 35' - ISO"= 116" 35'. Since LA+ LB + LC + LD + LE =50" 5' + 13S" 40' + 131" 0' + 120" 40' + 99" 10' = 539" 35'
the observed bearing of BC is 115" 20', a correction of+ J• 15' will have to be applied to Theoretical sum = (2n - 4) 90 • = 540 •
the bearing of BA measured at B. Thus, the correct bearing of BA becomes 254" 20' + I" 15' Error= - 25'
= 255" 35'. The correct bearing of AB will, therefore, be 255" 35' -ISO • = 75" 35'. Since HencF a correction of + 5' is applied to all the angles. The corrected angles are:
the observed bearing of AB is 75" 5' a correction of+ 30' will be have to be applied LA= 50" 10'; LB = !3S" 45'; LC=l31" 5'; LD = 120" 45' and LE = 99 • 15'
to the bearing of AE measured at A. Thus, correct bearing of AE becomes 125" 5' + 30' Starting with the corrected bearing of CD, all other bearings can be calculated as under:
= 125" 35'. The corrected bearing of EA will be 125" 35' +ISO"= 305" 35'. Since the observed Bearing of DE= Bearing of DC- LD = 350" 50' - 120" 45 = 230" 5'
bearing of EA is 304• 50', a correction of + 45' will have to be applied to the bearing :. Bearing of ED= 230" 5' - ISO • = so• s·
of ED measured at E. The correct bearing of ED will thus be 44" 5' + 45' = 44" 50' Bearing of EA =Bearing of ED - LE = so• 5' - 99" 15' + 360" = 310" 50'
The correct bearing of DE will be 44" 50''+ ISO"= 224" 50', which is the same. as the .. Bearing of AE= 310" 50'- ISO"= 130" 50'
observed one, since the station D is not affected by local attraction. Bearing of AB =Bearing of AE - LA = 130" 50' - so• 10' = so• 40'
Thus, results may be tabulated as given below. Since the magnetic declination is
Bearin• of BA = so• 40' + ISO" = 260" 40'
+ 5° 10' E. the true bearin11:s of the· lines will be obtained hv addinP _'l 10' tn r:onP.creci
0

, Bearing of BC, = Bearing of BA - LB = 260• 40' - !3S• 45' = 121" 55'

magnetic bearings
U/U

AB
Obserred
bearinr
75° 5'
Co medon

+30'atA
Co meted
bearinP
75° 35'
True
bearim!
80° 45'
Renuuks
I
'
:. Bearing of CJ! = 121" 55 + 1so• = 301" 55'
Bearing of CD= Bearing of CB- LC = 301" 55'- 131" 5' = 170 • 50'
:. ~g of DC= 170 • 50' + ISO • = 350 • 50'. (Check)
BA 254° 20' +l l5'atB
0 255° 35' 260° 45' ~pie 5.13. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse.
BC 115° 20' + 1° IS' at B 116" 35' 121° 45' B. B.
Stations A , 8 and E are affected by Line F. B.
CB 296° 35' 0 a[ C 296° 35' 301° 45'
local attraction AfJ 71"05' 250"20'
CD 165° 35' 0 at C 165" 35' 170° 45'
BC 110"20' 292"35'
DC 345° 35' 0 atD 345° 35' 350° 45'
CD 161"35' 341"45'
DE 224° 50' OatD 224° 50' 230° 0'
44° 50' 50° 0' DE 220"50~ 40"05'
ED 44° 5' +45'atE
304° 50' +45'atE 305° 35' 3l0° 45' EA 300"50' 121"10'
EA
AE 125° 5' +30'aiA 125° 35' 130° 45' Detennine tfle correct magnetic bearings of the lines.
 ~i
i·' t33
t32 SURVEYJNG THE COMPASS

Solution LABC = 140"0' - 15' = 139"45'

By inspection. we find !hat lnere is no line whose F.B. and B.B. differ exactly LBCD = 131 "0'- 15' = 130"45'
by 180". However, the F.B. and B.B. of line CD differ by 180"10', the difference being LCDE = !20"55'- 15' = 120"40'
only + 10'. Hence the correct F.B. of CD is obtained by adding half the difference. LDEA = 99"15'- 15' = 99"00'
LEAB = 50"05' - 15' = 49"50'

sum = 540"00'
The corrected bearings of all the lines are obtained from the included angles and
the corrected bearing of CD.
Corrected F.B. of DE= 341"40' -120"40' = 221"00'
B. B. of DE= 221"00'- 180" = 41" 00'
F.B. of EA = 41"00' + 261" = 302"00'
B.B. of EA = 302"00'- 180" = 122" 00'
F.B. of AB = 122"00'- 49"50' = 72"10'
B.B. of AB = 72"10' + !80" = 252"10'

E'• F.B. of BC = 252"10'- 139"45' = 112"25'

' B. B. of BC = 112"25' + 180" = 292"25'
300~50' I
F.B. of CD = 292"25' - 130"45' = !61 "40' (check)
5.9. ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY
FIG. 5.21 The errors may be classified as :
Hence corrected F. B. of CD= 161"35' + 5.' = 161"40' (a) Instrumental errors :
and corrected B. B. of CD= 341 "45'- 5' = 341"40' (b) Personal errors
(c) Errors due to natural causes.
(a) Instrumental errors. They are those which arise due to the faulty adjusonents
Difference = 180°0'
-~ l!.J.L ~nstllliKn:.;. ~: -~·· "'~ "'·~~ M •"'"' f"""'·";:'_:
L..itBL = 250- 21J - uu- i.v· = l.ttv- u·
(I) The needle not being perfectly straight.
LBCD = 292"35' -161"35' = 131"0'
LCDE = 341 "45'- 220"50' = I20"55'
LDEA = 300"50' - 40"05' = 260"45' (Exterior)
1 (2)
(3)
(4)
Pivot being bent.
Sluggish needle.
Blunt pivot point.
= 99"15' (Interior) _l (5) Improper balancing weight.
LEAB = 121"10' -71"5' = 50"5' f (6)
(7)
Plane of sight not being vertical.
Line of sight not passing through the centres of the right.
Sum =541"15' (b) Personal errors. They may be due to the following reasons:
Theoretical sum= (2N- 4) 90" = 540° (I) Inaccurate levelling of the compass box.
Error= 541"15'- 540" = 1"15' (2) Inaccurate centring.
:.Correction for each angle=- 15' (3) Inaccurate bisection of signals.
Hence the corrected angles are (4) Carelessness in reading and recording.
 ,.,.
THE COMPASS
l
134 SURVEYING
i·l
B. B. line F. B. B.B

il
line F. B.
(c) Natural errors. They may he due to the following reasons: ClJ 310° 30' 135u 15"
AB 124° 30' 304° 30'
(I) Variation in declination.
BC 68' 15' 246' 0' I DA 200° 15' 17° 45' c\"l
"I
(2) Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces. :1,
At what stations do you suspect local attraction ? Find the correct bearings of lhe lines and
(3) Magnetic changes in the annosphere due to douds and storms. also compute the included angles. i!
(4) lrregolar variations due to magnetic storms etc. 12. The following fore and back bearings were observed in traversing with a "compass in :ti
place where local attraction was suspected.
Line F.B. B.S. Une F. B.
CD
B.B
25° 45' 207° 15'
I''·
AB 38° 30' 219° 15' ' ~.
BC 100° 45' 278° 30' I DE
Find the corrected fore and back bearings and the true bearing of each of the lines given
thai the magnetic declination was 10° W.
325° 15' 145° 15'
,,
. !.'
[

PROBLEMS n
13. The following are the bearings taken on a closed compass traverse: l
B.B. line F.B. B.B
1. Explain, with the help of neat sketch, the graduations of a prismatic compass and a surveyor's Line F.B. • ~l

compass. AB s 37° 30' E N 37~30' w I DE N 12 ° 45' E s 13° 15' w .,

·'
2. Give, in a tabular form, the difference between prismatic compass and surveyor's compass. BC S43°15'W N44°15'E EA N60°00'E S59°00'W ·•·, •.

3. What are the sources of errors in compass survey and what precautions will you take CD N 73° 00' W S no 15' E
to eliminate them ? . '
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the observed
4. What is local attraction ? How is it detected and eliminated? bearing ·of the line AB to be correct, adjust the bearing of the remaining sides.
5. Define the terms : True and magnetic bearing, local attraction, back bearings and magnetic / 14. (a) Derive rules to calculate reduced bearing from whole circle bearing for all lhe quadrants.
declioation. (A.M.I.E.)
(b) The following bearings were observed with a compass
6. Detennine the values of included angles in the closed compass traverse ABCD conducted
AB 74° 0' BA 254° 0'
in the cloc~ direction, given the following fore bearings of their respective lines : l·~
BC 91° 0' CB 271° 0'
line F.B.
40" CD DC 343°0'
f!
AB 166° 0' ~1
",-j
BC 70" DE 117°0' ED oo 0'
~i
ClJ 210° EA 189° 0' AE 9° 0' ;'.i
l.j
Where do you suspect the local attraction ? Find lhe correct bearings.
Apply !he check.
DA
(U.B.)
280"
1
7. The following angles were observed in clockwiSe direction in an open uaverse
,_,:...--·:....- . . . ~
... """~'li'"F"R~
'I
",
.,
.IV o "-'-'~.JJ.:.....;. 1V~ VI L..IJ.i...1 - ;,:;, .:;, I "TJ •

I
"-rU,''-'- i ....... i.,l o "-U'-'I.J- hiV

Magnetic bearing of !he line AB was 241' 30'. What would be !he bearing of line FG ? ~i
ill
(G.U.)
6. LA== 60°; LB== 150°; LC=40°; LD= 110°; sum ==360° ~
8. In an old survey made when the declination was 4° W, the magnetic bearing of a given "
line was ·210°. The declination iD the same locality is now 10° E What are the true and pres_ent
(U.B.J
7. 35° 35'
=196' 0'.
~
magnetic bearings of the tine? 8. T.B. =206' 0'; M.B.
"~
9. The magnetic bearing of line as observed by the prismatic compass at a survey station 9. 262' .~
is found to be 272°. If the local attraction at this station is known to be 5° E and the declination ;.·
(P.U.) 10. (b) 4' 45' E
is 15' West, what is the nue bearing of !he line? M

10. (a) What is back bearing and what are the advantages of observing it in a traverse ? 11. Stations C and D. ~
line F. B. B.B. Line F. B. B.B ~
(b) At a place !he bearing of sun is measured at local noon and found to be 175' 15'. What
304° 30'
I
ClJ 312° 4.5' 132° 45' '~!
AB 124° 30'
is the magnitude_ and direction of magnetic declination of the place ? I 17,0 45' ~
(c) Show ""··bf a neat diagram the graduations on the circle of a prismatic compass.
BC 68° 15" 248° 15' I DA 197°45' !i
'
LA=106'45'; LB=123'45'; LC=64'30'; LD=65'. ~!
11. The following bearings were taken in running a compass traverse
 i• -~)
' m
Ul
lliii
SURVEYING
136
il
(Note : Take F.B. of CD= 310• 30')
12. Lli1e F.8. 8.8. True F.B
A8 38" 30' 218" 30' 28" 30'
8C tOO" o· 280" 0' 90" 0'

The Theodolite
CD 27" 15' 207" 15' 17" 15'

DE 325" 15' 145" IS' 315° 15'

13. Summation error= +1"15' .

Llire F.8. 8.8. Line F. B. 8.8 ,.f·
s 43" 30' w N 43° 30' E I' DE N 11"45'E Sll"45' W t
BC
CD N 73" 30' W s 73° 30' E I EA N 58" 45' E s 58" 45' w 6.1. GENERAL
ment of horizontal
The Theodolite is the most precise instrument designed for the measure
14. (b) A8 74" 0' 8A 254" 0'
applicability in surveyin g such as laying off horizontal
and vertical angles and has wide
91 .. o· 271° 0' determi ning difference
angles, locating points on line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades.
8C CB
CD 166" 0' DC 346" 0'
in elevation, setting out curves etc.
ED 0" 0' ·~
DE 180" 0'
Theodolites may he classified as : :I
9" 0' ~j
EA 189" 0' AE
(1) Transit theodolite. ~
'-:i (ii) Non-transit theodolite.
line of sight can be
A transit theodolite (or simply 'transit') is one is which the --~,.
The non-tran sit theodolites
reversed by revolving the telescope through 180" in the vertical plane.

I
e cannot be transited.
are either plain theodolites or Y-theodolites in which the telescop
now become obsolete .
The rransir is mainly used and non-transit theodolites have
6.2. THE ESSENTIALS OF THE TRANSIT THEODOLITE
te while Fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.1. and 6.2 show diagrammatic sections of a vernier theodoli

I
of the followin g essential
shows the photograph of a vernier theodolite. A transit consists
parts (Ref. Figs. 6.1 and 6.2) :
(i) The Telescope. The telescope (I) is an integral part
of the theodolite and is
or tnmnion axis (2). The telescope may
mounted on a spindle known as horizontal axis
focusing type. In most of the transits, and internal
be internal focusing cype or external ~
focusing telescope is used.
graduated arc attached to ~
(ii) The Vertical Circle. The vertical circle is a circular .j
rotates with the telescope
.~: the trunnion axis of the telescope. Consequently the graduated arc
of vertical circle clamp
~
._._:r-: when the latter is turned about the horizontal axis. By means J
screw (25), the telescope can be set
..'t·
(24) and its corresponding slow motion or .angent j
plane. The circle is either graduate d continuously
;:;
·_!., accurately at any desired position in vertical
~.<'
se direction or it is divided into four quadran ts (Fig. 6.11).
from 0° to 360 o in clockwi
(iii) The Index Frame (or T-Frame or Vernier Frame)
. The index frame (3) is .i
J
-tE· a T-shaped frame consisting of a vertical leg known as clipping arm (28) and a horizontal
or index ann (29). At the two extremi ties of the index arm
bar known as vernier arm
is cenrered on the trunnion
are fitted rwo verniers to read the vertical circle. The index arm
:::_,
When the telescope is moved in
'-':..,
axis in front of the vertical circle and remains fixed.
(137)

'•-"
 163
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
162

(2) Loose the upper clamp and rotate

D
0
lhe telescope clockWise to sight Q. Bisect
'f, "", C ,,~ Q accurately by using upper tangent screw.

,. •
\ cr-,'
o: ! 1 /' :
Read vernier A which gives the magnetic
•:,--1/ B
', I
1o , • c., cL'.." bearing of the line PQ.
! I1 . ! (3) With both the clamps ci3Jllped.
,. I! ::-, :"' "•
,_.-
<:~~!R'-~· move the insmunent and set up ar Q.
,. ~
?., ..
!', \
Using lower clamp and tangt!ru screw, lp R
',.
'',~ .1 .. / take a back sight on P. See that the
reading on· rhe vernier A is still the same
A
"
u:
' D
I as the bearing of PQ.
HG. 7.2.
{a) {b) (4) Transit the telescope. The line
of sight will now he in the direction of
FIG. '!.1. PQ while the instrument reads the bearing of PQ. The instrument is, therefore, oriented.
fixed by external measurements such as at station 8 [Fig. 7.1 (a) and 7.1 (b)]. Fig. 1.1 (5) Using the upper clamp and tangent screw, take a foresight on R. Read vernier
CbJ shows an open t.:hain travers~. A which gives the magnetic hearing of QR.
The method io; unsuitable tbr accurate work and is gerierally not used if an angle (6) Continue the process at other stations.
measuring 1nsrrwnenr such as a_ compass. sex.tant, or theodolite is available. It is to he noted here that the telescope will he normal at one station and inverted·
-·~

7.3. CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING: FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE METHOD "f at the next station. The method is, therefore, suitable only if the instrument is in adjusonem.
In .:ham and wmpass 1raversing. lhe magnc1ic bearings of tht:" survey lines art" measured (ii) Direct Method Without Transiting
by l1 compass and tbr.:: lengths of the lint's are· measured either with a chain or with a Procedure (Fig. 7 .2) :
rape. The direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. (I) Set the instrument at P and orient the line of sight in the magnetic meridian.
Tht: mC"Lhod is also known as free or loose needle method. A theodolite fitted with a 1,2) Using upper clamp and tangent screw rake a foresight 011 Q. The! reading on
L:ompass may :..tlso be us~.:d. for measuring the magnetic bearings of th!! traverse lim: {see ~Jerni~r A gives the magnetic bearing of PQ.
§ 6.7). However. the method is not so accurate as that of transit tape traversing. The (3) With both plates clamped, move the insmunent and set it a1 Q. Take a backsight
methods of taking tht: <lt::rails ar~ almost tht:: same as for chain surveying. on P. Check the reading on vernier A which should he the same as heforo. The line
7.4. TRAVERSING BY FAST NEEDLE METHOD of sight is out of orientation by 180 '.
In this method also, the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a (4) Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight
~b.eodoll~c- th;.;d '.Vlih :.! .;(.;i1liJJ.::i::.. Iruw~v;;;l, i..h;,; jir;;;..:liuu ;.;f ~h~ Ho;.o_s~.::li ... til;.:i'iJi;.o;,~ :~ JWL on R. Read the vernier. Since the orientation .at Q is 180" out. a correction of 180" is
established at each station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured · to be applied to the vernier reading to get ·the correct bearing of QR. Add 180' if the
with reference so the direction of magnetic meridian established at the firsr sralion. The reading on the vernier is less than 180° and ·subtract 180° if it is more than 180°.
method is, therefore. more accurate than the loose needle method. The lengths of the lines (5) Shift the instrument of R and take backsight on Q. The orientation at R will
are measured with a 20 m or 30 m steel tape. There are three methods of observing · be out by 180' with respect to that at Q and 360' with respect to that at P. Thus.
the hearings of lines by fast needle method. ·
·~·,
after taking a foresight o~ the next station; the vernier reading will directly give magnetic
(i) Direct melhod with transiting. bearing of the next line, without applying any correction of 180'.
(il) Direcl method without cransiting. The application of 180' correction is. therefore, necessary only ar 2nd. 4th. 6th station.
(iii) Back hearing method.
occupied. lnstead of applying correction at even station. opposite vernier may be read alternatively.
(i) Direct Method with Transiting i.e.. vernier A ar P, vernier B at Q, verniers A at R, etc. However, it is always convenient
Procedure : (Fig. 7.2) to read one vernier throughout and apply the correction at alternate stations.
(!) Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the vernier A exac4y to zero reading. (iii) Back Bearing Method
Loose the clamp of the magnetic needle. Using lower clamp and tangent screw. point Procedure (Fig. 7.2) : .
·the telescope to magnetic meridian. (I) Set the instrument at P and measure the magnetic bearing of PQ as before.

·,~~
/ ,.,
I".
lb4 SURVEYlNG TRAVERSE SURVEYING
165
I!
(2) Shift the instrument and set at Q. Before taking backsight on P. set vernier This method of traversing is more suitable for survey of roads. railways, pipe-lines
A to read back beating of PQ, and fix the upper clamp. etc.. where the survey lines make small deflection angles. Great care must be taken in :!J
(3) Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a backsight on P. The instrument
is reading the
recording and plotting whether it is right deflection angle or left deflection angle. However.
except for specialised work in which deflection angles are required. it is preferable to read
\.
i
is now oriented since the line of sight is along QP when the instrument
bearing of QP (or back bearing of PQ). the included angles by reading clockwise from the back station. The lengths of lines are r
a foresight on measured precisely using a steel ,(ape. Table 7 .I shows the general method of recording !
(4) Loose upper clamp and rmare the insmnnent clockwise to take 't'
the observation of transit tape traverse by observations of included angles.
R. The reading on · vermier A gives directly the· bearing on QR. :~!
(5) Tht:: process is repeated at other smtions. 7.6. LOCATING DETAILS WITH TRANSIT AND TAPE .(

Of the three methods of fast needle, the second method is the most satisfactory. Following are some of the methods of locating the details in theodolite traversing: 'I,.
li
(1) Locating by angle and distance from one transit station:
7.5. TRAVERSING BY DIRECT OBSERVATION OF ANGLES 'i,,
A point can be located from a transit station by taking an angle to the point and
In this method, the angles between the lines are direcrly measured by a theodolite.
measuring the corresponding distance from the station to the point. Any number of points L
The method is. therefore, most accurate in comparison ro lhe previous three methods.
can thus be located. The angles are usually taken from the same backsigbt. as shown
The magnetic bearing of any one line can also be measured (if required) and the magnetic
in Fig. 7 .4. The method is suitable specially when the details are near the transit station.
bearing of other lines can be calculated as described in § 5.2 . The angles measured
at different stations may be either (a) iocluded angles or. (~) deflection angles.
f
Traversing by Included Aogles. An iocluded angle at a station is either of the two
angles form~d by the two survey lines meeting . there. The method consists simply in
measuring each angle directly from a backsight on the preceding station. The angles may
~...
''
' ~/~
X
/~ ',,
...... ,,
i·'
l!i
~

also be measured by repetition, if so desired. Both face observations musr be taken and A / '
'' i'"
both the verniers should be read. Included angles can be measured either clockwise or
coumer-clockwise but it is better to measure all''· angles clockwise, since the graduations
of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angles measured clockWise from the
---- ....... /5' '"?·--, r,,
f~l!hl
back station may be interior or exterior depending upon the direction of progress round
the: survey. Thus. in Fig. 7.3. (a}. direction of progress ls counter-clockwise and hence ToC A ToJ n

the angles measured clockwise are directly the interior angles. In Fig. 7.3 (b). the direction
of progrtss around the survey is clockwise and hence the angles measured clockwise are FIG. 7.4. FIG. 7.5.
~.·.,~,
~
~ .
~xtt:rior angles.
(2) Locating by angles from two transit stations : If the point or points are away r,. ~

from the transit stations or if linear measurements cannm be made. the point can be located

~
by measuring angles to the point from at least two stations. This method is also known

l as method of intersection. For good intersection. the angle to the point should not be
less than 20' (Fig. 7. 5. ).
(3) Locating by distances from two stations: Fig. 7.6 illustrates the method of
locating a po1nt by measwing angle at one station and distance from the other. The method i
is suitable when the point is inaccessible from the station at which angle is measured. t
;.. ·1··

~
(a)
(b) (4) Location by distances from two points on traverse line : If the point is near
a transit line but is away from the transit station, it can located by measuring its distance
FIG. 7.3. from two points on the traverse line. The method is more suitable if such reference points
Traversing by Deflection Angles, A deflection angle is the angle which a survey
line makes with the prolongation of the preceding line. It is designated as right (R) or
(such as x and y in Fig. 7. 7) are full chain points so that they can be staked when
the traverse Jine is being chained.
'I
left (L) according as it is measured clockwise or anti-clockwise from the prolongatiOn of
the previous line. The procedure for measuring a deflection angle has been described in
§ 6.7.
(5) Locating by offsets from the traverse line : If the points to be detailed are
more and are near to traverse line. they can be located by taking offsets to the poinlS
as explained in chain surveying. The offsets may be oblique or may be perpendicular.
Ii
i
!
~
 TRAVERSE SURVEYING 16"
166 SURVEYING

~
~
..
I
i
l
I
.,_
~
~

.. -
~~
~

~
e:~
~

~
N
l!
.
u
'' '
.,, v't
~ -~
~~
'" '
.l
~
N N
~
8 ~~ ~' 1/
r~~
~-&~
I
'
ii1 -
~
N
~

'.
: '' "WI
Q•
''
;!!/ \~
\
•
''
~ .. '
;! ~
~
N
'
' ' .B /
X
~
y ToB
0 ~ A From A
0 0
8 FIG. 7.6 FIG. 7.7
l
!
~ ~

« '
l j
!
.f'r
0~
. li -
~ ~
N
~
7. 7. CHECKS IN CWSED TRAVERSE
:z: I The errors involved in traversing are Iwo kinds : linear and angular. For important
.,i ' '
SUD!IUMhl/ /II "ttN
;! ~
~
~
work the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements cons.ists in chaining
- - - each survey line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on different dates and
0
0
~ 0
0
~ 0 8 by different parties. The following are the checks for the angular work:
! '
! J !
'
0 li 0 -
~
0
~
N
~
(I) Traverse by included angles
ial The sum of measured interior angles should be equal Io 12N - 4) right angles.
i ' I 0
~
~ 0
~
~ 0
~

! where N = number of sides of the traverse.

.
f,""

' I 0 ~
0
0
g 0 8
(b) If the exterior angles are measured. their sum should be equal to (2N + 4) right
! ! -
~ ~

.i
;1
...
«
"~
I
~
,.. 0

0
li
c~
0

0
0
~
0

0
N

8
angles.
(2) Traverse by deflection angles
The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should be equal to 360', taking the right-hand
~ I ~
i ii1 -
~ ~ •

j .::
0 0 0 N
I '
i i
~
deflection angles as positive and left-hand angles as negative.
I 0 0
~
~ 0
~
~ 0 -
N

I (3) Traverse by direct obse111ation of bearings

. . I 0 0
The fore bearing of the 1ast line should be equal ro its back bearing ± i soc. measured
"'
N ~
~--·-----~--

~-
~
. '
'
"
;!
::!
~
~
:il
-
N
at the initial station.
Check!; in Open Traverse : No direct check of angular measurement is available.
WDIJ!l~11fo 'fiN However. indirect checks can be made, as illustrated in Fig. 7.8.
- -
As illustrated in Fig. 7.8 (a). in addition· to the observation of bearing of AB at
~
----·-----· ~
0

.....
0
p ___N_ 0 li
t station A. bearing of AD can also be measured. if possible. Similarly. at D. bearing of
DA can be measured and check applied. If the two bearing' differ by 180'. the work
~

1----: --'--
r-'
0

"
~

;;
0

0
::!
~
~
0

0
"
~
N
D E E

.. o= o
o: o:l
o " 1 ,,//
/
...
' ~~----------0
' ' ',,
'. /
. ,\,F
,. ...... / / .
~ ~ 0 - 0 N
,-' ',,
3' 0
0
~ 0
0
N 0
/ /,
' '•
'-c 0 •.
.,,-
'./ , / II
..........
~
.::
~
L...! 0
0
... 0 -
~
0
~
N /
A- B
--·
B G
;; .;: N

Ol p:IJI{II$ . ..
-"--· 0

~
" .
0

" (a) (b)

Ill tu;JNITUJSilf FIG. 7.8.
~
" " ' :J:i
'.,
:\

~,·.
 i~
!69
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
168
ion should
can be adjusted be taken from the table of clwrds. If an angle is greater than 90', the construct
l,upto D) may be accepted as correct. If there is small discrepancy, it be done only for the part less than 90' because the intersections for greater
angles become
before proceeding further. unsatisfactory.
as shown
Another method, which furnishes a check when the work is plotted is by calculating
t point P from each (2) Co-ordinate Method : In this method, survey stations are plotted
in Fig. 7.8 (b), and consists in reading the bearings to any prominen tes. This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for plotting
consists in laying off the lines AP. their co-ordina
of the consecutive stations. The check in plotting The biggest advantage in
lines pass through one point. traverses or any other extensive .system of horizontal control.
BP. CP etc. and noting whether the this method of plotting is that the closing e"or can be eliminated by bakmcing , prior
d by
In the case of long and precise traverse, the angular errors can be determine to plotting. The methods of calculating the co-ordinates and of balancing
a traverse are
intervals during the progress of the traverse.
asrronomical observations for bearing at regular discussed in the next article.
7.8. PLOWIN G A TRAVERSE SURVEY
TRAVER SE COMPU TATION S
There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:
(I) Angle and distance method, and (2) Co-ordinate method.
7.9. CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES :LATITU DE AND DEPARTURE
(I) Angle and Distance Method : The latitude of a survey line may be defined
bearings) as its co-ordinate length measured parallel to an
In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale and angles (or B
one of the methods outlined below. This method. is suitable for the small assumed meridian direction (i.e. true north or
are plotted by
accuracy of plotting. magoeric north or any other reference direction).
surveys. and is much inferior to the co-ordinate method in· respect of
(or bearing) The departure of survey line may be defined IV t
The more commonly used angle and distance methods of plotting an angle measured at right angles (+,-) (+,+)
as its co-ordinate leogth
are
to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of
-Jii

(a) By Protractor. (b) By the tangent of the angle. ·'

of the angle. the line is positive when measured northward
(c) By the chord
(or upward) and is termed as northing ; the A
(a) The Protractor Metlwd. The use of the protractor in plotting direct angles, deflection
is seldom ,fj latitude is negative wben measured southward
angles, bearings and azimuths rt:quires no exPI3nation. The ordinary protractor (or downward) and is termed as southing. Similarly,
of compass traversing
divided more finely than 10' or 15' which accords with the accuracy the departure (D) of the line is positive when ill n
survey lines is
but not of theodolite traversing. A good form of protractor for plotting measured eastward and is termed as easting ; (-.-) (-.+)
the large circular cardboard type, 40 to 60 em in diameter. the departure is negative when measured westward
upon
(b) The Tangent Method. The tangent method is a trigonometric method based and is termed as westing.
base tan 8 Where 8 is the
thO fact that in right angled triangle, the perpendiCUlar = X

angle. From the end of the base, a perpendicular is set off, the length of the perpendic ular
: lhe
:; ,, Thus, in Fig. 7 .10, the latitude and departure
of the line AB of length I and reduced bearirig
being equal to base x tan 0. The station point is joined to the point so obtained
line so obtained includes 9 with the given side. 1be values ot tan 8 are
table of natural tangents. If the angle is little over 90'
perpendicular and the remainder by the tangent method,
, 90'
using
of
the
it is plotted
perpendic
taken from the
by erecting a
ular as a base. ~;~ :·
., e are givcm tty
L=+lc osa and D =+I
To calculate the latitudes and departure of the traverse lines,
sine
HG. i.l0.

therefore,
aod
it
... (7.11)
is first
departure s
essential to reduce the bearing in the quadrantal system. The sigo of latitudes
(c) The Chord Method. This is also a geometrical /o following table (Table 7.2) gives
will depeod upon the reduced bearing of a line. The
method of laying off an angle. Let it be required signs of latitudes and departures :
to draw line AD at an angle 8 to the line AB in E - - - - 7.2
TABLE -·

Fig. 7.9. With A as centre, draw an arc of any W.C.B. R.B. and 0uufrant Sign of
convenient radius (r) to cut line AB in b. With b d
~Ch ord r'"' 2r sin! [JJtitluk DeDIUtlUe
as centre draw an arc of radius_ r ' (equal to the
0° 10 90° NO E ; l + +
chord length) to cut the previous arc in d. the radius
SOE ; n· - +
r' being given r' = 2 r sin~-
B 90°10180°
"t......_. -------.Jb
180° 10 270° sew: m - -
FIG. 7.9.
Join Ad, thus getting the direction of AD at • .._____370° to 360° I NOW; IV + I -
to unit radius can ,\_;

an inclination a to AB. The lengths of chords of angles corresponding

-i
I
i SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING

TABLE 7.4.
Thus. latirude and departure co-ordinates of any point wilh reference to !he preceding -

point are equal to !he latirude and departure of !he line joining !he preceding point to LDtitude DtptUture Total Co- ordinates
rhe point under consideration. Such co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordi/Ulles line SIIJtion
.N s E w N E
or dependem co-ordinates.
A I 400 I 400
Table 7.3. illustrates systema1ic metlwd of calculating !he latirudes and departures of I i assumed i assumed
a traverse. AB I 196.32 123.63 '
I I
!
TABLE 7.3. CALCULATIONS OF LATITUDES Ali/D DEPARTURES I• I B 596.32 i 523.63
I

lillt
I• Length I w.c.B.
1
l
1 R.B.
!.Diiludt
I
I

I Departure
i
BC !
I
111.02 97.88
c 485.30
j
i . 621.51
1
I
(m) i
I
I
Log length and I LDJiludt Log length a11d ! Dtporture CD i 385.54 I 158.90 I i

I I Log cosine Log si11e ! [ ; ! D 99.76 462.61

' '
I I _l DE : 139.36 i I 329.39 i
! 32° )2'! ! J.36549 2.36549 ! I I I E i 239.12 .. 133.22
AB 232 I N 32., 12'E I .92747 + 196.32 1 1 .72663 I -~- 123.63
7.10. CLOSING ERROR
2.29296 2.09212
If a closed traverse is plotted according to !he field. measurements. "me end point
2.17026 J,.1702b of lhe traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. owing to the errors in
BC 148 138c 36' S•W24'E l .67513 I - 111.02 ! I .8204J ... 97.88 :
the field measurements of angles and distances. Such error is known as closing error (Fig.
!
2.04539 ! 1.990t\7 I ~ ,)'

7.11). In a closed traverse. !he algebraic sum of !he latirudes (i.e. r L) should be zero
I'
and the algebraic sum of !he departures (i.e. ~D) should be zero. The error of closure
CD I 417 [202'24' I S22'24'W
1
I
2.62o14
1.9<593 ··385.54
2.62014
I "101 -158.90 ! for such traverse may be ascertained by finding r.L and W. bolh of lhese being !he components
~ I

i
I .

!2.57054
2.58607

I
2.2011!:

2.57054 ~!
. of error e parallel and perpendicular to !he meridian.
Thus, in Fig. 7.11,
rc
-------.JD
.I

I+ e =AA' = ..J (r.L)2 + (W)2

II DE 372 I 292° 0'
!
N 68° 0' w I I .57358
2.14-I.IZ !
139.36 i .96717
:.53771
-329.39 Closing error
... (7.2 a)
The direction of closing error is given by
E
Independent Co-ordinates '~n"=W .(7 '2 !J'
B
l:.L
The co-ordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common
origln. The total lalitude and depanure of any point with respect to a common origin The sign of W and r.L will lhus define !he
are known as independent co-ordinates or total co-ordinales of the point The two reference quadrant in which the closing error lies. The relative
axes in this case may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse station but generally error of closure, the term sometimes used, is Clo~ng~ ,_fA'
a most westerly station is chosen for this purpose. The independent co-ordinates of any Error of closure e 1 error ~',;, i+--tL
... (7.3)
point may be obtained by adding algebracially !he latirudes and !he deparrure of !he lines Perimeter of traverse - P= p / e ·-11.-·
between !hat point and !he origin. Adjustment of the Angular Error. Before cal- tD
FJG. 7.11
Thus. total loJiJude (or departure) of end point of a traverse =total laJiludes (or culating latitudes and deparrures, !he traverse angles
departures) of first poilU of traverse plus the algebraic sum of all the latitudes (or departures/. should be adju.'ted to satisfy geometric conditions.
Table 7.4. shows !he calculations of total co-ordinates of the traverse of Table 7.3. In a closed traverse. !he sum of interior angles should be equal to (2N- 4) right angl"-'
The axes are so chosen !hat !he whole of !he survey lines lie in !he north east quadrant (or !he algebraic sum of deflection angles should be 360•). If !he angles are measured
with respect to !he origin so !hat !he co-ordinates of all the poinL• are positive. To Wilh !he same degree of precision, the error in !he sum of angles may be distributed
achieve this. arbitrary values of co-ordinates are assigned to !he starting point and co-ordinates equally to each angle of !he traverse. If the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily
of other points are calculated. distributed among two or three angles.
 ·19'

TRAVERSE SURVEYING 173

SURVEYING
m
the The transit rule is
Adjustment of BeariD~. In a closed traverse in which bearings are observed.
determine d by comparin g the two bearings of the last Correction to lotiJude (or departure) of any side
closing error in bearing may be
error h . Latitude (or depa11ure ) of that line
line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. Let e be the closing = Total ~rror in lotiJude (or departure) x
bearing of last line of a closed traverse having N sides. We get Arilhmelic sum oflotiJudes (or departures )
e Thus, if L = latitude of any line
Correction fur first line =-
N D = departure of any line
Lr = arithmetic sum of latitudes
Correction for second line = ~
Dr= arithmetic smu of departure
3e D
Correction for third line =/i We have, CL = r. L .L-
and Co= r. D.-.
Dr
... (7.5)
Lr
Ne Bowditch
Correction for last line =N=e. (3) Graphical Method. For rough survey, such as a compass ·traverse, the
ly without doing theoretica l calculations. Thus, according to
rule may be applied graphical
7.11. BALANCING THE TRAVERSE method, it is not necessary to calculate latitudes and departures etc. However,
the graphical
s may be
The term 'balandng' is generally applied to the operation of applying correction before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes, the angles or bearings
to latitudes and departures so that :r.L = 0 and w
= 0. This applies only when the survey adjusted to satisfy the geometric conditions of the traverse.
forms a closed polygon. The following are common methods of adjusting a traverse : D'

(I} Bowditch's method (2) Transit method

(3} Graphical method (4} Axis method.
:..,-·
(1} Bowditch's Method. The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the E c
errors in linear measurements are proportional to -Jl and that the errors in angular measurements
's mle.
are inversely proportional to .fi where I is the length of a line. The Bowditch

~:e
where linear and
also rermed as the compass rule, is mostly used to balance a traverse
and in lhe departure
angular measwements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude. b c
I
I
I
\
I I

is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides. q.c.tci~·

A'
~-.j ~J A'
The Bowditich Rule is : A 8
Correction to lotiJude (or departure) of any side = (a) (b)

Total error in loJilude (or departure) x ::Le""::n,._gth=o:.c'.f:;tlwt::::_;s::::id:::.e

Perimeter oftra~~erse FIG. 7.12
having
Tnus, It CL = correcuon to laurude or any side Thus, in Fig. 7.12 (a), polygon AB'C'D'E'A' represents an unbalanced traverse
point ·A· are not coinciding .
Co = correction to departure of any side a closing error equal to A'A since the first point A and the last
the sides in proportio n to their
r.L = total error in latitude J The · total closing error AA' is distributed linearly to all
7.12 (b),
W = total error in departure length by a graphica l construc tion shown in Fig. 7.12 (b). In Fig.
of the sides of the traverse either to the same
A8' • 8'C • , C 'D ' etc. represent the length
'f.l = length of the perimeter scale. The ordinate aA! is made equal
scale as that of Fig. 7.12 (a) or to a reduced
I= length of any side (a)]. By constructi ng similar triangles, the correspon ding
to the closing error A' A [of Fig. 7.12
I I ... (7 .4) In Fig. 7.12 (a}, lines E!E, D'D, C'C, 8'8 are drawn
We have C,='f.L .i/ and Cv=W .i/ errors bB', cC', dD', eE • are found.
ly. The
parallel to the closing error A'A and made equal to eE', dD', cC ', b8' respective
ents
(2) Transit Method. The trattSit mle may be employed where angular measurem polygon ABCDE so obtained represents the adjusted traverse. It should be remembe red that
that the linear measurements. Accordin g to this rule, the total error in
eE', of Fig. 7.I2(b) represent the correspon ding errors in
are more precise the ordinates b8', cC', dD', aA',
and departures of
latitudes and in departureS is distributed in proportion to the latitudes magnirude only but not in direction.
by transit
the. sides. It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied
method than by those by Bowditch's method.
 SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING 175
174

(4) Th.e Axis Method. Tbis method is adopted when the angles are measured very
accurately, the corrections being applied to lengths only. Thus. only directions of the line
are unchanged and the general shape of the diagram is preserved. To adjust the closing
error aa, of a traverse abcdefa, (Fig. 7.13) following procedure is adopted: o-
8
(1) Join a,a and produce it ')i
to cut the side·rd in x. The line a1x r"ftb~.=;••~.:••==::::::::::::::::~C A /
is k..1.own as Ihe axis of adjusrment. ~~ ........ c

:,",~ ~i:~·~ ~::a~~;; :/wo ···········..... .1 ~

-
~/-

(2) Bisect a1a in A. .. ....:;~x ' / -

{\Xisol~~l~~~~~-----------~/f' '' / --
''' / --
(3) Join xb. xe and xf.
d
'' /--
• -------- ,.' I

(4) Through A, draw a lme / / ': •

ABparalleltoabcuttingx bproduced a, ,/ : •
in B. Through B. draw a line BC ,/ I ' ·····--...... • ____g,
parallel
.
m C.
to b c cutting x c produced
>"
/ _./
/
.I B\
b ·-.
I
c
(5) Similarly, through A, F/ ' . Ef
FIG. 7.t4.
draw AF parallel to a,f to cut x 1 0·
f in F. Through F, draw FE parallel ·' equal pans. The adjustment is made with reference to the axis d x. The figure ABCDE
to f e to cut x e in E. Through E. FIG. 7.13. AXIS METIIOD OF BALANCING TRAVERSE.
shown by thick lines represents [he adjusted figure.
draw ED parallel to e d to cut x d in D.
:r
GALES TRAVERSE TABLE
.J,f;CDEF (thick lines) is the adjusted traverse. Traverse compmations are usually done in a tabular form. a more common fonn
Ax being Gales Traverse Table (Table 7 .5). For complete traverse computations, the following
Now, AB=-.ab
ax steps are usually necessary :
Correction to ab =AB-ab = A_x. ab- ab =A a. ab (I) Adjust the interior angles to satisfy the geometrical conditions, i.e. sum of interior
ax "' angles to be equal to (2N- 4) right angles and exterior angles (2N + 4) right angles.
01
a i
closing error ... (ll ... (7 .6 a) In the case of a compass traverse, the bearings are adjusted for local attraction.
=- . - . ab. = ab
r
0

2 ax ax if :my.
· · . I a 1a i dosi.ug ~rrol

l
... (2) ... (7.6 b) (il) Starting with obsetved bearings of one line, calculate the bearings of all other
Similarly, correcnon to a,j=- -.a,f= .a,f
2 D1 X D1 X lines. Reduce all bearings to quadrantal system.
Taking ax~ a, x =length of axis, we get the general rule (iii) Calculate the consecutive co-<>rdinates (i.e. latirudes and departures).
,,
l closing error (iv) Calculate r.L and l:D .
... (7.6)
Comction to any length = thlll length x ' • . (v) Apply necessary corrections to the larirudes and departures of the lines so that
Length of 8XIS
The axis a, x should be so chosen that it divides the figure approximately into two r.L = 0 aod l:D = 0. The corrections may be applied either by transit rule or by compass
equal partS. However, in some cases the closing error aa 1 may not cut the traverse or rule depending upon the type of traverse.
may cut it in very unequal parts. In such cases, the closing error is transferred to some (vz) Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates. calcu1ate the independent co-ordinates
other point. Thus. in Fig. 7.14, aa, when produced does not cut the traverse in two pans. to the poinrs so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying in the
Through a. a line ae' is drawn parallel aod equal to a, e. Through e', a line e' d' is drawn North East quadrant.
parallel aod equal to ed. A new unadjusted traverse dcbae 'd' is thus obtained in which Table 7.5 illustrates completely the procedure.
the closing error dd' cuts the opposite side in x. thus dividing the traverse in two approximately Computation of Area of a Closed Traverse : (See Chapter 12) .

........
 w.~
11
177
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
176
i
7.12. DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN TRAVERSING
.. ::a ~ ~
l I'
~ jiI ~ g Since both linear and angular measurements are made
! N
~ I
N
~ ~
in traversing, the degree of accuracy depends upon the types D I
- >: ~ ~ 0: 0: of instruments used for linear and angular measurements
~o

" and also upon the purpose and extent of survey. The degree
~ I
M

of precision used in angular measur~ents must be consistent

~

~
-~ "' :<i
:10
.I
with the degree of precision used in linear measurements

~
~
..
"~ §
a:e
.. ~
~

"'
::i
~ 3 I
:a
! ;<!
:a
so that the effect of error in angular measurement will be .
the same as that of error in linear measurements. To get
a relation be£Ween precision of angular and linear measurements 8
- "l "' E! f:i
l"' >: I'!
5l
N
~
:<
0
:a
f:i
ol consider Fig. 7.15.
Let D be the correct position of point with respect
to a point A such that AD= I and LBAD = 9. In the field measurement, let
FIG. 7.15.

be the oe !
.g•
"'
.. ~
'

~ ~
~
+
10
~ I~
10
'i
l I
~ ·d
~ ~
~ error in the angular measurement and e be the error
D, is the faulty location of the point D as obtained
in the
from
linear
the
Now, displacement of D due to angular error (liS) =DD , = I tan liS .
measurement
field
so
measurements.
lhat
I!

~ - <l"
' ' '
Displacement of D due to linear error = D, D2 = e . ~
~
~ !
"'
l'i
0
I ~ ~
~ I. In order to have same degree of precision in the two measurements . -~
~

I . ~

>:
~
~ 0
+
~
0
+
I
'
+
; j
' ltanli9=e or 59=tan-'f· ... (7.7)
!
+ +

~ .
8 ~ ~
J! In the above expression, f is the linear error expressed as a ratio. If lhe precision .!Ilo
., "' 0

~
t .. ~
~

~ !:!
:<i
~
~ i
,+
~ ~

·~ ~
£e of linear measurements is 5rfoo. the allowable angular error = =tan_, 5;00 = 41". Thus. oa
.i~
.'!!

,.;
,.:
Ol
-
~~
~
"jj
"
"'
"' ~ "'
~
i!i
f:!
I
..
'<G
~

~ ; II
]• !!! the angle should be measured to the nearest 40". Similarly, if the allowable angular error
1
is 20", the correspor1ing precision of linear measurement will be = tan 20" = l 0• 300 (or
:!
i i
a
.d·
~
~ ;!(
' ~ ~ G i!
~ >:
M 0 about I metre in I kilometre).
§
-
"'
_...:..._ E! \!: .!!J _The aneuJar error of closure in theodolile traversing is generally expressed as equal
to CVN, where the value of C may vary from 15" to I' and N is the number of angles
-
"' I ... I Ii
').
~;;;
~
t
;z

~
~
,. I
8
I ii, "~ 1.
t
measured. The degree· of precision in angular and linear measurement in theodolile traverse
under different circumstanceS are given in Table 7.6 below
~ I '8:)'M. I ~
~

~
... "
·- 0
u
----·- 7.6. ERRORS OF CLOSURE
TABLE
"' ~ ~ ~
~
TOilll linear
~- !!::1 Anguhue"or
I~ ~
Type of Trarene
a I "'"" "'""'"' ~
-a of closure e"or of t:losure
6"fN 1 in 25,000
First order traverse for horizontal conD'OI
~ I ~ ~ ~ ~
~ (l)
' '
'
.' ..fii l in 10.000
UOfPWUJ
(2) Second order traverse for horizontal conaol and for impo112n! and accurate surveys lS"

~ ~
~
~ ~ JO"W I l in 5.000
l
~

~ ~JfUV ::1 !! {3) Third order traverse for surveys ·of impo_rtam lxlundaries etc.
ill
j
~

I (4) Minor theodolite ttavc:rse for ~ettiljng !'W J I in 300 f

'l
~ ! JII!OJ
~ ~
" (5) Compass traverse ts•fN llinJOOtol
.I
I in 600
5: I 'liJuTJ
(W)
pur1 ;,un ~1:! "I'!
~- Bill lils I ~
 ,J

m :i
. j
SURVEYING I
178
'
PROBLEMS

I. Dis1iDguish clearly beiWeen :

(a) Chain surveying and traverse surveying. il
(b) Closed traverse and open traverse. 'I
(c) Loose needle method and fait needle method Omitted Measurements >I
'I
2. Discuss various methods of theodolite aaversing.
~
3. Explllin clearly, with 1he help of illustrations, how a traverse is balanced.
1

~1·
4. What is error of closure ? How is it balanced graphically ?
8.1. CONSECUTIVE CQoORDINATES: LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
5 (a) Explllin 1he principle of surveying (traversing) with the compass. ':•
There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey: (I) the aogle and .
.I
'
(b) Plot 1he following compass traverse and adjust it for closing error if any ·l,. .
distance method, aod (2) the co-ordinate method. If the length aod bearing of a survey
1JM
AB
BC
Length (m)
130
158
Be<uing
S 88" E
S 6° E
line are known, it cao be represented on plao by two rectangular co-ordinates. The axes
of the co-ordinates are the North aod South line, aod the East and West line. The /atirude
of survey line may be defined as irs co-ordinate length measured parallel to the meridian
direction. The depanure of the survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured
,,
~
;~

:~
CD 145 s 40-0 - w
at right angles 10 the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of the line is positive when
DE
EA
308
337
N 81" W
N 48" E . ~:
~.,·
measured northward (or upward) aod is termed as nonhing. The latitude is negative when
measured southward (or downward) aod is termed as southing. Similarly, the deparrure (D)
·I
Scale of plotting I em = 20 m. of the line is positive when measured '.
6. Descn'be 'Fast needle method' of theodolite traversing. eastward and is termed as easting. The
departure is negative when measured N D,(+) ::~
. '
A
westward and is termed as westing. ·.·.···1·

Thus, in Fig. 8.1, the latitude

and departure of the line OA of length
·~
-~·
11 and reduced bearing e, is given 0
.;;
by
L1 = + 11 cos e1 L, (+) t, ~
~
and D, = + 1, sin 61 ... (8.1) w, E ~
To calculate the latitudes and
I
•
~ <->!
~~
~
departures of the traverse lines, there- t,
fore, it is first essential to reduce the !
bearing in the quadfaotal system. The c~·--···o;r;······ .•. :.·
sign of latitude and departures will ~;
r--
depend upon the .reduced bearing of
line. s •' i~
The following table gives the
t
i
signs of latitudes and departures.
FIG. 8.1. LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE I
'I;
(179)
 ''fti
197
11 .
.

I~lr
SURVEYING LEVELUNG
196

Horizontal Line. It is slraight line tangential to the level line at a· point. It is also levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances
perpendicular to the 'plumb line. are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is also I
known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and I
Vertical .Line. It is a line nonnal to the level line at a point. It is commonly I
the one most commonly used by engineers. [:
considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.
Datum. Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level 9.3. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS ii
- ~
affords a convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so mucb The instruments commonly·· used in direct levelling are i
above or below sea level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other
datum, specially if only the relative elevations of points are required.
(I) A level l
Elevation. The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical
(2) A levelling staff.
I. LEVEL :11-
'
·i'
distance 'iiliOVe" or below an arbittarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level
elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in
whiclr ·the two points lie.
consists of the following four parts : :J
(a) A telescope to provide line of sight -~~
Vertical AniJe. Vertical angle is an angle between t\vo intersecting lines in a vertical !I
(b) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
pla'De. Generally, one of these lines is horizontal. ·· "'
(c) A levelling head (lribrach and trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its centte of run ·~
Sea Level. Mean sea level is the average height o£ the sea for all si~ges
,,,
Mean (d) A tripod to support the instrument. ·~
of the tides. At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights ;~
There are the 'following chief types of levels :
over a long period of 19 years.
(il) Wye (or Y) level
•'
Deneb Mark. Bench Mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation (I) Dumpy level
with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for (f' (iii) Reversible level (iv) Tilting level. .·It
: ~

levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check. (r) DUMPY LEVEL

:I·

r, r-14
9.2. METHODS OF LEVELLING The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly
'

Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation. namely. secured in two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle.
barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling. 10 s-,.
'I·
I
~ @•
Barometric levelling. Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference 9
:.i·
in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in aonospheric pressu_res
at these points. A barometer, therefore, jnay be used and the readings observed at different
P9ints would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points.
· At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course
2l=l '

9 j!i5 /'X\
-·-·0
II

3
:II I'
:I:
·~
-,.
.~
·~· .....,;;;.: ..... - •• .:.~··'-~) .!...~_¥:.;~-..:.i.~
i.,.;.~ ,.:·.~ll ;·~ J.,. .. ..:.0o..~ ......... ~ ............ ~ ........ ~ .............

and is little used in surveying work except on reconnaissance Or exploratory surveys.

Trigonometric Levelling (Indire<t levelling) :
Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations
of points are compmed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the
l fll'll;")
I: :
I 1

f'~(fl?d7
: : !8
·.~
field, just as the length of. any side in any ttiangle can be computed from proper trigonomelric
relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the
I ~ c------', ~ I t2
I
difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed FIG. 9.2. DUMPY LEVEL
from the measured vertical angles and staff readings. J. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS
Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling) : 2. EYE·PIECE 8. UPPER PARALLEL PlATE (TRIBRACH)
It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal 3. RAY SHADE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS
line (perpendicular to the drrecnon of g~avity) .!)lay be us&! to determme the relative difference 4. OBJECTIVE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS
liielevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to lever surface S. LONGITUDrNAL BUBBLE II. TRANSVERSE BUBBLE TUBE
a< any point is readily established by means . of a spirit level or a level vial. In spirit 6. FOCUSING SCREWS 12. FOOT PLATE (TRIVET STAGE).

~
 SURVEYING LEVELUNG I99
198

The modem form of dumpy level has the telescope tube and the vertical spindle cast in The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are:
one piece and a long bubble rube is attached to the top of the telescope. This form is (I) Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.
known as solid dumpy. (il) Fewer adjusbnents to be made.
. Fig. 9.2 shows the diagram.metic sketch of a dumpy level. Fig. 9.3 shows the section (iii) Longer life of the adjustments.
of a dumpy level. Figs. 9.4 and 9.5 show the photographs of dumpy levels manufactured (il) WYE LEVEL
by M/s Wild Heerbmgg and M/s Fennel Kessel respectively. Fig. 9.6 shows a dumpy The essential difference between the dumpy level and the Wye level is that in the
level by M/s W.F. Stanley & Co. The name 'dumpy level' originated from the fact that former case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the Wye level, the telescope
formerly this level was equipped with an. inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter than is carried in two vertical 'Wye' supports. The Wye support consists of curved clips. If
Wye level of the same magnifying power. However, modem forms generally have erecting the clips are raised, the telescope can be rotaied in the Wyes, or removed and turned
eye-piece so that inverted image of the staff is visible in the field of view. end for end. When the clips are fastened, the telescope is held from turning about its
In some of the instruments, a clamp screw is provided to control the movement axis by a lug on one of the clips. The bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope
of the spindle about the vertical axis. For small or precise movement, a stow motion screw or to the stage carrying the wyes. In the former case, the bubble tube must be of reversible
(or tangent screw) is also provided. type.
The levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with either three-font screws Fig. 9.7 shows the essential fearures of Y-level. The levelling head may be sintilar
or four-font screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach and . the lower plate is known to that of a dumpy level. In some cases, the instrument is fitted with a clamp and fine
as trivet which can be screwed on to a tripod. motion tangent screw for controlled movement in the horizontal plane. Fig. 9.8 shows the
photograph of a Wye level by Fennel Kessel.
The Wye level bas an advantage over the dumpy level in the fact thai the adjustments
can be tested with greater rapidity and ease. However, the adjustments do not have longer
life and are disturbed more frequently due to large number of movable parts.

4 A

7
~I I~
15 115

FIG. 9.3 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A DUMPY LEVEL. FIG. 9.7. WYE LEVEL.
I TELESCOPE \0 BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS I. TELESCOPE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS SCREWS
2 EYE-PIECE 12 FOOT PlATE (TRIVET STAGE) 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING
2. EYE-PIECE
J RAY SHADE 13 CLA~~p SCREW II. WYE. CLIP
3. RAY SHADE
4 OBJECTIVE END \4 SLOW MOTION SCREW \2. CUP HALF OPEN
4. OBJECTIVE END
5 LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE IS INNER CONE S. BUBBLE TUBE 13. CLAMP SCREWS
6 FOCUSING SCREW 16 OUTER CONE 6. FOCUSING SCREW ·14. TANGENT SCREW
7 FOOT SCREWS 17 TRIPOD HEAD 7. FOOT SCREW 15. TRIVET STAGE.
8. UPPER PARAU.Fl. PLATE (TRI'BRACH) 18 TRIPOD.
8. TRIBRACH
9 DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS
 -::;-

SURVEYING LBVELUNG 201

200

It is, however, essential that the observer should have the view of the bubble tube while
(iii) REVERSIBLE LEVEL
sighting the staff.
A reversible jevel combines the features of both the dumpy level and the Wye level.
The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be introduced Fig. 9. 9 shows the essential features of a tilting level. A tilting level is mainly
from either end aod then fixed in position by a screw. The sockets are rigidly connected designed for precise levelling work. It has the advantage that due to the tilting screw.
to the spindle through a stage. Once the telescope is pushed into the sockets and the levelling can be done much quicker. However, this advantage is not so apparem when
screw is tightened, the level acts as a dumpy level. For testing and making the adjustnients, it is required to take so many. readings from one instrument setting. Fig. 9.10 shows the
the screw is slackened and the telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end. The photograph of a tilting. level by M/s Vickers Instruments Ltd.
telescope can also be turned within the socket about the longitudinal axis. 9.4. LEVELLING STAFF
(iv) ffiTJNG LEVEL A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations. the foot of the
In the case of a dumpy level and a Wye level, the line of sight is perpendicular staff representing zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line
to the vertical axis. Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal of sight. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the station
and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical, provided the instrument is in adjustment. In (i.e., foot of the staff) is above or below the line of sight. Levelling staves may be divided
the case of tilting level, however, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without "tilting into two classes : (I) Self-reading staff, and (it) Target staff. A Self Reading Staff is
the vertical axis. Thus, the .line of sight and the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular the one which can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope. A Target
to each other. This feature, therefore, helps in quick levelling. The instrument is levelled Staff, on the other hand, contains a moving target against which the reading is taken
roughly by the three-foot screws with respect eiiher to .the bubble tube or to a small by staff man.
circular bubble, thus making the vertical axis approximale/y vertical. While taking the sight (I) SELF-READING STAFF
to a staff. the line of sight is made exactly horizontal by centring the bubble by means staff :
There are usually three forms of self-reading
of a fme pitched tilting screw which tilts the telescope with respect to the vertical axis.
(a) Solid staff ; (b) Foldin_g staff ; (c) Telescopic staff (Sopwith pattern).
Figs. 9.11 (a) and (b) show the patterns of a solid staff in English units while
(c) and (d ) show that in metric unit. In the most common fonns, the smallest division

4 2

--:21 r-~
"3 2
~7
~v
~!:J
;7 ---§1 I 111
~3
--=-
:v
"
---•- I- - -
I §I
~;~
---§3
- -:I
---
~-

::9
~~
~? :N I §9
FIG. 9.9 TILTING LEVEL.
§V
--=- ------ I
-:91

I ~a
L
2.
TEL.ESCOPE
EYE-PIECE
7.
8.
9.
FOOT SCREWS
TRIBRACH
DIAPHRAGM ADJUSflNG SCREWS
1 §_
~3
--§7
--=-
--E.V
- -=a- ~
3. RAY SHADE (a) (b) (c) (d)
4. OSJECTIYE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE FIXING SCREWS English Metric
s. LEY.EL TUBE \l. TILTIING SCREWS Hundredths. Fiftieths. Centimetres. Half-Centimetres.
6. FOCUSING SCREWS 12. SPRING LOADED PLUNGER
FIG. 9.11. (BY COURTESY OF MIS VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.)
13. TRJVET STAGE.
 i 203
SURVEYING LEVELUNG
w.
shows the even tenth. The hundredths
have fine graduations upto 2 mm. black graduations indicates the odd tenth while the bottom
is of 0.01 ft. or 5 mm. However, some staves may of feet are indicated by alternate white and black spaces, the top of a black space indicating
wood having a leogth of 10 feet or 3 metres. hundredths. Sometimes when the
The staff is generally made of well seasoud odd hunthedthS and top of a white space indicating even
Fig. 9.12 shows a sopwith pattern staff arrange d in three telescopic leogtbs. When foot may not appear in the field
14 ft. staff has solid top staff is near the instrument, the red mark of whole
fully extended, it is usually of 14 ft (or 5 m) length. The the red figure appears in t)le field
:f
The ceotral box, in rum, slides
of view. In that case, the staff is raised slowly until
t length of 4' 6" sliding into the central box of 4' 6" leogth. of view, the red figure thus... indicating the whole feet.
correspouding lengths are usually
into lower box of 5' length. In the 5 m staff, the three Folding Levelling Staff In Metric Units
1.5 m, 1.5 m and 2 m. (IS : 1779-1961). The staff
a binge at the middle Fig. 9.15 (a) showa a 4 m folding type levelling staff
Fig. 9.13 shows a folding staff usually 10 ft long having comprises two 2 m thoroughly seasoned wooden pieces
with the joint assembly. Each piece
about the hinge so that it becomes any joint. The width and thickness
of its length. Wheo not in .use, the rod can be folded of the staff is ntade of one longitudinal strip without
convenient to carry it · from. one _-place to the other. The folding joint of the staff is made
of siaff is kept 75 mm and 18 mm respectively.
telescope, all readings appear The staff is jointed tOgether
Since a self-reading staff ·is. ai;;,ays seen thmugh the of the detachable type with a locking device at the back.
above downwards.
to be inverted. The readings are, therefore, taken from in such a way that :
The levelling staves graduated in English unitS geoera
lly have whole number of feet (a) the staff may be folded to 2 m length.
hatched lines in Fig. 9.12)., The r, wheo required, to
marked in red to the left side of the staff (shown by (b) the two pieces may be detached from one anothe
atid side. The top of ·these
odd lengths of the feet are marked in black to the right-b . ·'
,,(·
facilitate easy handling and manipu lation
togethe
with
r, the
one
two
piece, and
pieces become rigid
(c) when the two portions are locked
and straight.
ity is fitted at the back. The
A circular bubble, suitably cased, of 25-minute sensitiv
and correct the back bubble. A brass is screwed
staff bas fittings for a pluminet to test
baudles with spring acting locking
on to the bottom brass cap. The staff bas two folding
device or an ordinary locking device.
ss of graduations being 5
Each metre is subdivided into 200 divisions, the thickne
Every decime tre length is figured
mm. Fig. 9.15 (b) shows the details of graduations.
is· made in red and the decimetre
with the corresponding numerals (the metre numeral
continu ous throug hout the staff.
numeral in black). The decimetre numeral is made
r' (i1) TARGET STAF F
equipped with -vernier. The
Fig. 9.14 shows a target staff having a sliding target
i' rod consists of two sliding length~. thP: lowPr nn~ of
of 6 ft. The rod is graduated in feet, tenths and hundre
approx. 7 ft and the upper one
dths, and the vernier of the target
dth part of a foot. For readings below
enables the readings to be ·taken upto a thousan
part while for reading s above that, the target is
7 ft the target is slided to the lower
the reading,. the level man directs
fixed to the 7 ft mark of the upper length. For taking
bisected by the line of sight. The
the staff man to raise or lower the target till it is
reading . The upper part of the staff
staff holder then clamps the target and takes the
reading s have to be taken, the target is
is graduated from top downwards. When higher
sliding length and the sliding length carrying the target
set at top (i.e. 7 ft mark) of the
sight. The reading is then on the
is raised until the target is bisected · by the line of
s to be taken to a thousandth
back of the staff where a secoud vernier enables reading
of a foot.
Relative Merits of Self-Reading and Target Staffs
(!) With the self-reading staff, readings can be
taken quicker than with the target
FIG. 9.13 FOLDING STAFF FIG. 9.14 TARGET STAFF Staff.
FIG. 9.t2 TELI!SCOPIC STAFF
(BY COURTI!SY OF MIS VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.)
 II'
'!!,

SURVEYING LEVELLING 20S

204
The focal length of an objective is constant. The establislnnent of a telescopic line
(ii) In !he case of target staff, !he duties of a target staff-man are as important
of sight, therefore, involves the following two essential conditions :
a"s !hose of !he leveller and demand !he services of a trained man. In !he case of a
self-reading staff, on !he other hand, ordinary man can hold !he staff concentrating more (I) The real image must be formed in front of !he eye-piece.
on keeping !he staff in plumb. (2) The plane of the image must coincide with that of the cross-hairs. 'I

(iii) The reading with target staff can be taken with greater fineness. However, !he Focusing. For quantitative measurements, it is essential that the image should always
be formed in the fixed plane in the telescope where the cross-hairs are situated. The
I
refinement is usually more apparent than real as the target man may not be directed accurateiy
to make !he line of sight bisect !he target. operation of forming or bringing the clear image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs 'I
is known as focusing. Complete focusing involves two steps :
!I
. ::
9.5. THE SURVEYING TELESCOPE
(l) Focusing the eye~piece. The eye-piece unit is moved in or out with respect iii
The optical principles of !he surveying telescope are based on !he fact that all parallel t.i.I
to the cross-hairs so that the latter are clearly visible. By doing so, the cross-hairs are
rays of light reaching a convex lens are bent when they leave it in such a manner that brought in the plane of distinct vision which depends on eye-sight of a particular person. "'i
they intersect at a common point, called the . focus and that all the rays passing through
another point called the optical centre pass through the geometrical centre of lens without
(it) Focusing the objective. The purpose of focusing the objective is to bring !he
image of object in the plane of cross-hairs which are clearly visible. Tbe focusing can
n
bending.
-n
The surveyor's telescope is an adaptation of Kepler's telescope which employs two
be done externally or internally. u
,,
t·
The telescope in which the focusing is done by the external movement of either ,,
convex lenses ; the one nearest to the object is called the objectiVe and the other near Hi
objective or eye-piece is known as an external focusing telescope (Fig. 9.24) and the
the eye is called the eyepiece. !tl:
one in which the focusing is done internally with a negative lens is known as inlemal
The object glass provides a real inverted image in front of the eye-piece which, focusing telescope (Fig. 9.25). ll
in rurn, magnifies the i..'Dage to produce an inverted virtual image. Fig. 9.16 shows the
''-~' Parallax. If the image formed by objective lens is not in the same plane with cross-hairs, !V.i!1 i
optical diagram of such a telescope.
any movement of the eye is likely to cause an apparent movement of the image with
., .. b.~ respect to !he cross-hairs. This is called parallax. The parallax can be eliminated by focusing Jl
~ a as described above.

-----(::::::-~~~,-
A

Whether internal focusing or external focusing, a telescope consists of the following

'i
T ----- ....... ----- --- essential parts :
15
1r
lr
(t) Objective (il) Eye-piece (iil) Diaphragm (iv) Body and focusing device.
'i
~~
(t) OBJECTIVE
b
Eye
If simple (single) lenses are used, the telescope
would have various optical defects, known as aberrations,

·,,.II:~·
t'IU. ~.lo Ut'Ti(.AL DIAGRAM vr icLC.:,i...Vl'.C. which wouid resuit m curvarure, distortion, unwanted
colours and indistincmess of the image. In order to •.

The line of sight or line of collimation is a line which passes through the optical eliminate these defects as much as possible, the objective
f
centre of !he objective and !he intersection of cross hoirs. The axis of the telescope is ·•
!he line which passes through the optical centres of objective and eye-piece. The cross-hairs
and eye-piece lens are made up of two or more simple · ..·.·-~:·
lenses. The objective (Fig. 9.17) is invariably a compound !i
are placed in front of eye-piece and in the plane where the real inverted image is produced lens consisting of (a) the front double convex lens
by the objective. Thus, the eye-piece magnifies the cross-hairs also. made of crown glass and (b) the back concave-convex m
The distance from the objective of the image formed by it is connected with the lens made of flint glass, the two being cemented together
"distance of the object by the relation ..; with balsm at their common surface. Such compound FIG. 9.17. OBJEcriVE. i,!
I
-+-=-
I I lens is known as achromatic lens, and two serious ~
:-;
v u f optical defects viz., sPherical aberration and chiomatic aberration are nearly eliminated.
·:!
where u = distance of object from optical centre of objective (it) EYE-PIECE
v = distance of image from !he optical centre of objective In most of surveying telescopes, Ramsden eye-piece is used. It is composed of ·~
f = focal length of the objective. plano-convex lenses of equal foc_allength (Fig. 9.18), the distance between them being two-thirds
.~
~
 ·~
206 SURVEYING l.I!VELUNG
11rl
of the focal length of either. This eye-piece (iiz) DIAPHRAGM
'
:j gives a flat field of view. It is also known
as positive or oon-erecting eye-piece for the
inverted image, which is fonned by the object
glass, appears still inverted to the observer.
Aoother type of eye-piece, thougb not
I>
Eye
The CfOI!S·hairs, designed to give a definite lioe of sight, consist
a horizontal lu6r held in a flat metal ring called reticule. In modem
is an interchangeable cspsule which fits into the diaphragm,
of a vertical and
instruments, the reticule
a flanged metal ring held in
telescope barrel by four capstan-headed screws (Fig. 9.22). With the
help of these screws.
the position of the cross-hairs Jnside of the tube can be adjusted sligbtly,
commonly used, is Huygen 's eye-piece. It is both horizontally
and vertically, and a sligltt rotational movement is also possible.
composed of two plano-convex lenses (Fig. 9.19),
the distance between them being 'two-third of FIG. 9.18. RAMSDEN EYE·PlECS
the focal length of ihe larier and twice the
focal length of the smaiier. The ~lii:omatic air

I>
erration of this combination is sli!Jhtiy less and Diaphragm
spherical aberration is more than that ofRamsden's.
This is also a non-erecting eye-pie'Ce. Eye
Some telescopes are fitted with special
ereaing eye-pieces which give a magnified but .
inverted image of the image formed by the FIG.,·9;19. HUYGEN'S EYE-PIECE
objective and hence, the latter itself forms an inverted image. The
result is a magnified,
but erect image of the original object. The eye-piece consists of
four lenses (Fig. 9.20). FIG. 9.22 DIAPHRAGM AND RECfiCULE.
The eye-piece involves the use of extra lenses. This results in loss of
brilliancy of the The hairs are usually made of threads from cocoon of the brown spider,
image, which is a decided disadvantage. Additional advantages of but may
a non-erecting telescope
are (l) for any desired magnifying power,· the' length of non-erecting be .of very fine platinum wire of filaments of silk. In some instrume
telescope is shorter nts, the reticule consists
than the erecting telescope, (iz) the definition is certain to be better of a glass plate on which are etched fine vertical and horizoutal
because the image l;l .r- lines which serve as
cross-hairs. A few typical arrangements of the lines and points are
~-;:
illustrated in Fig. 9.23
?I of which (a), (b) and (c) are used in levels.

A><l . I . li> ;:~~-

~~
il'
?'
"'''
Jil·
EB®@ffi®
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
FIG- 9.'20 !:REC"TINa EYE-?!!':C'E

does not have to be erected but instead is formed by an achroma

precise work, the Ramsden eye-piece is to be preferred, ~
as inverted images are not a great disadvantage and
a surveyor .very soon gets used to them.
tic eye-piece. For all
@@ 0 0
(~ (g) (h) (Q
When the line of sigbt ·is very much inclined -. FIG. 9.23. CROSS-HAIRS
to the horizontal, it becomes inconvenient for the eye The horizontal hair is used to read the staff and the two vertical
to view througb ordinary eye-piece. In such a case, hairs enable the
surveyor to see if the staff is vertical laterally. Most telescopes
a diagonal eye-piece, such as shown in Fig. 9.21 are also equipped with
two more horizoutal hairs called sradia hairs, one above and other on
is used. Diagonal eye-piece, generally of Ramsden type, equal distances below
the horizontal cross-hair, for use in computing distances by stadia tacheom
consists of the two lenses and a reflecting prism or etry.
(iv) BODY AND FOCUSING DEVICE
a ntirror fitted at an angle of 45' with the axis of
The focusing device depends upon whether it is an eXternal focusing telescope
the telescope. Such eye-piece is very much useful in (Fig.
9.24) or an internal focusing telescope (Fig. 9.25). In the external
astronomical observations. focusing telescope.
the body is formed of two tubes one capable of sliding axially within
FIG. 9.21. DIAGONAL EYE·PlECE. the other by means
 209
SURVEYING LI!VELIJNG
208 I I
-I = - - + - - ... (2)
!' (f,-d ) (1-d)
""
- n
"'
From the above two conjugate focal equations, the distanc
a given vaiue ·of f, . When the object is at infinite distanc e, f,
e d can be koown for
equals f and d will have
~ I
II
t?oi ''
:

~'
' its minimum value.
I ·-':!'OJ Advantages of Internal Focusing Telescope
l:' - The advantages of the internal focusing over the extern
al focusing are as follows:
focusing. The focusing slide
AG. 9.24. EXTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE.
(I) The overall length of the rube is not altered during
is light in weight and located near the middle of
the telescope. Hence, the balance of
focusing screw. In some cases, the to be displaced during focusing.
of rack gearing with a' pinion anacbed to the milled the telescope is not affected and the bubble is less liable
so that the focusing movement is effected by glass cover of compass box.
oQjective cell is screwed to the inner rube, (2) Risk of breaking the parallel plate bubble rube or
rube carrying the cross-hairs and
movement of the objective relativelY 'to the outer fixed when transiting a thendnlite telescope, is elimiuated.
the outer rube and the eye-piece
·eye-piece. In other cases, the objective is mounted on (3) Wear on the rack and pinion is less due to lesser
movement of negative lens.
in focusing.
end, carrying the eye-piece and the diaphragm, moves (4) Line of collimation is less likely to be affected
by focusing.
to weathe r, oxidat ion is less likely to occur
(5) As the draw rube is not exposed
ally dust and water proof.
and the telescope can be made practic
instrument constant is almost
(6) ln making measurements by the· stadia methnd, an
eliminsted and the computations are thus simplif ied.
(7) The negative focusing lens serves a useful
optical purpose because the focal length
is greater than the distance between the objective
of the combined objective and negative lens
can be utilised to · increase the
lens and focal plane. This extra equivalent focal length
AG. 9.25. INTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE.
power.
ece are kept fixed and the (8) Internal focusing also gives the optical desigrt
er an extra lens to work with, in
In internal focusing telescope, the objective and eye-pi
concave lens mounted in a sbon e the diameter of the objective
focusing is done with help of a supplementary double order to reduce the aberrations of the system and to increas
agm and the objective. This sbon
rube which can be moved to and fro between the diaphr lens.
rube carrying the objective by means
rube holding the lens is moved along and inside the Disadvantages of Internal Focusing Telescope
Fig. 9.26 illustrates the principle underlying pe are as follows :
of rack and pinion and an external milled bead. ~ The. principal disadvantages of an internal focusing telesco
the focusing with a negative lens. · the image.
(I) The internal lens reduces the brilliancy of
ible for field cleaning and

t:-;~~:~,,=!~. - - -----l~
(2) The interior of the telescope is not so easily access
repairs.
OPTICAL DEFECTS OF A SINGLE LENS
The optical defects of a single lens are
Cross·halrs (!) Spherical aberration (2) Chromatic aberration

~-------/~==~d~~ (3) Coma (4) Astigmation

(5) Curvature of field (6) Distortion
FIG. 9.26.
Aberrations. Aberration is the deviation of the rays of light when unequally refracted
be formed at C. For the a focus but separate. forming an
In the absence of the negative lens B. the image will by a lens so that they do not converge and meet at
which is at D (cross-hairs) with prismatically coloured images.
negative lens B, point C forms the vinual object the final image of indistinct image of the object or an indistinct image
(I) Spherical Aberration. ln a single lens
having truly spherical surfaces, the rays
For the lens A having f as the focal length point. The rays through the edges
from a given point are not all collected exactly at one
rI J.I + J,.1 ...(!)
converge slightly nearer the lens than those through
the centre. (Fig. 9.27). This defect

For the lens B, having f ' as the focal length,

 SURVEYING LEVELLING 211
2t0
' of !he image of 1elescope
(4) lliumination or Brightness. The illuntination or brightness ,.~
or imperfection, arising from !he form of curvature · quality of !he lenses. llluntinatinn
dOpends upon lhe magnifying power and !he number and lenses. I !i

of !he Ieos is known as spherical aberralion or is inversely proportional to magnif ication and numbe r of
sometimes as axial spherical aberralion. The spherical n the angle subtended at !he eye 'I
(S) Magnification. Magnification is the ratio betwee
aberration of a negative lens lends to neutralise
that of a positive Ieos. Hence !he positive and negative by !he virtual image,i and that sublended by !he object and depends upon lhe ratio of
!he eye-piece. The magnification
J
i !~.
!he focal lenglh of the objective )ens to lhe focal lenglh of
elements of an achromatic Ieos can be so shaped light which enters !he ielescope),
.should be proportional to !he aperture (i.e to lhe asnount of !·:·I~
as practically tci eliminale spherical aberration also. y objects will appeas
.'because if !he magnification is too high for !he aperrure, !he ordinar
.!

(See Fig. 9.17 also). ,

;.;
too small for accurate sighting.
FIG. 9.27. SPHERICAL ABERRATION. faint and if magnification is too low !he objects will appeas :~ I
(2) Chromatic Aberration. A,beam of while light of image, reduces the field of view ii
, Provision of higher magnification reduces brilliancy
is made up of seven colQurs~. oJange , yellow
and wastes more time in focusing. \'i
green, blue, indigo and violet. Since ihdoc al lenglh
of any single Ieos is different for 'each different
(6) Size of field. By field of view is meant !he
whole circulas asca seen at Iii I

view is not merely dependent upon lhe size

one time lhrough lhe telescope. The field of
colour of light, a beam of while light instesd of
conver ging at a focus after passing mrough a singk
A
of lhe hole in ·the cross-hair reticule , but it also increas es as lhe magnification of the I·~I:f
lelescope decreases. [!I
lens. is distribuled along !he axis in a series of t,;l

focal points. The violet ray ·is refracled most and 9.6. TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A LEVEL ··:!

i··~l
., ~·· (I) 1emporasy adjustments,
the red is refracted least (Fig. 9.28). This defect 9.28. CHROMATIC ABERRATION. Each surveying inslrUIDent needs two types of adjusbnents : 1

is known as chromatic aberrtUion due to which

FIG.
and (2) permanent adjusbnents. Temporary adjustmems
or Stalion adjustmems ase those
t~ j
a blurred and coloured image is formed. The chromatic tory to taking observations with
which are made at every inslrUIDent setting and prepara iii
·lenses. It is, lherefore, possible only when lhe fundamental relations
aberrations ase of opposite sigos in positive and negative
~I
!he inslrUIDent. Pel7110Jienl adjustmems need be made
chroma tjc aberration of a negative Ieos of relatively Chapte r 16).
to make a combination Ieos in which me· between some pasts or lines ase disrurbed (See
tic aberration of positive Ieos
low power is sufficient practically to neutraliZO !he chroma The temporary adjusbnents for a level coosist of !he followi
ng :
of relative high power. Fig 9.17 shows such an achromatic
lens in which !he ouler double (3) Elimination of parallax.
(1) Setting up !he level (2) Levelling up
o-convex Ieos of flint glass.
convex lens is made of crown glass and !he inner · concav includes (a) fixing !he inslrUIDent I
ments in !he design of 1, Setting up the Level. The operation of setting up I
The eliminalion of aberrations is only one of !he require on !he stand, and (b) levelling !he inslrUIDent approximately
by leg adjusbnent. To fix
ines to a coosiderable degree /iii
a telescope. The extent to which this aim is achieved dererm !he level to !he tripod, the clasnp ·is released, inslrUIDent
is held in !he right-hand and
!he quality of telescope. wilh !he left hand. The tripod
tion, curvarure, distortion is fixed on the tripod by turning round the lower pan :,,:
The other possible defects in a single lens, i.e. coma, astigma conven ient height and the tribrach is
legs ase so adjusted that lhe inslrUIDent is at lhe
If further infoJ:II1lltion be required, circular bubble
approximately. horizcntal Some ~r.s~~ment~
etc.. ase of little importance to !he majority of surveyors. are also provide d with a small
d text books on physics or !h
reference should be made to any of the elementary standar on !he tribrach.
imately, accurate levelling ..G
optics. 2. Levelling up. After having levelled the inslrUIDent approx ill
and with referen ce to lhe plate levels. The purpose
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TELESCOPE is done wilh !he help of foot screws
of levelling the inslrUIDent i· ~ ;
ase as follows : of levelling is to malce the vertical axis truly vertical. The
manner ,:]
The desirable optical chasacteristics of surveying 1elescope g screws or four levelling
al aberration. A compound lens. by lhe plate levels depends upon whelher !here ase lhree
levellin il
(1) Aplanation. Aplanation is !be absence of spheric screws. Iii'
combination.
free from spherical aberration, is known as an aplanatic (a) Three Screw Head
!!
iii
(2) Achromatism. Achromation is !be absence of chroma tic aberration. A compound ~~
axis of !he plate level
lenS, free from chromatic aberration, is known as an achrom
atic combination. 1. Loose !he clasnp. 'I\trn !he inslrUIDent until the longitudinal ill
and of !he levelling screws
is roughly pasallel to a line joining any two (such as A
B)
(3) Definition. Definition, as applied to a lelescope,
is its capability of producing
power to form distinguishable [Fig. 9.29 (a)]. :~
a sharp image; This resolving power of a telescope is !he
it wholly depends upon definition. 2. Hold lhese two levelling screws between !he lhurnb and
first finger of each hand ~~
images of objects sepasated by small angulas ·distances and olher or away from
The definition depends upon lhe exlent to which !he defects
of a single len.i have been afid tUm !hem uniformly so that !he thumbs move either
be
towasd
noted
s each
thtU the bubble will move II
eliminated and also upon the accuracy in centring the
lenses on one axis. each omer until !he bubble is central. It should (a)].· · ,l
on of movem em of the left thumb [see Fig.' 9.29
;.in, the 'directi ~~
:]j
 21~
SURVEYING t.EVELL!NG

;'f0 \\'.
212
sighting is impossible. Parallax can be eliminated in two steps : (I) by focusing the eye-piece
3. Turn the upper plate
through 90', i.e., until the axis Q
,. c . . C'.
for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and (ir) by focusing the objective to bring the image
of the object in. the plane of cross-hairs.

I
on the level passes over the position

(i~>o 0·----- - - - _ :·a

(r) Focusing the eye-piece
of the third levelling screw C [Fig.
To focus the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs. point the telescope towards
9.29 (b)].
the sky (or hold a sheet of white paper in front of the objective) and move eye-piece
4. Tum this levelling screw
in or out till the cross-baris are seen sharp and distinct. In some telescopes. graduations
until the bubble is central. are provided at the eye-piece so that one can always remember the particular graduation
5. Remrn the upper part A B A B . position to suit his eyes. This may save much of time.
through 90' to its original positjon c (a) (b)
(il) Focusing the objective
[Fig. 9.29 (a)] and repeat step FIG. 9.29. LEVELLING-UP Wml TIIREE FOOT SCREWS. The telescope is now directed towards the staff and the focusing screw in rurned
(2) tJU. the bubble is central.
till the image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the plane of cross-hairs.
6. ·Tum back again through 90' and repeat step (4).
9.7. THEORY OF DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELING)
7. Repeat steps (2) and (4) till the · bubble is central in both the positions.
8. Now rotate the instrument· through 180' . The bubble should remain in the ceritre A level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e., a line tangential to :: level surface
at the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points
of its run, provided it is in correct adjustment. The vertical. ~ will then be truly verti¢al.
'··'· . · is the vertical distance between two level lines. Strictly speaking, therefore, we must have
If not, it needs periTUlllenl adjustmenl.
circle for the changes in direCiion a level line of sight and not a horizontal line of sight ; but the distinction between a
Note. It is essemial to keep the same quarter level surface and a horizontal plane is ~ot an important one in plane surveying.
and nor to swing through the remaining three quaners of a circle to the original position.
Neglecting the curvature of earth and refraction, therefore, the theory of direct levelling
(b) Four Screw Head is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation between any
I. Tum the upper plate until the longirudi~. axis of the plate level is roughly parallel two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference between the rod readings
to the line joining two diagoually opposite screws such as D and B [Fig. 9.30 (a)]. taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related readings. the
2. Bring the bubble central exactly in the same manner as described in step (2) difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained.
above. SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING
3. Turn the upper part through 90' until the spirit level axis is parallel to the other • (a) Differential Levelling. It is the method of direct levelling the object of which
two diagoually opposite screws such as A and C [Fig. 9.30 (b)]. is solely to determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal
c
4. Centre the bubble as before.
5. Repeat the above steps tJU the
bubble is central in both the positions.
6. Turn through 180' to check the
o, ' ·,
-...,,/
~--~,.'
8. '·,, ~-''
·'
Q
positions of the points with respect of each other. When the points are apart. it may
be oecessary to set up the instruments serveral times. This type of levelling is also knowo
as fly levelling.
• (b) Profile Levelling, It is the method of direct-levelling the object of which is to
·u
:•.U'
~:u~
,_,.,· ........ ,/:<....,._.~] determine the elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to
::~1
ro
permanent adjustment as for three screw A
obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
instrumeru.
In modern instrument~. three-foot
screw levelling bead is used in preference
cf· ··-··o o· • (c) Cross-Sectioning. Cross-sectioning or cross-levelling is the pr6cess of taking levels
on each side of a main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical
]i!il
:!HI
··.n·
' ii·fu
cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.
to a· four foot screw level!ing head. The
three-screw arrangement is the better one,
(a) (b)

FIG. 9.30. t.EVELUNG-UP Wmi FOUR-FOOT

, (d) Reciprocal Levelling. It is the method of levelling in which the difference in
,.'
elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations "'!

.;~
as three points of support are sufficient
for stability and the introduction of an extra point of support leads to uneven wear on when it is not possible to set up the level between the two points.
tlte Screws. On the other hand, a four-screw levelling bead is simpler and lighter as a (e) Precise Levelling. It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required
three-screw head requires special casting called a tribrach. A three-screw instrument has is too great to be attained by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore. special. equipment ~~
also the important advantage of being more rapidly levelled. or special precautions or both are necessary to eliminate, as far as possible. all sources ·ll
il
,.,,
3. Elimination of Parallax. Parallax is a condition arising when the :mage formed of error.
'I
hy the objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate d
il
:\!
·:!
I SURVEYING LEVELLING 2lS
214
Ii
TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS A level is· set up approximately ntidway between the bench mark (or a point of
known elevation) aDd the point, the elevation of which is to be ascertaiDed by direct levelling.
(!) Station. In IevelliDg, a station is that point where the level rod is held aDd
A back sight 'is taken on the rod held at the bench mark. TbeD
not where level is set up. It is the point whose elevation is to be ascertaiDed or the . .. (1)
H.l. = Elv. of B.M. +B.S.
point that is to be established at a given elevation.
(il) Height of Instrummt (H.I.) For any set up of the level, the height of instrument TurniDg the telescope to briDg into view the rod held on point B, a foresight (minus

is the elevation of plane of sight (line of sight) with respect to the assumed datum. It sight) is taken. Then
does not mean the height of the telescope above the ground where the level s!aDds. ~=ru-u ... rn
(iii) Back Sight (B.S.). Back sight is the sight taken on a rod held at a point For exatnple, if elevation of B.M. =210.852 m, B.S.= 2.324 m aDd F.S. = 1.836 m.
of known e/evaJion, to asce<tajn· the atnount by which the line of sight is above that Then H.l. = 210.852 + 2.324 = 213.176 m
point and thus to obtain tjle height of the instrument. Back sighting is equivalent to measuring aDd Elv. of B= 213.176-1.83 6 = 211.340 m.
up from the point of known elevation · to the line of sight. It is also known as a p/Jls
sight as the back sight reading is. always added to the level of the datum to get the It is to be ooted that if a back sight is rakeD on a bench mark located on the
height of the instrument. The object of back sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the height roof of a tunnel or on the ceiliDg of a room with the instrument at a lower elevation,
the back sight must be subtracted from the elevation to get the height of the instrument.
of the plane of sight.
Similarly, if a foresight is taken on a point higher than the instrument, the foresight must
:: (iv) Fore Sight (F.S.). Fore sight is a sight taken on a rod held at a point' of
be added to the height of the instrument, to get the elevation of the point.
unknown elevation, to ascertaiD the atnount by which the . point is below the line of
sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the station. Fore sighting is equivalent to 9.8. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
measuring down from the line of sight. It is als<i known as a minus sight as the fore The operation of 1evelliDg to determiDe the elevation of points at some distance apart
sight reading is always subtracted (except in speical cases of tunnel survey) from the height is called differenriol levelling aDd is usually accomplished by direct levelling. When two
of the instrument to get the elevation of the point. The object of fore sighting is, therjore, poiDts. are at such a distance from each other that they cannot both be within range of
to ascertain the e/evaJion of llle point. the level ill the satne time, the difference in elevation is not found by single setting but
l' (v) TurniDg PoiDt (T.P.). TurniDg point or clumge point is a point on which both the distance between the points is divided in two stages by turniDg points on which the
miDus sight and plus sight ate iaken on a line of direct levels. The minus· sight (fore staff is held aDd the difference of elevation of each of succeeding pair of such turniDg
sight) is taken on the point in one set of instrument to ascertain the elevation of the points is found by separille setting up of the level.
point while the plus sight (back sight) is taken on the satne point in other set of the
instrument to establish the new · height of the instrument. <D g

1
~
(vi) Intermediate Station (I.S.). Intermediate station is a point, intermediate between
two turniDg points, on which only one· sight (miDus sight) is taken to determiDe the elevation
of the station.
~I 24~024 l !i!
I
242.590
2¥12 _
I

STEPS IN LEVELLING (Fig. 9.31) "

~

There are two steps in levelling : (a) to find by bow much atnount the line of T.P.1
(240.604) T.P.2
sight is above the bench mark, aDd (b) to ascertain by bow much atnount the next point A
(240.490)
(240.000)
is below or above the line of sight.
FIG. 9.32
I Line ofs~hl ELV. 213.176 I1.836 Referring to Fig. 9.32, A aDd B are the two points. The distance AB bas been
2.324 ..
divided into three parts by choosing two additional points on which staff readings (both
B plus sight and miDus sight) have been taken. Points 1 and 2 thus se:ve as ruming points.
The R.L. of point A is 240.00 m. The height of the first setting of the instrument
ELY. 211.340 is therefore = 240.00 + 2.024 = 242.024. If the followiDg.F.S. is 1.420. the R.L. of
B.M. T.P. 1 =242.024- 1.420 = 240.604 m. By a similar process of calculations, R.L. of T.P.
ELV. 210.852
2 =240.490 m aDd of B =241.202 m.
FIG. 9.31.
 LEVELLtNG 217
SURVEYING
216
The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method
9.9. HAND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIONS·
of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by beigbt of instrument method.
When levelling is done at construction site located in busy, noisy areas, it becomes
difficult for the instrument man to give instructions to the man balding the staff at the Station B.S I.S. F.S. H. I. R.I.. I Remtuis I
other end. through vocal sounds. In that case, the following hand signals are found to A 0.865 561.365 560.500. I o:M. on Gate

be useful (Table 9.1 and Fig. 9.33) B 1.025 2.105,. 56!).285' 559.26()
TABLE 9.1. HAND SIGNALS c 1.580 558.705 Plalform
D 2.230 1.865 560.650 558.420
Refer SigiUll Message
E 2.355 2.835 560.270 " 5S7.8t5
Fi•. 9.33

1,., r 1
Movement of left Move to_ my left F 1.760 558.4t0
(a}
ann over 90° /.· Ch<Ck 6.475 8.565 558.4t0 Chocked
~ove ·'w,· my 6.475 560.500
(b) Movement of
right ann over 90° right 2.090 F~l 2.090 --

Movement of left Move top/of

(CI
arm over 30° staff to my lefi (a) (b) (c) Arithmetic Check. The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of
sbould be equal to the difference between the last and the first R.L. Thus
(d) II Movement of Move top of - I
~ ~
fore sights
l:B.S. - 'EF.S. = Last R.L. - First R.L.
lei
right ann over
Extension of ann
[ horizontally and
30° staff to my right ,
Raise height peg·
or staff
A,, A' J\i The method affords a check for the H.(. and R.L. of turning points but not for
the intermediate points.
1 moving hand
! upwards !
I
(d) (e) (Q (2) RISE AND FALL METHOD
(j} ] Extension of ann Lower height In rise and fall method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated . but the

~
.•

A
horizontally and
moving hand
peg or staff difference of level between consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings
downwards on the two points for the same setting of the instrument. The difference between their
(g) Extension of both Establish lhe staff readings indicates a rise or fall according as the staff reading at the pt>int is smaller
: arms and slightly position . (g) (h) or greater than that at the preceding point. The figures for 'rise' and 'fall' worked out
I thrusling downwanls thus for all the points give the vertical distance of each point above or below the preceding
(h) Extension of arms Rerum to me
and placement of I one, and if the level of any one point is known the level of the next will be obtained
! hand on top of i by adding its rise or subtracting its fall, as the case may be.
, head. The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method
FIG. 9.33. HAND SIGNALS.
9.10. BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by rise and fall method :
There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall i R.I.. i Remarks
observed staff readings : (I) Collimation or Heig/a of Instrument method : (2) Rise and
Fall method.
.
Slllli<ln
0.86~ .

• 2.tQS • l.24ll
560.500
559.260 i
B.M. on Ga[e

(1) HEIGHT. OF lNSTR!lMENI METHOD I! 1.07.5

I!{ this mehtod. the height of the instrument (H.l.) is calculated for each setting c 1.580 • 0.555 ' 558.705 Platfonn

of the instrument by adding back sight (plus sight) to the elevation of the S.M. (First D 2.236 .. 1,86~ I 0.285 558.420
point). The elevation of reduced level of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting E 2.355 2.815 0.605 557.8t5
from H.l. the fore sight (minus sight). For the next setting of the instrument. the H.l. 1.760 0.595 558.410 '
;
F
is obtained by ·adding the B.S taken on T.P. I to its R.L. The process continues till
the R.L. of the last point ( a fore sight) is obtained by subtracting the. staff reading from Check 6.475 8.565 0.595 2.685 558.410
6.475 0.595 560.500 I Checked
height of the last setting of the instrument. If there are some intermediate points, the R.L.
of those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (minus sight) from the F~l 2.090 F~l 2.090 2.090
height of the instrument for that setting. ~
 LEVELLING 219
SURVEYING
218
points P and Q
sum of fore Example 9.2. It was required to ascertain the elevation of two
Arltbmetli: Check. The difference between the sum of back sights and then continued to a bench
of rise and the sum of fall and a line of levels was run from P to Q. The levelling was
sights should 1» equal to the difference !»tween the sum Obtain the R.L. of P and Q.
ce between the R.I. of last and first point. Thus, mark of 83.SOOi the readings obtained being as shown below.
and should also 1» equal to the differen
l:B.S. -U.S. = l: Rise -l: Fall= Last R.L. - First R.L. B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. Remarks
The arithmetic check p i
This provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also. 1.622 I
more errors occurring in such
would only fail in the unlikely, but possible, case of two 1.874 0.354 I
a manner as to balance each other. 2.032 1.780 I
ions shall be completed
It is advisable that .on each page the rise and fall calculat 2.362 Q
ce of the back and fore sight column summations,
and checked by comparing with· the' differen .0.984 1.122
before the reduced level calcula tio~ "are commen ced.
ent (or collimation /.906 2.824
Comparison of the Two MethodS. The height of the instrum 2.036 83.500 B.M.
tedious and simple. Howeve r. since the check on the .I
level) method is more rapid, less
s in their levels pass unnoticed. Solution•.
calculations for intermediate sights is not available, the mis!alce
The rise and fall method though more tedious, provides a
full check in calculations (or To find the R.J.s. of P and Q, we will have to proceed from bottom to the top.
all sights. However, the height of instrument method is more suitable in case, where! it To find the H. I., therefore, F. S. readings will have to be added to the R.L. of the koown
is required to take a number of reading s from the same ~ ..
ibstrum ~
ent setting, such as .for point and to find the R.L. of the previous point, the B.S. will have to be subtracted
as clearly shown in tbe table below ·
,~,i

"
constructional work, profile levellin g etc. from the so obtained H.l. ::!:.
ively with a /.Vel.
Example 9.1. The following staff readings were observed success Station B.S l.S. F.S. H. I. R.L. Remaris :!' ~
moved after third, sixth and eighth readings : 2.228 ; /.606
the instrUment having been \i:j
2.684 metres. ....
; 0.988 ; 2.090 ; 2.864 ; /.262 ; 0.602; 1.982 ; 1.04_4 ; p
' 1.622 84.820 83.198
·i'j
e the R.L. of points
Enter the abave readings in a page of a ./eve/ book and calculat 1.874 0.354 86.340 84.466
'~t=!l·'i
m.
if the first reading was taken with a staff held on a bench mark of 432.384 2.032 1.780 86.592 84.560
Solution.
readings, these readings
Q 2.362 ' ' 84.230 !
!ii
Since the instrument was shifted after third, sixth and eighth 0.984 1.122 86.454 85.470 ~~'ii,l
and therefore, the fourth, seventh and ninth readings
will be entered in ·the F.S. column 1.906 2.824 85.539 83.630
·''J
B.S. column . Also, the first reading will be entered in the B.S. •i
:::;1
will be entered on the 2.036 I 83.500 B.M.
column and the last reading in the F.S. column. All other
reading s will be entered in '~1
the I. S. column.
fall method as tabulated
'~i Check 8.418
8.116
8.116 83.500
83.198 I
The reduced levels of the points may be calculated by rise and Checked

-
Rise 0.302 0.302
I I I I
below · ' with a level and 5 I'
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. FaD R.L. RelfiiiTts Example 9.3. The following consecutive readings were taken !
comman interval of 20 metres:
I 2.228
432.384 B.M.
metre levelling staff on continuously sloping ground at a I
; 2.825 ; 3.730 ; 4.(jJl5 ; 0.625 ; 2.005 ; · 3./lO ; 4,485. The
; 1.030; /.925
2
3 2.090
1.606
0.988
0.622
D.6l8
433.006
433.624 T.P.l
·0.385
. .
reduced level of the first point was 208./25
....
in. Rule'
~

out a page of a level field book i

s. Calculate the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall ]
4 2.864 0.714 432.850 and enter the above· reading
the last point.
s 0.602 1.262 1.602 ~34.452 · T.P. 2 method and also 7he gradient of the line joining the first and
1.982 1.380 433.on T.P. 3 Solution.
6 1.044
the maximum staff
7 2.684 1.640 431.432 Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground,
therefore, sixth reading will be a fore 'sight taken
6.916 2.842 3.794 432.384 reading can be 5 metres only, and
2.842 431.432 reading will be a back sight. Also, the first reading
Check S.964 S.964
Cbockcd on a turning point and the seventh
The levels can be readily
Fall 0.952 · Fall 0.952 0.952 will be a back sight and the last reading will be a fore sight.
calculated as shown in the tabular form below:
 SURVEYING LEVELUNG
221
l I
220
!'
/.S. ! F.S. Ri.se Fall R.L. : RtiiUIIb Also, Rise of station 4 = 2.105- 1.960 = 0.145 m
Station B.S.
,.. I 0.385
208.125 i and R.L. of station 4 = 232.025 + 0.145 = 232.170 m
2 1.030. 0.645 207.480 I (iv) k.L.
of station 5 = 232.170-0.300 = 231.870 m
3 1.925 0.895 ' 206.585 i (v) From the known R.L. of stations 6 and 5, the rise of
station 6 can be calculated
0.900 2os.6ss I
'tl 4 2.112S
I 0.905 204.780
Thus, Rise of station 6 = 232.255 - 231.870 = 0.385 i
s I 3.730
i l.S. of station 6 = 2.050 - 0.385 = 1.665 I
1""' 6 : 0.625 : 4.685 : I 0.955 203.325
202.445 l (vi) F.S. of station 7 = 1.665 - 0.340 = 1.325 ;I
7
' 2.005 ' 1.380
R.L. of station 7 = 232.255 + 0.340 = 232.595
and · .~
·~ 8 i 3.110 1.105 201.340
.~
.-4.485 1.375 199.965 Fall of station 8 = 2.100- 1.690 = 0.410
(vir) 14
[ '
Check
I
II 1.010 .9.-170 I 0.000 8.160 208.125 R.L. of station 8 = 232.595 - Q.410 = 232.185
1!-1
11
i ,~I
1.010 0.000 199.965 232.185)
(viit) Since the elevation of station 9 is 233.425 m, it has a rise of (233.425-
I Fall 8..160 Fall 8.160 8.160
= 1.240 m. .!A
1:
F.S. of station 8 = 2.865 - 1.240 = 1.625 m. u'
Gradient of the line= ~O~~~ = 19~ 61 =I in 1?.~1 (falling). below I~~'. I
The above results and calculations are shown in the tabular form
1 book. some
Example 9.4. The following figures were exJracted jiom a level field Station B.s. I.S. F.S. Ri.se Fall R.L. Rtnuul<s '
exposure to rain. Insert tile missing figures 'qnd
of the entries being illegible owing to I I 2.285 232.46() I B.M. I
check your res111Js. Rebook all the figures fly tire 'rise' and 'fall" method.
2 1.650 2.265 0.020 232.480 I
' J.S. F.S. I Ri.se I Fall R.L. : ReiiUIIb 232.025 I
Station
I •
B.S.
2.285 ... ~· '
:
232 . 46() _j B.M. I ' 4
3
1.625
2.105
1.960 0.145
0.455
232.170 I
2 I /.6SO X 0.020 i 231.870 ;
5 2.050 1.925 0.300
3
I i
2 .I05 X
I 6 1.665 0.385 232.255 i B.M. 2

4 : X I.960 X J 7 1.690 1.325 0.340 232.595 I

~~
5 ! 2.050 I.925 0.300 ' 8 2.865 2.100 I 0.410 232.185
• 6 X
I X : ' 232 .255 I B.M. 2
9 1.625 1.240 233.425 B.M. 3

7 i I.690 X 0.340 i I
Check I •12.165 11.200 2.130 1.165 233.425
I I :!~
! 11.200 1165 232 46()
8 ! 2.865 ! I 2.100 I X
'
i i Rise l_ Checked_]
9 i I X X I 233.425 B.M. 3 0.965 Rise 0.965 - - 0.965
A ;;·as ,,
Example 9.5. During a construction work, the bortom of a R.C. Chhajja
Solution. recorded. L
the known rise. taken as a temporary B.M. (R.L. 63.120). The following notes were
(r) The F.S. of station 2 is missing, but it can be calculated from 2. 232
1, its F.S. will be lesser than the B.S. of station Reading on inverted staff on B. M. No. A.
Since station 2 is higher than station l. 034
I (higher the point, lesser the reading). Hence, Reading on peg P on grolllld :
Change of instrume nl
F.S. of station 2 = 2.285- 0.020 = 2.265 m 1. 328
Reading on peg P on ground :

~
and R.L. of station 2 = 232.460 + 0.02 = 232.480 m cornice B : 4.124
Reading on inverted staff on bottom of
Fall of station 3 = 2.105 - 1.650 = 0.455 m B.
Enrer the readings in a level book page and calculate tile R.L. of cornice
tit)
1,1
:. R.L. of station 3 = 232.480 - 0.455 = 232.025 m Solution
of station 5.
li (iit) B.S. of staion 4 can be calculated from the fact that the F.S. The first reading was taken on an inverted staff and therefore it
will have to be
having a fall of 0.300 m. is 1.925 m subtracted from the R.L. to get the H.l. Sintilarly, the last reading was
taken on an invened
Thus, B.S. of station 4 = I. 925 - 0. 300 = I. 625 m staff, and the R.L. of the cornice B will be obtained by adding the F.S. reading to the
 ¥'1--.-.
223
SURVEYING LEVE!.I.lNG
222
been taken
H.l. Use (-) sign for the B.S. of A and F.S. of B since both of these have
normal ones. The calculations are shown in table the below:
in reverse directions than the level lin,

B.S. I.S. F.S. R.I. R.L RetiUUb

Poinl
-2 .232 60 .888 63.120
A
H
p 1.328 1.034 61.182 59.854 I
level nne fhro• A
. I
'' -4.124 65.306
B ' I
65.306
(The eff&ct of refraction tlas not been shown)
Che<k -0.940 -3.090
-3.090 63.120 FIG. 9.35
+
Rise 2 .186 Checked H=&-fu=~-M-~-~=~-~-~-~
Rise + 2.186 H
If the horizontal distance AC and BC are not equal, true difference in elevation
9.11. BALANCING BACKSIGHTS AND FORESIGHTS cO!tllot be found unless ha' and ho are numerically found (see Art. 9.7). But if the distanceS
a .single H will equal
When the difference in elevation between any two points is delermined from AC and BC are balanced (i.e., made equal), ha' and ho would be equal and
ing on one point and foresighting on the other, the error due to non-parallelism
set-up by backsight to (h,- h•) .
is in the ceritre ·or
of line of collimation and axis of the bubble rube (whe,i. the bubble Thus, if the backsight and foresight distances are balanced, the elevation between
refraction may be eliminated· if the
the run) and also the error due to curvature and points is equal to the difference betWeen the rod readings taken to the two points
twO
lengths of two sights can be made equal.
and no correction for curva/Ure and refraction is necessary.
In Fig. 9.34, let ob-
BALANCING SIGHT ON A SLOPE
servations be made with a
level in which the line of
collimation is inclined up-
"-----·"'------ -------1 $r
T.,
When the points lie on a sloping ground, the level should be set off to
far enough to equalise, as nearly as practicable the uphill and downhill
sights.
one side

(turning
wards by an amount a from In Fig. 9.36, it is required to set the level between two points T.P. I
Let the level be set up at A far enough uphill to bring the line of
horizontal, when the bubble point) and T.P. 2.
turning point T. P. I. A
is in the centre of its run, ojB sight just below the top of an exlended rod when held on the
A o, D2·
turning poirn T.P. 2 can then be establised far enough uphill to bring the line of sight
the level being kept exactly turning point T. P. 2. The level
FIG. 9.34. BALANCING B.S. AND F.S. just above the bottom of the rod when held on the
midway between the two distance being
points A and B. The observed at A is nearly on the line between T.P. I and T.P. 2, the corresponding
will be eoual to (say). On the contrary, if the level is set up at B, instead of A. off
backs1ght and foresight ar~ r. and X:. The ~orrect hacksiQ'ht on A 20 m and 12 m
to XJ: - y2 where to one side but at nearly the
x 1 - y1, where y 1 = D 1 tan a_ . The correct foresight on B will be equal
same elevation as at A, so
y, = D2 tan a. Hence the correct difference in level between A and B
:1
that sights on T.P. 1 and T.P. :0
T.P.2
=~-~-~-~=~-~+~-~ 2 can still be taken and dis- "' 1,..,.,.,.,
= + =
(x, - x,) (D, tan a - D, tan a) (x, - x,) if D, =D, tanceS of T.P. 2 and T.P. "' ~/ ........ §o,
1 from B can be equal, the ~ ~/ .................. ..
Thus, if backsight and foresight distances are balanced, the difference in eleva/ion --;.ElB
between two points can be directly calculated by taking difference of the two readings
and error due to non-adjustment g > A«(
5
of sight is necessary. of collimation will be elimi- l \
\ ......
.........
no correction for the inc/inaJion of the line
Fig 9.35 illustraleS how the error due to curvature can be eliminated by
equalising nated. .g. \~
\-'.I.
'<' .........
......
....... l
backsight and foresight distances.
a level line), the staff reading at
Since
point
the
A =
level
h,
provides
and at a
horizonta
point B =
l line
hb .
of
The
sight (and not
correct staff
To take a numerical ex-
ample, let the level have line
:1
" \
T.P.1
.........
.
. . . . 4z.~
·
of sight inclined upwar,ds by 0:
readings sbould have been H, and H• so thO! :0 Plan ,_:
H11 = hb - hb'
an amount 0.008 mettes in
Ho = ho - ha' and
every 100 metres. When the FIG. 9.36.
The correct difference in elevation between A and B, therefore is given by
 !2S
SURVEYING LEVELLING
224
Exact reading if !here were no collimation error. would be
level is at A, lhe error in lhe rod readings will be 0
For T.P. 2 : 0.12 x 0.008 = 0.00096 m at A : !.68jl- ( · : x 70·) = 1.684-0.09 3 = 1.591 m
For T.P. 1 : 0.20 x 0.008 = 0.00160 m 0
at B 2.122- ( · : X 100) = 2.122-0.13 3 = 1.989 m.
Error in lhe levelling= 0.00064 m So lhat lhe true difference .. in elevation = 1.989 - 1.591 = 0.398 m as given in lhe
Again. if lhe level were at B. lhe emors in rod readings would be question.
at T.P. 2 : 0.50 x 0.008 = 0.0040 m Example 9.7. A page of a level book was defaced so that the only legible figures
T.P. I: 0.52 x 0.008 =.0.00416 m were (a) consecutive elllries in the column of reduced levels : 55.565 (B.M.) : 54.985
(f.P.) ; 55.170 ; 56.265 ; 53.670 ; 53.940: (f.P.); 52.180; 52.015: 5!.480 ff.P.l;
Error in levelling= ~.00016 m 53.145 : 54.065 (f.B.M.); (b) entries in the bocksighl column: 1.545: 2310: 0.105 :
3.360 in order from the top of the page.
Thus. when lhe level is at B. 'lhe error in levelling is about {- lh of lhe error if
Reconstruct the page as booked and check your work. Calculate the corrected level
lhe level is set at A. By moving B farrher away, lhe error may be reduced until it approaches of the T.B.M. if the instrumelll is known to have an elevared collimation error of 60 " and
zero, as lhe lenglhs of lhe two sights from B become nearly equal. bock and foresight distance averaged 80 and 30 metres respectively.
Example 9.6. A level set up an extended line BA in a position 70 metres from Solution. There are lhree turning points on which bolh back and foresights have
A and 100 metres from B reads 1.684 on a staff held Ill ~<'and 2.122 on a staff held been taken. The first sight is a backsight. The four backsight readings will. lherefore. '"'
ar B, the bubble having been carefully brought to the centre of its run before each reading. be entered in order, one against lhe B.M. point and olher lhree against lhe lhree turning ~;
It is known thai the reduced levels of the tops of the pegs A and II ·are 89.620 aild points. The last R.L. corresponds to T.B.M. on which a foresight is missing. All olher
89.222 respectively. Find (a) the collimation error, and (b) the readings 1:1at would have sights will be J.S. and F.S. which are to be found. Knowing R.t.. and B.S. of any point.
;,
been obtained had t/rere been no collimation error. lhe F. S. of lhe point can very easily be calculated. The readings having ( x ) mark are j;
Solution. Exact difference in elevation in"B and A missing quantities which have been computed as shown in lhe tabular foim "l
= 89.620- 89.222 = 0.398 m, B being lower.
.<rMinn I R..<. ,. ~ ..; Rt ' Rcmatks
'" !:
As per observations, difference in elevation '
= 2.122- !.684 = 0.438 m, B lower.
I ' 1.545
I ! 57.110
'
55.565 ' B.M.
1~
2 2.310 I x2 .125 ! 57.295 ' 54.985
[
T.P.
This shows B to be lower lhan what it is. We know !hat. lower is lhe point, greater I I '
is lhe staff reading. Hence, lhe staff reading at B is greater lhan what it should be and 3
l X 2.125 [ f
55.170
lhus. lhe line of sight is inclined upwards, as shown in Fig. 9.37, by an amount 0.438 - 0.398 l
4 I X 1.030 I 56.265 !
= 0.040 m in a distance of 30 m. '
5 I I
X 3.625 ' 53.670
!
0
3~
I
Therefore tan a= = 0.0013333
6
' 0.105 X 3.355 54.045 l 53.940 T.P. !
We know lhat tan 60" = 0.0002909 ; 52.180
~
7 X 1.865 i !
Hence by proporrion, a=
13333 X 60
seconds = 4' 34" upwards. 'I 52.015
'
2909 8 X 2.030 i
3.360 X 2 .565 54.840 51.480 T.P.
,040 9
False line of slaht

~
10 X 1.695 53.145
__j
'
Ill
~
'Xf"""""""'!f"
I ·-·-·-·-·-·-· ·-·-.1.-.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·a
II I X 0.775 I : 54.065
i
T.B.M. ;
...!
55.565 '
B l lA I 7.320 ~·~ ~OtiS '
1<-- 30m 70 m----~
Check
I
_l
Fall 1.500 Fall I' 1.500 Chet:kc:{l
____1

'----
FIG. 9.37
 LEVELLING 227
SURVEYING
226
That is, to find the curvature correction, divide the square of the length of sight
Due to collimation error each backsight staff reading is too great by an amount
by earth's diameter. Both d and R may be taken in the same units, when the answers
(80tan60") metres. Also each change point F.S. reading is too great by an amount
will also be iij terms of that unit. The radius of the earth can be taken equal .to 6370
(30 tan 60") metre. Taking both errors together, it is as if F.S. readings were correct and
km. If dis to be in km, and R=6370 km,,C,-0.0 7849 tf metres]In the above expression.
B.S. too great by amount (50 taD 60'~ ·metres.
dis to be substiruted in km, while c, will be in metres.
As there are four set-ups, the total B.S. reading are great by an amount 4 x 50 tan 60"
= 200 ·x 0.0002909 = 0.05818 ~ 0.058 metres. Now greater the B.S. readings, higher will be Refraction : The effect of refraction is the same as if the line of sight was curved
downward, or concave towards the earth's surface and hence the rod reading is decreased.
the H./. and. therefore, greater will be reduced levels calculated. The actual level of the
Therefore, .the effect of refraction is to make the objects appear higher than they really
T.B.M. will therefore, be = 54.065 - 0.058 = 54.007 m.
are. The correction, as applied to staff readings, is positive. The refraction curve is irregular
9.12. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION because of varying atmospheric conditions, but for average conditions it is assumed to have
From the definition of a diameter about seven times that of the earth.
A
a level surface and a hori- The correction of refraction, C, is therefore, given by
zontal line it is evident that
a botizontalline departs from C, = ~ ~ ( + ve) = 0.01121 d 2 metres, when d is in km.
a level surface because of The combined orrecbon due to curvature and re action will be given by
the curvarure of the earth.
d 1 d' 6 d 2 • j:l
Again, in the long sights, C =--- - =- - (subtracnve)
the horizontal line of sight (b) 2R72R 72R "!·:
(a) i:
does nor remain straight but = 0.06728 d' metres, being in km. I.
it slightly bends downwards The corresponding values of the corrections in English units are '
fd
having concavity towards ea 2
C, = j d' = 0.667 d feet]
rth surface due to refraction. 2 :z 2 d is in miles and !1
[,
In Fig. 9.38 (a), AC '0 C, = 2f d = 0 ·095 d feet radius of earth = 3958 miles.
is the horizontal line which
deflects upwards from the
FIG. 9.38. CURVATURE AND REFRACI10N. =·
C ~ d' ~ 0.572 d feet
2
· II
A 1!1
level line AB by an amount Be. AD is the acrual line of sight. pistance to the visible horizon r:
Curvature. BC is the deparrure from the level line. Acrually the staff reading should In Fig. 9.39, let P be the point of observation, its
height being equal to C and let A be the point on the ' ..'

have been taken at B where the level line cuts the staff, but since the level provides )~
only the horizontal line of sight (in the absence of refraction), the staff reading is taken horizon i.e., .a point where the tangent from P meets the
at the point C. Thus, the apparent staff reading is more and, therefore, the object appears level line. If d is the distance to visible horizon, it is given
to be lower than it really is. The correction for curvature is, rherefore, negan·ve as applied by
ro the staff reading, its numerical value being equal to the amount BC. In order to find
the value BC, we have, from Fig. 9.38 (b). ~ d=
~I .· c
v 0.06728 km
OC' = OA' + AC', LCAO being 90'
Let BC = Cr = correction for curvature =3.8553 -./Ckm, C ~eing in metres.
AB = d ~ horizontal distance between A and B (Taking both curvature and refraction into account). 0
AO = R = radius of earth in the same unit as that of d /Example 9.8. Find the correction for curvarure and for
FIG. 9.39.
(R + c<)' = R' + d' refraction for a distance of (a) 1200 metres (b) 2.48 km.
2
R1 + 2RCc+ C/= R +d
1 Solution.
or
(a) Correction for curvature . = 0.07849 d 2 metres (where d is in km)
Cd2R + C,) = d
2

, ' = 0.07849 (1.2) ~ 0.113 m

2

or C, = _d_-_ !Jo 2Rd , (Neglecting C, in comparsion to 2R)

2R+ c, Correction for refraction
I
= 'i C, = 0.016 m
 • 229
SURVEYING LEVEL~G
m
2
= 0.07849 (2.48) = 0.483 m Axampt e 9.13. 'llle. observalion ray between two triangulation stations A and B
(b) Correction for curvature
just grazes the sea. If the heights of A and Bare 9,000 metres and 3,000 metres respectively,
Correction for refraction = ~ C, = 0.069 m. determine approxiqtalely the mstance AB (Diameter of eanh 12,880 fan).
~pie 9.9. Find the combined correctlon for curvalure and refraction for distance Solution.
of (a) 3400 metres (bj .. 1.29 km. In Fig. 9.40, let A and B be the two triangulation stations and let 0 be the ~~
Solution. of tangency on the horizon.
(a) Combined correction for curvarure and refraction Let A'A;, c, = 9000 metres= 9 km )n_)ota
j
"> "?
.&
2
= 0.06728 d' m = 0.06728 (3.40) = 0.778 m. B'B = C, = 3000 metres• = 3 km <7\

.l? Combined correction ·

the
= 0.0672s (1.29)' = 0.112 m.
difference in elevation between two poinrs P
The distance d, is given by
d'
c1 =_.!._
2R
Example 9.10. 1n order to find .
iine PQ, 60 metres from P and 1280 metres from Q. or d, = -./2iiC; in which d, R and C, are in same units
and Q. a level was set upon the
'llle readings obtained on sta!f..~pt al P and Q were respectively 0.545 metre and 3.920 d1 = .,;2 X 6440 X 9.0 = 340.48 km
m. Find the true difference in elevalion between P and Q.
Similarly d2 = .,;2RC2 = .,;2 X 6440 X 3.0 = !96.58 km
Solution.
.. Distance AB = d, + d, = 340.48 + 196.58 = 537.06 Ian.
Since the distance of P from instrument is small, the _,correction for curvature etc.
is negligible. Example 9.14. 1Wo pegs A and B are 150 metres apan. A level was set up
Combined correction for Q = 0.06728 (1.280) = 0.110 m (Subtractive)
2
in the line AB produced and sights were taken to a staff held in tum on the pegs, the
, =3.920-0 .110=3.8 10 m ' reading being 1.962 (A) and 1.276(8), after the bubble has been carefully brought to the
Correct staff reading at Q
cenrre of its run in each case. The reduced level of the tops of the pegs A and B are
.. Difference in elevation between P and Q = 3.810-0.5 45 = 3.265 m, Q being lower. known to be 120.684 and 121.324 m respectively.
/Examp le 9.11. A Ught-house is visible jUSt above the horizon al a cenain station Determine (a) the angular error of the collimalion line in seconds, and (b) the length
al the sea level. The .mstance ~between the Stalion and the Ught-house is 50 fan. Find of sight for which the error due to curvalure and refraction would be the same as collimation
the height _of the light-house. r ... ~J ('d"(~ error. Assume the radius of the eanh to be 6370 /an.
Solution. UP Solution.
The height ·of the light-house is given by Observed difference in elevation between A and B = 1.962 -1.276 = 0.686 m (A being lower)
C = 0.06728 d metres= 0.06728 (50)' metres= 168.20 m
2
r ._,/.,
.-_,;;
The difference in elevation = 121.324 - 120.684 = 0.640 m, A being lower.
Example 9.12. An observer standing on the deck of a ship just sees a light-house.
I The top of the light-house is 42 metres above the sea level and the height of the observer's
eye is 6 metres above the sea level. Find the distance . A
Hence, from the observations, A seems to be lower by an additionat amount= 0.686 - 0.640
= 0.046 m.

'·--------- -------
0 Since B is nearer to the instruments than A, it is clear that the line of sight is
of the observer from the Ught-house. inclined upwards ·by an amount 0.046 m in a length of 150 m.
Solution. (Fig. 9.40) If a is the angular inclination (upwards) of the line of sight with horiwntal,
Let A be the position of the top of light-house '\
and B be the position of observer's eye. Let AB \ i' tan a =
0
j~6 = 0.0003067
\ '
be tangential to water surface at 0. '\
i
tan 60" = 0.0002909
i' We know that
The distances d, and d, are given by \\
i
d, = 3.8553 -rc.km
\
\
_3067x6 0
a - "'""n Ln.
. _,"
mmutes - 1 3. (upwards).
-[42 = 24.985 km ' be L km. The
= 3.8553 \\ / For the second part of the problem, let the required line of sight
at!d d, = 3.8553 {6 = 9.444 km \.\!/ combined correction for curvature and refraction would be ~ ~ (negative). The correction
.. Distance between A and B = d, + d, 0 for collimation error in a length L will be L tan a. Equating the two,
= 24.985 + 9.444 = 34.429 lam FIG. 9.40.
/
LEVELLING 231
230
SURVEYING

staff readings on A aod B for the first set of the level and h; and ,.. be the reading>
L'
-67 -2R =L tan a =L (0.0003067) for the second set.
7 X 2 X 6370 = 4.557 km. From Fig. 9.41. it is evident that for the tirst set of the l•vcl. the corr•ct .;taff
L- 0.0003067 X
6 readings will be
OnA:h ,; OnB:h• -e
9.13. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
. . T~ difference in elevation= H =- h0 - tilt-- ·e,
When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river. ravine or any obstacle requiring
a long sight between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found Similarly for second set. the correct staff reading will be
from which the lengths of foresight and backsigbt will be even approximately equal, special On A : h,' - e ; On B : h>
method i.e.. reciprocal levelling niust be used to. obtain accuracy and to eliminate the following: . . True difference in elevation = H = (h,' - e) - It>
(I) error in instrument adjusbnenl ; (2) combined effect of eanb's curvature aod the refraction Taking the average of the two nue differences in elevations. we get
of the abnosphere, and (3) variations in the average refraction.
Lei A aod B be the points aod observations be made with a level, the line of
2H =[h,- (h•- e)+ (h;- e)- "•1 =(h,- hh) + lho- "')
sight of which is inclined upwards when the bubble is in the centre of its run. The level H = tl(h, - hb) + (lr,' - II>)J .
is set at a poim near A aod staff readings are taken on A and B with the bubble in The lrue difference in elevation, therefore, is equal 10 the mea11 of the two appearerrt
the centre of its run. Since B.M. A is very near to instrument, no error due to curvarure, differences in elevations, obtained by reciprocal observaJions.
refraction and collimation will be introduced in the staif¢readings at A. but there· will
Example 9.15. The following notes refer to reciprocal levels take11 u'ith nne lel•e/:
be an error e in the staff reading on B. The level is then shifted to the other · Dank,
on a point very near B.M. B, and the readings are taken on staff held at B and A. Jnst. at Staff readings on Remarks
Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in reading the staff, p Q
but the staff reading on A will have an error e. Let h, and hb be the corresponding p 1.824 2.748 Distance between Pand Q;JO!Om
Q 0.928 /.606 R.L. of P;/26.386.
Horizontal line
Find (a) true R.L. of Q. (b) the combined correction for curvatrtre and refraction.
and (c) the angular error in the collimation adjustment of the inscrumem.
What will be the difference in answers of In) and (c) if ohsen•ed staff readin.~<
Level line Line of
sight
were 2. 748 Oil P and 1.824 011 Q, the instrumcm beinx m P : and I. 606 nn P and
0. 928 on Q. the instrument being aJ Q.
River
Solution.
(a) When the observations are [aken from P. Lhe apparent differcm:e in ckvaLion
between P and Q = 2.748 - 1.824 ; 0.924 m. P being higher
LeV9\\In8 When the observations are taken from Q. tht! apparent difference in dc\·arion hcrwc..'t!n
P and Q = 1.606- 0.928 = 0.678, P being higher.
Hence, the true difference in elevation
0.924 + 0.678
= 2
=0.801 ru. P being higher
and nue elevation of Q = 126.386 - 0.801 ~ 125.585 m.

·- _ _. . .-·-·-·-·-·-·- -·- -·-·-·- -·-·-·- -·- . . 7

B
(b) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
= 0.06728 d 2 = 0.06728 (1.010)' ~ 0.069 m
(Q appears to be lower further hy 0.069 m due t<> !h'' ·
A
(B.M.) Plan (B.M.) (c) When the level was at P. the apparent difference in clcvauon ~ !1.~1' n:.
The difference in elevation = 0. 801 m
FIG. 9.41. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING.
 233
SURVEYING l.E'!I!LL!NG
232
When the instrument is Ill B,
Error in observation= 0.924 - 0.801 m = + 0.123 m
Apparent diffemce in elevation between A and B
This error consists of (1) error due to curvature and refraction (il) collimation error. 1 = 2.220 - 0.860 = 1.360 m (A higher)
Error due to curvature and refraction= + 0.069 m . 1.575 + 1.360
. . - 1.468 m (A higher)
Error due to collimation = 0.123-0.0 69 = + 0.054 m. True dzfference m elevaoon = 2
Collimation error is said to be positive when the line of sight is so inclined that Example 9.17. 1Wo poiflis A and B are I530 m apan across a wide river. The
it increases the staff reading at the farther point thereby making that point appear lower following reciprocal levels are taken with one level:
than what it is. Hence. the line of sight is inclined upward by an amount 0.054
m in
Level at Readings on
a distance of 1010 metres.· A B
' 0.054
tan a =.
1010
=0.0000535 A 2.I65 3.8IO
B 0.910 2.355
But tan 60· = o:0002909
The error in the collimation adjustments of the level is - 0.004 m in IOO m. Calculate
535x6 0" of level bezween A and B and the refraction.
a = """" 11 (upwards) the true dif!erelice
Solution.
·;
If the staff readings are interchanged, then
wiD: Jie 0.801 m (Q being higher) (I) True difference in level between A and B
(a) True difference in R.L. between P and Q
;i (3.810- 2.165) + (2.355- 0.910)
R.L. of Q = 126.386 + 0.801 = 127.187 m. = -1.545 m.
2
! (b) When the instrument is at
and Q = 0.924 m. Q being higher.
P, the apparent difference in elevation between P - (il) Error due to curvature= 0.07849 d 2
metres= 0.07849 (1.53)2 = 0.184 m

Hence, Q appears to be higher by a funjler amounl of 0.924 - 0.801 = 0.123 m. . . When the level is at A, corrected staff reading on B = 3.810- (C,- C,) + c,
This error is due to (i) curvature and refraction, and (ii) faulty adjuslment of line where Cc = correction due to curvature = 0.184 m
, C, = correction due to refraction
of collimation.
Considering (1), the curvature and refraction tends to increase the staff reading at
Q. thereby making Q appear lower than what it is by an amount 0.069 m (as already
c, =correction due to collimation=
0
j:
x 1530 = 0.0612 m

found out), but by actual observ'ations, the point Q has been made 10 appear higher than . . Corrected staff reading on B = 3.810- (0.184- C,) + 0.0612 = 3.6872 + C,
I what it is by an amount 0.123 m. Hence, it is clear that the line of sight is inclined downwards . . True difference in level between A and B = (3.6872 + C,- 2.165) = (1.5222 + C,)

~
by an amount 0.123 + 0.069 = 0.192 m in a distance of 1010 m. But it is equal to 1.545 m.
If a is the inclination of line of sight. we have 1.5222 + c, = 1.545
tan a = ~-~~ =0.000190 or C, = 1.545 - 1.5222 =0.0228 £!. 0.023 m.

But tan 60" = 0.0002909 9.14. PROFILE LEVElLING (LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING)

1900 x 60 _ J9" (downwards). Profile levelling is the process of detemtining the elevations of pouits at short measured
a- 2909 intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of a railway, highway. canal or sewer.
Example 9.16. In levelling between two poi1Us A and B on opposile banks of a The fixed line may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of
river. I he level was sez up near .A. and the staff readings on A and B were I. 285 and straight liues or of a series of straight lines connected by curves. It is also known as
2.860 m respectively. The level was then moved and sel up near B and the respective lnngitadinal sectioning. By means of such sections the engineer is enabled 10 study the
readings 011 A and B were 0.860 and 2.220. Find the true difference of level between relationship between the existing ground surface and the levels of the proposed construction
A and B. in the direction of its length. The profile is usually plotted on specially prepared profile
Solution. When the instrument is at A, paper. on which the vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal. and on this profile.
various studies relating to the fixing of grades and !he estimating of costs are made.
AppeareD! difference in elevation between A and B
Field ProcedUFe : Profile levelling, like differential levelling. requires the establishment
= 2.860- 1.285 = 1.575 m (A higher)
of turning points on which both back and foresights are taken. In addition. any number
 234 SURVEYING 1.BVELLING 235

of intermediate sights may be obtairied on points along the line from each set up of the appear more apparent. The vertical scale is kept 10 times the horiwntal scale (i.e. I em= I
instrument (Fig. 9.42). In fact, points on the profile line are. merely intermediate stations. m). The reduced levels of ·the points are also writteo along with the bOriwntal distances.

-·
It is generally best to set up the ·level to one side of the profile line to avoid too short ! LEVEL FIELD NOTES FOR PROFILE LEVELLING
sights on the points near the ilstrument. For each set up, intermediale sights should be nJ...hH R,.<, J•.•. F..<. H. I. R.I.. RtllUIIb 'I
lllk£n afte; the foresight on the next turning stalion hos been taken. The level is then
set up in an advanced position and a backsight is taken on that turning point. The position
B.M. 2.1"'' 2.680
2t£<M 210.455
209.820
'
i j
I

of the intermediate points on the profile are simultaneously located by chaini:J.g along the
1
?
0
10 2.860 209.640 ,,1
p~ofile and noting their distances from the point of commencemen1. When the vertical profile 3 20 2.120 210.380
?00.525
.
:~:
of the ground is regular or-' ~dually curving, levels are taken on points at equal distances 4 35 2.975 'l'iJ
apart and generally at int!:rvals of a .chain length. On irregular ground where abrupt changes T.P. 1 1.005 2.8"" 21•.645 """.640
of slope occur, the points shoul<!. 'be· chosen nearer. For purose of checking and future 5 45 2.810 207.835 '~
2.905 207.740

.
reference, temporary bench marks should be established along the section. 6 •3
Field notes for profile levelling. are commonly kept in the standard form shown in
the table on next page. The method is almost the same as given for 'collimation height'
1
••
80 2.530
1.875
208.115
208.170 .'l'i
''I
,: ~ I
115 1.0?< 208.720
method as computations are easier by that method. The distances of the points on, the T.P. 2 2.160 2.995 209.810 207.650
profile are also recorded. The values shown in the table ·are same as those illustrated in
Fig. 9.42. ,., "
10
11
125
145
0.825
1.020
208.985
208.790 ,,·~
IJI"
!:;

<ll$-- ----~ --~$-- iF

.
12 162 1.6?< 208.185
~:!

!L, l-- ----- --A ---·- ------ -" ~ ~I ~j ~

13 180 2.080 207.730
g
~
r-- C\i C\i N C\i

,..:~
C\i
:g
~
~
~
~ :\) ill
~~Ill ~ ~
T.P. 3 2.985 206.825 ~
B M.
N
.. ~---'= ___ :1---~ -~
<'!_ "! 5.210 8.840
5.210
210.455
206.825
*I
I
:10.45 "
1 2
3 :rp

5 6
9
T.P.2
10
I
Checlc FaU 3.630 Fall 3.630
f
~
'''I
'(
(a) Section
II
9 ·,o 'Ji
8 :.!!
·,~
13
4-...... 13
T.P.t·------••• , T.P.3 'I
205.001
.fil II
" ' ' ' ' '
."'' ~
'
~ ..
' :g' ~' "'' g'

~ ...~ l
0

~
Dalwnl:l .m
(b) Plan
S ~ ~

~ ::::
FIG. 9.42. PROFILE LEVEWNG.
R.L
N i!l la !il 8N ~ ~ ~ !il lj

Plotting the Profile (Fig. 9.43)

"' "'
DlstancesO 10 20
N
35 45 63 80 98 115 125
N
145 162 180 l
I
Longitudinal Section
ii
The horiwntal distances are plotted along the horizontal axis to some convenienl scale Scale{ Hor. 1 <:m=10 m ' I'
and the distances are also marked. The elevations are plotted along the vertical axis. Each Ver.1cm::r1m
ground point is thus plotted by the two CO-<>rdinstes (i.e., horizontal distance and vertical
FIG. 9.43
elevation). The various points so obtained are joined by straight lines, as shown in Fig. l'
9.43, where the readings of the above table are plotted. Levelling to Establl.sb Grade Points : This kind of levelling, often referred to as !
·Generally, the horizontal scale is adopted as I em = 10 m (or I"= 100 ft ). The giving elevalions is used in all kinds of engineering construction. The operation of establishing I
vertical scale is not kept the same but is exaggerated so that the inequalities· of the ground grade points is sintilar to profile levelling and follows the latter. After the profile bas
 .,.
237
SURVEYING LEVELUNG
236 ;;
9.15. CROSS-SECTIONING Jl
profile map, the grade elevation
been plotted and the grade line has been established on the and on either side
each point are thus determined Cross-sections are run at right angles to !he longitudinal profile "'
for each station is known. The amounts of cut or fill at
';I
surface. They provide me data for
before going into the field. The. levelling operation starts
from the bench mark and is of it for the piirpose of lateral outline of the ground
The cross-sections are numbered
'"
: :H
j,~
ed by measuring down from estimating quantities of earth work and for other purposes.
carried forward by luming points. The grade point is establish and are set out at right angles ,.t:
reading, using !he following consecutively from !he commencement of !he centre line

~·i\"
the height of the instruments a distance equal to the grad£ rod ·
. to !he main line of section wi!h tb,e chain
relation. Grade point elevlllion 'C H.L.- Grade rod reading and tape, the cross-staff or the -optical 1 i i i 1

A grade stake is driven in the ground and grade rod is

kept on the top of it
square and the distances are measured ( ! ( ( ,/
and read wi!h the help of level. The stake is driven in or
oUJ till !he grade rod reading [,, ,/ 'I

in the field, a table is generally left and right fr~m the centre peg (Fig. Ai Central una 1 il
is the saine as calculated abOve. Before proceeding the work /

prepared giving !he rod. readings at each point to set it on a given gradient. Example 9.44). Cross-section may be taken at each
chain. The length of cross-section depends ~!
i
~!
O!
1
i

.I
O!
-@:ii
c,;-~!
(J;•
;
.I
a?!
{Qj
c,:;
:!
-'
_,.

.I
c.
~ Ij
~~
/
!
!_·I
•
~!

'i
9.18 makes !he procedure clear. upon the narure of work. O! !-t"
. O! ~?
!
Example 9.18. In running fly levels from a bench mark of R.L.
183.215, the following The longt"tudinal and cross-sections ! ! ! fO.i !

~
I ".J"I !
readings .were obtained : may be worked· together or separately.
·
"-/c o/
2.625
~~
1.215 2.035 1.980 i ".J".'
B.S. In the former case, two additioual columns (J"/
0.965 .3.830 0.980 /'
F.S. are required in the level field book to ~
intervals are to ~
From the last position of the instrument, five peg~ ·'i!t 20 metres give the distances, left and right of the
be ser ow on a uniform rising gradient of I in 40 ; the 'jirst peg is to have a R.L. of
centre line, as illustrated in table below.
AG. 9.44 m
,.,
181.580. Work oUJ the staff readings required for
given gradient.
setting rhe raps of the pegs ori the
To avoid confusion, !he bookings of each
cross-section should be entered separately and clearly and full
information as to !he number
.•jtl
dooe, the computations or right of the centre line, wi!h any o!her ~
Solution. In !he first part of the question, fly levelling was of !he the . cross-section, whether on the left
I
last setting of the instrum ent, when a backsight matter which may be useful, should be recorded. I
for which can be done as usual. For !he
185.205. The R.L.
~
of collima tion comes out to be
is taken on station No. 4, !he height
of the first peg is to be 181.580. Hence Grade rod reading = H.!. - Grade point elevation
of StatWn
Dimulee (m)
B.S. I.S. F.S. H. I. R.I.. I Rtmorb
= 185.205 - 181.580 =3.625 . The reading is entered in !he I.S. column. The R.L. L c R
the next peg at the rising gradient of 1 in 40 will be
l*
181.580 + 1 x = 182.080 and B.M. 1.325 10L.325 100.000 !11
:;;
1.865 99.460
Similarly, !he rod readings for ·O Cross-
its grade rod reading will be 185.20 5- 182.080 = 3.125.
0

o!her pegs are calculated as entered in !he table given

below : L1 3 !.905 99.420 section
atOm
~'
lo
'"I'
6 2.120 99.205 chainage
Lz
R.L RellllUts
I Dist. l.S. F.S. H. I. 2.825 98.500

I
S. No [--·B.S .
. -------~-~--~-~

I j 1.2!5 184.340 183.125

Ll
Rl
' 3 1.105 99.620
183.375 ' 7.5 1.520 99.805
2 2.035 0.965 !85.410 Rz
10 .1.955 99.370
3.830 183.560 181.580 R,
3 1.980 1.265 101).060 Cmss-
182.580 I 20 section
4 2.625 0.980 !85.205 99.960
L1 3 1.365 at
181.580 Peg 1 !00.600 20m
5 0 3.625 6 0.725
Lz chainage
182.080 Peg 2 2.125 99.200
6 ! 20 3.125 LJ 9
182.580 Peg 3 1.925 99.400
7 ! 40 2.625
Peg 4
R1 3
7 2.250 99.075
2.125 183.080 112
8 ; 60 100.435 I
10 0.890
9 : 80 !.625 183.580 Peg 5 /!]
2.120 99.205
Check ! 7.855 7.400 183.580

!83.125
T.P.
O>ecl< !.325 2.120
1.325
100.000
99.205

I Rise
I
7.400
0.455 Rise 0.455 Oleckcd ..
--- .L..... Fall_ 0,]95 Fall 0.795
7
SURVEYING LEVELLING
238
the backsight reading
the contrary, if such point happens to be temporary bench mark,
Plotting the Cross-sec- ~ R, ed from the reduced level to get the H.!. (See example
L, on lhe point should be subttaer
R, well also to make a note
tion (Fig. 9.45) L, R, 9. 5). So that th~e may be no opportunity for mistake, it is
Cross-sections are plot- on lhe description page that the staff has been held invened .
(Fig. 9.49)
ted almost in the same manner (4) Levelling Ponds end Lakes too Wide to be Sighted Across
as the longitudinal sections ex- advantage may be
When the ponds and lakes>.are too wide to be sighred across,
cept that in this case both the A peg may be driven
Datum 95.000 ' , •
!aken of the fact that the surface of still water is a level surface. peg may
scales are kept equal. The point Ill~ surface. A similar
o8o~o !:;:~
at one end of the pond, keeping its top flush with the water
along the longitudinal section ~cq~ q~. to one side the staff kept on the
mo
·'I
mo
. 0
m 0 .
mo
0
be driven to the other side. Level may be first set is thus
is plotted at the centre of the top of the peg and of water surface
peg and reading taken. The R.L. of the
-m ..- Ol 0)..-
CD..
horizontal ·axis. The points to set on olher side near the bank and reading is taken bY
9 6 3 0m 3 7 10 known. The instrument is then
the left of centre point are prOt- reading to the R.L.
Cross-section at chalnage 20 m keeping the staff on the top of the second peg. Adding the staff
red to the left ·and those to R. L. of instrum ent axis is known and the levellin g operations can be
of lhe peg, the
the right are plotted to the right. Scalef Hor. 1 em= 1 m
1Ver. 1 em= 1·m carried further.
The points so obtained are
joine<;l. by straight lines. FIG. 9.45

9.16. LEVELLING PROBLEMS

.. ·'
in levelling
The following are some of the difficulties COI1IIDO~y encountered
(!) Levelling on Steep Slope. See § 9.11
Levelling across ponds
(2) Levelling on Snmmits end Hollows.
so that the summit
In levelling over summit, level should be set up sufficiently high FIG. 9.49
ly, in levelling across a hollow,
can be sighted without extra setting (Fig. 9.46). Similar
the levels of all the required points (5) Levelling Across River
level should be set only sufficiently low to enable is to be used.
If the widlh of the river is less, the method of reciprocal levelling
to be observed (Fig. 9.47). be contintt ed from one side
If lhe river is too wide to be sighred across, levelling may
error, provide d care is taken to choose
to lhe other in the manner shown in (4) with little
levels are !aken at points directly opposite
a comparatively still stretch and to see that water
each olher.
(6) Levelling Past ffigh Wall
wall above the line
Two cases may arise. In the first case, when the height of lhe
staff, the staff can be kept inverted with its
of sight is lesser than the length of the
reading !aken. SUch reading , when added to the H.l. will give
foot touching the top and
Levelling across hollow shift«! to the other side
Levelling over summit lhe R.L. of the top of the wall. The instrument may then be the
staff with its foot touching
FIG. 9.46. FIG. 9.47. of the wall and reading may be taken on the inverted wall will
from the R.L. of lhe top of the
top of the wall. Such reading when subtracred
be carried forward.
(3) Taking Level of en Overhead Point give the H.l. Knowning lhe H.I., the levelling operation can
When the point under observation is T IB.M. In the second case, when the height of the wall above
at
the
the
line of collimation is
height, where the line
higher than the line of sight, staff should X
more than the length of lhe staff, a suitable mark is made
be kept invetted on the overhead point keeping ~ wall. The vertical distance between the mark and lhe
of sight intersects the face of lhe
the foot of the staff touching the point, and
reading should be taken. Such reading will LI~ J
top of the wall is measure d. The R.L. of lhe top of the wall
is lhen set to the other side of the wall and a sintilar mark at
is thus known.
lhe collima
The instrument
tion
from
level is
the mark
:~~: =~gh:h~~:a~ ~~~b:e :;e ~ ~! '"'
is measure d
made on the wall. The vertical height of the top of the wall
;-rmm nnmm mmnm ;m;;m; n;;n;;; n no?r. ed.
and the height of the instrument is then calcular
get the R.L. of the point (Fig. 9.48). On FIG. 9.48.
 'jj
241
:il
.,
SURVEYING LEVELLING :~ j
240
incorrect, but the effect is cancelled 1'1:
the shoe ··ar the bQnom of the rod makes H.!. values
9.17. ERRORS IN LEVELLING wben included in both back and foresig ht reading s. For accurate levelling, the rod graduation ;;~''
i·•
al sources of errors :'!!
All levelling measurements are subject to three princip should be tested and compared with any srandsrd tape.
(e) Error due ' to Defeetive Joint n.j'
1

(l) lnstnu nental (a) Error due to imperfect adjustment. the rod down 'on
(b) Error due to sluggish bubble. The joint of the extendable rods may be worn out from
sening ~::~
(c) Error due to movement of objective slide. the run' and from other sources. The failure to test the rod at frequen t interval may result .,
~-·. ' ~: \
(d) Rod not of standard length. in ~ large cumula tive error.
(e) Error due to defective joint. 1
NATURAL ERRORS u0

(2) Natural (a) Earth's curvature. (a) Earth' s Curvature ~~

(b)· Alliiosphe'ric refraction. :.!
Wben the distances are small
The effect of curvature is to increase the rod readings.
(c) Variations i,n temperature. distanc es when the back and foresights are not !',,I
(d) Settlement . of tripod or turning points. the error is negligible, but for greater ;l
is produced.
(e) Wind vibrations. balanced, a systematic error of considerable magnitude

fl'
(b) Refrac tion i·i·
(3) Person al (a) Mistakes in manipluation.
in the form of curve with
· (b) Mistake in rod handling. Due to refraction, the ray of light bends downwards

)j
thus decreas ing the staff reading s. Since the atmospheric
(c) Mistake in reading the rod. its concavity towards the earth surface,
(d) Errors in sighting. refraction often changes rspidly and greatly in shon
distance, it is impossible to eliminate
(e) Mistakes in recording. entir~ly the effect of refractlon even though the
back.sight and foresight distances are balanced.
close to the ground. Errors due :\.
INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS It is particularly uncenain when the line of sight passes
tc refraction tend to be compensating over a long
period of time but may be cumulative '·I
(a) Error due to Imperf ect Adjustment v : !~
shaD be parallel to axis on a full day's run.
:,,,,,
The essential adjustment of a level is that the line of sight ·'Li!
in ~.adju stment , the line of sight will either (c) Variat ion in Temper•ture
of the bubble tube. If the instrument is not
the rod readings will of the instrument is not
be inclined upwards or downwards when the bubble is centred and The effect of variation in tempersmre on the adjusunent Iii'·
tional to the distance and can of mucb consequence in leveUing of ordiila!y precision,
but it may produce an appreciable
be incorrect. The error in the rod reading will be. propor ~-
disturbed by unequal .~: \j!
ht distances. The error is likely to error in precise work. The adjustment of the instrum ent is tempor arily
be elimina.ted by balancing the back.sight and foresig
steep hill, where all back.sights are level vial will cause

I
f on. The heating of the
be· cumulative, particularly in going up or down a heating and the consequent warping and distorti
care is taken to run a zigzag line. to shorten . If one end of the vial is warmed more than
longer or shorter than all foresights unless the liquid to expand and bubble
errors will be
(b) Error due to Sluggish Bubble f
-~;.
the ollir, the bubble will move towards the heated
end and appreci
from
able
change of length of
errors
If the bubble is sluggish, it will come to rest in
wrong position, even though it produced. In precise levelling, it is quite possible that
exceed the errors arising from the levelling
is being taken. Such a bubble is a levelling rod from variations in· temperature may
may creep back to correct position while the sight or adjacen t to heated objects make the rod
the error may be partially avoided by itself. Heat waves near the ground surface
constant source of armoyance and delay. However, e sightin g. The beating effect is prsctically elintiua ted
been sighted . The error is compensating. appear to wave and prevem accurat '•
observing the bubble after the target bas
,,~
is usually acciden tal, but
by shielding the instrument from the rays of the sun.
The error
(c) Error In the movement ·or the Objeet ive SUde
ons it may become system atic.
In the case of external focusing instruments, if the
objective slide is slightly worn under cenain conditi il
(tf) Settlement of Tripod on Turning Point
~!
short sights, the objective slide
our, it may. not move in truly horizontal direction. In
the
n laking a backsighr and the
is, therefo re, more. Due to this reason, If the tripod settles in the interval that elapses betwee
is moved out nearly its entire length and the error small and the elevation of the turniug
. The error is compen sating and can be eliminated following foresight, the observed foresight will be too
extremely short sights are to be avoided settles in the . interval that elapses
focus is not changed and hence, point will be too great. Similarly, if a turning point
by balimcing backsight and foresight, since in that case, back.sig ht in the next set up, the observed
between laking a foresight and the following
the slide is not ·moved. ted will be too great. Thus, whether the tripod
backsight will be too great and H.I. calcula
(d) Rod not of Standa rd Length point settles, the error is always systema tic· and the resulting elevation
settles or the turniug
similar to those resulting from
· Incorrect lengths of divisions on a rod cause errors ; will always ·b<; too high.
The error is system atic and is directly proportional to the
incorrect marking on a rape.
• I I •

ion is added to a measured difference

difference in elevation. If the rod is too long, the correct
is subtracted. Uniform wearing of
in elevation ; if the rod is too short, the correction
 LEVEUlNG II,I
Sl/RVEYING ill
242
(e) ~es in Recording and Computing
'"
(e) Wind Vibrations The common mistakes . are :
High wind shakes !he instnunem and thus disrurbs the bubble and !he rod. Precise (z) Enterin$ the reading with digits interchanged i.e., 1.242 instead of 1.422.
levelling -work should never be done in high wind. (iz) . Entering· backsights and foresights in a wrong column.
PERSONAL ERRORS . (iii) Mistaking the numerical value of reading called out by the level man.
(a) Mistakes in Manipulation
(iv) Omitting the entry. ...
These include mistakes in setting up the level, imperfect focusing of eye-piece ·and
· (v) Entering wrong remark' against a reading.
of objective, errors in cemring lbe bubble and failure to watch it after each sight, and (vz) Adding a foresight instead of subtractiog it and/or subtractiog a backsight
errors due to restiog the bands on ttipods or telescope. In lbe long sights, !he error due
reading instead of adding it.
to the bubble not being' centted,at the time of sighting are more important. Habit should
be developed of cbecldDg the bubble before and after each sight. Parallax caused by improper (viz) Ordinary arithmetical mistakes.
''li
focusing result in incorrect rod r~~s_,;jit produces an accidental error and can be eliminatcyd Example 9.19. Find the error of reading of a
by carefully · focusing. level staff if the observed reading is 3.845 m at the
(b) Rod HandUng • point sighted, the .staff being 15 em off lire venicol Uno of sight
---------------- -----
If lbe rod is not in plumb, the reading taken will be too great. The error v~es
through the borrom. '
directly with the magnitude of the rod rea<!ing and directly as •he square of the inclination. Solution.
In running a line of levels uphill, backsight readings are likely to be increased more than In Fig. 9.50, let AB be the oliserved staff reading
foresight from this source and the evelvation of a bench ilclik on top will be too grOat. and let AC be the correct staff reading.
Similarly, the elevation of a bench mark at fue· lxittom, while levelling downhill, will. be Evidently, . AC= ~ AB'- Be'
too small. Thus, a positive systematic error results. Over level ground, the resultant error ~ i!)
is accidental since the backsights are about equal to lbe foresights. The error can be = ~(3.845)1 - (O.I5f
minimised by carefully plumbing the rod ~ither by eye estimation or by using ·a rod level, = 3.841. FIG. 9.SO.
a special attacbmem devised for plumbing lbe ro<i' or by waving the level rod slowly towards .:i
or away from the level thereby taking the minimum rod reading. Vertical cross-hair may 9.18. DEGREE OF PRECISION ·;
be used to plumb lbe rod in the direction ttansverse to the line of sight. The degree of precision depends upon (z) lbe type of instnunent, (il) skill of observer, ~
·;.1
(c) Errors in Sighting (iii) character of country, and (iv) atmospheric conditions. For a given instnunent and atmospheric ':
The error is caused when· it is difficult to tell when lbe crossbair coincides with conditions, the precision depends upon lbe number of set-ups and also upon the length ;!( ,,
!he centre of the target in a target rod and to determine !he exact reading which the of sights. Thus, the precision on plains will be more than that on bills. No hard and .I

cross-hair appears to cover in the case of self-reading rod. This is an accideutal error fast rules can be laid down by means of which a desired precision can be maintained. ,!;,,

the magnitude of which depends upon the coarseness of the cross-hair, the type of rod, However, the pennissible closing error can be expressed as
E = C -JM (in English units) or E' = C ' -JK (in metric units)
We: form of wget, atmospheric conditions, length of sigh[ and tile observer.
(d) Mistakes in Reading the Rod
The common mistakes in reading the rod are :
where E = permissible closing error in feet;
E' = permissible closing error in mm;
C = constant ; M = distance in miles
C ' = constant : K = distance in km.
] '
(I) Reading upwards, instead of downwards.
.. ..... ...............CI
tble
-- -- 2ives
..,- -- the differCftl values., ·.
(iz) Reading downwards, instead of upwards when the staff is inverted.
~pe of sumy on4 PUIJJO" Error in feet (EJ Error in mm (E') I
(iiz) Reading wrong metre mark when lbe staff· is near !he level and only one ± 100 -{/( I
metre mark is visible through the telescope. (1) Rough levelling fur reconnaissance or preliminary ±or&
(iv) To omit a zero or even two zeros from a reading. For example, 1.28
instead of 1.028 or 1.06 instead of 1.006. (2)
surveys.
Ordin.ary levelling for location and construction ±0.1-& ± 24-{/( '
surveys.
(v) Reading against a stadia hair. ±0.05-& ± 12.0-{/(
(3) Accurate f~elling for principal bench marks
(Vi) Concentrating more attention on decimal part of lbe reading and noting or for extensive surveys.
whole metre reading wrongly. {4) Prtdse .levelJing for bench marks of widely ± 4 -{/(

i
distributed points. ±0.017-&

,!1
:i
 245
244 SURVEYING LBVELLlNG

First Method (Fig. 9.52) E

9.19. THE LEVEL TUBE
(!)Set the instrument at 0 and level it accurately.
The level rube or bubble rube gives the direction of horizontal plane becanse the
surface of a still liquid at all points is at right angles to the direction of gravity, and (2) Sight aistsff kept at C, distant D from
the liquid alone will, therefore, provide a level surface. For ordinary surveys the radius 0. Let the reading be CF.
of the earth is so large that a level surface is considered to be the same thing as a (3) Using a foot screw, deviate the bubble
horizontal plane. over n number of divisions and .. again sight the
The spirit level or bubble rube consist of a glass rube partially filled with a liquid, staff. Let the reading be CE.
the inner surface of which is carefully ground so that a longirudinal section of it by a (4) Find the difference between the two staff
vertical plane through the axis of t)le readings. Thus,
rube is part of circular arc. The rube s=CE-CF
is graduated on its upper surface and From /JJJEF (approximately), we have
is enclosed for safety in a metal casmg. s 0
tana~:~~a.=D .•• (1)
At the ends of the casing are capstan
FIG. 9.52.
headed screws for securing it to the
a. = A:= ~
...(il)
relescope or any other part (Fig. 9.51). Sintil.arly, from 1'. A OB,
FIG. 9.51. BUBBLE TUBE.
Before it is sealed, the rube wbere R = radius of curvature of the bubble rube
is partially filled with a liquid of low or 0.1 in.)
I= length of one division on. the bubble rube (usually 2 mm
viscosity, such as alcohol, chloroform or sulphuric. ether, leaving a small space which forms
a bubble of mixed air and vapour. Spiriruous liquids are used becanse they are less viscous, Equating (i) and (i1), we get
i.e.. flow more freely than water. Also, these liquids have a relatively low freezing point
..- s nl or R=-
nlD ... (!)
but a greater expansion than water. To minimize the effect of expansion, the proportion
v=li s
bubble
of liquid and vapour must be carefully .regulated: Under the action of gravity, the bubble Equation (1) above gives an expression for the radius of curvature of the ;I
rube. It is to be noted that ~ D and s are expressed in the same units. I
will always rise to the highest point of the rube, and thus comes to rest so that a tangent i
plane to the inner surface of the rube at the highest point of the bubble defines a horizontal Again, from .(il) we have a. = ~ ... (2)
!
plane.
The sensitiveness of a level rube is defined as the angular value of one division .. a'= sensitivity of the bubble tube = angular valne of one division is given by
marked on the rube. It is the amount' the horizontal axis has to be tilted to cause the a'=~ by putting n = 1 ... (3)
bubble to move from one. graduation to another. For example, if the tilting is 20" of
arc when the bubble moves 2 mm (one division), the sensitiveness of the level rube is niD
But R=- (from 1)
expressed as 20" per 2 mm. A tube is said to be more sensitive if the bubble moves s
... (4)
by more divisions for a given change in the angle. The sensitiveness of a bubble tube a' = _I_ = ..!..._ radians = ..!..._ x 206265 seconds
~ be increased by :
niD nD nD .,
;~
s
(i) increasing the internal radius of the tube,
(il) increasing the diameter of the rube,
1
-J
(Since I radian= 206265 seconds sin 1"
=- '
•

(ii1) increasing the length of the bubble,

• s nd ... (5)
(iv) decr~ing the roughness of the walls, and or a = nD sin 1" seco s
(v) decreasing the viscosity of the liquid.
Equations (3), (4) and (5) give the expression for the sensitivity of the bubble tube.
The sensitiveness of a bubble rube should never be greater than is compatible with
accuracy achieved with the remainder of the accessories. Second Method (Fig. 9.53)
9.20. SENSITIVENESS OF BUBBLE TUBE (!) Set the instrument at 0 and keep a staff at C.
(2) Move the bubble to .the extreme left division. Read both ends of the bubble.
The sensitiveness of the bubble rube is defined as the angular value of one division
Let the reading on the left end of the bubble be 1, and on the right be r,. Let the
·of. the bubble rube. Generally, the linear value of one division is kept as 2 mm. There
..JIIl'. two methods of determining the sensitivity. staff reading be CE.
 ,,~1
~.
SURVEYING "'
· · · ?:
LEVELUNG
246
,;;i.
(1) The radius of curvature (R) is given by
(3) Move the bubble to the extreme right II:
niD
division. Read both ends of the bubble: Let R=- :~

s ~~~t
the reading on the left end of the bubble 11 2 ,·1'
be and on the right end be r 1 • Let the staff n = 5, I = 2 mm = loOO m ; D = 100 m, s = 0.034 m ~~
Here
reading be CF. ~~
(4) Find the difference between the two R
5x2xl00 metres = 29.41 m.
x _ II
1000 0 034
~
staff readings
s= CE- CF (i!) The sensitivity of the bubble
tube (a') is given by
. 0.034
I~
1~
s
a' = nD x 206265 seconds = s;1o0 x 206265 = 14.03 seconds.
(5) Let A and B represent .the centres lj:
of the bubble in the two positions
the radius of curvaJure of the bubble tube if the length of '
Example. 9.21. Find
be
The net travel of the bubble wiU'~ei;lua!
one division is
2 mm and if the angular value of one division is (a) 20 seconds, (b) 1
I miiiJlle.
(11 - r,) -: (1,- r,) divisions( FIG. 9.53
Solution. .1.1·.!.
J'
a' =.!. radians =.!. x 206265 seconds
'!
Consider the .left divisions as positive. and right divisions as negative. Let n = tot31 R :~
R
number of divisions through which the bubble has been moved. Then
a' =angular value of one division and I= length of one division 4
(1, - r,) - (1, - r,) wbere
n 2 2
- m
a' = 20 seconds ; I = 2 mm = -1000 ~~
(a)
(6) Considering similar triangles GEF and ABO, we get. as before,
·~
,,
~:

R= n/D ... (!)

I 2
R = a' x 206265 = 1000 x -w
206265
= 20.62 m. 11'
\1",
~ .
s 2 I.
~
s nl ... (2) a'=60 seconds ; 1=2 mm=- - m
a=-=- (b) 1000
D R
I 2 206265 L
R = a' x 206265 = 1000 x ~ = 6.87 m. ~
a'=-I rad"tans ... (3)
1.:·,11
.R
s ... (4)
Example 9.22. If the bubble tube of a level has a sensitiveness of 35" per 2 mm '
= nD x 206265 seconds
division, find the error in staff reading on a vertical staff aJ a distance of IOO m caused ~
:···.'.1

by the bubble bending I.~ divisions out of centre.

!il
- s ... (5)
- sin · ·· seconds
Solotion.
The sensitivity of a bubble tube depends mainly on the radius of curvature of the
With previous notations, we have
tube (the larger the radius, the greater the sensitiveness): However, sensitiveness also depends s '
,
upon (!) the diameter of the tube (the larger the diameter, the greater the sensitivity) a'= nD x 206265 seconds
(i!) length of the vapour bubble, (iii) viscosity and surface tension of the liquid (the lesser
the viScosity and surface tension, the greater the sensitivity). A very. smooth internal surface where a' =angular value of one division = 35"
also increases sensitivity. s = staff intercept = error in staff reading due to deviation of the bubble
Example 9.20. The reading taken on a staff I(}() m from the instrument with the n =number of divisions through which bubble is out = 1.5
bubble central was I. 872 m. The bubble is then moved 5 divisions out of the centre.
and the staff reading is observed to be I.906 m. Find the .angular value of one division D =distance of the staff = 100 m
of the bubble, and the radius of curvaJure of the bubble tube. The length of one division Substituting the values in the above equation, we get
. of the bubble is 2 mm. = ~ = 35 X 1.5 X !00 = O 02S
s 206265 206265 m · m.
Solution.
Staff intercept for 5-division deviation of the bubble = 1.906 - 1.872 = 0.034 m.
 2!19
248 SURVEYING
LEVELUNG

Example 9.23. Find the radius of curvature of the bubble tube ond the value of Siphon. In the Fortin type of cistern barometer, the cistern is made of a leather bag contained
each 2 mm division from the following average reading of the ends of the bubble ond in a metal tube. terminsting into a glass cylinder. The height of the mercury in the tube
of a staff 80 m away. is measured b/ a vernier working against a scale and the readiug to ~". The level of
1 11
the mercury in the reservoir is adjustable by means of a thrust screw at its base- The
Staff readings ... 1.680 1.602
mercury is completely enclosed, and by turning the thumb screw the volume of the reservoir
Eye-piece end of bubble ... 20 10 may be reduced until the mercury completely fills it and the barometer tube. By this means,
Object glass end of bubble ... 10 20
the instrument is rendered extremely portable .
Solution. When the barometrical observations m in progress, temperature should be read on
20 - 10 · two tlteromometers.
In the firs t set, the. centre.· o··f·the. bubble bas moved - - - = 5 d"tV ·IS ·tOns towa<ds eye-ptece (2) The Aneroid Barometer. The aneroid barometer though less accurate than the
2
mercurial barometer is far more portable and convenient and is, therefore. used almOSt
end of the tube. In the second set, ~;~Ire of the bubble bas moved
20 10
; = 5 divisions
exclusively in surveying. It consists of a thin cylindrical metallic box about 8 to 12 em
towards objective end. The total Dllil)ber of divisions through wbich the bubble bas moved in diameter hermetically sealed and from which air bas been exhausted. The ends of the
=•=5+5=1 0. box are corrugated in circular corrugation, and as the pressure of the atmosphere increases
or decreases, they slightly approach or recede from each other. This small movement is
The change in staff readiugs = s = 1.680 - 1.602 = O.o78 m
magnified by means of a suitable lever arrangement and is tranSferred finally to a pointer
The radius of curvature of the tube is given by which moves over a graduated arc. Fig. 9.54 shows the essential parts of an aneroid barometer.
R -- n/D ' The general external appearance of the aneroid barometer is shown in Fig. 9.55.
s 6
wbere n = 10 divisionsl=2 mm= 1~ m; D=80 m s =0.078 m
10x2x80 11
R - 1000 x O.o78 20.5 m. 5

Also, the value of 2 mm division is given by

s 0.078
a' = - x 206265 seconds = -l x x 206265 = 20.1 seconds.
n0 . 0 8
9.21. BAROMETRIC LEVELLING
The barometric levelling is based on the fact that the atmospheric pressure varies
7
inversely with the height. As air is a compressible fluid, strata at low level will have
FIG. 9.54. DIAGRAMMATIC SECflON OF AN ANEROID
a greater density than those at a higher altimde. The higher the place of observation the
lesser will be the atmospheric pressure. A barometer is used for the determination of the ~ CORRUGATED BOX 3. SPRING
I. OUTER CASING
difference in pressure between two stations and their relative altitudes can then be approximately 5. KNIFE EDGE
6. POINTI:R
•. UN!<
deduced. The average readiug of the barometer at sea level is 30 inch and the barometer 8 HAIR SPRING
9. VERTICAL_ SPINDLE
7. SUPPORT fUR SPRIN~
falls about I inch for every 900 ft of ascent above the sea level. This method of levelling ll SCALE.
is, therefore, very rough and is used only for exploratory or reconnaissance surveys. IO.CHAIN

There are two types of barometers : Barometric Formulae

(I) Mercurial barometer Let it be required to find the difference in elevation H between two points A and B.
(2) Aneroid barometer. Let d. = density of air at A
(I) The Mercurial Barometer. Mercurial barometer is more accurate than the aneroid d = density of air at any station
barometer but is an inconvenient instrument for everyday work dne to the difficulty of h = height of mercury cclurnn of barometer at any station
carrying it about, and the ease with which it is broken. The mercurial barometer works L = height of the homogeneous atmoshphere on the assumption that its density
on the principle of balancing a column of mercury against the atroospheric pressure at is constant throughout having a value d.
the point of observation. There m two main types of mercurial barometers - Cistern and
 )
2SO SURVEYING l.I!VELUNO

t1' temperature at B
= mercury
p = pressure at A in absolute units of mercury= 0.00009 per !° F
g = acceleration due to gravity a= co-efficient of expansion
at the lower substiruted in (4).
h, =barometer reading in em The cotikted height h, is to be centigrades,
thermometers are measured in degrees
station A If the temperarures of the detached
the higher form
h, = baromelric reading in em at T, and T2 , Eq. 4 takes the following
station B . ( T,+T,)
I + 50 0
...(6)
H =difference in elevation betw
een A and B, H = 18336.6 Qog10 h, -lo g, h,)
in metr es. is in the following form
Another formula given by Laplace
Then p= L.d ,g= h.d .g ... (1)
h,
t,+ t,-6 4°) ( I+ 0.002695 cos 29 ) x log . . .. . . . . ..... . (7)
or L =- p- ... (2) H = 1839 3.5 ( I +
d,. g 900
the stations.
is constant by Boyle's where 9 is the mean latirude of with a barometer:
If g is taken constant, : ter. There are two methods of levelling
' Levelling with the Barome
hence L will be constant. FIG. 9.55. ANEROID BAROMEI'ER s
(I) Method of single oberservation
law and
de of BH
Let Bh = change in baromelric read
ing for a small •difference in altitu observations
(2) Method of simultaneous
Hence, at a distance BH above
A, we have <· rv{J/jons :
(1) Metlwd of Single Obse a single reading
(h- Bh) d. g= (L- BH) d,. g In this method, the baro mete r is carried from point to point and
t. The temperarure
er is brought back to the starting poin
or Bh .d= oH .d, is raken at each station ; the baromet atmospheric errors
readings thus obtained involve all
reading is raken at each station. The
BH = Bh . d = ~ ' from (I)
val between the
or re which take place during the inter
da .h,'- due to the changes in the atmosphe
observations.
H =L f.,
h, dh
h =L (log. h, -log , h2) (2) Method of Simulliuzeous
Observ{J/jons :
In this method, observations at two
stations are raken simultaneously by
two barometers
spheric changes that
and substiruting the numerical valu
e of L from to eliminate the errors due to atmo
Reducing this to common _logarithms previously compared. The aim is meter is kept at
between the observations. One baro
(2), we get take place during the time elapsed er is W:en from
(at 32° F and 45° latirude) barometer, called the field baromet
H = 18336.6 Qog10 h, -log " h,)
".(3 ) the base or starting poim. Another eterm ined intervals of
both the barometers taken at pred
for temp erarure, we get station to station and readings of d with thos e of the barometer
Applying a correction . The readings of the field baro meter are then compare
time rvation.
/
H = 18336.6 (log" h, -lo g, h,) [1
+ t, +
h- 64'" \ J ... (4) at the base. The temperarure read
ings are also taken with each obse
an erro r of as great as 3
900
If temperarure is not observed,
it alone may introduce
similar precautions,
where re of air in degr ee Fahrenheit at A two barometers and by taking other
t, = temperaru m. By simultaneous observations with
Fahrenheit at B. as I~ to 2 m.
t, = temperarure of air in degrees errors may be reduced to as low
ession applies
ched thermometers. The above expr of the station B from the following data
:
Both t, and t, are measured by deta ever, for mercurial Example 9.24. Find the elevation
as for the aneroid barometer. How 78.02 em at 8 A.M.
both for mercurial barometer, as well e of temperarure Barometer reading at A :
has to be applied for any differenc Temperature of air = 68 o F
barometer, an additional correction following
melric reading is correcte by the
d
in the mer cury at the two stations. The baro 78.28 em at 12 A.M.
formula :
Temperature of air = 72 o F
h, = h,' [I +a (t,' -t,') ] ".(5 )
ing at B 75.30 em at 10 A.M.
where h, = corrected barometr ic read Barometer reading at B :
h,' = reading at B
Temperature of air =50 o F
t,' = mercury temperarure at A Elevation of A= 252.5 m
 2.53
SURVEYING LEVELLING
2.52
Example 9.25. Detennine the difference in elevation of rwo stations A and B from
SotuUon.
the foUowing observations ·:
78.02 + 78.28 Boilirig point at lower station = 210.9" F Air temperature = 61 • F
The probable readingat A at to A.M. = h,- = 78.15 em.
2
Boiling point at upper station = 206.5" F Air temperature = 57" F
Reading at B at tO A.M. = h, = 75.30 em
Solution
68 + 72
t, (average), at A = - - = 70" F at to A.M. Height of tower point abOve mean sea level is given by
2 £ 1 = T1 (521 + 0.75 T,) ; where T1 = 212"- 210.9" = 1.1 •
t, at Bat 10 A.M.=50" F
£ 1 = 1.1 (521 + 0.75 x 1.1) = 574 feet.
Substituting the values in formula (4), we get
Sintilarly. height of upper point abOve mean sea
level is given by ·
. . . ( t, + t,- 64)
H = 18336.6 _(log h,- log h,) I +
900 E2 = T2 (521 + 0.75 T,) ; where r, = 212•- 206.5" = 5.5"
70+50-64 ). E, = 5.5 (521 + 0.75 X 5.5) = 2888 ft.
= 18336.6 (log 78.15 -log 75.30) x ( 1 + = 315.5 m
900 Air temperature correction
:. Elevation of B = 252.5 + 315.5 = 568.0 m.
=a=l+
t, + t,- 64 =I+ 61 + 57 - 64 -1.06
900 900
9.22. HYPSOMETRY ·'
The working of a lrypsometer for the determination ''(if· altitudes of stations depends .. Difference in elevation= H = (E, - £ 1) a = (2888 - 574) 1.06 = 2453 ft.
on the fact that the temperature at which water bOils vades with the atmospheric pressure. PROBLEMS
A liquid bOils when its pressure is equal to the atmoshpheric pressure. The bOiling point
of vapour water is ·lowered at higher altitudes since the atmospheric pressure decreases
!. Define the following terms :
there. A hypsometer essentially consists of a sensitive thermometer graduated to 0.2• F
Benchmark, Parallax, Line of collimation, Level surface, Vertical line, Bubble line. Redace,;
or 0.1• C . The thermometer is held uprighi' in a special vessel in such a way that
level, Dip of the horizon, and Backsight
its bulb is a little abOve the surface of water contained in a small bOiler. A spirit tamp
is used to heat the water. Knowing the bOiling temperature of water, the atmospheric pressure 2. Decribe in brief the essemial difference between the following levels:
can be fouod either from the chart or can be calculated from the following approximate Dumpy level, Y-level and Tilling level.
formula: 3. What are the different typeS of levelling staff ? Sti!te the merits and demerits ·of each.
Pressure in incbes of mercury= 29.92 ± 0.586 r, ...(!) 4. Describe the 'height of instrument' and 'rise and fall' methods of computing the levels.
where T1 = the difference of bOiling point from 212" F Discuss the merits and demerits of each.
Having known the atmospheric pressure at the point, elevation can be calculated by S.(a) lllusuate with neat sketches ~ COD5auction of a surveying telescope.
using the barometric formula given in the previous article. However, the following formula (b) Distinguish between the following :
may also be used to calculate the elevation of the point abi:>ve datum : (1) Horizontal plane and level surface
E, = T, (521 + 0.75 T,) ... (2)
(in Line of collimation and line of sight
Sintilarly, E2 at the higher station can also be calculated. The difference in elevation
(iii) Longitudinal seclion and cross-section.
between two points is given by 6. Describe in detail how you would proceed in the field for (1) profile levelling, and (in
E= (£1 - Ei) a ... (3) cross-sectioning.

where .
a = a1r temperarure correction = 1 +
lt, + , - 64)
900
7. Explain how the prncedare of reciprncal levelling eliminateS the effect of annospheric refraction
and earth's curvature as well as the effect of inadjustmenl of lhe line of collimation.
8. (a) R.L. of a factory floor is 100.00'. Staff reading on floor is 4.62 ft and the staff
where t1 = air temperature at lower station reading when staff is held inverted with bottom touching the tie beam of the roof truss is 12.16 ··
t1 = air temperatur~ at the higher station. ft. Find the height of the tie beam above the floor.
Water bOils at 212• F (100" C) at sea level at atmospheric pressure of 29.921 inches (b) The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level:
of mercury. A difference of 0.1 • F in the reading of the thermometer corresponds to a 6.21, 4.92, 6.12, 8.~2. 9.81, 6.63, 7.91, 8.26, 9.71. 10.21
difference of elevation of abOut 50 ft. The method is therefore extremely rough.
 LEVELUNG
254 SURVEYING
Rise Fall R.L. ReiiUlrl:s
Point B.S. /.S. F.S.
reduced level at. first point was '
The level was shifted after 4th, 6th and 9th readings. The 3.125 '
B.M.
a level field book and fill all the columns. Use I
100 ft. Rnle out a page of your answer-book as 1.325 125.005 T.P.
rollimat ion system and apply the usual aritbme tical check. 2
3
'' ' 2.320
' 0.055 '
lndlcate the highest and the lowest points. (A.M. I.E.) 125.350
4
9. The following staff readings were observed successively :
wilh level, the instrwii< nl having ' 2.655 TP.
5
been moved forward afier the second, fourth and eighlh readings
I 6
'
1.620 3.205 2.165 T.P.
2.030, 3.765. \
0.815, 1.235, 2.310, 1.385, 2.930, 3.125, 4.125, 0.!20, 1.815, 7 3.625
T.B.M.
122.590
ark of elevation 132.135. Enter X
The first reading was taken wilh the siBff held upon a benchmchecks. Find also lhe difference 8
in level book-form ·and reduce the levels. Apply the usual
the readings adjUstmentS of level.
in level herween the first and the last points. 14 (a) Differentiate herween 'perrnanem' and "temporazy'
. .
/ . Fuxl the correction due to
10. Compare the rise and fall me!)lod' of reducing levelling
notes wilh the height of collimation (b) Discuss lhe effects of curvatUre and refraction in levellillg
correction. Why are these effects ignored in ordinary levelling 7
melbod. each and the combined
of levels was IBken from A to IS. In levelling herween two points A and 8 on
opposite sides of a river, lhe level was
It was required to ascertain elevations of A and B. A line

--
The observa tions are recorded below. the staff readings on A and B were 2.642 and 3.228 m respectively. The level
B and !hen continned to a beDobmark of elevation 127.30 ft. set up near A and on A and B were 1.086 and
B, the respective staff readings
Obtain the R.L.'s of A and B. .was !hen moved and set up near
1.664. Fuxl the aue difference in level of A and B.
B.S. l.S. F.S. _,R.L.
16. The following notes refer to reciprocal levels taken witb
one level:
3.92 A
lnsrrwnenJ Staff Reading on Remark s
1.46 7.78
7.05 3.27 Near P Q i
2.36 B p 1.824 2.748 Dismnce PQ = 1010 m
R.L. of P = 126.386
i
4.81 0.85
,,
Q 0.928 1.606
8.63 2.97 for curvature and refraction. and
Find (a) lhe aue R.L. of Q (b) lhe combined correction I

7JJ2 3.19 (c) the angular error in lhe collima tion adjUstm ent.
above the horizon at a certain
4.28 127.30 B.M.
17. A luminous object on the top of a bill is visible just
from the station is 40 km. Find the
(A.M. I.E.) station at the sea-level. The distance of the top of the hill
the radius of lhe earlh to be 6370 km.
a level and 3 metre levelling staff height of lhe hill. IBking
ll. The following consecutive readings were taken with from the top of a light bouse
on continuously sloping ground at a common interval of
20 metres : 18. To a person standing on lhe deck of a ship, a light
above the horizon . The height of the light in lhe light-bouse is known to be 233
0.568, 1.!!?4. 2.722. The reduced is visible just
0.602, 1.234. J.g6Q, 2.574. 0.238, 0.914, 1.936. 2.872, yards above M.S.L. if l.bt: deck of We si.Lip is 9 yards above
M.S.L., work out the disLaJJ.ce belwecn
of the first point was 192.122. Rule out a page of a level field book and enter the above ry assumpt ions.
level the light-house and lhe ship. Make lhe necessa
also lhe gradient of lhe line joining lhe
readings. C3kulate the reduced levels of lhe points and tube. Describe bow you would
first and the last points. 19 (a) Exaplain what is meant by the sensitiveness of a level
of a level tube attached to a dumpy level.
, lhe following readings were determine in the field the sensitiveness
12. In runoiDg fly-levels from a benchmsrk of R.L. 384.705 for 2 mm · division, find the error
obtained . (b) If lhe bubble mbe has a sensitiveness of 23 seconds
of 300 ft caused by. bubble being one division out of centre.
Baoksight 3.215, 1.030, 1.295, 1.855. in the staff reading at a distance
d reading is 12.00' and at lhe
Foresight 1.225, 3.290, 2.085. (c) Find lhe error of reading of levelling staff if the observe (U.P.)
through lhe bottom.
point sighted lhe staff is 6" off lhe vertical
metres inteval are ro be set out
From the last position of the instrument, six pegs at 25 How are they eliminated ?
in 100, lhe first peg is to have R.L. of 384.500. Work out 20. What are different sources of errors in levelling ?
on a uniformly fa11iDg gradient of I given gradient.
of the pegs on the an aneroid barometer.
the staff resdings required for setting lhe tops
21. Describe with the help of a sketch, the working of
of an old level book. Reconstruct ons a surveyor should IBke to
13. The following readings have been IBken from the page calculate lhe corrected 22. (o) List out carefully and systematically lhe field precauti
and apply lhe usual checks. Also. for enginee ring purposes.
the page. Fili op the ntissing quantities collimat ion error of 30" and ensure good results from levelling field work planned
an elevated
level of the T.B.i.t if the instrument is known to have error of 1.56' on the starting
bacisight foresight dislance s averaged 40 and 90 metres respecti vely. (b) A 12-mile closed levelling traverse reveals a closing
Give reasons in support of your answer.
benclunark. Would you consider the work acceptable ?
 - ..
f 256

23. (a) Describe briefly the temporacy

adjustmerus of a dumpy level.
SURVEYING
[§]
(b) Two mile stones A and B are separ
i
ated by 6 miles. A line of levels is run from
to be
A to B and then from B to A. The differences of levels are found
A to B
Bto A
+ 181.34 ft.
- 180.82 ft.
Contouring
?
Do you consider the levelling job of
an acceptable quality of engineering work (A.M. I.E.)

ANSWERS
)
9); Lowest point : Fourth (R.L. 97.79 GENERAL
8. (a) 16.78' (b) Highest point : Second (R.L. 101.2 10.1. points
enhanced if the relative position of the
135.355. 133.620 The value of plan or map is highly
9. R.L.'s of cbange points:- 1~1.775,
132 .700, 132.505, 131.505, 137.510, maps are know n as topo grap hic
is represented both horizontally as well
as vertically. Such
Difference in R.L.'s : 1.485 m cal control are requ ired.
IIIJJ[JS. Thus, in a topographic
survey, both horizorual as well as verti
10. 116.75 ; IIS.77. the poin ts can be represented by shading, hochures.
On a plan, the relative altirudes of used because
50 (T.P.), 189.474. 188.452, 187. 516
(T.P.), 186.260. these, contour lines are most widely
11. 192.122, 191.490, 190.864, 190.1 form lines or comour lines. Out of
185.362. they indicate the elevations directly.
"' Gradient I in 23.82, falling. Contour tion.
Peg No. Staff reading ground joining the points of equal eleva
A contour is an imaginary line on the
12.
ce. A conto ur
ground is intersected by a level surfa
It is a line in which the surface of
l 1.000
s a pond with wate r
a contour. Fig. 10.1 show
2. 1.250 line is a line on the map representing r mark . If the wate r level
n in the plan by the wate
3. I.SOO at an elevation of 101.00 m as show be obtained.
er water mark representing 100.00 m elevation will
4. 1.750 is now lowered by 1 m, anoth on the map in the form of contours.
and represented
These water marks may be surveyed map
5. 2.00 0 re of the surface of the ground. If a
2 .250
A tOpographic map presents a clear pictu level, wher e it is slopi ng, wher e
6. the ground is nearly
is to a big scale, it shows where scale, it show s
13. are gradual. If a map is to a small
I the slopes are steep and where they hic
Poinl B.S. I.S. F.S. I l&e Fail I _M ,_ Remarks
the flat country, the hills and valleys,
the lakes and water courses and other
topo grap
I 3.125 123.680 B.M.
features.
2 2.265 1.800 I 1.325 I I' 125.1J91 T.P.
U.i}jj i:bt.!i.SO lU.l.. CONIOLiR ~"TERVAL val.
consecutive contours is called comour inter
J l.Jai I
I The vertical distance between any two

II
4 1.920 0.400 125.353 the gene ral appe aranc e
for a contour plan, otherwise
5
6
7
II 1.040
1.620
3.625
2.655 ]
3.205 -1-
0.735
2.165
2.005
124.615
122.450
120.445
T.P.
T.P.
The contour imerval is kept constant
of the map will be misleading. The horiz
contours is known as the horizontal
ontal distance between
equiv
two· poin ts
alent and depends upon the steepness
on two

following cons
cons

idera
ecuti
of the
ve

tions:
1 er contour interval depends upon the
8 1.480 J 2.145 122.590 T.B.M. gr~. The choice of prop
: The contour interval depends upon
whether the
(i) The nature of. the ground ground will be
Correct R.L. of T.B.M .• 122 . 620 metres. A contour interval <;hosen for a flat
country is flat or highly undulated. is necessary.
For every flat ground, a small interval
IS. 0.582 m, full. highly unsuitable for undulated ground. ted, other wise the
contour .interval should be adop
m. '(cf + 11" If the ground is more broken, greater
16 (a) 125585. (b) 0.069 other.
contours wiiJ come too close to each
17. 107.76 m.
(257)
18. 41.89 miles.
19. (b) 0.03 ft. : (c) 0.81 ft.
 259 . ·jj'
SURVEYING CONTOURING ~~
25~
below !
'the values of contour interval for various purposes are suggested
(ii) The scale of the map:
Scale Interval (meues}
u
H
,,.
The contour interval should be in-
versely proponional to the scale. If em = 10 m or less 0.2 to 0.5 'h
em=50 m to lOOm
0.5 tu 2 L
rhe sCale is small, the contour interval 1''
should be large. If the scale is large, I 2 to3
···Icm= 50mto 200m
the contour interval should be small.
is as follows:
(iii) The purpose and extent For general topographical work, the general rule that may be followed
of the survey : The contour imerval 25
Contour interval - No. of em per km (metres)
iargely dept!nds upon the purpose ·
JDd the: c:xtem of the surv~y. For . 50 . (feet).
t!xample. if the survey is imendOO. or No. of mches per mde
for detail«! design work or for ac-
curate eanh work Lllculations, small 10.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
The following characteristic features may
I
!'
comour interval is to be used. The
extent of survey in such cases will
generally be small. In the case of .
10
100
['l..i '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' v tc used while plotting or reading a contour
"'\.,: ' '' I ' · • · ' '' '' '' :/ plan.
' I'
'
lm:ati.m surveys. for lines of com-
munications and for reservoir and
99
"'\.,: ; '' :v
'' :/ · -
I. Two contour lines of different elevations
98
"'\...: ' ' cannot cross each other. If iliey did, the point
drainage areas. where the extent of ' ' ofm:.: :.«::non would have two different elevations
survey is large, a large ContOOrT";
97
96
"'\.,: v which is absurd However, comour lines of
terval is ro be used. 95 different elevations can intersect only in the
(iv) Time and expense of field 94 case of au overhanging cliff or a cave (See
and office work : If the time FIG. 10.1 Fig. !0.2).
available is less, greater contour
will be taken in
2. Contour lines of different elevations ,,
inrerval should be used. If the contour interval is small, greater time can unite to form one hne only in the case '
the field survey, in reduction and· in plotting the map. of a vertical cliff. -~
Considering all these aspects. the contour interval for a particular
coruour plan is
mislead the
3. Contour lines close together indicate I1
.~elected. This contour interval is kept constant in
that plan, otherwise it will
steep slope. They indicate a gentle slope if '~
some suitable values of
general appearance of the ground. The following table suggests they are far apart. If they are equally spaced.
~amour tmervai. unilonn slope is indicated. A series of straight, FIG. 10.2

I Contour ltrJervJil parallel and equally spaced contours represent

Scale of mop Type of grou11d
i (metres) a plane surface. Thus, in Fig. !0.3, steep slope in represented
and a plane surface at D·D.
at A-A, a gentle slope
0.2 to 0.5 at B·B, a unifonn slope at C-C
La"'' - Flat - I ,o
(l cm=lO m or less) Rolling 0.5 to 1 .. 4. A comour passing ;c
l Hilly l, 1.5 or 2 ~ through any point is perpen-
_,___
'B ''
' 90 t:::-
Flat 0.5, l or 1.5 dicular to the line of steepest 90 'A ; 80
' -------, -
;
slope at that point. This agrees 80--j._ __--

r· Small
:
Rolling
Hilly_
Flat
l
!
·~
I. l.5 or 2
2. 2.5 QC 3
1. 2 or 3
~0 5
-
with(3), since the perpendicular
distance between contour lines
is the shortest distance.
71Y-! ---
;'
iA '
--!.._
so--r- --- ----.;_ _
'
;e
;
70

60

I
Rolling J ~c '0
fl em= 100m or more) 2
5. A closed contour line td)
Hilly I Sto!O
10, 25 or 50
~ith one ·or more higher ones
{a) {b) (c)

__ _ ___ 1 Moumaineous iitsi~e it_represents a hili [Fig. FIG. 10.3.

 261
SURVEYING CONTOURING
26(\
In lhe indirect method, some suitable guide points are selected and surveyed ; lhe
10.4 (a)] ; similarly, a closed conrour guide points need nnt necessarily be on lhe contours. These guide points. having been
line with one or more lower ones ploned; serve> as basis for lhe interpolation of contours. This is lhe melhod most commonly
inside it indicates a depression wilh- 100
used in engineering surveys.
out an outlet [Fig. 10.4 (b)].

@)
Direct Method
6. To contour lines having As ·stated earlier, in lhe indirect melhod, each contour is located by determining lhe
also
lhe same elevation cannot unite and positions of a series of points through which lhe contour passes. The operation is
continue as one line. Similarly, a sometimes called tracing out contours. The field work is two-fold :
single contour cannot split into two (!) Vertical control : Location of points on lhe contour, and
lines. lbis is evident because· the ·
(b) (il) Horiwntal control : Survey of chose points.
single line would, olherwise, indicate (a)
a knife-edge ridge or depression (i) Vertical Control : The points on lhe contours are traced eilher wilh lhe help of a
which does not occur in nature.
FIG. 10.4 level and staff or wilh lhe help of a hand level. In lhe former case. lhe level is set
at a point to command as much area as is possible and is levelled. The stalf is kept
However, two different contours of
the same elevation may approach very near to each other. on lhe B.M. and lhe height of lhe instrument is determined. If the B.M. is not nearby,
fly-levelling may be performed to establish a temporary benchmark (T.B.M.) in chat area.
7. A contour line must close upon itself,. !hough not necessarily wilhin lhe limits
of lhe mar ;., -:; Having known lhe height of lhe I , 101
· ~
~--..___
right angles. They form curves instrument , lhe staff reading is
8. Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line at
lhe higher ground (Fig. calculated so chat lhe bottom of
of U-shape ~round it
10.5).
wilh lhe concave stde of lhe curve
100
towards
.. lhe stalf is at an elevation equal ··\.~\
'• to lhe value of lhe contour. For
9. Contour lines cross a valley line ''
\)95 · example, if lhe height of lhe in-
at right angles. They form sharp curves
of V·Shape across 1t with convex side
of lhe curve towards lhe higher ground
(Fig. 10.6). If !here is a stream, lhe w A1o
Ass
o . 90
strument is 101.80 metres, lhe
stalf reading to get a poinl on
lhe contour of 100.00 metres will

~85
be 1.80 metres. Taking one con- '·,·,
comour on either side, turning upstream,
tour at a time (say 100.0 m con-
may disappear in coincidence with lhe
edge of lhe stream and cross undemealh ~90 tour), lhe staff man is directed ·•.
·•.
~80
to keep .!he staff on lhe points 98
the water surface.
10. Th~~~ contour appears on
J >;::__ 85 on contour so chat reading of
R;dg~ / ~-~~.lleyline 1.80 m is obtained every time. FIG. 10.1
ei.!!J.er sides of a tidge-or valley, for
lhe highest horiwntal plane chat intersects ~80
'
Thus, in Fig. 10.7, lhe dots rep-
resent lhe points determined by this melhod explained above.
lhe ridge must cut it on bolh sides:· The '· If a band level is used, slightly different procedure is adopted in locating the points
same is true of the lower horizontal plane FIG. 10.6. on lhe contour. A ranging pole having marks at every decimetre interval may be
used
chat cuts a valley. • .of!G. 10.5. preferably an Abney Clinometer. To start wilh,
in conjunction wilh any type of hand level,
,
10.4. METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS a point is located on one of lhe contours, by levelling from a B.M. The starting point
lhe contour which is a mean of chose to he commande d from chat
o The location of a point in. topographic survey involves bolh horiwntal as well as must be located on
man
·vertical conrrol. The melhods of locating eontours, lherefore, depend upon lhe instruments position. The surveyor chen holds lhe hand level at chat point and directs lhe rod
us~. In general. however, lhe field melhod may be divided
into two classes : till lhe point on lhe rod corresponding to lhe height of lhe instrument above lhe ground
(b) The indirect melhod. is bisected. To do this conveniently, lhe level should he held against a pole at some convenient
(a) The direct melhod.
be plotted is actually traced on lhe ground. height, say, 1.50 metres. If lhe instrument (i.e. lhe hand level) is at 100 m contour.
In lhe direct method, lhe contour to
the reading of lhe rod to he bisected at each point of 100.5 m, wilh lhe same instrument
Only rlwse points are surveyed which lwppen ro be plotted. After having surveyed chose
position, will be (1.50- 0.5) = 1.0 merre. The work can lhus be continued.
points, !hey are plotted and contours are drawn lhrough !hem. The melhod 1s slow
and
tedious and is used for small areas and where great accuracy is required.
262

The s1aff man should be iostructed to

of paper on which R.L. of the conto
SURVEYING

iosert a lath or twig at the point thus locat

ur shou
ed.
ld
CONTOURING

(il) By Cross-secliDns
In this method, cross-sections are run trans
verse to the centre line of a road, railway
for railway route surveys. The spacing of
the
•
:.!
.,
j.
I

The twig must be split to receive a piece or canal ere. 'h!e method is most· suitable and the purpo se
the terrain, the contour interval
be written. cross-section depends upon the character of e the conto urs curve ']•'
be more closely spaced wher
(il) Horiv>nllli Control of the survey. The cross-sections should plotted
us contours, they are ro be surveyed with on .~purs . The cross-section and the points can th•n be
After having located the points on vario extent abruptly. as in ravines or interp olated on the assum ption
be adopted depends mainly on the type and and the elevation of each point iS marked.
The contour lines are
a suilable control system. The system to point s may be located points on two adjacent contours. Thus , in Fig. "I'
may be used and the that there is unlfortn slope between two I"'
of areas. For small area, chain surveying e, a traverse may be used. points actually surveyed in the field while the
by offsets from the survey· lines. In a
work of larger natur 10.9, the points marked with dots are the "
be a theod olite" or a compass or a plane table traverse. points marked with x on the first cross
-section are the points interpolate d on conto urs.
~
The ttaverse may :\
In the direct method. two "survey parties
generally work sirnullaneously -on e locat
if the
ing
work The same method may I \ ~ .............:l i 1 i ""'1 i ! __ l i 11 ..J \!-
surveying those point s. How ever, .1
the points on the contours and the· other party. also be used in the direct
e, the points may be locat ed first and then surveyed by the same method of contouring with a
!
is of a small natur s 1
have been surveyed with respect to point slight modilic"ation. In the ~
In Fig. 10.7, the points shown by dots dolle d lines.
A and B which may be tied by a
traverse show n by chain method desc ribe d above, !
ods points are laken almost at !I
Indirect Meth
ted along ·~.:;system of straight lines and
[!
regular intervals on a cross~
In this method, some guide points are selec drawn ·by section. However, the contour ~
are then plotted and contours are then
their elevations are found. The points on the contours points can be located directly
inerpolarion. These guide points are nor,
except by coincidenc e. point s
adjacent
I!I:
assumed that the slope between any two on the cross-section as in the
to be located. While interpolating, it is direct method. For example,
FIG. 10.9 i
guide points is unifonn.
The following are 'orne of the indirect
methods of locating the ground points if the height of the iostrument
is 101.80 and if it is required to trace
a contour of 100 m on the ground, the
the slaff readi
levelling
ngs on
I.,'
(I) By Squares (Fig 10. 8) on the cross-section so that
10.4 : slaff is placed on several guide points on 100m como ur. The guide r,
points will be
The method is used when the area all such points are 1.80 m, and all these
:,
----r 10.6 then on anoth er [!
d first on one cross -line and
ro be surveyed is small and the ground points of different contours are determine od.
on another, as in the direct meth
is not very much undulating. The· <l!ea instead of first on one contour and then
ro be surveyed is divided into a number een two cross-lines, additional guide points
If there are irregularities in the surface betw also
of squares. The size of the square may . If required, some of the cross-lines may
may be located on intertnediate cross-lines
vary from 5 to 20 m depending upon 90° to the main 1ine.
be chosen at any inclination other than
ur
lhe narure of the contour and conto (iii)By Tacheometrie Method
interval. The elevations of the corners of . A
ric method may be used with advan1ages
In the case of hilly terrain, the lacheomet
the square are then detertnined by means
i
1acheomerer is a theodolite filled with
of a level and a staff. The contour lines
s1adia diaphragm so that slaff readings
"if
may then be drawn by interpolation. It
agaiost all the three hairs may be
is nor necessary that the squares may be v
laken. The slaff intercept s is then
of the same size. Sometimes. reclangles
are also used in place of squares. When
there are appreciable breaks in the surface
ob1ained by taking the difference
tween the readings against the top
be-
l
and bottom wires. The line of sight
between corners, guide points in addition
can make any inclination with the
ro those at comers may also be used.
horizonral, thus increasing the range .1
The squares should be as long as practicable, FIG. 10.8. SPOT LEVELLING. 14 -- -- -o
confo rm to the in- of instrument observations. The hori-
yer small enough to
acy required. The method is also known as zontal distances need not be measured. FIG. W.lO
equalities of the ground and ro the accur
since the tacheomerer provides both
spot levelling.
 265
CONTOURING
SURVEYING
264
and C be the guide points plotted on the '
of sight ~·:&·
horizontal as well as vertical control. Thus, if 9 is the inclination of the line map, having elevations of 607.4, 617.3,
with horizontal (Fig. 10.10), the horizontal distance (D), between the instrumen t and the 612.5 and 6(}4.3 feet respectively (Fig. '
axis and the point
staff, and the vertical difference in elevation (V) between the 'instrument 10.12). Let AB '= BD = CD = CA = I inch
the staff are given by
in which the line of sight against the central wire intersects on the plan and let it be required to locate
D =K1 seas'S + K,cos 9 and V=Dtan 9 the position of 605. 610 and 615 feet
contours on these lines. The vertical dif-
where K1 and K2 are instrumental constants.
ference in elevation between A and B is
The tacheometer may be set on a (617.3- 607.4) = 9.9 ft. Hence. the dis-
point from which greater control can be tances of the contour points from A will
obtained. Radial lines can then be set making
'! c!!'~
'\
different angles with either the ma~ti~· ,,
be:
l ------·-~~
Distance of 610 ft contour point ~;,~-,-
!
meridian or with the first radial line (Fi'g. · ~. '
= 9I.9 x 2.6 =0.26" (approx.)
10.11). On each radial line, readings may
be taken on levelling staff kept at differeiit
points. The point must be so chosen that
approximate vertical difference in elevation
Distance of 615 ft contour point
= 9~ 9 x 7.6 =0.76" (approx.)
.
'
~
:[1
;
'
•
'
;
-·+·'&·-·-·-· -· ·-·-·:•~
' SO"~
__ \
I

.:~-·----- ~\Gf
.!
___uoS
q>1·
between two consecutive points is less than These two contour points may be
the contour interval. Thus, on the same FIG. 10.12
located on AB. Similarly, the position of
radial line, the horizontal equivalent will
the contour points on the lines AC. CD,
be smaller for those two points the vertical through
BD and .also on AD and BC may be located. Contour lines may then be drawn
difference in elevation of which is greater shown in Fig. 10.12.
appropriate contour points, as
and vice versa.
FIG. tO.lt (ii1) By Gmphical Method
To sorvey an area connected by paper
In the graphical method, the interpolation is done with the help of a tracing
series of hillocks, a tacheometric traverse
may be run, the tacheometric traverse stations being chosen at some commanding
positiqns. or a tracing cloth. There are two methods:
lines may be run in various directions as required, First Method
At each ttaverse station, several radial
entirely obtained by the tacheome ter. The traverse, the radial The first method is illustrated in Fig 10.13. On a piece of tracing cloth,
several
the horizontal control being
is calculated by metre. If required.
lines and the points can then be plotted. The elevation of each point lines are drawn parallel to each other, say at an interval representing 0.2
usual. bottom
tacheometric formulae and entered, and the contours can be interpolat ed as each fifth line may be made heavier to represent each metre interval. Let the
cloth, represem an elevatiou of 99 m
W.5. J.NfERl'OLATION OF CONTOURS line of the diagram, so prepared on the tracing
and let it be required to interpolate 105
Interpolation of the contours is the process of spacing the contours proportionately COD!Ours of 99.5, 100 and 100.5
ion
between the plotted ground points established by indirect methods. The methods of interpolat m values between two points A and
between the two points is uniform.
are based on the assumption that the slope of ground B having elevations of 99.2 and 102
The chief methods of interpolation are 100.7 m respectively. Keep the trac·
(1) By estimation ing cloth on the line in such a
(ii) By arithmetic calculations way that point A may lie on a 101
(iii) By graphical method.
parallel representing an elevation of
(I) By Estimation 99.2 metres. Now rotate the tracing 100
This method is extremely rough and is used for small scale work only. The positions cloth on drawing in such a way
of contour points between the guide points are localed by estimation. that point B may lie on a parallel
(il) By Arithmetic Calculations esenting 100.7 metre:
The method, though accurate, · is time consuming. The positions of contour points points at which the parallels rep- FIG. 10.13
between the guide points are located by arithmetic calculation. For example, let A.
B. D resenting 99.5 (pointx), 100.0 (point
 CONTOURING
SURVEYING
'!66
paraUel to the line
obtained in a similar manner. The line between any two pegs will be
y) and 100.5 (point z) may now be pricked through the respectiv
e positions of the contour
of sight.
point on the line AB. If a !~vel is used to locate the contour gradient, it is not necessar
y to set the level
ding position and reading on the
Second Method . on the contoilr gradient. The level is set at a comman
numerica l example , let the reading be 1.21
The second method is illustrated staff kept at the firSt point is taken. For
B (say) distant 20 metres from A, with a contour
in Pig. 10.14. A line Xfof any convenient metres. The reading on another peg
+ 1.41 metres. To locate the point B. the staff
length is taken on a tracing cloth and gradient of 1 in 100, will 6<; 1.21 0.20 =
divided into several pans, each repre- tape (with zero metre eod at A) and moves·
man holds the 20 metres end of chain or
senting any particular interval, say 0.2 nt station several ·
till the reading on the staff is 1.41 metres. Thus, from one single instrume
m. On a line perpendicular to XY at the staff readings
points at a given gradient can be located. The method of calculating
its mid-point, a pole 0 is chosen and in Chapter 9 on Levelling.
for several pegs has been explained through numerical examples
radial lines are drawn joining the_ pelo··
10-7. USES OF CONTOUR MAPS
0 aod the division on the line XY. let -
the bottom radial line represenl an elevation
/
The foUowing are some of the important uses of contour maps.
of 97.0. If required. each fifth radial 1. Drawing of Sections y
line representing one metre interval may From a given contour 105,
be made dark. Let it be required to plan. the section along any
interpolate contours of 98. 99. 100 and given direction can be drawn 100
101 meaes elevations between two points to know the general shape
FIG. 10.14
A aod B having elevations of 97.6 and of the ground or to use it
101.8 metres. Arrange the tracing cloth for eanb work calculations for 95
on radial lines
on the line AB in such a way that the point A and B lie simultaneously a given · communicaticn line
at which radial lines of 98.
representing 97.6 and 101.8 metres respectively. The points
~0------------~~~~~~ti-on-alo~n-g~A~B------------Jx
in the direction of the section. 001
99, 100 and 101 metres intersect AB may then be pricke1 through.
Thus, in Pig. 10.15 (b), let
Contour Drawing
points, smooth
it be required to draw the § !2 a ;g~o 8m co .... U)

After having interpolated the contour points between a network of guide

" ' 0) Q)
section along the line AB. ... ............ .-0)

correspo nding contour points. While

curves of the contour lines may be drawn through their
s of contour lines must be borne in The points in which the
drawing the contour lines. the fundamental propenie
inked in either black or brown. If the contour plan line AB intersect with various
mind. The contour lines should be
roads, etc .. it is preferab le to use brown ink. for the contour contours are projected on the
also shows the feamres like
the c0ntours should axis OX and ~ir correspond- ..... -·-·•·-·-·-+-·t-+-·.,.8
so as to distinguish it clearly from rest o( the features. The value of
be written in a systematic and uniform manner. ing heights are plotted along
the axis OY to some scale
10.6. CONTOUR GRADIENT to get the corresponding con-
g
Contour gradient is a line lying throughout on the surface of the ground and preservin tour points which may be
a line is given. its direction
a constant inclination to the horilontal. If the inclination of such joined to get the configuration
The method
from a point may be easily located either on the map or on the ground. of ground surface [Fig. 10.15
is discussed in the next article (Pig. 10. 7). To
of locating the contour gradient on map (a)). FIG. 10.15.
level may be used.
locate the contour gradient in the field, a clinometer, a theodolite or a
to trace a contour gradient of inclination I in 100. staning from a 2. Determination of Intervislbility between two points
Let it be required
at A and its line of sight kilometres and
point A, with the help of a clinometer. The clinometer is held The distances between the triangulation stations are generally several
person having a target at a height intervisibility. A contour
is clamped at an inclination of 1 in 100. Another before selecting their position it is necessary to determine their
directed by the observer to move up or down of the triangulation stations. For example,
equal to the height of the observer's eye is map may be used to determine the intervisibility
by the line of sight. The point is then pegged on ility of the points A and B in Fig. 10.16.
the slope till the target is bisected to let it be required to determine the intervisib
then moved to the point so obtained and another point is metres respectiv ely.
the ground. The clinometer is their elevation being 70 and 102
I[ SURVEYING CONI'OURING
269
i
268

Draw line AB on the plan. The difference in elevation of A and B is 102.0 - 70 = 32.0 m. to trace that line separating the basin from the rest of the area. The line that marks
The line of sight between A and B will have an inclination 32.0 metres in a distance the limits of drainage area has the following characteristics :
AB. Mark on the line ·or AB, the points of elevation of 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 and 100 (1) I~ passes through every ridge or saddle that divides the drainage area from other

'
metres. by calculation. A (70)
areas.
70
Compare these points with (2) It often follows the ridges.
the corresponding points in (3) It is always peipjlndicular to the contour lines.
!
which the contours cut the
line AB. Thus, at the point
E the line of the sight will
have an elevation less than
J !
/ ·f1
'
i------t--
.,:I :'1
--~·--
-------80~ 75

85
~
75
0
Such a line is also known as the water-shed line. Fig 10.18 shows the drainage
area enclosed by a line shown by dot and dash. The area contained in a drainage basin
can be measured with a planimeter (see Chapter 12). The area shown by hatched lines
gives an idea about the extent of the reservoir having a water level of 100 metres .
80 metres while the ground
has an elevation of 80 me-
./ ! ! ! --~------------------
cl---~--1---~-----
85
c S. Calculation of Reservoir capacity
'' The contour plan may be used to calculate the capacity of a reservoir. For example,
tres. Thus, there will be 90
let it be required to calculate the capacity of reservoir shown in Fig. 10.18, having water
A '''
an obstruction and points A Una ol sight
'''
-
90-~1-
and B will not be intervisible.
The points C and D at which
the line of sight and the
\ ,.~
!
/,
:'
:
''' 95--+--
95

100
il.
ground are at the same ele-
ji I
. ' '
' '
I'
'
'
'
-
100-----l-

vation can be located. It will :;::s~:eR ~ 6 !to2)

be seen by inspection that '<"
PIG. 10.16
all other points are clear
and there will be no obstruction at other points execpt for the range CD.
I 3. Tracing of Contour Gradients and Location of Route
A contour plan is very much useful in locating the route of a highway, railway,
canal or any other communication line.
Let it be required to locate a route, from
A to B at an upward gradient of I in
25 (Fig'. 10. 17).
The contours are at an interval of
1 metre. The horizontal equivalent will
therefore be equal to 25 metres. With
A as centre and with a radius represenling
25 metres (to the same scale as that of
the contour plan) draw an arc to cut
the 100 m contour in a. Similarly, with
a as centre, cut the 101 m contour in
b. Similarly, other points such as c, d, 99 m
e.... ,B may be obtained and joined by
a line (shown dotted). The route is made
to follow this line as closely as possible. PIG. 10.17
4. Measurement of Drainage Areas
A drainage area for a given point in a stream or river can be defined as the area
that forms the source of all water that passes that point. A contour plan may be used
PIG. 10.18.
 ~~'

270

elevation of 100.00 metres. The area enclosed in 100, 90, 80

m and
SURVEYING

...... contours may be measured

90 m contour will then be
[(m
by a planimeter. The volume of water between 100
multiplied by the contour interval. Similarly,
equal to the average areas of the two contours
can be calculated. The total volume
the volume between the other two successive contours
will then be equal to the sum of the volumes between
the successive contours.
contours and h is
Plane Table Surveying
Thus, if A1, A2 , ......... , An are the areas enclosed by various
contour interval, the reservoir capacity will be given by
. V =~~(A,+ A,) by trapezoidal formula
11.1. GENERAL: ACCESSORIES
field observations and.
and V = l: ~ (A 1 + 4A, +A,) by primoidal formula Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the
ript map in the field while
calculation of Volumes. plotting proceed simultaneously. It is means of making a manusc
For detailed study, reference may be. made to Chapter 13 on the ground can be seen by the topographer aod without
interme diate steps of recording
Work : See Chapter 13. control and to
6. Intersection or Surfaces and Measurement or Earth aod rranscribing field notes. It can be used to tie topcgra pby by. existing
lation or traverse and by lines of levels.
carry its own control systems by triangu
PROBLEMS .•' Instruments used
1. Describe various methods of contouring. Discuss the ,.~erits
and demerits of each. The following instuments are used in plane table survey
for (a) levelling,
of contours. I. The plane table with levelling bead having arrangements
2. Describe with the help of sketches the characteristics (b) rotation about vertical axis, and (c) clampin g in any required position.
3. What is grade contour 1 How will you locate it (a)
on the ground, (b) on Ill.:. map. "' 2. Alidade for sighting
4. Explain, witlt sketches, the t!Ses of con_tp,ur maps. 3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob.
s. 4. Spirit level.
5. Discuss various methods of intcrploating the contour
5. Compass.
6. Drawing paper with a rainproof cover.
1. The Plane Table
for levelling the plane
Three distinct types of tables (board and tripod) having devices
table and conrrolling its orientation are in common use
:
Coast Survey Table.
(z) the Traverse Table, (iz) the Johnson Table and (iii) the
small drawin g hoard mounted
The Traverse Table : The traverse table consists of a
can be rotated about the vertical axis
on a light tripod in such a way that the board legs, usually
table is levelled by adjustin g tripod
and can be clamped in any position. The
by eye-estimation.
usually 45 x 60 em
Johnson Table (Fig. 11.2) : This consists of a drawing bo.ard
a ball-an d-socke t joint and a vertica l spindle with
or 60 x 75 em. The bead consists of
The ball-an d-socke t joint is operate d by the upper
two thumb screws on the underside. ball-an d-socket
screw is free, the table may be tilted about the
thumb screw. When the upper position. When
in a horizon tal
for levelling. The clamp is then tightened to fix the board axis and can
about the vertica l
the lower screw is loosened, the table may be rotated
thus be oriented.

(271)
!;
492
SURVEYING
AppendiX
now want to calculate the X- (or East) and Y- (or North) coordinates. The zero direction
set on the insll'UIIIenl is insll'UIIIent north. This may not have any relation on the ground
to ttue, magnetic or grid north. The relationship must be determined by the user. Fig. Example A-1. Given : A base line is measured with a steel rape. It is approximaJe/y
24.33 shows the geometry for two different cases, one where the horizontal angle- is
less at
/000 m long. Calcu/ale the correct length of the base line at M.S.L. when the pull
than 180' and the other where the horizontal angle is greater than 180'. The sign of 15 kg. The pull applied is 23 kg, cross-sectional area of the
the sUVIf}ardisaJion equals
in Fig. 24.33 (b)] is
tape is 0.0645 em', E = 2.11 x llf' kg/em', Temperatures r. and T0 be 35' C and 15' c re-
the coordinate' change [positive in Figure 24.33 (a) and negative
ic functions, so the same formula can be used in all
taken care of by the nigonomen spectively. The difference of level between the two ends of the base line is 2.0 m. The
cases. Let us use symbol E for eastiug and N for northing, and symbol I for the insll'UIIIenl
(i.e total station) and R for the refle-ctor. Let R, and RN be the easting and northing radius of earth R = 6400 km.
M.S.L. is IOOO. ·a= 12 X w-•.
·.of the reflector and I, and IN be the easting and northing of the insll'UIIIent (i.e. total Elevation of base line above of the line after applying the following corrections.
station) Required : The correct length
(ii) Pull correction
Fr<im inspe-ction of Fig. 24.33 the coordinsres of the reJector relative to the total (i) Tempera/Ure correction (iv) M.S.L. Correction
station are (iir) Slope correction (Engg. Services, 1981)
dE = · Change in Easting = H0 sin HAR
dN = Change in Northing= H0 cos H... Solution
c, ~ a (Tm- To) L = 12 x 10-
6
(r) Temperarore correction, (35 - 15) 1000 = 0.240 m ( +)
where H0 is the horizontal distance and H.. is the horizontal angle measured in
a clockwise sense from insll'UIIIent north. In terms of fundamental measurments (i.e. equation P-Po
Cp =-AE L -
23-15
6 x 1000 = 0.0588 m ( + )
I) this is the same as (it) Pull correction, 0.0645 X 2.1 I X 10
dE= So sin ZA sin HAR ... (24.9) h2 21
dN = So cos (90' - ZA) cos HAR =So sin ZA cos HAR ... (24.10) (iir) Slope correction
c. !!. 2L !!. x
2 1000
= 0.0020 m ( - )

If the easting and northing coordinates of the insll'UIIIenl station are known (in grid
whose north dire-ction is the same as insll'UIIIe-01 north) then we simply add the insll'UIIIent (iv) M.S.L. correction, c,. = L: = ~: ~:- 0.1563 (- )
coordinates to the change in easting and northing to get the coordinates of the refle-ctor. + 0.0588 - 0.0020 - 0.1563 = + 0.1405 m
Total corre-ction= 0.2400
The coordinates of the ground under the reflector, in terms of fundamental measurme-nts
are : :. Corrected length of base line= 1000 + 0.1405 = 1000.1405 m
RE =h + SD sin z,.. sin H,..R ... (24.11) Example A-2. The plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 m to I em
RN = IN + So sin Z.t cos H,..R ... (24.12) carried a note staling thaJ 'the chain was 0.8 links (16 em) too shon'. It was also found
thai 1he p!aJL has shnmk ~o that a line originally 10 em long was 9. 77 em. The area
of a plot on the available plan was found to be 58.2 sq.cm. Whal ts ili~:. ~.-v1n.:d a.rea
!.:. ~- S:. ·:o: :~ ~ (!) 1 - R;,)
R.:. (24. 13)

where I, ,I., and I, are the coordinates of the total station and R,, RN, R, are (U.P.S. C. Engg. Services Exam, 1986)

I
of the plan in hectares ?
the coordinates of the ground under the refle-ctor. These calculations can be easily done Solution Present area of the plot on the survey plan= 58.2 sq. em.
in a spreadsheet ·program.
This area is on the shrunk plan.
All of these calculations can be made within a total station, or in an attached ele-ctronic Now 9. 77 em on shrunk plan= 10 em of original plan
notebook. Although it is tempting to let the total station do all the calculations, it is wise
(9.77)2 = (10)'
I· to record the three fundame-ntal measurements. This allows calculations to be che-cked, and
I provides the basic data that is needed for a more sophisticated error analysis. (10)2
Correct area of on-shrunk plan= -, x58.2 = 60.9725 em'
I (9.77)
Lei us now take into account the faulty le-ngth of the chain.
Let us assuine that the chain used for the survey was of oO m designated length.
(493)

--
 .495 :: :1
APPENDIX
SURVEYING
494
(c) See Fig. A-1.
Actual (or erroneous) length (L') of chain =30- 0.16 = 29.84 m LCAB = 45'; LCBA = 60'
,1!

L')
Now True area on plan = ( L x measured area = 3o
(2984)' x 60.9725 = 60.3238 em' . LACB = 180' ._ (45' + 60') = 75'
2 2 Applying sine formula for !>. ACB,
Scale of plan : I em= 10 m. or 1 em'= (10) m sin 60° t45'"
2 AC = Siil'7s' x 500 = 448.29 m 45'
. . Field area of the plot= 60.3238 (10) = 6032.38 m' = 0.603238 hectares
Example A-3. (a) The length of an offset is 16 m. The maximum error in its length •w
BC = Siil'7s' x 500 = 366.03
A•
'
D
500 m - - . 0 :
is 6.5 em and scale used is 1 em = 20 m. What is the maximum permissible error
in the laying of the direction of the offset so that the maximum displacement des not Now CD =A Csin 45' = 448.29 sin 45'
PIG. A·l
exceed 0.5 mm ?
=316.99 m.
(b) A road 1557 m long was found, when measured l7y a defective 30 m chain, T.N
Alternatively, CD= BC sin 60' = 366.03 sin 60' = 3!6.99 m
to be 1550 m. How much correction does the chain need ?
(c) To find the width of a river flowing from West to East, two points A and B (di See Fig. A-2. :a''
•
are fixed along the bank 500 m apart. The bearing on the ranging rod (point C) on True_ bearing of AB = 312'45'- 2'32' = 310'13' '1"9o.,
the other bank of the river as observed from A and B are 45' and 330' respectively. . . True bearing of BA = 310"13'- 180' = 130'13'
: '~~'.>~

Determine the width of the river. Quadrantal T.B. of BA = S (180'- 130'131 E

(d) If the magnetic bearing of a line AB is 312' 45' and the declination of the = S 549'47' E
place is 2' 32' W, find the true .. bearing of the line BA and express it in quadrantal system.
(U.P.S.C. Asst. Engg. C.P. W.D. Exam, 1989) Example A-4. FoUowing is the data regarding a clos:ed
compass traverse ABCD taken it a clockwise direction. FIG. A·2
Solution Refer Fig. 4.10
(a) Let u = maximum permissible angular error.
(i) Fore bearing and back bearing a1 stalion A = 5(!' and J3(J'
(ii) ;Fore bearing und back bearing of line CD = 206' and 26' respectively
Length of offset, I= 16 m ; e = 6.5 em= 0.065 m; s: 1 em= 20m
Maximmn displacement = 0.5 mm = 0.05 em (iii) lncluif£d angles LB = I 00' and L C = 105'
Displacement of point due_ to incorrect direction= P2 P1 =I sin a.== 16 sin a (iv) Local anraction al station C = 2' W
All the observations were free from all the errors -except local allraction.
Max. error in the length of the offset = PP, = 0.065 m
.. Max. displacement due to both errors= PP, = -ir(_l_6_s-in_u_)"'_+_(_0_.0_6_5)' From the above data, calculate (a) local •'
anraction tJl stations A und D and (b) corrected ~~L-. i
. p1pc:r =
V(16 sin u)-iO2 + (0.065)
-
2
:;n n.a~
•
em (gl\'en) bearing.s vf all the !in!':
~.fax. dlsplEcemcnt on 100"

2
Solution.
2
(16 sin u)' + (0.065) = (0.05 x 20) The F.B. and B.B. of line CD_differ exactly
or 256 sin' cr = 0.995775 by 180'. Hence either both scations C and D
which gives a= 3°.576 ~ 3° 35' are free from loCal attraction, or are equally affected
by local attraction. Since station C has a local
(b) Let the correction to the chain length be !>. L
attraction of 2' W, station D also has a local
.·. Inconect length of chain, L' = L + !>. L = 30 + !>. L attraction. of· 2' W. Due to this, all the recorded
Now I= I'( f) bearings at C and D are 2' more than the correct
valueS.
L'=j_L
I, :. Corrected F.B. of CD
= 206'- 2' = 204'
1557
or 30+/>.L= x30=30.1 35 m and corrected B.B. of . .CD PIG. A·3
1550
= 260-20. .::::240
!>.L= 30.135-3 0 = 0.135 m = 13.5 em
 SURVEYING } APPENDIX
496
.,.,.. &<arlo•
lint beorin•
Let us first calculate ~ie included angles. . F. B.
-
B. B. F:B• B. B.
LBAD = t3o• - so• = so•.
·AB 140°30' 320'30' 138°10' 318"10'
198°10'
LAD C = 360' - (SO'+ too• + 105') = 75'. BC 20"30' 20()030' 18°10'
258°10' 78°10'
of line CD = 24' 261)0)01 80°30'
Now B.B. CA
of line DA = 24' + (360' - 75') = 309• started saiUng from a harbour at the same
F.B. Example A-6. Three ships A, B and C our.
the three ships was· the same, i.e. 4() km/h
. . B.B. of line DA = 309 '- ISO'= 129' iime in three directions. The speed of all 30' E, S 64' 30' E and S 14'. 30' E. After an hour,
of line AB = 129 '- so• = 49' Their bearings were measured to be N 6S• to his
ings of the other two ships with respect
F.B.
of line BA = 49' + ISO'= 229' the coptain of ship B detertained the bear and distances
B. B. nces. Ca/cu/ole the value of bearings
own ship. After that he found out the dista
F.B. of line BC = 229 '- too• = 129' coptain of ship B.
which mighl have been determined ·11y the A
B.B. of line CB = 129' + lSO' = 390' Solution (a) Consider triangle OCB
. . F.B. of line CD = 309 '- lOS'= 204' LCOB. = 64' 30'- 14' 30' = SD• .
of AB- corrected F.B. of AB
Local attraction at A= Observed F. B. LOCB = LOBC = f (180' - 50') = 6S'
= so•- 49• = t• w 30' (W.C.B.)
Now B.B. of OB = N 64' 30' W = 29S'
Answer_ : Local attraction at A = 1c: W
. . F.ll. of BC = 29S' 30' - 6S' = 230' 30'
Local attraction at D = 2' W =S5 0'30 'W
etic
Example A-5. In an anticlockwise tr(Jlle
rse ABCA, all the sides were equal. Magn
The bearing of sun was also observed oisiance Be= 2 x 40 cos 6S' = 33.S09 km
ng of side BC was obtained as 20' 30~
fore beari ngs Consider triangle OAB
Ullic compass. Ca/culole the magnetic beari (b~
to be 182' 20' at the local noon, with a prislt draw a neal LAOB = 180 '- (6S• 39' + 64' 30') =50 '
and true bearings of· all the sides of
the tr(Jllerse. Tabu/ole the resu/Js and

sketch to show the

Solution
bearings.

CompU/alion of magnetic bearings

'
'
..
' Now B.B. of OB = 29S' 30' (found easlie
f
LOBA = LOAB = (180' -50 )= 6S'
r)
c
(a)
F.B. of BA = 29S' 30' + 6S' FIG. A-5
LABC= LBC A- LCAB = 60'
= 360' 30' = 0' 30' = N 0' 30' E
Now F.B. of BC = 20• 30'
. . B.B. o~ BC = 20• 30' + ISO' = 200'
F.B. vf Ci -1.;:.0. 30- t GJ·) ~ 260_.·

B. B. of CA = 260' 30'- ISO• = so• 30'

F.B. of AB = so• 30' + 60' = 140' 30'
30'
JG'
'7 ~
~
. a: -·
Distance BA = 2 x 40 cos 65' = 33.809 km
Example A-7. The measured
lengths and bearings of the sides of
a closed tr(Jllerse ABCDE, 17111 in the
coUIIler-clockwise direction are tabu-
lated below. Co/cu/ate the lengths of
75006'1
+
''

~'
·~
·~ 25'12'
'?
-- e-·
B.B. of AB = 140' 30' +ISO '= 320' 30'.
CD and DE t::
30'
F.B. of BC = 320' 30' + 60'- 360' = 20' FIG. A-4
line .Length {m) Bearings 239m
Hence OK.
(b) CompU/alion of· true bearings
AB 239 NOO' OO'E ,,
BC 164 N25 ' 12'iV
True bearing of sun at local noon = 180'
20' ? S75 '06' E ,'j•
Measured magnetic bearing of sun = 182' CD ; .i!
Declination= 1S2' 20' - 1so• = 2' 20' W • E• ---·
--~-
DE ? S56 '24' E '!i
:. '.
The trUe bearings of various lines can be
calc~ by subtracting 2' 20' from the E;A 170 N 35' 30' E ' i

the results can be tabulated as show

n below. FIG. A.f>
I
'

~
corresponding ma.gnelic bearings, and
'
 499

SURVEYING APPBNDIX
498
led on either· si4e of
n poinl A, traverses are condJic
nown Ieilgths of .r;;o and Example A-9 ho m a COllllllb
Solullon : The trav ene in
sbown ·in Fig.A-6. Let. the unk whole
lines are known. For the a lrartJour as foUows
. The bearin~ of all the W.C.B.
DE be ·1, and I, respectivelyD Traverse -; lin e Lenlllh
traverse, tL = 0 and l: = 0. 240 85' 26'
-I, cos 75' o6' -I, cos 56' 24'
+ 110 cos 35• 36' = o I AB·
239 cos o• + 164 cos~· 12' 120 125 ' /I'
.. ... (!) . BC
0.25 711, + 0.5534 1, = 525.62 270 115' 50'
or
- 1, sin 75' 06' + I, sin 56' 24'
+ 170 sin 35' 36' = 0 2 AD
12' . 85' 07'
Also, 239 sin .0' - 164 sin 25' ... (2) DE 600
0.9664 1,- 0.8329 1, = 29,13
or
Solving Eqs. (I) and· (2),
we get •
E•''
Calculate (a) dislance from C
th of
t 85"26' B
1125"11'
II
11 =606.10 and 1, = 668.22 m
~-"-·· to a point F on DE due sou _,A• 240'm '
! <ol1)__ 'C __
'1
a closed
Example A-ll. Using the data of th.r of
elt 168"12" C, OJ1Ji fl>} . distance EF.
leng o. 90"
calculole the Solution :
traverse given below, ct.'
the lines BC OJ1Ji CD. The two trav me s are shown E
II,
~\
traverse
in Fig. A-8. The combined
1
5"16' ' E
Une Length (m) . W.C.B. one, in which
ABCFDA is a closed
AB 275.2 14' 31' the 1
sides CF ( = 1) and FD ( = l,) are 85"07' r, F
,_ ->1
BC 319' 42'
347" 15'
not kno~. However, these can be
detenoined from the fact thar
for the ·ot' '- -60 0 ',i

CD l: L = 0 and FIG. A·S

composite travers_e.
DE 240.0 5' 16'
l:D = 0. cos 355 ' 50' = 0.
1566.4 168' 12' II' -I, + I, cos 265 ' 07' + 270
EA 240 cos .85 ' 26' + 120 cos 125 ' ... (1) ·'
Also, sketch the traverse or 11 + 0.0851 11 = 219.25 = o
240 sin 85' 26' + 120 sin 125 ' 11'
+ 0 + 1z sin 265 ' 07' + 270 sin 355 ' 50' ...(2)
Solution and
A·7. Let 0.9964 I,= 317.70
The traverse is shown in Fig. or Substituting the value of I,
in (I),
1 and I, resp ectively. From (2) I,= 318.85
the lengths of BC and CD he 1
we have 1, = 192.12 m
Since !be traverse is closed, we get = 281.15 m
Dis ranee EF = 600 -I, = 600 - 318.85
l:L =O
Exa mp le A-1 0. A clockw
ise traverse
and l: D = 0 Jwin g resu/ls.
d with the jolli
ABCDEA war sutveye
CD= 158.83 m
AB = 16/.62 m; BC = 224.38 m;
,,' 275.2 cos 14' 31' + 11 cos 319
' 42' + 12 cos 347 ' 15'
LBAE= 128' 10'211'; LDCB =
84' 18' Ill';
=
121' 30' 311'
102"04'30"
158.83

+ 240 cos 5' 16' + 1566.4 cos 168'

12· = o · LCBA = 102" 04' 311'; LEDC •
DE and EA
. ...(1) The angle AED and the sides 121"30'30",
or 0.7627 11 + 0.9753 11 = 1027.90 161.62m

I and
275.2 sin 14' 31' + 1, sin 319
' 42' +I, sin 347 ' IS'
could not b.< measured direct.
Assuming no error in ,;,e sur.'ey,
if AB
fimi the
is due A""-128°10'20"
;o
'

'~
s
missing l~~~~gths OJ1Ji their bearing
+ 1566.4 sin 168• 12' = 0
north.
12 ,.........,...,.,
'·
./i + 240 sin 5' 16'
Solution
,': + 0.2207 I,= 411.33 ... (2) the traverse.
or 0.~68 1, Fig. A-9. shows the sketch of
/ Solving eqs (I) and (2), · Total interior angles FIG. A·9
get 11 =376 .% m and. 12 =
759.14 m = (2 ~·/- 4) 90°:: 540°
' we FIG. A-7
,!i
I'
d
·''
 -~
API'I!NDIX
SURVI!YING
lOO
Also. l:D= 33S sin 181' 18' +408.sin 357' 36' +!sine =0
LAED ~ 540'- (128' 10' 20" + 102'04' 30" + 84' 18' 10" + 121' 30' 30") -7.60- 17.09 + 1 sine= o
or ... (2)
= 103' 56' 30" I sin 9 = + 24'.69
Tidcing the w.'c.B. of AB as o• o· 0". the bearing of other lines are : From (1) and (2), we get · I= V,...(-72-.7-3-=),-+-(24-.69-).,...' = 76.81 m
BC : 180'0'00" - 102'04'30" ·= 77'55'30" In the second quadrant.
0 Since' the latitude is.:. ve and departure is positive,. A'A lies
. '
CD : (77'55'30" + 180')- 84'18'10" = 173. 37'20" .

9 =tan_,~= 18' 4S', :. W.<;.B. of A' A= 161' IS'>

DE : (173'l7'20" + 180')- 121'30'30" = 231'06'So" . . 72.73
LA A' D = y = Bearing of A'A- bearing of A'D = 161' IS'- 90' = 71'
IS'
EA · : (233'06 '50"- 180')- (360'- 103' 56'30") = 308'10'20"
AB : (308'10 '20"- 180')- 128'10'20" = 0'0'0" (cheCk) AA' A' D AD 828
Now, let the length> of DE _and EA be 11 and 1,. Now Siila = sin p = sin y = sin 71' IS'
For the whole traverse, we have l: L = 0 and l: D = 0 =. -•[76.8 1 sin71' IS') ]=S' 2,
161.62 coso· 0' o· + 224.38 cos 77' 55' 30" + 153;33 cos 173' 37' 20"
a sm. 828
+ lt Sin 232° 06'. ·50" + h COS 308° 10' 20" =0 . p = 180' - (71' 15' + 5' 2') = 103' 43'
... (I) 103 43
or 0.6141 1,-0.61 8 1, = 51.37 BC = A'D = 828 sin ' ' -849.49 m
20" sin 71' 15'
and 161.62 sin 0' 00' 00" + 224.38 sin 77' 55' 30" + 158.33 sin 173' 37'
+ 1, sin 232' 06" 50" + 1; sin 308' 10' 20" = 0 Bearing of =
DA Bearing of DA' - a = 270' - 5' 2 = 164' 58'
... (2) (b) Analytical methad
or 0.78921 ,+0.786 1,=237. 00 DA.
Let us use suffixes I. 2, 3, 4, for lines AB. BC. CD and
·Solving (!) and (2), we get 11 = 192.55 m and I,= 108.21 m ·
has ,not :. l:L= 0= 335 cos 181' 18' +I, cos 90' + 408 cos 357' 36' +828 cos e,
Example A-11. ABCD is a c/Dsed traverse in which the bearing of AD
been observed and the length of BC has been missed to be recorded. 'I71e rest of ·the - 334.91 + o+ 407.64 + 824 cos e, = o
or
,
field record is as fo/Jows
:o' From which
- 72 ' 73= 264' ss·
·a,=cos -• 828
. ------- -
Line Bearing Length (m)
~---------------------------a-

' 'p Also,

=
l:D=O 335 sin 181' 18' + 11 sin 90' +408 sin 357' 36' + 828 sin 264'.58'
--~ --· B2B rn
AB 181" 18' 335 ' A From which !, = 849.49 m
' ' 1°18'
1
Example A-12. An open traverse was nm from A to E in order to obtain
the length
BC 90' ()()' ? :
408m
'' and bearing of the li"e
AI': whirh could nol be
CD li"?'D ~6' 408 ''
828
'' measurea. a~rec:~, wnu ""' ICtnvrr•nl j • ..... - ...
DA ? '' 2"24'
Len•th W.C.B.
? Line
Calculate the bearing of AD and c• 261' 41'
B i90" '' AB 82m
the length of BC
87m 9' 06'
(Engg. Services, 1973) FIG. A·IQ BC
Solution CD 74m 282' 22'
adjacent, draw DA
(ti) Semi-Analytical solJJIWn In order to bring the affected sides -DE lOOm· 71' 30'
I be the length and e
parallel to CB and BA' parallel to CD, both meeting at A'. Let Find by calculation the required information.
he the bearings of the closing line A' A.
sOhiUon Refer Fig. A-ll
For the closed traverse .ABA', The length .and bearing of line AE is required.
l: L = 33S cos 181' 18' + 408 cos 3S7' 36' + 1 cose = o SinCe ABCDEA is a closed traverse,
or - 334.91 + 407.64 + 1cos e = o we .. have l:L =0 and l:D=O fiG .. A· II
... (1)
·or lcos9= -72.73
 l03
SURVEY!N<l APPENDIX
502"

4..=-r. L' and D.,=-W ' Correction to departure of AB = + ~~ x 239 = + 0.30

or L" = r.L' and D" = W' Hence corrected consecutive co-ordinates of B are
where rL' and W' are for· the four lines AB, BC, CD and DE. N : 160 - 0.2 = 159.80
The computations are done in a tabUlar form below. E : 239 + 0.3 = 239.30
Lbre unflth lm). w.c.s. lAiitu4e Dt.......
Independent coordinates of station B
AB 82 261" 4P - 11.85 -81.14
N : 80 + !59 .80 = 239.80
BC 87 9"06' + 85.91 + 13.76
-72.28
E : 80 + 239.30 =' 319.30
74 282"22' + 15.85 as the reference meridian.
CD Example A-14. In a traverse ABCDEFG, the line BA is taken
+ 33.38 + 94.26 DE and EF are : .
DE 100 71"30'
The latitudes and departures of the .sides AB, BC, CD,
l:L' = + 123.28 ID' = -45.40
I I I
BC
I CD I uE - I
EF
line AB + 87.78
L"=I:L '=+ 123.28 and D"=W'= --45.40 - 45.22· +47.24 + 48.55
Latitude - 95.20
Since latitude is + ve and departur e is negative, line AB' is in
fourth quadrant.
+ 63:74" -37.44 + 29.63
•
Departures 1 0.00 + 58.91
1
1:.. = ../ (123.28)' + (45.40)' = 131.37 m 1
q,_ the bean'ng of FG is N 75'47' W and its length is 71.68 m. find the length
e =tan_, 45 40 = 20' 13'; W.C.B.
· ~f AE = 300'- 20' 13' = 339' 47'
123.28 and bearing of GA.
Example A-13. The foUowing table gives data of consecutive coordinates
in respeCt Bearing of FG = N 15' 47' W
·, Solution
of a closed theodolite traverse ABCDA Length of FG = 71.68 m
w Latirude of FG = + 71.68 cos 75' 47' = + 17.60
Stallon N s E
160 Departure of FG:d -71.68 sin 75'47' =- 69.48
A 240 G Is
239 The traverse is shown diagrammatically in Fig. A-12. Since traverse ABcDEF
B 160
239 I 160 - a closed one, we have
.£ L"' = - I:L' and D"' =- 'i:D'
D 160 ·I I 240
The computations are arranged in the tabular form
From the above data, calculate
below.
(i) Magnilude and direction of closing error •
u,., [.atitude I ~-
(ii) Corrected Consec!.!!lv~ coordinaJes of station B, using transit rule 0.00
.·II -95.20 .........
(iii) Independent coordinates of station B, if those of A are (80 , 80) AB
-45.22 + 58.91 A
BC
Solution
u
··."1
Error in latitude, IlL= rL = 240 + 160 - 239 - 160 = 1 CD + 47.24 +63.74

~
;I -37.44
W;, W =- 160 + 239 + 160 - 240 = _; I + 48.55
~ Error in departure, DE

:~
2 + 87.78 + 29.93
.. Closing error=.. /(+1) +(-1)'= 1.414m . EF
quadrant -69.48
Since /!. L is positive and. W is negative, the line of closure is in 4th ,FG + 17.60 --+o--·
:],'I u: =+60.75 tD'=+4S .66 B•
!
II, e =tan_, ::~ = 45'. W.C.B. of closing error = 360' -·-45' = 315'
=- 'f. L' =- 60.75 --:"f·-·

~I
Le< c.
Arithmetic suin of latitudes= 240 + 160 + 239 + 160 = 799 w· = ~ 45.66
!
and D .. = -
Arilhmetic sum of departures= 100 + 239 + 160 + 240 = 799 ·Hence ibe line GA is in the third quadrant. PIG. A-ll
1;:
iii .. Correction to latirude of Ail=- ;9~x 160- 0.20 GA = ../ (60.75)' + (45.66)' ~ 76.00 m
~:.ii
I.!
 SURVEYING. APPI!NillX
~
Example A-16. The following measurementS were obtained when surveying a closed
45 66 = 36' 56'
9 = laD -I · traverse ABCDEA ·
60.15 BC
EA AB
•. Bearing of GA = S 36' 56' W Line /03.64
/81.45
EXample A'l5. Calculate latitudes, departures aml closing error for the following Length (m) 95.24
' LAJJC ~ J31'42' LBCD ~ 95' 43'
~TaVerse ami adjust using Bowditch 's rule.
LDEA = 93" 14' LEAB = 122'36'
.Line Length (m) Whole circle bearing It is not possible to occupy D. but it
AB 89.31 45' 10' . could be observed from both C aml E. Calculate
BC 219.76 72° 05' the angle ·evE aml the lengths CD aml DE, 'e,·t-s,
161' 52' taking DE as the daJum aml asswning all ob- 95°43'
CD 151.JB
servations to be correct.
DE 159.10 228' 43' Solution : Refer. Fig. A-14.
EA 232.26 300' 42' (a) CompUIIJiion of LCDE and bearings
!.
(Engg. s.,.;,es, 1984) of all lines e
Solution : the computati
- •......... -- -·~...... - ....... _.... ·-·- ...--...... ~
Deptl1tlue (m
. Theoretical sum of interior angles
= (2N - 4) 90' = 540'
<1;
ili
u.. LMflh rmJ W.C.B. lAIItode (m
~ comaion comCitll tl1kullllt4 comtdon comtUd .. LCDE = 540' - (93' 14' + 122' 36' ?
fE ...
AB 89.31 45° 10' +62.97 -0.06 + 62.91 + 63.34 -0.02 + 63.32 + 131' 42' + 95' 43') ·o· t,
''
72° 05' .+ 67.61 -0.13 + 67.48 + 1119.10 -0.06 + 1119.04 = 96° 45'
'
BC 219.76
+ 47.05 -0.04 + 47.01 FIG. A-14
a>. -1Sl.l8 161 a' S2' -·143.67 -0.09 -143.76 Let us take the W.C.B. bearing of DE
-0.10 - 105,07 - 119.56 -0.04 - 119.60 I
DE· 159.10 228° 43' - 104.97 as 90°. ·
E.t 232.26 300° 42' + 118.58 -0.14 + 118.34 - 199.71 -0.06 - 199.77 :. Bearing of ED =90' + 180' =270'
Sum 851.61 +0.52 -o.s:z 0.00 +o.n -0.22 o.oo 1
. . Bearing of EA = 270• + 93' 14' - 360' = 3' 14'
. . Bearing of AE =3' 14' + 180' = 183' 14' .
Correction for latitude of any line =- ~i~~l x Length of that line
Bearing ·of AB = 183' 14' + t22• 36' = 305' so·
Correction for departure of c'' Bearing of BA = 305' 50' - 180' = 125' 50'
. - 0.22 · I ngth f 161°52' Bearing of BC = 125' 50' + 131 • 42' = 257' 32'
_any I me = 85~ .61 _x e o
Bearing ot CB = 1.51' 32'- 180' = 77' 32"
that line.
closing error
=.,) (0.52)1 + (0.22)1 = 0.565 m
Angle of error of closure
i Bearing of CD= 77' 32' + 95' 43' = 173' 15' ·
Bearing of DC= 173' 15' + Ii!O' = 353' 15'
. . Bearing of DB= 353' 15' + 96' 45'- 360' = 90' 00' (check)
Let the lengths of CD and DE be I, and I, respectively.
is given by
For the closed traver~ .DEA BCDA ~ L =0 and l: D =o
0 22
9 =laD -• · = 22' 56' 95.24 cos 3' 14' + 181.45 cos 305' 50'+ i03.64 cos 257' 32'
Reliltive accuracy
0.52
~~~ ..!>I ,'?OJ·
....f::J~ + 1, cos 173' IS'+ 11 i:os 90' = 0
'

=
0 565
· -lin 1507 or 95.09 + 106.23- 22.37-0 .9931 1, + 0 = 0 1\
851.61 From which 1, = CD = 180.19 'm. i•
:i
The traverse is shown in
Similarly. 95.24 sin 3' 14' + 181.45 sin 305' ;o• + 103.64 sin 257' 32' l•
Fig. A-13. 300"42" + 180.19 sin 173' 15' +I, sin 90' = 0
FIG, .A-13 :i

J
 l07

SURVEYING APPENDIX
S06
Fitid the length and direction of line BA. It was also required to fix a stalion E
5.37 - 147 .II - 101.20 + 21.18 .+ I,= 0 on line BA such thai'DE will be perpendicular to BA. If there is no obstruction between
B and E, calqdate the data required for fixing the srarion a.! required.
From which !, = DE = 221.76 m
Example A-17. 'The bearings of two. inaccessible stoiinns A and B, taken from station Solution : Fig. A-16 shows the traverse.
C, were 220" and /4/r 30' respectively. The cootdinates of A and B were. a.! under The computations are done in a tabular form below,
where W.C.B. of the lines have been entered for
Station Easting Nonhing
convenience.
A /80 /20 DeDIJitUrel
w.c.s. l.otilude --~--

I "1
line unr!lh
B 240 90 ss• + 36.14 + s1.6t
AC 63
Cglcu/ote the independent coordinales of C 92 115° - 38.88 + 83.38
CD
S~>luiion : In order to calculate
the in dependent 155° - 76.13 + 35.50
DB 84
coor.m.aleS . of C, we need either the length AC or sum -78.87 + 170.49 __,._0 __
BC. :a
Length AB= V(240- 180)1 + (90- 120)1 L., = - l:L = + 78.87
0
0 D.,=- i:.D =- 170.49 FIG. A-16
. = 67.08 m A: and
--f5;_ Hence BA is in the fourth quadrant.
a= tan·_, ~=65' 10', and W.C.B. BA =294' SO'
a= tan-' ~ ~: = 63' .435 = 63' 26' '9

1
.. W.C.B. of AB= 180' 7 63' 26' = 116' 34' Length of BA =..,) (78.87)1 + (170.49) = 187.85 .m
W.C.B. of AC= 220'- 180' = 40' Now in triangle DEB. LDEB = 90' and LEBD = 65' 10'- 25' = 40' 10'
:. LCAB = 116' 34'·- 40' = 76' 34' Now DE = DB sin EBD = 84 sin 40' 10' = 54.18 m
LACB = 220'- 148' 30' = 71' 30'
and BE= DB cos EBD = 84 cos 40' 10' = 64.19 m
FIG. A·15
Example A-19. The magnetic bearing of the sun al noon is 160 '. Fint{ the variation.
LABC = 180'- (76' 34' + 71' 30') = 31' 56' (Engg. Services, 1971)
. rul AC . BC AB 61:08
Fromsme e,. - . .
sm 31° 35' sm 76° 34' sm 71° 30' - .
sm 730
1° ' Solution : This question is based on Example 5.8.
At noon, the sun is exactly .·on the geographical meridian.
67 08
AC- · sin31'56'=37.46 m
sin 71' 30' True bearing of sun= 1~0'.
Nuw ia.Litu.O.c uf t:i.£.=31.40w.s4\(=2.8.iUw Magnetic bearing of sun = !60°

~
I>
Now, True bearlng =·Magnetic bearing + Declination.

in
departure of AC= 37.46 sin 40' = 24.08 ·m
Hence the independent coordinates· of C are 180' = 160' + Declination
Basting=: 180 + 24.08 = 204.08 Declination= 180' - 160' = 20'
As the sign is positive, the variation is east.
a Northing= 120 + 28.70 = 148.70
:. Variation= 20' E
Example A-18. It is not ppssible to mea.!ure the length and fix· the direction of
'II AB directly on account of an obstruction betWeen the stations A and B. A tr(lllerse ACDB Example A-20. Select the comer answer in each of the foUowing and show rhe
~
f was, therefore, run and the foUowing data were obtained. 9alculations made in arriving at the answer :
(a) A unifonn slope Wa.! meQ.!ured by the method of stepping. If the difference in
' Length (m) Reduced bearing
Line level between two poinJs is 1.8 m. and the slope distance betWeen them is 15 m. the
AC 63 N55' E
error is approximalely equai to
CD 92 S 65' E. (i) Cumulative, + 0.11 m (ii) Compensating, ± O.Jl m
DB· 84 S 25' E
 S09
SURVEYING APPENDIX
508

(iii) CUmulative, - 3.II m (iv) None qf these •(c) Bearing of AB = 190'

tape of length 30m and cross seaion 15 x J,O mm was standJJrdised :. Bearing of BA = 190' - 180' = !0'
(b) A stondmd steel
at 25" C and at 30 kg puU. While measuring a base line at the same temperature, the Also, llearhig of CB = 260' 30'
puUapplied was40kg. If the modules of elasticity of the steel.tape is 2.2 xlo' kglcm', :. Bearing· of BC = 260' 30' - tso· =so· 30'
the correction to be applied is . . Included angle ABC= Bearing of BC - Bearing of BA
(I) - 0.000909 m (it) + 0.0909 m = so• 30' - 10' = 70' 30'. Hence correct answer is (iit)
(iit) + 0.000909 m (iv) None of these (tl) Instrument at mid-point
(c) The_ bearing of AB is 190' and that of CB is 260" 30: The included
angle The collimalfon error is balanced.
ABC is :. True difference in level between A and B = 1.56 - 1.32 = 0.24 m
(B being Lower)
(t) 80" 30' (it) w 30'

'J:::-:::~::::: 1!\ :::::: :::-::1.'

(iit) 70" 30' None of these
(iv)
(tl) A dumpy level was set up at mid point between pags A and B, 80 m apart
and the staff readings were 1.32 and 1.56. When the level was set up at a point .JO
m from A on BA prodllced, the staff readings obtained at A and B were 1.11 and 1. 39. ......---4om 40m~
The correCl staff reading from this set up, at B should be:
(t) 1.435 (it) 1.345
(iii) 1.425 (iv) None of these
(e) The desired sensitivity of a bubble tube with 2 mm division is 30". The radius
of the bubble tube should be
(t) 13.75 m (it) 3.44 m
(iit) 1375 m (iv) None of these
(U.P.S.C. Asst. Engg. C.P. W.D., Exmn, 1979)
Solution
2 2 1
(a) Horizontal distance D = (1 - h ) "
~h
D
line
FIG. A-11

-'-~·
(. h/i jl \'" ( h2 J Lj5
.!!. \I I
'i [i)
== Lq ,- 0.2.4 ;=. Ill

Since the actnal reading at B is 1.39 m, the line of collimation is elevated upwards
2
I h' I !(- 1 (1.8)
:. Error e = 1-D = 1-1 +'iT flo 2 1 = 2 '""15= 0.108 !1 0.11 m (Fig. A-19 b)
:. Collimation error in 80 m = 1.39 - 1.35 = 0.04
Hence error= + 0.11 m (cumulative). Hence correct answer is (1).
Hence collimation error in 90 m = 0.04 x :~ = 0.045 · m
(b) Correction for tension or pull
(P-Po)L
:. Correct staff reading on B = 1.39 - 0.045 = 1.345 m
-C
- P. AE Hence correct answer is (if). ·
Here, P = 40 kg ; Po = 30 kg, (e) Sensitivity, o.' = ~ x 206265 seconds
6 2
A= 1.5 x 10.1 em'; E=2.2 x 10 kg/cm ; L=30 m c• Here . o.'=30" and 1=2 mm
.. Cp =
(40- 30) 30
- 0.000909 m. ~~OJO' I 2
R = o.' X 206265 = 30 X 206265 = 13751
mm= 13.75 m
I.SxO.l x2.2x106 B•
Hence answer (iii) is correct.
'
FIG. A-18 Hence correct answer is (1).

~
 5ll
APPENDIX
SURVEYING
510 Ikoarture

Example A-21. Calculate r/14

Une·

. LliJ/IU4e
LliJ/IU4e
ComctiDn Com cUd
LliJ/IU4e
D<partBre Com<llon
c:::
Ik
+ 63.32
,.
latirudes, tkpanures and closing er- +62.92 + 63.34 -0.02
+') 62.97 -0.05
ror for r/14 following traverse and AB
+67.48 + 209.10 -0.06 + 209.04
-0.13
atljusl rhe using Bowditch's nlle. BC + 67.61
+ 47.05 -0.04 + 47.01
-0.09 - 143.76
CD - 143.67 -0.04 -119.60
J:.iM ungt/1 (m) W1lole cltrle -0.10 - 105.07 - 119.56
Bearing DE - 104.97 -0.06 - 199.77
4fJo'\rJ -0.15 + 118.43 - 199.71
1 EA + 118.58 -0.22 0.00
AB 89.31 45° 10' -0.52 0.00
'
A!1. Sum
BC 219.76 noos• -

a railway project, a straighr runnel is ro be run between two

Example A-22. For
CD 151.18 }6} 0 52'
DE 159.10 228" 43' points P and Q whose co-ordinates are given below :
Co-ordinates
EA 232.26 3{)()0 42' Point E
N
0
(U. P. S.C. Engg. Services p 0
E 800
Exam. 1981) 4020
300°42' Q
Solution Fig. A-20 shows the 2IIO 1900
R
traverse ABCDEA', in which FIG. A·20 S, the mid point of PQ. S is ro be fixed from
AA' is the closing error. Table below
It is desired ro sink a shaft ar
shows the computations for latitude and departure of various· lines of the traverse. R. r/14 third known point.
Calculate (i) IM coordinates of S, (ii) Length of RS, (iii) the bearing of RS.
Une I ungt/1 (m) W.C.B. RedUced bearing ll1liJude Deporture (U.P.S.C. Engg. Services Exam. 1988) I O(N = 4020
fE=BOO)

89.31 45° 10' N 45° 10' E + 62.97 + 63.34 Solution

AB
(i) Coordinates of S !i
BC 219.76 no OS' N 72° 05' E + 67.61 + 209.10
. 0+4020
161° 52' s 18° 08' E - 143.67 + 47.05 Northing= = 2010 m
CD 151.18 2
•(N=2010
DE 159.10 228° 43' s 48° 43' w - 104.97 - 119.56 . 0+800
Eastmg =- - =400 m I I -~=1900)
232.26 300° 42' N 59° 18' W + 118.58 - 199.71 2 ~..l.fOO
f' Iii) T_.ngth RS 1500___,;
Sum ! .t.!J~'::! I .1.n'::!2
!'. N between R and S = 2110- 2010 = 100 m

Classing error, e = ...J (0.52)' + (0.22)' = 0.565 m

e = ran- 1 ~:~; = 22.932 = 22' 55' w

Total correction for latitude= - 0.52; Total correction for departure = - 0.22
l a E between R and S = 1900 - 400 = 1500
RS = ~ 100' + 15oo' = 1503.33 m
Let the reduced bearing of RS be e
tan9=l>E=~=15
p,
l; I= Perimeter of traverse= 89.31 + 219:76 + 151.18 + 159.10 + 232.26 = 851.61 aN 100 (N=O.E=D)
FIG. A·2l
According to the Bowditch rule : 9= tan- 1 .15 ~S86' 09" w 1i·
Correction for latitude, CL= ELi I=- 0.52 X 85:.61 =- 6.106 X w-'1 .... (1) W.C.B. of RS= 180' + 9 = 180' + 86' II' 09" = 266' 11' 09"
Example A-23. (a) The following perpendicular offsets were t~n at 30 m intervals
Correction for departure, Co = ED \
851 1
i = - 23485 x .10-' I .
1
= - 0.2 x .. .(2) from a base line of an imgular bowulary line :
5.8, 12.2, 17.0. 16.2, 18.4, 16.3, 24.6. 22.2, 18.4 and 17.2
The computations for the corrections for latitude and departure of each line; along ·
with the · corrected latitude and departure are arranged in · a tabular form below.
 APPENDIX
512 SURVEYING
)3nt observed ])earin& of VU = 35• 12'
Cak:ulale rhe area enclosed berw~en rhe bose line, the irregular boundary line and :. Error at V= 35° 12'- 35• 36' =- 24' and correction at V = + 24'
the second and rhe /osr ojftets by average ordinate rule. Corrected beafiDg of VW = 2s1• 24' + 24' = 2s1• 4S'
(b) The foi/Qwing are rhe ··bearings of rhe sides of a closed rraverse PQRSTUVW. and correct t>earinB of WV = 287° 4S'- tso• = 101• 4s•
UJmpUJe me correaea oeann s IOr rne wcm ooracnon.
But observed ])earin& of WV = 101• 00' w= + 48'
Line ForewardBearinJI llackward Bearin~ Error at W = 101• oo· - 101• 4S' = - 4S' and correction at
0
PQ_ 39" (}(}' 215° 30' Corrected beafiDg of WP =: 347• 42' + 4S' = 34S 0 30'
QR 75° 12' 255° 42' Correct ])earin& of PW = 34S 0 30- !SO• = !6S 30'
RS 12~ 06' 30SO 36' But observed ])earin& of PW = no• oo·
sr .us• 18' 325° 18' :. Error at P = 110• 00' - 168° 30' = + I • 30'
TU 1~ 12' 339" 12' and .correction at P = - I• 30'
uv 214° 36'. 35° 12' =
corrected ])earin& of PQ 39• 00' - I• 30' = 37• 30'
correct ])earin& of QP = 37• 30' + tso• = 211• 30'
vw 28~ 24' 10~ (}(}~
and
WP 34~ 42' 1700 00' But observed beafiDg of QP = 2W 30'
:. Error at Q = 215°. 30' - 211• 30' =- 2• iY and correction at Q = + 2• o·
(c) Compute rhe missing dala* Corrected beafing. of QR = 75• 12' + 2• = n• 12'
B.S. F.S. H. I. R.L. Remarks cotrect beafiDg of RQ = 77• 12' + tso• = 257• 12'
.and
1.605 •
4(}().50 Chan11e point But observed bearin8 of RQ = 255• 42'
-1.015 •
Benchmark :. Error at R = 255° 42'- 257• 12' =- J• 30' and correction at R = + t• 30'
(U.P.S.C. Assr Engineers, CPWD Exam. 1989) ''
Solution (a) See Fig. A-22. Average ordinate is giveo by • .!'1~8'36'
I
o~ = (12.2 + 11.0 + 16.2 + IS.4 + 16.3 + 24.6 + 22.2 + IS.4 + 17.2) = IS.056 m
9
Length = S x 30 = 240 m ' .145°18'
I

Area= 0~ X leogth '0 !S.056 X 240 = 4333.33 m1

I< 8x30=240m >I

FIG. A·22

· (b) By inspection, we find that ST is the only line whose fore-hearing and back
hearing differ exactly by ISO•. Hence borh S and T are free from local anracrion. Hence
the hearing of TU and SR are correct.
Thus, correct bearing of TU = 160° 12'
:. Correct bearing of UT = 160• 12 + ISO• = 340• 12'
But observed bearing of UT = 339• 12'
:. Error at U=339•t2'-340°12 '=-l 0
Correction at U = + 1•
Cqrrected bearing of UV=2J4036'+ t•=2W36' fiG. A·'JJ
and ;correct bearing of VU = 215• 36' - 1so• = 35• 36'
I 514 SURVEYING APPENDIX
515

:. Corrected bearing of RS ~ 127" 06' + 1• 30' ~ 128" 36' RX ~ 100 x 1.5 cos' s• 9' ~ 146:99 m
:. Correct bearing of SR ~ 128" 36' + 180" ~ 308" 36' 2 e, 100 x 1.5
But observed bearing of SR ~ 308" 36'
v, = f.i' s, sin
- - ~
2 2
sin 16" 18' ~ 21.05 m

Hence error at S ~ o• 0' (as expected). This is a check on computations. The corrected R.L. of X~ R.L. of R + H.l. + .V1 - r 1
bearings of various sides of the traverse are shown in Fig. A-23. ~ !020.60 + 1.5 + 21.05 - 1.85· ~ 1041.30 m
(c) CompUiiliWn of missing data : In the tabular form below. .Latitude of RX= 146.99 cos 15".14' ~ 141.83 m
B.S. F.S. H. I. B.L RetiiiUks Department of RX ~ 146.99 sin 15" 14' = 38.62 m
1.605 402.105 400.500 Chanl!:e ooim Easting of X~ Easting of R + Departure of RX ~ 1800 + 38.62 ~ 1838.62 m
- 1.015 403.120 Benchmark Northing of X~ Northing of R + Latitude of RX = 800 + 141.83 ~ 941.83 m
H.!. ~ R.L. of change point + B.S. reading ~ 400.50 + 1.605 ~ 40i.105 m (b) Observations from S to Y
R.L. of B.M. ~ H.l.- F.S. reading ~ 402.105- (- 1.015) ~ 403.120 m
Example A-24. To determine the distance between two poi/Us X and Y and their
Horizontal distence SY =f s, cos' e, = 100.(2.50- 1.32) cos'. 2• 3' = 117.85 m

elevations, the fol/Qwing observations were taken upon venica//y held staves from two traverse
stations R and S. The tachometer was filled with an ana/laaic lens and the instrume/U
Also, v, = li s, -sin 22- e, ~ 100 (2.50 - sin 4" 6'
1.32) - - 2- ~ 4.22 m
constant was 100. . . R.L. of Y ~ R.L. of S +H.!. + V,- r, = 1021.21 + 1.53 + 4.22- 1.91 ~ 1025.05
Trvvmel R.L
surt/on
IlnsiTUmenJ
H<of OJ..orrlirutus I station
SUrf! I&orlng IVetti<a/
t111glt
I SUrjJReadlngs Latitude of SY ~ 117.85 cos (360" - 340" 18') = 110.95 m
Departure of sr~- 117.85 sin (360"- 340" 18') ~- 39.73 m
lm1 L D
:. Easting of Y ~ Easting of S- Departure of SY = 2500- 39.73 = 2460.27 m
R 1020.60 1.50 800 1800 1 X I 15"14' I + 8'9' I /.10 I 1.85 I 2.60
Northing of Y ~ Northing of S- Latitude of SY ~ 950 + I 10.95 = 1060.95 m
s 1021.21 1.53 950 25oo I r I 340"18' I + 2" 3' I 1.32 I 1.91 I 2.5o
CompuJe the distance XY, the gradient from X to Y and the bearing of XY. (c) CompUiiliWns of line XY
MV~ Northing of r-Northing of x~ 1060.95-941.83 ~ 119.12 rn
(U.P.S.C. Engg. Service< Exam. 1989)
t.E = Easting of Y-Easting of X~ 2460.27 - 1838.62 = 621.65 m
Solution (a) Observation from R to X
:. Distance XY ~ ~ tJ. N 1 + tJ. E2 ~ ~ (119.12)2 + (621.65)' ~ 632.96 m
Horizontal distance RX ~ [ s 1 cos 281 + 0
I .IS B of XY, we have e --tan _, t.N-tan
the R.. t. E - 62 1. 65 - 79" !53 - 79"9'9"
_, 1i9.f2-
If e . -
Here ·L too s, ~ 2.60 - I. 10 ~ !.50 m : e, ~ 8" 9' : r, ~ 1.85
t. h 1041.30- !025.05 J- • . (Fall' g)

v:'

'
I Gradien! 0 f XY =-y-~
Example A-25. A closed traverse
has the fallowing lengths and bearings .

Bearine
632.96 ~ 38.95' I.e. 1 m 38·95

A!
'~~
lr:
200m
m

'
!!r~
t-'178°
hs line Lenl!lh

rr AB 200.0m Roughly East

BC 98.0m 178" sam
B6.4m
: 150 CD Not obtained 270"

''
~----------------------------------------------------------------J·
:1 DA 86.4,m 1" il1o
,,
27~--·
·-o:
-:-~~---~
' 1'he' length CD could not be measured
'·
~
700m
due to so'IU! obstruction to cllaining. The · AG. A·25
AG. A·24
bearing of AB could not be taken as staiion .
jDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
516 SURVEYING APPJ!NI)IX
517

h, = D tan 25" 35' = 159.811 tan25" 35' = 76.512 m

A is bodly affected by local allraction. Find the e:cact bearing of the siik AB QJilJ calcu/Qie. Now
the length CD. (Engg. Services, 2(}(](}) Elevation of Q = Elev. of inst. axis at P + h1
Soludon : The above question is based on example 8.3 of the book, with cbange = (105.42 + 2.755) + 76.512 = 184.687 m

II~ in data. . . ·Elevation of foot of signal= 184.687 - 4.0 = 180.687 m

Let us use suffixes I, 2, 3 and 4 for lines AB, 8C, CD and DA respectively: h2 = (b +D) tan 15" 5' = (120 + 159.811) tan W 5' = 75.411
l Thus !he bearing a, of line AB and length 1, of line CD .are .unknowns. The computations
w• UI.UWUC I,.LI} ilUU UCJ,Ji:llLWC \U} Ul c;;d\;ll JW~ il.I.C UUUIJ lll ~ 14UW41 IVIIU UCIUW.
Check
Elevation of Q =·105.42 + 3.855 + 75.411 = 184.686
Elevation of Q' = 184.686-4 = 180.686
'I;I S.N.
1
Une
AB
Lln.ui
200
(m) Bearln•
Roughly east
l.iztitud< (LJ m
200 cos a,
O.DiJJ11Jni011Ml
200 sine,
and
Example A-27. The following readings were noted in a
closed traverse
F.B. 8.8.
j
i 2 BC 98 178° -97.94 3.420
-I,
Line
32" 212"
3 CD rj 270' 0 AB
.1
4 DA 86.4 1' 86.387 1.508 262"
,. BC 77"
·•' E 200 co9 e,- II.SS3 200 sine,+ 4.928 -IJ I l/2" 287"
CD
Since lhe traverse· in closed, we have 122" 302"
I'iI I:L =200 cos-9 1 - 11.553 =0- from which e, = 86".6885 = 86" 41'
DE
265" 85"
li Also, l: D = 200 sin e, + 4.923 - I,= 0
I,= 200 sin e, + 4.923 = 200 sin 86".6885 + 4.923 = 204.59 m
EA
AI which station do you suspect local anraclion ? Find correct bearings of lines.
What will be the true fore bearings (as reduced bearings) of lines, if rhe magne(ic declination
Example A·26. In ·order to determine the elevation of lop Q of a signal on a was 12" W. (Engg. Services, 2002)
hill, observaJions were mmie from two slations P wid R. The stations P, R and Q were
Soludon : From !he given data, we observe that !he difference between F.B. and
on the same plane.
B.B. of ·lines AB, DE and EA are 180". Hence stations A, 8, D and E are free from
If the angles of elevation of the lop Q of the signal measured at P and R were
25" 35' and 15" 05' respeclive/y, determine /he elevation of· rhe foot of the signal if the local attraCtion. Only station C suffer from local attraction.
height of the signal above irs base was 4 m. Let us stan wilh station 8 which is free from local attraction.
The staff readings upon. Hence bearing of 8C = 77" which is cortect.
the bench mark (RL I 05. 42) were Henee bearing of CB = 77" + 180" = 257"
respeclive/y2. 755 and 3.855 m But · observed bearing of CB = 262"
when the instrumelll was at P Error at C = 262" - 257' = + 5'
~~
rmrl m R Th" "f.WI"',."' ,..~,_"P"'~
P and R was /20 m.
(Engg. ·Services, 2001)
!
lJL_n ________:::_P' and Correction at c = - 5"
.. Corrected bearing of CD= 112' - 5" = 107"
li Soludon
Lei D be lhe horizontal B.M. R p
and corrected bearing of DC= 107" + 180" = 287" = observed bearing of DC.·
Also, True bearing= Magnetic bearing -declination = magnetic bearing - 12"
I<-- 120 m -->io-- _ 0----'
distance between lhe base of.lhe The results are. presented in !he tabular form below
signal and instrument at P. FIG. A-26
ft Une F. B. B. B. Differtnct between
F. B. OJUI B.B.
Comcud Bearin~ True Fort
Beorlng
F.B B. B.

II,, From geometry, h, = D tan 25" 35' and h, = (120 +D) tan 15" 5'
h, - h, =·D tan 25" 35' - (120 +D) tan 15" 5'
AB 32' 212° 180'
185'
32'
77'
212°
257°
N20°E
N 6.5°B
if BC 77' 262'
But h,- h, =3.855- 2.75~-= 1.1 m 287° S 85°E
i; CD 112° 287' 175° 107'
:· D (tan25" 35'- tan 15" 5')- 120 tan 15" 5' = 1.1 122° 302' S70°E
122' 302' 180'
DE
D 1.1 + 120 tan 15" 5' . 265° as• S 73°W
From which 159 ·811 m EA 265' 85' 180'
tan 25" 35'- tan 15" 5' - -

!
 519

APPBNDIX
518 SURVEYING
(il) R.L. of C.P.l =H.!.- B.S. on C.P. I= 33.802-0.451 = 33.351
Example A-28. 1'h£ foUowing readings were lllken with a .level and a 4 m staff. (iv) Height of collimation of first setting = R.L. of C.P.l + F.S. on C.P.I
Draw up a level book page and reduce the levels by = 33.351 + 3.877 = 37.228
(a) the rise and fall method
(v) R.L. of C.P.2= H.!. in second setting - F.S. on C.P.i
(b) the heiglu of coUimation method
= 33.802- 3.999 = 29.830
0.683, 1.109, 1.838, 3.399, (3.877 and 0.451) C.P., 1.4()5, 1.896, 2.676
(VI) Height of collimation of third setting= R.L. of CP2 +B.S. on C.P.2
B.M. (31.126 A.O.D.), 3.478, (3.999 and 1.834) C.P., 0.649, H06
(c) . Highliglu .fimdamellllll mistakes in the above leveUing operation = 29.830 + 1.834 = 31.637
(d) What error would occur in the final level if the staff has been wrongly extended (vii) Thus height of coUima.tion of all the three settings of the level are known.
and a p/oin gap of 0. 012 haS occurred at the 2 m section joint ? (U.L.) R.L.'s of first point, intermediate sights and last point can be computed as usual.
The
Solution . (a) Booking by Rise and fall method (viii) Apply the normal checkS.
R.L. Re,.,U
Steps (I) The first reeding is back sight while the next three reedings ·are intermediate F.S. Hugill of
l.S.
sights. The fifth reeding a fore sight while the sixth reeding is a back sight on a change B.S. collim01io•
(or H. I.)
point. Seventh to tength readings are intermediate sights, inCluding the one on the B.M.
Elevenlh reedings is a fore sight and 121h reeding is a back sight on the cbange point. 37.228 36.545
13th reeding is an intermediate sight while !he last readjng is a fore sight. Enter lhese 0.683 36.119
readings in appropriate columns. 1.109 35.390
(il) Find rise and fall of each staff station. 1.838 33.826
3.399 C.P. t
(iii) Starting with the B.M., reduce levels below by normal method and above by 3.877 33.802 33.351
reversing falls for riseS and vice-versa. 0.451 32.397
1.405 31.906
(iv) Apply normal checks
1.896 31.126 B.M. 31.126 m
B.S. l.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Re,.,U A.O.D.
2.676
0.683 36545
30.324
1.109 0.426 36.119 3.478 c.P.2
31.637 29.803
1.838 0.129 35.390 3.999
1.834 30.988
3.399 1.561 33.829 0.649 29.931
0.451 3.8T7 0.478 33.351 Change point 1.706 Checked
C.P. I 29.931
9.582 (-) 36.545
1.405
1.896
2.676
0.954
0.491
.(),780
32.397
31.906
31.126 B.M. 31.126
A.O.D.
..
r-~ __;"-,;.
Sum: 2.968

1 1
(c) Fundomental leveUing mislilkes
1 i ~ , i

li 1.834
3.478
3.999
0.802
0.521
30.324
29.803 C.P. 2
The question high lights three fundamental levelling mistakes
(I) The most important sight on !he B.M. should not be an intermediate sight, as

II 0.649 1.185 30.988 this can not be checked.

(il) The staff has not been correctly assembled, with the result !hat all the readings
II Sum 2.968
,·,706
9.582 1.185
1.057
7,799
29.931
29.93i. Checked
above 2 m are wrong.
(·) 9.582 (-) 7.799 (·) 36.545 (iii) Sinoe there is no circuit closure, there is no check on field work.
'II • 6.614 • 6.614 ~ J due to wrong extension of •taff
(d) Error
AU readings greater than 2 m will be 0.012 mm too srnall. However, !he final
(b) Booking by height of coUimation method
li level value will be affected only by B.S. and F.S. reading after !he R.L. of datum, i.e.
Steps (1) Book all the readings in appropriate columns, as explained in (al) above
after 31.126, though I.S. on B.M. will be treated as B.S. for bOOking' purposes.
(ii) Height of coll.imation for second setting= R.L. of B.M. + I.S. reading on B.M.
;(;· . = 31.126 + 2.676 = 33.802
520 SURVEYING APPENDIX

(I) B.S. (I.S.) of 2.676 should be 2.664 (ir) F.S. of 3.999 should be 3.987

dl•r
B.S. of 1.834 will remain as 1.834 F.S. of 1.706 will remain as 1.706

Difference : B.S.- F.S. =

sum 4.498
4.498-5.693 =- 1.195
sum 5.693 1~[------------MJLL----
90m 30-->i·
:. R.L. of last point= 31.126 - 1.195 = 29.m (b)
Existing R.L. of last point, with faulty staff reading = 29.931 (0)

Hence the B.S. and F.S. are affected in the same manner and· the fiiUJJ value is FIG. A·27
nor allered.
Example A-29. The foUowing readings were observed with a level Total length of B.S.'s = 3 x 90 = 270 m
I./43 (B.M. 34.223), I.765, 2.566, 3.8I9 (C.P.), I.390, 2.262, 0.664, 0.433 (CP), 3.722, Total length of F.S. 's = 3 x 30 = 60 m
2.886. I.6I8. o:_6I6 (T.B.M. value though! ro be 35.290 m). . . Effective difference in length = 3 x 60. = 180 m
(a) Reduce the levels ITy rise and fall method 0.0524 x 180 = 0.314 m
Enor = ~
(b) 01IculoJe the level of the T.B.M. if the line of collimation was lilted upwards
al an angle of 6 min. and. each back sigh! length was. 90 m aiuf the foresight length Hence sum of B.S. is effectively too large by 0.314 m.
30 ·m. :. ·True difference in level= 1.387 - 0.314 = 1.073
(c)· 01IculoJe the level of the T.B.M. if the· staff was nor held upright but leaning
.. R.L. of T.B.M. = 34.223 + 1.073 = 35.296 m
backwards at 5' to the vertical in all cases. · (U.L.)
[Check : 35.610-0.314 = 35.296 m)
Solution
(c) Effect of tilting of sill/! (See Fig. A-27 b)
(a) Redllction of levels ITy rise and fall method : See Table below
If the staff is tilted, ·all the readings will be too large.
B.S. I.S. F.S. IIIJe Foil R.I. Rtiii4Tb True reading = observed reading x cos 5'
1.143 34.223 B.M. 34.223 Apparent difference in level= l: B.S. - l:F.S. = 1.387
I. 76!1 0.622 33.601 .
.
True difference in level= (l: B.S.) cos 5'- (l: F.S.) cos 5'
2.566 0.801 32.800 = (l: B.S. - l: F.S ) cos 5' = 1.387 cos 5' = 1.382
1.390 3.819 1.253 31.547 C.P.
.. R.L. of T.B.M. = 34.223 + 1.382 = 35.605 m
2.262 0.872 30.675
Example A-30 The following observations were taken during the resting of a dumpy
0.664
--~---- --
1.598 32.273
---------

I
3.722 0.433 0.231 32.504 C.P. level.
Instrument at Staff reading on
2.886 0.836 33.34ll
1.618 1.268 34.608 A B
0.616 1.002 35.610 T.B.M. 35.290 I.275 2.005
A
6.225 4.868 4.935 3.548 35.610 Ol<cked I.660
(-) 4.868 (-) 3.548 (-) 34.223 B I.04o
should the line of collimation
. 1.3~ 1.387 1.387
I
I Is the instruments in adjwrment ? To what reading
(b) Effect of tilting of line of collinwlion (See Fig. A-27 (a) be adjusted when the instrument was at B ?
(U.P.S.C. Engg•. Services EJ&(llll. 1?81)
Enor=e= 30.0 m( ISO nx 60 x 6) =0.0524 m per 30 m Solution
·When the level is at A, appareot difference is level = 2.005 - 1.275 = 0.73, A being
If b and f are back sight and for sight readings, true difference in level per set-up
higher. When the level is at B. apparent difference in level = 1.660- 1.040 = 0.62, A being
= (b- 3e)- if- e)= (b- !J- 2 e
higher. Since both these values are not equal. the instrument is not in adjustment.

.........
 523
SURVEYING APPENDIX
522
The computations are ananged in tabular form below along with the missing quantities
'ffi . . I 0.73 + 0.62 = 0.675'
m
True eli erence m eve!= 11/derlined.
2 R.I... Rt711D1b
Ilk• Fall
When the level is at B, the line of collimation should adjust to read on, A = 1.660-0.67 5 Point B.S. J.S. F.S.
B.M.
=0.985 m. UU&l
I 3.12!1
Example A·31. Tlu! following readings have been taken from a page of an old level 1.32!1
12!1.505 T.P. _j
book. 11 is r1111uired ro reconsrrucr the page. Fill up the missing quantities and apply the 2 U6S uoo
usual checks. Also, CJllcuiale the corrected level of the TBM if the instrument is known 0.055 !2!1.450
2.320
to have an elevared collimation error of 3/J' and back sight, fore sight distances averaged 3
0.400
12!1.850
40 m and 90 m respectively. - 4 U2!l T.P.
0.735 12S.Il5
R.I... RetniJiks 2.655
Pohrt B.S. I.S. F.S. Ilk• Fall 5 l.ll:Hl T.P.
2.165 122.950
X B.M. 1.620 3.205
I 3.12!1 6 120.945
2.005
2 1.325 12S.505 T.P. 3.62!1
X X 7 123.090 T.B.M.
2.145
3 2.320 0.055 U&l
8
3.870 4.960
12S.850 9.140.
4 X Sum 8.050

2.655 T.P.
5 X Arithmetic checks
I: B.S. -I: F. S. =I: Rise- I: Fall= Last R.L.- Firs! R.L.
6 1.620 3.205 2.165 T.P.
8.050- 9.140 = 3.870 -4.960 = 123.090- 124.180 =- 1.090 (Checked)
or
7 3.62!1
(b) Value of corrected T.B.M.
8 X 123.090 T.B.M. Since the collimation line is elevated. each back sight and fore sight reading will
-- -----
--- - L_ --- --- ~

(Engg. Services 1982) be too great.

Error is each back sight reading = 40 tan 30"
Solution : The solution is done is the following steps.
of point 1 -Rise of poinl 2 = 3.125- 1.325 = 1.800 Error is each fore sight reading = 90 tan 30"
I. F.S. of point 2 =B.S. :. Difference is errors of one set of B.S. and F.S. readings= 50 tan 30" = o.001't1
2. R.L. of poinl I = R.L. of point 2- Rise of point 2 = 125.505 - 1.325 = 124.180
Since there are four sets of readings, total error = 4 x 0.00727 = 0.029 m
3. B.S. of station 2 = l.S. of point 3 - Fall of point 3 = 2.320 - 0.055 = 2.265
Treating the B.S. readings to be cor«c•, '"'""'" ~"-ecce: ~
•- ... of the F.S. readings
=0.029 m
II:: 4. R.L. of poinl 3 =. R.L. of point 2- Fall of point 3 = 125.505 - 0.055 = 125.450
5. Rise of point 4 = R.L. of point 4- R.L. of point 3 = 125.850 - 125.450 = 0.400 1
.. Corrected. sum of F.S. readings= 9.140-0.02 9 = 9.111
liij 6. l.S. of poinl 4 = I.S. of point 3- Rise of point 3 = 2.320- 0.400·= 1.920 :. Corrected difference in the level of B.M. and T.B.M. = 9.111 - 8.050 = 1.o6
fl ~~ 7. Fall of point 5 =F.S. of point 5 -l.S. of point 4 = 2.655 - 1.920 = 0.735 5
'- 8. R.L. of point 5 = R.L. of poinl 4- Fall of point 5 = 125.850-0. 735 = 125.115
:. Corrected R.L. of T.B.M. = 124.!80- 1.061 = 123.119 m
were taken with a Level and
j·j:~
!

'.~, 9. B.S. of point 5 = F.S. of point 6 - Fall of point 6 = 3.205 - 2.165 = 1.040
Example A-32. .Tiu! following consecutive readings
metre leveUing staff an continuously slopping growuf at a conunon interval of 25 ·metres.
10. R.L. of point 6 = R.L. of point 5- Fall of point 6 = 125.115 -2.165 = 122.950 0.450, 1.120, 1.875. 2.905, 3.685, 4.500, 0.520, 2.150, 3.205 and 4.485
"'' !
II. Fall of point 7 = l.S. of point 7.- B.S. of point 6 = 3.625 - 1.620 = 2.005 Given : The reduced level of the change point was 250.000
12. R.L. of point 7 = R.L of point 6- Fall of point 7 = 122.950 - 2.005 = 120.945 Rule out a page of .level field book and enter the above readings.
Rise of .point 8 = R.L. of point 8- R.L. of point 7 = 123.090- 120.945 = 2.145 Colculate the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method and also rhe gradien!
13.
F.S. of point 8 = I.S. of poinl 7- Rise of point 8 = 3.625-2.14 5 = 1.480 point. Asst. Engineers C.P. W.D. &am, J981J
of the line joining the first and the laSt(UPSC
14.

l
I
I
 SURVEYING APPBNDIX
S24
c
S.N. B.S. J.S. F.S. lib• Filii It£. R•lfllril

I 0.450 254.050
2 1.120 0.670 253.380
1.875 0.155 252.625

~"
3

-··(!:-:::::~.:-.-.::tj............
Tffi-oy;=::.:.~
I 4 2.905 1.030 251.595 ---- --
2:5 •
5 3.685 0.780 250.815 t ,--
6 0.520 4.500 0.815 250.00 Chaolil:c ooiot A som 1 'a '" ... """ ... 8
2.150 1.630 248.370 I

! 7
8 3.205 1.055 247.315 (a) Plan
(b) 5ection along AB ·

I 9 4.485 1.280 246.035 I FIG. A·28

0, ~sin SO'= s~O' ~in so'·= 40.76 m; BC = ,~ 0, sin 60' = 46.08 m

·: 8.985 _____2._~ 8.015
AC = .:~
I
t 0.970 ---
' Atflluutk checb
i
~1 l: B.S. - :E F.S. = :E Rise - :E Fall= R.L. of last point - R.L. of first poinl (a) ObservalioM from A to C
or 0.970- 8.985 = 0.000- 8.015 = 246.035 -254.050 R.L. of C = R.L. of B.M. + B.S. reading +A C tan 30'
or - 8.015 = - 8.015 = - 8.015 (checTwl) = 25.00 + 2.50 + 40.76 tan 30' = 51.033 m
f r _ 254.oso -246.035
x - _
1
(b) ObservaliollS from B to C
Gradiem o me-. 24 95
25 8 R.L. of C = R.L. of B.M. + B.S. reading + BC tan 29'.
Example A-33. In· levelling between rwo points A and B on opposr~e banks .of n'ver, · = 25.00 + o.so + 46.08 tan 29' = 51.043 m
the level was set up neor A and the staff readings on A and B were 1.570 and 2.875
. 51.033 + 51.043
respectively. The /eye/ was then moved and ser up near B and the respective staff readings Average elevatton of C 51.038 m
2
on B and A were 2.055 and 0.850. Find the difference of level between A and B.
(U.P.S.C., C.P. W.D. Asst. Engineen Exam. 1983) Example A-35. A railway embankment is 16 m wide with side slopes 2 Eo 1. Assume
the ground to be level in direction transverse to the cenlre line. Calculate the w(!une
Solution lenglh of 100 m, the cenlre height OJ 20 m inlervals being in m: 2.0,
conrained in a
lf!Strument near A 4.5, 4.0, 3.5, 2.5, 1.5. Use rrapezoidill rule. (U.P.S.C. Engg. Serviees Exam. 1987)
Apparent difference in level between A and B = 2.875 - 1.570 = 1.305 m, A being higher.

-b-
·Solution : Given b= 16 m ; n=2
IIISlrument near B
A= (b + nh) h
AppareDI difference in level between A and B = 2.055 - 0.805 = 1.205 m, A being higher
1.305 + 1.905 AJ = (16 + 2 X 2) 2 = 40 m'

Ll~
:. True difference in level between A and B =. = 1.255 m,
2 Az = (16 + 2 x 4.5) 4.S =·112.5 m'
iiiii} A being higher.
A,= (16 + 2 x4) 4.0 = 96 m
1

Example A-34. Determine the reduced level of a church spire at C from the following 1
,:; m apart. A,= (16 + 2 x 3.5) 3.5 = 80.5 m
observOJions Eaken from rwo stOJions A and B. 50
1
A, = (16 + 2 x 2.5) 2.~ = 52.5 m
:~

;_~ Angle BAC = 60' and angle ABC= 50' FIG.· A·29
Angle ·of e/evOJion from A to !he rop of spire = 30' Ao = (16 + 2 x·\.5) I.S = 28.5
·i
Angle of elevOJion from B lo the lop of spire = 29" Volume, from u:apezoidill formula, is given by Eq. 13.23
Staff reading from A on bench mark of reduced level 25.00 = 2.500 m
Staff reading from B on the same bench mark= 0.50 m
A, +An +A,+ ...... An-1
V=d [ -z+Az
1 ... (13.23)

(Engg. Serviees, 1992) 3

, 5 + 112.5 + 96 + 80,5 + 52.5 ] 7 7515 m
= 20·[40+28. ·

Solution : Let C be the church spire (Fig. A-28)

From triangle ACB, LACB = 180' - (60' + 50')= 70'
 lZ'1

SUII.VEl'JNG APPENDIX
lbe position of observer's
$26
heometer thO top of ligbt house and B be
n two points A and B. a tac Let A be lbe pos itio n of
nt betwee
Example A-36. To det ermine rhe gra die
taken keeping ·,he to water surface at 0.
C and rhe following obse11101ions were eye. Let AB be iangeotial
was set up a1 anothe r station are · given by
staff vertical. The distanceS d1 and d, 987 km
d, = 3.8553 -rc; km = 3.8553 -{49 = 26.
Staffa/ Vertical angle 8/adia Readings 553 ..f9 = 11.566 km
dz = 3.8553 ..JC, km = 3.8
+4 °2 0'0 " 1.300, 1.610, 1.920 and + 11.566 = 38.553 km
A and B = d, + 4z = 26.987
:. Distance between A levels from a
B 0 ° 10' 40 "
+ 1.100, 1.410, 1.720
follow ing obs ervtlJions were made in ·running fly
Example A-38. The
nt between A
AC B is 35 ' 20', determine the average gradie bench mark of RL 60.65
ang
Jf the horizontal and le 32, /.105, 0.850
C = 0.0 Back sight : 0.964, 1.6
and B. Take K =. 100 1.984
(Engg. Services, 1993} Fore siglu : 0.948, 1.153, nt of 1 in 100 m. from
es a1 20 m interva l are to be set on falling gradie ·
Soladon Five pqg st peg is to .be al RL 60.
. The .fir
s and prepare the page of
rum ent
the last position. of the-
= 0.620 · m inst
to A : s = 1.9 20 - 1.300 required for setting the peg
(a) Observalio,. .from C Work our the sta ff rea dings
100 X 0.620 cos' t4' 20'·00")
D = K.r cos' 6 + c cos e = the level book. Exam, 1999)
(U.P.S.C. Engg. Servkes
~ 61.65 · m
A

V = K.r sin228 = 100 x 0.6

20 sin 8; 40 ' Rellllllil
F.S. R.I. R.I.
B.S. I.S.
S.N. DfsUUIU 61.614 60.650
=4.671 m 0.964
ween A and C c I 62.298 60.666
. . Difference in level bet 1.632
0.948
61.145
(A being higher) 2 62.250
= 4.671 - 1.610 = 3.061 3· 1.105
1.153
60.266
C to B : 1.984 61.116
(b) Observalio,. .from 4 0.850 60.000 P<!< I
s = 1.7 20 - 1.100 = 0.620 m B 1.116 P<>< 2
5 0 59.800
40") ~ 62 m 1.316
D = 100 x Q;620 cos' (0' 10' FIG. A·30 6 20
1.516
59.600 p.. 3
1 ' 20 " =0.186 m Peo 4
V= 100 x 0.60 sinO' ~
7 40 59.400
I. 716 p,. 5
8 60 59.200
m (B being lower) 1.916
level bet we en B and C = 0.186 - 1.410 =- 1.224 9 80 60.650
.. Difference in B t 4.551 6.001 -59.200
Jl1"r111Um from A to Cheek ~S51
(c\ Distonce AB an d m and -~-1.450 . CII<W<1
= 35 ' 20', AC = 61.6 i I
I
30 sho ws the pla n, in which LACB =a I 1.450
foU,
Fig .
BC=62 m.
A-
d level . boo from a fly level are as
k readings fro;
ple A-3
Examule 9. The fiel
C·
By cosine formula, AB' = C' : a' + b' - lab cos F.S. Remarks
R.L . B.S.
1 1 62 X 61.65 eos35'20' Sill/! station
AB ': (62) + (61.65) - 2 X 3.635 -
or AB = 37.53 m B.M.-1 100.000
From which 2.3 75
-1. 22 4)= .4. 28 5 m· X
ween A and B :3. 06 1-(
X
ion bet A
Dif ference in ele vat 4.220 /.030
104.150 .
B= :1~i: 8_;58 (i.e. 1
in 8.758 falling) B X
from A to 106.650 3.990
·.-. Gra dient
t sees a light house. c
Example A-3 7. An observ er stan ding on the deck of a ship jw ght of observer's
level and the hei B.M.-2 108.00 - •
se in 49 Ill above the sea the observer from the liglu house. jonn the arithmetic che
ck.
The top of rhe liglu hou tan ce of es marked ( x ) and per
leveL Find the dis our the missing valu Ser vke s, 2003)
eye is 9 on above the sea (UPSC Engg. Servkes
EXmn, 1998) Find (Engg.

le 9.12 and Fig. 9.40.

Solutloa : Refer Examp
 528 ~URVBYING APPENDIX
203 ntm. focal length of anal/alic lens 114 mm. distance between objeel glass and anal/alic
Solulloa ·hall'S 1.664 mm.

- .. -
The . solution is done in the tabular form below fe1IS J/0 ""'" ..,.,.......6.. -.~ ---- ---

Bearing Venical angle Stadia readings

IIISITU/IIelll at Height of To
Slit!- B.S. F.S. HU,IJlof R.I.
in.JinDIIe!l!
1.503 m A 69" 30 '()(1' + 5'00'()(1' 0.65811.055/1.451
B
(!'00 '()(1' 2.23]/2.847/3.463
8.M..I 3.635 103.635 100.00 B.M.I
c I 59"30 '()(1'
A (•) 3.92 2.375 105.180 (') 101.26 C.P.
WQS held Venical for both Obm>U.. V<Wo
The sto/f
B 4.220 1.030 108.370 104.150 C.P. Bore holes were sunk at A,. B and C to expose a plane bed of rock, the groand
c 3.990 (•) 1.7l 110.64 106.650 C.P surface being respectively 1J.918 m. 10.266 m and -5.624 m obove the rock plane. Given
B.M.•2. (•) 2.64 108.00 B.M.2 thai the reduced level. of B was 36.582 m, determine the line of steepest rock slope relative
to the direction AB. (U.L)
t 15.76S 1.165 I

Solution
' SCeps I.
2.
Height of instrumeDI in. the first setting = 100.000 + 3.635 = 103.635
R.L. of A = H.l.- F.S. = 103.635 - 2.375 = 101.26 m
(a) [Jeterrninadon of mu!Jiplying constanl
Given : f= 203 mm; f = 114 mm; n = 178. mm
i=L664 mm
3. H.l. for second setting = R.L. of B +F.'S. on B = 104.150 + 1.030 = 105:18 Tho multiplying· constanl k is given by :
4. B.S. on A= H.l.- R.L. of A= 105.18- 101.26 = 3.92 k= jf' - 203 X 114 100.05 ~ 100
5. H.l. for third. setting= R.L. of B.+ B.S. on B = 104.150 +.4.220 = 108.370 if+ f'- n) i (203 + 114- 178) 1.664
J. 6. F.S. on C= H.!. in '!bird setting- R.L. of C= 108.370-106.650 = 1.72 to A :
(b) Observations
7. H.!. in the 4th setting= R.L. of C +B.S. on C = 106.650 + 3.990 = 110.64 e = S' oo· 00" ; s = 1.451 -0.658 = 0.793 m
8: F.S. on BM 2 = H.!. in 4th setting- R.L. o( B.M.2 = 110.64 - 108.00 = 1.64 . . Horizonral DistanCe .&l = ks cos' e = 100 x 0.793 cos'S' 00' 00" = 78.698 m
Check : l: B.S, -l: F.S. = 15.765 -7,765 = 8.0 =Last R.L.- Firsl R.L.= 108.00 -)00.00 v, = ks sin22 e = 100 x20.793 sin 10' 00' 00" = 6 885 m
I Example A,.40. LeveUing was done between statioirs A. and F, stoning with bOck·
sighl. at A. Various back sighls taken were in the following sequence : 2.3, 2.3, · -1.6 R.I,. of A= 36.582 + 1.503 + 6.885- 1.055 = 43.915 m
.

and X. The srun of all the- fore sighls Was foand to be 3. 00.. Also, it was known thai (c) Observation to C : e = 0' 00' 00" ; s = 3.463 -2.231 = 1.232 m
F is 0. 6 m. higher than A. Find the value of X. How marry fore sights do you expeel? .. Horizonral distanee BC = k s cos' e = 100 x 1.232 cos' 0' = 123.20 m
Solution : •o
Since F ls · 0.6 m higher w.a~ A, Va=ks==O
2
l_.' We have :' R.L. of F - R.L. of A = 0.6 m' ... (1)
:. R.L. of C = 36.582 + 1.503 + 0 - 2.847 = 35.238 m
l
j Also, we have l: B.S. -l: F.S. =Last R.L. - F'.rn R.L.
·:. l: ii.S. -l: F.S. = 0.6 m
(4) DeterminOiion of line· of steepest rock slope: Refer Fig. A-31.
Let us first find the levels of rock at A, B and C.
:j l:.B.S. = 0.6 + l: F.S. = 0.6 + 3.0 = 3.6 ... (2)
AI A, G.L. =43-.915; Depth of roc~ = 11.918 m
.!, But l: B.S.= 2.3 +2.3 + ( -1.6)+ X=3.0 +X .. Rock level at A= 43.915- 11.918 = 31.997 m
3.0 +X= 3.6 AI B : G.L. = 36.582 m ; Depth of rock= 10.266 m
I·'';j
or X= 3.6-3.0 = 0.6"' Rock level at B = 36.582- 10.266 ~ 26.316 m
Since each insttumeDI setting consists of one B.S. and one F.S., the number of At C : G.L. = 35.238; Rock depth= 5.624ni
fore sights are .always equal to number pf backsights. Hence number of fore sights = 4.
:. Rock level= 35.238 - 5.624 = 29.614
Example A-41. The readings below were obtained from an instrumem station B using . .f ~ 31.997-26.316 I
an anallatic tacheometer having the following constams : focal length •of the '(Jbject glass Gradient o rocL along AB = 78 . 698 - 'i3.8s3

*
Commonly used Construction Materials:
1) Bricks
2) cement
3) Sand
4) Gravel
5) water
6) steel
7) Timber
8) composite materials: mortar, concrete
9) roofing and flooring materials
10) CGI sheet, thatch, tiles

Bricks
• Bricks are blocks of tampered clay moulded to suitable shape and size
while it is still in plastic state. It is then dried in the sun and burnt to make
it hard, strong and durable.
• Standard size of brick is 230x110x70mm
• Bricks are classified as First Class, Second Class, Third Class and Fourth
Class.

Quality of Bricks:
a) Should be well burnt
b) Should have regular shape, perfect corner and free from cracks
c) reddish color
d) Should give metallic sound when struck against each other
e) Should not absorb water more than 25% of its weight of water when
immersed in water for 24 hours

Cement
• Cement is a mixture of limestone and clay which is heated at a high temp.
of about 14500c and then by adding some gypsum ground to a fine powder.
Its main function is to act as a binding material and fill micro voids
between coarse and fine aggregates in concrete.
• Limestone and clay is heated in a kiln at 14500c, clinker is formed and then
some gypsum is added and ground to a fine powder in a cement mill to get
cement.
• gypsum controls the setting properties of the cement.
• based on the constituent materials cements are of different types:
a. Portland pozollanic cement (PPC)
b. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
c. Rapid Hardening Cement (Increased Lime content)
1
 d. Quick setting cement
e. White Cement

Various types of Cement:

• PPC is produced by blending clinker and gypsum with ground rock and
Fly ash or volcanic ash (fly ash is a product of burning finely ground coal
in a boiler to produce electricity). 75% clinker, 20% fly ash and 5%
gypsum is used to prepare PPC. It is low cost, environment friendly as it
helps in safe disposal of fly ash and less amount of clinker is required
which reduces the emission of CO 2 but it has low early strength and not
suitable for high grade concrete.
• Rapid Hardening Cement gains strength faster than OPC general (7-day
OPC strength is gained in 3 days), used in structure where immediate
loading is required.
• Quick setting cement sets faster than OPC. Initial setting time is 5 minutes.
Final setting time is 30 minutes. Used for concreting underwater and in
running water.
• White Cement is used for decorative purpose for painting and in laying tile
• Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most common cement used cement
type.

Grades of Cement
• OPC may be of different grade viz.33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade.
grade of cement is the index of strength measured in the lab on 50x50x50cm
cube ,eg 33 grade cement indicates minimum 33 MPaor 330 Kg/ cm2 which is
achieved after 28 days. Similarly 43 & 53 grades can be defined. All grades of
cement have same chemical composition . Only the difference is degree of
finenesses. 53 grade has 329m2/kg and 43 grade has 293m2/kg of surface area.

Quality of Cement:
• Good Quality
- sets/hardens within appropriate time
-achieves required compressive strength with specified time period
-absorbs appropriate moisture
• Bad Quality
- Doesn’t gain required strength within specified period
- absorbs more moisture
- not fully powdered and contains some hardened particles.

Selection and Handling of Cement

• Cement should not be of less than 43 grade for RCC structure
2
 • Age should not be more than 2 months
• Cement bags should be air tight without any holes
• Should be free from lumps
• Should be stored in water tight room.

Sand
• Particle of size less than 4.75mm and greater than 0.2mm is called sand. It
is also called fine aggregate
• River bed and bank and quarries are the sources of sand
• Sand is used to make concrete and mortar
• In concrete sand fills the void between coarse aggregate, cement fills the
void between coarse aggregate and sand. In mortar reduces the cost and
cracks due to shrinkage.

Quality of Sand:
• Should be free from foreign materials like grass-roots, leaves, dung, soil,
plastic sheets etc.
• Should be well graded, clean and fresh.
• Moisture content should be such that there is no bulking of sand or else
additional sand has to be added.

Bulking of Sand
• When the sand is moist, each particle is covered with a thin film of water
which due to surface tension keeps them apart thereby causing an increase in the
volume of sand. This increase in volume of sand due to it being wet is called
bulking of sand. As the moisture content increases bulking increases but only up
to a certain limit. When the sand is completely saturated its volume becomes the
same as that of the dry sand. Bulking is maximum which is upto 30% at 5-6%
moisture content. So when damp sand is to be used it is necessary to add some
extra volume to meet the deficit due to bulking. Extra sand is calculated as
below:
• A parallel sided container is partly filled with damp sand, levelled off but
not pressed and its depth measured say, D. The sand is well mixed with plenty of
water and allowed to settle. Depth is again measured, let it be D1.
• Amount of extra sand to be added =(D-D1)/D1*100%

Gravel or Coarse Aggregate

• Particles between 63mm and 4.75mm size is called gravel stone or which is
obtained from crushed stones or from the river banks
• Should be hard, strong, durable, clean and granule in shape
3
 • Should be free from minerals and foreign materials
• Should be well graded ie.of various sizes. Size of gravel depends on
thickness of concrete members.

Solid, hard, good shape aggregate:

Water
• An important construction material required in almost every stage of
construction to make concrete, mortar etc.
• Talking about concrete and mortar, main function of water is to take part in
chemical reaction with cement and lubricate mix properly.
• Water should be free from impurities such as alkalies , salt etc. which may
hamper the quality of concrete mortar.

Steel Reinforcement Bars

• Concrete is strong to take compressive load but weak to withstand tensile
forces
• Steel bars which have high tensile strength, are embedded in concrete to
resist tensile forces
• Steel bars should have NS or IS mark
• Should be free from rusting
• Should be uncracked and of uniform size throughout the length
• Should not break while bending
• In general minimum 4 nos. of minimum12mm dia for rectangular beam and
column should be used.

4
 Timber
• Woods suitable for building or any other engineering purposes are called
timbers,
• Timber is used as structural members like posts, beam, rafters etc
• Timbers should be well seasoned, free from , cracks and knots
• Should have uniform surface and should not be twisted.

Seasoning of Timber
• Freshly cut trees have a lot of water in them. If this water content is not
removed from them, timbers are likely to warp, crack and shrink. So water has to
be removed before they are used. The process of removing water gradually from
the timber is called seasoning.

• Objectives of seasoning:
-to make the timber lighter, stronger and stable
-to prevent timber from shrinkage and drying
- To facilitate painting.

Methods of Seasoning
There are two methods of seasoning:
1) Natural Seasoning or Air Seasoning and
2) Artificial Seasoning or Kiln Seasoning
Natural Seasoning: After felling threes, logs are converted into battens and
planks and stacked in a shade. The place of stacking should be well drained and
well air circulated a little above the ground. It is a slow process and takes more
than 6 months but assures superior quality.
Artificial Seasoning: In this process timbers are stacked in chamber with proper
arrangement of heating and humidifying the air. Usually steam is used for
heating and humidifying the air in the chamber at specified temperature and
humidity.

Composite Material
5
 • Concrete: It is a composite material of construction made up of cement,
sand, gravel and water
• Concrete has very low tensile strength. So in the structural members where
tensile force is likely to act, reinforcement bars are used to resist tension.
• Concrete embedded with reinforcement bars are called RCC (Reinforced
Cement Concrete) and that without reinforcement bars is called PCC
(Plain Cement Concrete)
• PCC is generally used in foundation base, floor etc and RCC is used in
beam, column, slab etc.
• Concrete is generally categorized according to its strength like M15, M20
etc. and according to its mix proportion like 1:2:4, 1:1.5:3 etc. In the first
type of classification M refers to mix and the numbers to compressive
strength of 15cm cubes at 28 days in N/mm2. (1:2:4 means 1part of
cement, 2part of sand and 4 part of gravel by vol).
• For PCC concrete should not be less than M10 and for RCC it should not
be less than M15
• For column-not less than M20 and for beams and slab not less than M15.

Concrete Mixing
• Cement, sand and gravel are measured (concrete batching) by a standard
cube box of size 300x300x375mm which contains 1 bag of cement.
• The batched materials are properly mixed in concrete mixer till is
homogeneous
• If machine is not available add 10% extra cement for manual mixing
• Batching should be restricted to 5 bags of cement, do dry mixing 3 times
and wet mixing 3 times and ensure the mix is homogeneous
6
 • Water cement ratio should be maintained. Large quantity of water makes
concrete weak and less water may hamper workability which is defined as
the ease and homogeneity with which concrete can be mixed.

Placing and compacting

• Mixed concrete should be placed within 1 hr of mixing
• Concrete should not be dropped from more than 1.5m height to prevent
seggregation
• Should be compacted and levelled immediately (not later than 5 minutes
of placing)
• Needle vibrator is used for better compaction. Under compaction forms
honey combing and over compaction leads to bleeding. Vibration is done
only for 5-10 seconds at a place.

Curing and cover

• Curing is a process of keeping the concrete wet in order to continue the
chemical reactionbetween cement and water. Curing can be done by
flooding, sprinkling, spreading moist sand or jute bags. Curing is done
after final setting within 24 hours and should be for a minimum of 15
days.
• Cover for concrete works should be as below:
- Slab and stair 15mm, beam 25mm, column 40mm.

Centering and Shuttering/Formwork

• Formworks are used to support and get required shape of the concrete
structure. They are made of wood or metal.
• Quality required:
a. hard, durable and sufficiently thick to take concrete load
b. should not absorb water from concrete
c. should have smooth surface
d. should have proper horizontal bracings, props and runners.

• Formwork Removal for different members:

-for column not earlier than 48 hours
-for sides of beam slabs etc, after 24 hours
-for beam span up to 4.5m 13 days
-over 6m, after 17 days
-for cantilever 7 days
But in cold region and in winter season this time may have to be slightly increased.

7
 Mortar
• Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water
• Function of mortar:
1. to make strong bond between stones or/ and bricks while constructing wall
2. to provide even bed to bricks and stones
3. to prevent from moisture penetration
4. to enhance outlook of the structure

• For normal construction works mortar should be in the proportion of 1:4 or

1:5 but not less than 1:6 in any case (1:4 means 1 part of cement and 4
parts of sand by volume)

Roofing Materials
• Roofs are of two types- Flat and sloped roofs. A roof is said to be sloped if
the slope exceeds 100 otherwise it is flat.
• Roofs should be durable, grant insulation, structurally sound and stable,
well drained, fire resistant and water proofing.
• Most commonly used roofing materials:
1. Thatch: it is indigenous and most popular in Nepal. Its use is simple and
traditional, it is affordable. Its disadvantage is its short life, easily decayed by
water and vulnerable to fire.
2. CGI Sheet:
• CGI sheetsare popular in parts of Nepal because:
1) its weight is light compared to its area
2) convenient for transportation even in the human back
3) sense of safety against water leakage, hail stones and wind and long life but
Itsdisadvantages are:
1. low thermal and sound insulation
2. morning dew is collected on the underside of the roof
3. Striking of rain and hailstone is very disturbing.

Components of buildings:
Background:
• Buildings are of 2 types:
• (1) Load Bearing (2) Non-load Bearing or Framed structure

8
 • In the second type wall is replaced by column all the other process
remaining the same.

Load Bearing
• In this type, load of the occupants and the contents is first taken up by floor
which transfers to the beam then to walls and then to foundation and ultimately to
the soil.
• For a Load Bearing building to be structurally sound, a Box Action should
be developed in it. A building is said to have a box action if there is a strong bond
between roof, wall and foundation and the whole building acts like a box.
Horizontal bands are the most important elements to create box action, they are of
four types viz. plinth band, lintel band, roof band and gable band in case of
slopped roof.
•
Corners are vulnerable in a Load Bearing /Brick Masonry Building

Lintel
Band
Stitch
ing
Silll Band

Plinth
Band

9
10
Components of buildings:
• foundation
• walls
• floors
• roof
• openings (door &windows)
• beam and
• Column

Foundation
• The bottom most part of the structure that transfers the whole load of the
structure to soil
• Buildings may have different types of foundation based on their type and
the soil it rests on.

11
Typical Brick masonry/Load bearing foundation for up to 3 storey building:

Foundation *Brick masonry in 1: 6 cement sand mortar

Wall
• Walls should be capable of withstanding vertical as well as Wall.
To this end
• Avoid vertical joint
• Strengthen the corners and junctions by stitching
• Introduce horizontal and vertical bands
• Avoid toothed joint and use stepped joint

12
Toothed joint not good Stepped joint good
Openings (Doors and Windows)
• Doors and Windows are provided for easy access, proper ventilation and
light in the building
• Large openings and their inappropriate locations may cause severe damage
to the load bearing building
• The following basic rules should be followed:
1) total length of opening should not be more than 50%, 42% and 33% in the
one storied, two storied and three storied building respectively
2) distance of door and windows from the corner should not be more than
1/4th the ht of opening
3) distance between the opening should not be less than half of the larger
opening.

13
Floor /Roof
 Floor and roof protects building and its occupants from rain, sun snow.
 Floor and roof are of 2 types viz. flexible and rigid.
 Flexible floor/roofs can deform in their own plane eg mud floor with
timber/bamboo, CGI sheet etc.
 Rigid floor/ roof cannot deform in its own plane eg. RCC slab
 Floors and roof should be as light as possible
 They should be well integrated with other elements of the building
 Stone slabs, slate, mud roofing should be avoided as far as possible and go for
lighter options such as CGI sheets.

RCC Framed Buildings

 Foundations: There are various types of foundations used in RCC framed
buildings which depends on weight of the building and type of sub soil’ Common
types
 Isolated Footing (Pad Foundation)
 Combined Footing

14
  Mat Foundation (Raft)
 Depth of foundation depends on soil type but in general it should rest on firm
base and should not be scoured by rain water
 Pad Foundation: It is the most common type used in Nepal
 Each column rests on a single pad
 The pads balance the vertical and horizontal loads
 It is suitable in almost all type of soil for smaller buildings

Pad Foundation Eccentric Column

Combined Footing:
 More than one column rests on one pad
 It is used when columns are close to each other
 when column is eccentric combined footing with grade beam is a good
solution
 Combined footing increases the capacity of foundation and can be
effectively used in low to medium rise building.

Combined Footing
 Mat Foundation (Raft)
 All columns rest on a mat of RCC slab
 It is used in large buildings and poor soil conditions
 It minimizes the unequal settlement
 It is usually expensive and used when basement floor exists

15
 Mat Foundation

Beams and Columns

 In RCC Framed buildings beam and column are horizontal and vertical members
built integrally with each other thus acting as a frame.
 Beam takes load from the floor and transfers it to the column. It also acts as a
band to integrate the whole building.
 Beams have two sets of steel bars viz.(1) longitudinal bars or main bar and(2)
stirrups or transverse bar
 At least 2 main bars should go through full length of the beam both at top and
bottom
 At supports bars at bottom should be at least half that at top.

16
Columns also have 2 sets of steel bars (1). longitudinal bars (2) stirrups.

Beam- Column joint

A column size of 230x230mm can be allowed if span is less than 4m. Minimum 4
nos. of the longitudinal steel bar of 12mm diameter are required for beam as well
as column. Stirrups which keeps longitudinal bars intact and prevents concrete
from moving outward, should have minimum dia. of 7mm.

17
Laying out of Building

18
 Shape size and layouts are the primary factors that make a building structuraly
sound and strong.
 Rectangular, square and circular shape are good shape of building while C,Y, L,
T shaped buildings are poor-shaped.

Building with one the dimensions too large or too small is not good

More mass on one side causes twisting

19
 Good shape of building

Unstable and inappropriate buildings Appropriate form of building

Appropriate Lay Out of Building:
Load Bearing
• Regular shape and appropriate size
• Proper distribution of wall
• Same shape and size in all floors
• No main wall in cantilever
• Proper size and place of doors and windows

Framed Structure
• Regular shape and size
• Columns in grid and evenly distributed
• Same shape and size in all floor
• No main wall in cantilever
• No column from the middle floor
• No significantly less floor in the ground floor

Columns in Grid
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CHAPTER 1 Functional Requirements of Buildings

1.1 Buildings and their types
Any structure for whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever materials constructed and every part thereof whether
used as human habitation or not and includes foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and
building services, fixed platforms, verandah, balcony, cornice or projection, part of a building or anything affixed
thereto or any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or space and signs and outdoor display structures is
known as building.

Buildings are classified according to the occupancy into the following types:

Group(A) Residential buildings-are those buildings in which the sleeping accommodation is provided for
normal residential purposes, with or without cooking or dining or both facilities, except any building classified
under category C.

Group(B) Educational – are those building used for school, college, or day care purposes for more than 8 hours
per week.

Group(C) Institutional-these include any building which is used for purposes such a medical or other treatment
or care of persons suffering from any physical or mental illness. Institutional buildings generally provide
accommodation for the occupants.

Group(D) Assembly-these include any building where group of people gather for recreation, social, religious,
travel and similar purposes.

Group(E) Business-these include any building used for business transaction, for keeping of accounts and
records, lunch counters for less than 100 people, beauty parlor etc.

Group(F) Mercantile-these include any building which is used for shops, stores, markets, for display and sale of
merchandise.

Group(G) Industrial buildings are those where products of materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated,
assembled or processed.

Group(H) Storage are those building used for storage of any goods, wares or merchandise except highly
combustible materials.

Group(I) Hazardous-buildings used for the storage, handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible
or explosive materials or products.

1.2 Heat phenomena in Building (thermal performance of building components, thermal comfort, thermal
design)
Thermal performance of building components:
For a non-conditioned building, it calculates temperature variation inside the building over a specified time and
helps one to estimate the duration of uncomfortable periods.

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Various heat exchange processes are possible between a building and the external environment. Heat flows by
conduction through various building elements such as walls, roof, ceiling, floor, etc. Heat transfer also takes place
from different surfaces by convection and radiation. Besides, solar radiation is transmitted through transparent
windows and is absorbed by the internal surfaces of the building. There may be evaporation of water resulting in a
cooling effect.

Heat exchange process between a building and the external environment

Heat is also added to the space due to the presence of human occupants and the use of lights and equipments. The
interaction between a human body and the indoor environment is shown in Fig above. Due to metabolic activities,
the body continuously produces heat, part of which is used as work, while the rest is dissipated into the
environment for maintaining body temperature. The body exchanges heat with its surroundings by convection,
radiation, evaporation and conduction. If heat is lost, one feels cool. In case of heat gain from surroundings, one
feels hot and begins to perspire. Movement of air affects the rate of perspiration, which in turn affects body
comfort.

The thermal performance of a building depends on a large number of factors. They can be summarised as :
(i) Design variables (geometrical dimensions of building elements such as walls, roof and windows, orientation,
shading devices, etc.);
(ii) Material properties (density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, transmissivity, etc.);

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(iii) Weather data (solar radiation, ambient temperature, wind speed, humidity, etc.); and
(iv) A building’s usage data (internal gains due to occupants, lighting and equipment, air exchanges, etc.).

 Thermal comfort
State of heat balance of the human body is thermal comfort. The fluctuations of this heat balance causes
discomfort. The metabolism that generates heat in the body depends on the daily life cycle of human being-state of
activities, fatigue and recovery. Unfavorable climatic conditions affects daily life cycle resulting stress on body and
mind causes discomfort, loss of efficiency and may eventually lead to a breakdown of health. Human response to
the thermal environment depends to a great extent on the ease with which the body is able to regulate the heat
balance in such a way that the internal body temperature is maintained constant at 37.4°C.

1.3 Ventilation (requirements, standards, design) & air conditioning

Ventilation may be defined as supply of fresh outside air into an enclosed space or the removal of all the vitiated air
from the enclosed space. Ventilation is necessary for the following reasons:-
 Creation of air movement
 Prevention of undue accumulation of carbon dioxide
 Prevention of flammable concentration of gas vapor
 Prevention of accumulation of dust and bacteria-carrying particles.
 Prevention of odour caused by decomposition of building material.
 Removal of smoke, odour and foul smell generated /liberated by the occupants.
 Removal of body heat generated/liberated by the occupants.
 Prevention of condensation or deposition of moisture on wall surfaces.
 Prevention of suffocation conditions in conference rooms, committee halls, cinema halls big rooms etc.
Requirements of ventilation
1. Air changes or air movement 3. Quality of air
2. Humidity 4. Temperature
Systems of ventilation
1. Natural ventilation: It is the type in which ventilation is done by careful design of doors, windows, ventilators
and sky lights. It is considered suitable for residential buildings and small houses. In this the rate of ventilation
depends upon wind effect and stack effect.

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2. Mechanical or artificial ventilation is the one in which some mechanical arrangements are mad to increase
the rate of air flow. The system is more useful for large buildings.

General rules of natural ventilation:

1. Inlet openings in the buildings should be well distributed and should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near the top so that incoming air stream is passed
over the occupants.
2. Inlet openings should not be obstructed by nearby buildings.
3. Inlet and outlet should be of the same size.
4. If wind direction is variable, place the inlet openings equal in all directions.
5. Windows of living rooms should open on the open side.

Air conditioning
Air conditioning may be defined as the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature,
humidity, purity and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space. The various requirements of a
conditioned space may be comfort and health of human beings, needs of certain industrial processes, efficient
working of commercial premises etc.

Purpose:-
 It helps in preserving of maintaining health, comfort and convenience of occupants of residential building.
 It helps in improving the quality of products in certain industrial processes such as artificial silk, cotton cloth
etc. In other cases of industries, it provides comfortable working conditions for the workers, resulting in the
increase of the production.
 It helps in making the commercial premises such as shops, banks, offices etc, more active and efficient.
 It provides more comfortable entertainment in theatres etc.

From Functional requirements points of view:

1. Comfort air conditioning
2. Industrial air conditioning

Essentials of comfort air conditioning

1. Temperature control 3. Air velocity control
2. Humidity control 4. Air quality control

Essentials of air conditioning system

1. Filtration 4. Humidification
2. Heating(in winter season) 5. Dehumidification
3. Cooling( in summer season) 6. Air circulation or distribution

1.4 Lighting (illumination requirements, daylight, artificial lighting)

Light is required in various quantities to perform work. Each task has a specific recommendation for illumination
levels.

Definitions
Luminous Flux () : Luminous energy emitted per second Unit: lumen (lm)
Luminous intensity ( I ) : Luminous flux per unit solid angle Unit: lm / Sr
Solid angle (w): cone of radiation Unit: steradian (Sr)
Relation : I = /w

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Candela (cd) Practical unit for luminous intensity of 1/60 sq. m. of the surface of a black body at temp. of freezing
platinum under 101323 Newton / sq.m. pressure Relation : 1 lm = 1 cd x sr
Iluminance ( E )
Functions Illumination level Limiting glare Luminous flux per
(lux) index
Offices unit area reflected
Drawing studio 500 19 from a surface Unit:
General 500 16
Lux ( Lx ) or lm /
Boards 750 16
Auditorium & Foyer 100 sq.m.
Shops 500 19 Luminance ( L )
Living spaces
General 50 Luminous flux per
Reading 150 unit area coming from
Sewing 300
a source Unit : cd /
sq.m.
Glare: A condition of vision of discomfort to see object due to an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance

Natural Light
Sun is the sole source of natural lighting and heating. Depending on the different seasons, time of day and weather
conditions, sun light may be harsh, hazy or subdued. How it enters the rooms depends on type, size & placement of
windows and orientation of the building.

Lighting Requirements
 The source of light should be steady
 Glare should be avoided
 Inconvenient shadow should be avoided by proper shading at the source
 Light color on wall and ceiling

Day-lighting
The sun is the source of day light, however how and in what intensity it reaches a room depends on various
components;
a. Diffused light/ skylight
b. Light reflected on external surfaces
c. Light reflected in the internal surfaces
d. Direct sunlight
Climatic conditions greatly influence the quantity and the quality of the above components.

Overcast Sky
Direct rays from the sun is achieved under clear sky condition, however in practice cloud covered sky (overcast) is
taken into account in design. The illumination received from the sky varies greatly with different sky conditions
and the time of the day. A complete overcast sky is assumed as the standard for day lighting analysis. The total
illumination at the ground level is approximately taken as 5000 lux.

Day-light factor

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The ratio of indoor illumination to the simultaneous outdoor illumination is taken as constant. The percentage ratio is

Room Daylight factor Penetration Daylight area

Kitchen 2% Cooking,
Ei washing
is the indoor and preparation
illumination, taken at 50% of the area(Min. 5 M2 )
a point
Living room 1% Half of the depth 7.5
Eo is the outdoor illumination from an unobstructedM 2
sky
Bedroom 0.5 % ¾ depth 6 M2
Office 1% 4 Meters
Drawing studio 5% Over whole of the area

DF = SC + ERC + IRC
termed as the day light factor (DF);

DF = Ei X 100 (%)
Eo

The day light factor concept is valid only under overcast conditions. Three major factors contribute to the daylight
factor;
1 Sky component (SC)
2 Externally reflected component (ERC)
3 Internally reflected component (IRC)

Controlling day lighting

Design stage: layout of structures, proper orientation of the Building and controlled light penetration
Construction stage: Use of windows/ fenestrations of proper size and at suitable locations
Use of roof lighting
Use of courtyard / atriums
Minimum day lighting standards

1.3.4 Artificial light

In conditions where natural lights cannot reach; inner rooms & lobbies, after sunset or where special lightings are
required artificial lighting system is used. It is generally static and steady. However with dimmer or track light
mechanism the brightness can be controlled.

Various electric lighting sources

1. Incandescent bulb ( filament lamp ) 4. Sodium vapor lamp , High pressure lamp
2. Fluorescent lamp ( discharge tube ) 5. Induction lighting
3. Halogen lamp, Low voltage lamp 6. Illuminating optical fiber

Method of increasing the electrical lighting system efficiency

1. Selection of luminaries with high luminous efficiency
2. Selection of internal surface finishing of high reflectance value
3. Adjusting luminaries height as per the work plane level
4. Regular maintenance of the system
5. Functional positioning / proper layout of the luminaries

1.5 Sound and Acoustics (sound & noise, acoustic defects, sound insulation)
Acoustic is the science of sound, which deals with the origin, propagation and auditory sensation of sound and also
with design and construction of different building units to set optimum conditions for producing and listening
speech, music etc.
Sound
Anything that can be heard is sound. It is the sensation caused by a vibrating medium acting on the air. Source of
sound is most often vibrating solid body. The medium conveying sound to ear can be gas, liquid or solid.
It is transmitted as the longitudinal wave motion. Wave length determines pitch of sound. Higher the frequency
higher would be the pitch (frequency is the waves per unit time).
Generally sound can be divided into air borne sound and impact sound. Airborne sound is transmitted through air
and travels direct to the ear of the person. Impact sound is transmitted first through the structures such as noise of
footsteps, furniture movement, dropping of utensils etc.
Noise

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The sound which causes annoyance, interference with speech, damage to hearing and results in reduction in
efficiency of work performance is called noise.
Magnitude of noise level

Types of sounds Noise level (dB) Effects

Light road traffic 60 – 70 Physiological effect (annoyance)

Medium road traffics 70 – 80 Physiological effect (annoyance)

Heavy road traffics 80 – 90 Prolonged exposure causes permanent hearing loss

Rail traffics 90 – 100 Prolonged exposure causes damage to auditory organ

Air traffics 100 – 130 Causes pain

>130 Instantaneous loss of hearing

Effects of Noise:
 Annoyance -irritation  Interface or disturbing conversation
 Disturbance to sleep  Damage of ear

Echoes:
When a reflecting surface is so far away from the surface that the sound is reflected back as a distinct repetition of
the direct sound, the reflected sound is called an echo. Echoes are produced, when the time interval between the
direct and the reflected sound waves is about 1/15 th of a second. This defect is particularly common when the
reflecting surface is curved in shape. To minimize this defect in curved walls, the walls are covered with highly
absorbent materials on the face work.

Reverberation
When the sound waves get reflected, a part of the sound energy is converted into heat energy by friction and is
absorbed by the walls. Subsequently the reflected waves get inter-reflected from one surface to another until they
gradually fade and become inaudible. This phenomenon of undue prolongation of sound by successive reflections
from surrounding surfaces after the source sound has ceased is termed as reverberation. A certain amount of
reverberation is necessary to enhance the sound. However, excessive reverberation is damaging to clarity.

Sound insulation of buildings:

Control of noise transmission is essential to minimize the disturbing effect of sound passing from one room to
another, through walls, partitions and floors or ceilings.

General consideration
1. Isolate sound source
2. Proper orientation of building , i.e. no opening towards noise
3. Properly planned rooms in building
4. Furnishing materials in room helps sound absorption
5. Partitions – Ridge and Movable
6. Control of impact sound i.e. sue of resilient materials as carpets in floor
7. Discontinuing the path of vibration by using sound absorbing materials
8. Use of headphones and air plugs in case of high sound.

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The constructional measures to be adopted for noise control and sound insulation are briefly discussed below:

Wall construction:
The sound insulation rating of a wall is generally governed by the net sound transmission loss it provides and also
the efficiency with which it serves as a barrio for speed sound. Weight of walls is the governing factor in wall is the
governing factor is wall insulation. It is seen that a solid one brick wall plastered on both sides, proves quite
effective as a sound insulation partition wall. It has an average reduction of 50dB. A cavity wall type of construction
can be made to have increased insulation value by filling the cavity with some resilient material.

Floors:

Transmission of sound takes place more easily through floors. This is on account of the fact that the sound
producing source has actual contact with floor. Hence the floor serves as the most common path for the
transmission of impact noise. The ordinary R.C.C. floor weighing less than 220kg/sq.m has a sound reduction of
only 45dB. Thus bare concrete and timber floors do not function effectively as barrier against impact sound. A
floating floor resting on a resilient material like glass wool, mineral wool, quilt, hairfelt etc., has an increased rating
for impact sound insulation.

1.6 Orientation & planning of buildings

(principles, site-selection, economy, setting-out)

Orientation of building is a very important factor

which is directly connected to the standards of
thermal comfort and ventilation within building. It is
guided by natural elements like sunlight and its
intensity, direction of the wind, seasons of the year
and temperature variations. Orientation is determined
by climatic factors of wind and solar radiation.

The building orientation can have an impact on

heating, lighting and cooling costs. By maximizing
southern exposure, for example, one can take optimal

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advantage of the sun for daylight and passive solar heating. Minimizing western exposures will result in lower
cooling costs, where it's most difficult to provide shade from the sun.

1. Hot climatic zones:

The buildings should be oriented from solar point of view so that as a whole it should receive the maximum solar
radiation in winter and the minimum in summer. Longer walls of building should face north & south. Non-habitat
rooms can be located on outer faces to act as thermal barrier. Preferably, the kitchen should be located on leeward
side of the building to avoid circulation of hot air and smell from the kitchen.
 Large openings with heavy shutters should be provided on northern and western faces as light coming from north
is always diffused and indirect.
 Thick walls are preferred to act as insulating barrier.
 Should be built up with good insulating material having slope in windward direction. False ceiling can be used to
improve thermal performance of building.
 Large shady trees whose roots do not strain foundation and basement should be planted near external walls to
provide shade

2. Warm and humid climatic zone:

Orientation of buildings in this zone should be preferably in North-South direction for habitable rooms i.e. longer
walls should face north & south so that shorter sides are exposed to direct sunlight.
 Proper cross ventilation of building is of extreme importance; therefore large openings should be positioned on
windward and leeward direction. However, openings should be provided with suitable protection like sunshades,
chhajjas etc. from Sun and rain.
 Walls of Low thermal capacity material should be used in construction and walls can be thinner as temperatures
are not very high.
 Roofs: should have large overhangs to avoid rainwater hitting the wall. Roof should be finished with materials of
low thermal conductivity.
 Shrubs of medium height which do not act as wind barriers are recommended.
 Good rain-water drainage is essential.

3. Cold climatic zone:

Cold climate occurs in mountainous regions and plateaus 800 to 1200 meters above sea level.
 Orientation should preferably be in north – south direction i.e. longer walls should face north & south to receive
more solar heat during winter months.
 Glazing windows upto 25% floor area may be provided. Double glazing is preferable to avoid heat losses during
winter nights.
 Thin walls with insulation from inner side (2.5cm thick insulation) are preferable.
 Roofs should be preferably made of asbestos cement or G.I. sheets backed by false ceiling of wood, 2.5cm wood-
wool board or equivalent material.
 The roof should have sufficient slope for quick drainage of rainwater and snow.
 Provision for heating of building should be kept like fire places etc.

Factors affecting orientation:

Sensory
 Thermal—solar exposure, wind direction, temperature
 Visual—varying daylight qualities in different locations and at different times of day
 Acoustical—direction of objectionable noises
 Environmental—smoke, dust, odors
Psychological
 Views
 Privacy
 Street activity
Local development patterns
 Street direction
 Spatial organization, land use, urban design
 Zoning
Accessibility requirements—main/secondary entrances, parking

Other considerations
 Aesthetic

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 Direction of storms
 Site conditions—topography, geotechnical, wetlands
 Site vegetation—mature trees
 View corridors, scenic easements

Orientation principles:

1. Slope and soil Considerations

Consider both long term storm water and short term erosion impacts during construction. Avoid very steep slopes.
2. Site Plan
Bioclimatic design, Slopes to the south allow for plenty of solar access, while north facing slopes will provide good
shading opportunities.
3. for Rectangular Buildings
They should be oriented with the long axis running east west .In this configuration; east and west walls receive
less direct sun in summer. So, unwanted heat gain is reduced. Same configuration works well for buildings in cold
climates where passive solar heat gain on the south side during the winter is desired.
A long narrow building plan also facilitates daylighting and natural ventilation.
4. Solar Energy: Both a friend and a foe
5. Proximity of trees to building
Growth rate, life span of nearby trees should be considered
6. Account prevailing winds
7. Driving and parking lots should be located on the east or north side of the building in summer season (hot climate)
and in cold climates, they should be kept on south and west to melt snow.

Planning of buildings:

The basic objective of planning of buildings is to arrange all the units of building on all floors and at level
according to their functional requirements making best use of the space available for a building.
The shape of a plan is governed by several factors such as climatic conditions, site location, accommodation
requirements, local bye-laws, surrounding environment etc.

Factors considered in planning:

1. Aspect: aspect means peculiarly of the arrangement of doors and windows in the external walls of a building
which allows the occupants to enjoy the natural gifts such as sunshine, breeze, scenery etc. this consideration
includes good view of nature or scenes according to the uses of space such a kitchen in east direction for early
U-V ray, a reading rooms, class rooms in north direction for diffused light of the evening etc.

2. Prospect: is the impressions that house is likely to make on person who looks it from the outside. Hence, it
includes the attainment of pleasing appearance by the use of natural beauties, disposition of doors and
windows.
3. Privacy: it is one of the important principles in the planning of buildings of residential type.
4. Grouping: grouping means the disposition of various rooms in the layout in a typical fashion so that the rooms
are placed in proper correlation of their functions and in proximity with each other. Services must be nearer to
and independently accessible from every bed-room. Bathroom and toilets must be far away from the kitchen
and dining rooms.
5. Sanitation: sanitation includes cleaning facilities, sanitation services, providing sufficient ventilation etc.
6. Circulation: it may vertical or horizontal circulation.
7. Economy: economy of the construction and operation of the building should be planned in advance.
8. Practical considerations: although different structural, financial and other considerations are discussed,
practical possibility is the most considerable factor in planning of a building.

Setting out a building:

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This is the process of obtaining the positions of the structural parts of a building in the geometrical construction.
The positions of the structural parts of a building can be obtained by detailed structural drawings. These data has
to be transferred to the field to start the geometrical construction with sufficient accuracy; enabling independent
checks for readily detecting of any errors.
The first step in building setting out is to identify a base line according to the site layout plan. We can establish the
base line considering the permanent structures and the relevant distances to structural parts from them as given in
the drawings.

Setting out is done based on the principle of “Whole to part”. According to this principle the largest possible
rectangle of the building is found and set up first. Then it is further divided into small parts completing the major
setting out for the building.
It is very important that setting out process is done in a horizontal plane. When the ground profile is not horizontal
proper care must be paid to establish the setting out profiles in a one level. For simple applications a tube filled
with water can be used to obtain the levels.
Main instruments involved in this process are Theodolite, Steel and Linen Tapes, Arrows, Wooden pegs, Wire nails
and Nylon threads.
After establishing the base line, the main rectangle is set up using the pegs and theodolite. Arrows are used as
temporary pegs and wooden pegs are driven for permanent pegs .90° angle is taken by the theodolite and
Pythagoras rule is also commonly used for the process. When using the Pythagoras rule proper care must be paid
to obtain the largest possible combination of triangles for higher accuracy. Steel tape must be used to measure long
distances and it must be tightly stretched when taking the readings.
Wooden pegs atop by a wire nail are driven to establish the grid lines of the building. These pegs are driven at
places such that they won’t be disturbed by field work
etc. Usually they are driven with a distance of 1.5 meter
from the grid line.
The diagonals of the main rectangle are checked to
determine its accuracy. Accurately set up main
rectangle is then subdivided to obtain the consisting
gridlines. These are obtained by the using structural
drawings, Theodolite and steel tape. Nylon threads are
stretched between the pegs to obtain the gridlines
when necessary.
Usually apart from the pegs depicting the main grid
lines, pegs which show the 500mm off sets are also
established during the setting out process to facilitate
the construction that follows.

1.7 Moisture & its movement through building components and damp proofing
Moisture or damp is water particles that appear on the surface of the materials. If we talk this in the building, it is
one of the most important elements affecting the living
condition inside and deteriorating the strength and
durability of the building components. Damp appears in
any surface of the building on the ceiling on the wall, on
the floor and on the other surfaces inside or outside.
Sources of Moisture

Fundamentally, the sources of moisture may be noted as

follows:
 Rainwater
 Ground water
 Water from condensation

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Phenomenon of Condensation

The air that exists everywhere in the atmosphere is a mixture of dry gases and water vapour. Therefore, moisture
is present normally in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. This water vapour exists in the form of finely
divided particles of superheated steam at the given air temperature (dry-bulb temperature). The amount of water
vapour that a given quantity of air can hold increases with the temperature. If the air temperature is increased, it
would take more water particles and if the air temperature is lowered the water particles diffuse each other and at
a definite temperature, the air can go longer hold water molecules in vapour state. When air at any particular
temperature contains as much as water vapour as it can hold, the air is said to be saturated and the condition of air
is said to be moisture saturation state. The particular temperature at which the air is at the state of moisture
saturation is known as its dew point. If the temperature of air is decreased from dew point, the excess vapour can
no longer be held by the air and will be deposited on the surface as condensation.
Surface condensation and interstitial condensation:

When the temperature of any surface within a building is at temperature below the dew point of the adjacent air,
some of the water particles in the air will condense on that surface, this is called surface condensation. Depending
on the nature of the surface, the condensed moisture may either be absorbed by the material perhaps remaining
unnoticeable or it may appear as liquid water on the surface.
Surface condensation will not occur if,
 The temperature of the surface is kept above the dew point of the adjacent air by adequate heating or by sufficient
insulation behind the surface.
 The humidity of the air is limited so that its dew point is below the temperature of the surface.
With the occasional or intermittent surface condensation, an absorbent surface is advantageous, as it can retain a
limited quantity of moisture until conditions change and re-evaporation can take place.
Condensation in building is not necessarily confined to exposed surfaces, but may under certain conditions occur
within a material or on a surface within the thickness of a wall, roof or floor construction. This is called interstitial
condensation.

Vapour diffusion: The flow of water vapour through a porous building material or composite slab is analogous to
the flow of heat through the structure. Convection current transfers heat and moisture at the fluid solid boundary.
Conduction heat transfers is similar to vapour diffusion through a porous material and is resistance to moisture
flow varies with density as thermal resistance does but in the opposite sense.

The sources of water vapour in an occupied building are as follows:

1. Transpiration
2. Cooking
3. Washing, bathing, and drying clothes.
4. Humidifiers and open water surfaces
5. Combustion of paraffin oil. (complete combustion of 1kg of C2H20 produces 1.41 kg of water vapor)

The effects of Moisture

1. Efflorescence (disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles etc to powder like material)

2. Softening and crumbling of plaster.
3. Bleaching and flaking of paints with formation of patches.
4. Warping, buckling and rotting of timber.
5. Corrosion of metals (particularly ferrous metals)
6. Damage of electrical fittings.
7. Growth of fungus and termites.
8. Unhygienic condition to occupant in the building.
9. Damaging sound and thermal insulation.

Movement of Moisture: Almost all construction materials used in the building absorb water to some extent. There
are definite phenomena for the absorption and movement of this water in the building components. Followings are
different forces governing the movement of moisture through the building components.

A lecture note on building technology by Kishor Thapa,HCOE

 Page 13 of CH 1

1. Capillary action 5. Air pressure

2. wind loads (Momentum of water particles) 6. Diffusion ( occurs due to difference in vapor
3. Surface tension of the building component pressure)
4. Gravity forces

Moisture control

 Ground water control-The ground water and rain water percolating in to the ground causes great problem to the
buildings. This is very sensitive work and due to the attention has to be paid to control the entry of moisture.
Besides, condensation is also quite frequent in ground floor and basements.

Followings are the methods of moisture control in the substructure of the building.

1. Damp proofing
2. Water proofing
3. Subsurface drainage

Under damp proofing, it is meant by the application of simple damp proofing paints or membrane to control the
capillary infiltration.

The requirements of an ideal material for damp proofing are:

1. It should be impervious. 5. It should be durable.

2. It should be flexible. 6. It should resist the load safely.
3. It should be easy to carry out leak proofing 7. It should not contain sulphates, chloride and
joints. nitrates.
4. It should be stable. 8. It should be cheap.

Various methods of damp proofing are as given below:

1. Providing D.P.C. course 4. Integral treatment
2. Providing cavity walls 5. Guniting and
3. Surface treatment 6. Pressure grouting.

Under water proofing, it is meant by deliberate application of impervious layer under all adverse weather
condition.

A lecture note on building technology by Kishor Thapa,HCOE

 Page 14 of CH 1

Subsurface drainage is the method of diverting underground water away from the foundation and basement.
Depending upon the condition of the ground, the perforated underground drain may be directed towards the low
land or a drywell of adequate capacity. Subsurface drainage can also be directed to sump pump and water collected
may be pumped out. After this, there must be proper water proofing treatment in the foundation and walls of the
basement.

 Rain control
Rain is the most important factor to control in order to construct a durable building. Rain may enter in the building
in many ways. Rain is more dependent on the climate and varies from place to place. It is difficult to forecast the
intensity of rain in time and place. A general idea could be drawn from the amount of annual rainfall. Besides, the
wind has substantial effect on the intensity, strength and direction of rain.

Rain protection into and through building surfaces is governed by capillary action, momentum, surface tension,
gravity forces and air pressure. Capillary forces draw water into rain water into pores and tiny cracks, while the
remaining forces direct rain water into larger openings.

Followings are the means of rain penetration control in practice:

1. Capillary breaks 4. Use of flashings
2. Obstruction of horizontal openings 5. Creation of pressure equalization
3. Drip edge or kerfs on horizontal openings

 Vapor control
Water vapor moves in two ways, by vapor diffusion and by air transport. The mechanism differs for both the cases.
If may happen that the means of effective control of the vapor diffusion may not be effective for air transport.
Vapor diffusion is the movement of moisture in the vapor state through a material as a result of vapor pressure
difference (concentration gradient) or a temperature difference (thermal gradient). It is not the movement of
moisture as a result of air movement. Vapor diffusion moves moisture form an area of higher vapor pressure to an
area of lower vapor pressure as well as form the warm side of the building component to the cold side. Therefore,
the moisture will migrate by diffusion from where there is more to where there is less. The movement of the
moisture from warm side to the cold side of the building component is called ‘thermally driven diffusion’. The
moisture condenses on cold surfaces acting as dehumidifiers pulling more moisture towards them.The air
transport is the process of movement of moisture present in the air from the area of higher air pressure to a area of
lower air pressure.

A lecture note on building technology by Kishor Thapa,HCOE

 FOUNDATIONS

2.1. Soil exploration (methods, improving bearing capacity, load test)

2.2. Foundation and its types (deep, shallow)
2.3. Earthwork excavation of foundations (soft soil, hard rock, wet excavation)
2.4. Excavation of trenches for pipes, cables etc. and refilling works
2.5. Some common problems with existing foundations

2.1 Soil exploration (methods, improving bearing capacity, plate load test)

Refer foundation engineering

2.2Foundation and its types (deep, shallow)

Refer foundation engineering

2.3 Earthwork excavation of foundations (soft soil, hard rock, wet excavation)

Earthwork in excavation upto required depth is required for construction of foundation. It is very important part of
construction process, and care must be taken while excavation in safety perspective. Different soil layers may be
encountered while excavation, dewatering may be needed sometimes. These points must be kept in mind to take
necessary action during excavation and backfilling. Correct measurement of excavation and backfilling is required
because excavation cost is major part of the foundation construction.

Following are the sequence of works for excavation and backfilling of soil:
The following are the equipments used for the earthwork for foundation.
Hydraulic excavator, tractor / trucks, Spade, Pick Axe, Crow Bar, Rammer, Wedge, Boning Rod, Sledge Hammer, Basket,
Iron Pan, Line and Pins, hydraulic compactor.

Drawings required for excavation:

1. Centreline Drawing 2. Layout Plan

Scope of the work:

 Setting out of corner benchmarks  Making up to cut off level
 Survey for ground levels.  Constructing dewatering wells and
 Survey for top levels interconnecting trenches.
 Excavation to approved depth.  Marking boundaries of the building.
 Dressing of loose soil.  Constructing protection bunds and drains

Working Procedure for soil excavation:

The extent of soil and rock strata is found by making trial pits in the construction site. The excavation depth is decided
according to the following guidelines in the site.
 For Isolated footing the depth to be one and half times the width of the foundation.
 For adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width (i.e. one and half times the length) 1.5m in
general and 3.5 m in black cotton soils.

Setting out or ground tracing is the process of laying down the excavation lines and center lines etc. on the ground
before the excavation is started. The center line of the longest outer wall of the building is marked on the ground by
stretching a string between wooden or mild steel pegs. Each peg may be projected about 25 to 50 mm form the ground
level and 2m from the edge of the excavation. The boundary is marked with the lime powder. The center lines of other
walls are marked perpendicular to the longer walls. A right angle can be formed by forming 3, 4 and 5 triangles.
Similarly, outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross walls are set out.

Backfilling and Removal of Excess Soil

Estimate the excavated stuff to be re-utilized in filling, gardening, preparing roads, etc. As far as possible try to carry
excavation and filling simultaneously to avoid double handling. Select and stack the required material in such a place

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 FOUNDATIONS

that it should not obstruct other construction activities. The excess or unwanted material should immediately be
carried away and disposed of by employing any of the following methods.
 Labour  Tractor  Trucks

Quality Checks for Excavation

 Recording initial ground level and check size of bottom.
 Disposal of unsuitable material for filling.
 Stacking suitable material for backfilling to avoid double handling.
 Strata classification approval by competent authority.
 Dressing bottom and sides of pits as per drawing with respect to centerline.
 Necessary safety measures observed.
Quality Checks for Backfilling
 Recording initial ground level
 Sample is approved for back filling.
 Necessary marking/ reference points are established for final level of backfilling.
 Back filling is being carried out in layers (15cm to 20cm).
 Required watering, compaction is done.
 Required density is achieved.

EXCAVATION IN ALL KINDS OF SOILS (soft soils)

All excavation manually or by mechanical means shall include excavation and ‘getting out’ the excavated materials. In
case of excavation for trenches, basements, water tanks etc. ‘getting out’ shall include throwing the excavated
materials at a distance of at least one meter or half the depth of excavation, whichever is more, clear off the edge of
excavation. In all other cases ‘getting out’ shall include depositing/disposing the excavated materials as specified.
Excavation shall be done from top to bottom. Undermining or undercutting shall not be done.

In firm soils, the sides of the trenches shall be kept vertical up to a depth of 2 meters from the bottom. For more
depths, the excavation profiles shall be widened by allowing steps of 50 cm on either side after every 2 meters from the
bottom. The excavation can also be done so as to give slope of 1:4 (1 horizontal: 4 vertical). Where the soil is soft, loose
or slushy, the width of steps shall be suitably increased or side slopes or the soil shored up as per direction of Engineer-
in-Charge. The contractor shall be responsible for obtaining clear instructions in writing from engineer in charge
regarding the stepping, sloping or shoring to be down for excavation deeper than 2 meter.

The excavation shall be done true to levels, slope, shape and pattern indicated by the Engineering- in-charge. Only the
excavation shown on the drawings with additional allowances for centering and shuttering or as required by the
Engineer-in-Charge shall be measured and recorded for payment. In case of excavation for foundation in trenches or
over areas, the bed of excavation shall be to the correct level or slope and consolidated by watering and ramming.
The excavation shall be done manually or by mechanical means as directed by Engineer-incharge considering feasibility,
urgency of work, availability of labour /mechanical equipments and other factors involved. Contractor shall ensure
every safety measures for the workers. Neither any deduction will be made nor will any extra payment be made on this
account.

EXCAVATION IN ORDINARY/HARD ROCK

All excavation operations shall include excavation and ‘getting out’ the excavated matter. In case of excavation for
trenches, basements, water tanks etc. ‘getting out’ shall include throwing the excavated materials at a distance of at
least one meter or half the depth of excavation, whichever is more, clear off the edge or excavation. In all other cases
‘getting out’ shall include depositing the excavated materials as specified. The subsequent disposal of the excavated
material shall be either stated as a separate item or included with the item of excavation stating lead. During the
excavation, the natural drainage of the area shall be maintained. Excavation shall be done from top to bottom.
Undermining or under cutting shall not be done.

Where in hard rock blasting operations are considered necessary, the contractor shall obtain the approval of the
Engineer-in-Charge in writing for resorting to the blasting operations. Chiseling shall be done to obtain correct levels,
slopes, shape and pattern of excavation as per the drawings or as required by the Engineer-in-Charge and nothing extra

A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa Page 2 of CH 2

 FOUNDATIONS

shall be payable for chiseling. Where blasting operations are prohibited or are not practicable, excavation in hard rock
shall be done by chiseling.

In ordinary rock excavation shall be carried out by crowbars, pick axes or pneumatic drills and blasting operation shall
not be generally adopted. Where blasting operations are not prohibited & it is practicable to resort to blasting for
excavation in ordinary rock, contractor may do so with the permission of the Eng-in-Charge in writing but nothing extra
shall be paid for this blasting.

EXCAVATION IN WATER, MUD OR FOUL POSITION

All water that may accumulate in excavations during the progress of the work from springs, tidal or river seepage,
broken water mains or drains (not due to the negligence of the contractor), and seepage from subsoil aquifer shall be
bailed, pumped out or otherwise removed. The contractor shall take adequate measures for bailing and/or pumping
out water from excavations and/or pumping out water from excavations and construct diversion channels, bunds,
sumps, coffer dams etc. as may be required. Pumping shall be done directly from the foundation trenches or from a
sump outside the excavation in such a manner as to preclude the possibility of movement of water through any fresh
concrete or masonry and washing away parts of concrete or mortar. During laying of concrete or masonry and for a
period of at least 24 hours thereafter, pumping shall be done from a suitable sump separated from concrete or
masonry by effective means.

Capacity and number of pumps, location at which the pumps are to be installed, pumping hours etc. shall be decided
from time to time in consultation with the Engineer-in-Charge.

Pumping shall be done in such a way as not to cause damage to the work or adjoining property by subsidence etc.
Disposal of water shall not cause inconvenience or nuisance in the area or cause damage to the property and structure
nearby. To prevent slipping of sides, planking and strutting may also be done with the approval of the Engineer-in-
Charge.

Excavation of trenches for pipes, cables etc. and refilling works: This shall comprise excavation not exceeding 1.5
meter in width or 10 sq.m. in plan and to any depth trenches for pipes. Cables etc. and returning the excavated material
to fill the trenches after pipes, cables etc. are laid and their joints tested and passed and disposal of surplus excavated
material upto 50 m lead.

Width of Trench
Upto one meter depth the authorized width of trench for excavation shall be arrived at by adding 25 cm to the external
diameter of pipe (not socket/ collar) cable, conduit etc. Where a pipe is laid on concrete bed/ cushioning layer, the
authorized width shall be the external diameter of pipe (not socket/collar) plus 25 cm or the width of concrete bed/
cushioning layer whichever is more.

For depths exceeding one meter, an allowance of 5 cm per meter of depth for each side of the trench shall be added to
the authorized width (that is external diameter of pipe plus 25 cm) for excavation. This allowance shall apply to the
entire depth of the trench. In firm soils the sides of the trenches shall be kept vertical upto depth of 2 meters from the
bottom. For depths greater than 2 meters, the excavation profiles shall be widened by allowing steps of 50 cm on either
side after every two meters from bottom.

Where more than one pipe, cable, conduit etc, are laid, the diameter shall be reckoned as the horizontal distance from
outside to outside of the outermost pipes, cable, conduit etc.

Where the soil is soft, loose or slushy, width of trench shall be suitably increased or side sloped or the soil shored up as
directed by the Engineer-in-Charge. It shall be the responsibility of the contractor to take complete instructions in
writing from the Engineer-in-Charge regarding increase in the width of trench. Sloping or shoring to be done for
excavation in soft, loose or slushy soils.
Excavation: same as the above
Refilling works
Filling in trenches for pipes and drains shall be commenced as soon as the joints of pipe and drains have been tested
and passed. The backfilling materials shall be properly consolidated by watering and ramming, taking due care that no
damage is caused to the pipes.

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 FOUNDATIONS

Where the trenches are excavated in soil, the filling from the bottom of the trench to the level of the centreline of the
pipe shall be done by hand compaction with selected approved earth in layers, backfilling above the level of the centre
line of the pipe shall be done with selected earth by hand compaction or other approved means in layers.
In case of excavation of trenches in rock, the filling up to a level 30 cm. above the top of the pipe shall be done with fine
materials, such as earth, muram etc. The filling up of the level of the centreline of the pipe shall be done by hand
compaction in layers. Whereas the filling above the centreline of the pipe shall be done by hand compaction or
approved means in layer not exceeding 45 cm. The filling from a level 30-cm above the top of the pipe to the trench
shall be done by hand or other approved mechanical methods with broken rock filling mixed with fine material as
available to fill up the voids.
Filling of the trenches shall be carried simultaneously on both sides of the pipe to avoid unequal pressure on the pipe.

EARTH WORK BY MECHANICAL MEANS

Earth work by mechanical means involves careful planning keeping in view site conditions i.e. type of soil, nature of
excavation, distances through which excavated soil is to be transported and working space available for employing
these machines. The earth moving equipment should be accordingly selected. The earth moving equipment consists of
excavating and transporting equipment.

Excavators
The excavators generally used at site are as follows:
(i)Dipper-shovel (ii) Backhoe (in) Skimmer (iv) Dragline (v) Clamshell

Tractor-based Equipment
It is a self-propelled crawler or wheeled machine used to exert a push or pull force through mounted equipment. It is
designed either as attachments to normal tracked or wheeled tractors or as machines in which the earth moving
attachments and the tractor are designed as a single integrated unit. A tractor, which is hydraulically operated, can be
rigged as:
Loaders: (i) Tractor Shovel: (ii) Trench Digger (iii) Scraper (iv) Bulldozer (v) Angle-dozer

Some common problems with existing foundations:

 Unequal settlement of sub-soil  Lateral movement of sub soil
 Unequal settlement of masonry  Weathering of sub soil due to trees and shrubs
 Sub-soil moisture movement  Atmospheric action
 Lateral pressure on the walls

Foundation in black cotton soil

Black cotton soils have the property of high shrinkage on removal of water and high swelling on the removal of water
from the soil. So this soil is dangerous for the structures due to its characteristics of high shrinkage and swelling which
causes additional stresses on the foundation (sub-structures). In addition to this, these soils have very poor bearing
capacity.

Precautions to be followed while designing foundation on black cotton soil:

 Safe bearing capacity should be properly determined.
 The foundation should be taken at least 50cm lower than the depth of moisture movement. This depth should
be more than the depth of tension crack.
 Where this layer of this soil does not exceed 1-1.5m, the entire layer of soil should be removed.
 Where the depth of this soil is large, the foundation should be laid on sand by replacing this soil on the
periphery of the foundation.
 Strip, pier and pile foundation are the best option for this type of soil.

A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa Page 4 of CH 2

 Chapter 3 Mortars and Masonry works
3.1 Mortars (Types, properties, preparation process, Estimating mortar requirement)

Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is added to the dry mixture of
binding material and the inert material, binding material develops the property that binds not only the inert material
but also the surrounding stones and bricks. If the cement is the binding material, then the mortar is known as cement
mortar. Other mortars commonly used are lime mortar and mud mortar. The inert material used is sand.

 CEMENT MORTAR
For preparing mortar, first a mixture of cement and sand is made thoroughly mixing them in dry condition. Water is
gradually added and mixed with shovels. The cement to sand proportion recommended form various works is as
shown is Table below.
Table: Cement to sand proportions for various works
S.N. Works Cement:Sand
1 Masonry works 1:6 to 1:8
2 Plastering masonry 1:3 to 1:4
3 Plastering concrete 1:3
4 Pointing 1:2 to 1:3
Curing: Cement gains the strength gradually with hydration. Hence it is necessary to see that mortar is wet till
hydration has taken place. The process to ensure sufficient moisture for hydration after laying mortar/concrete is
called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying water. Curing normally starts 6–24 hours after mortar is used. It may be
noted that in the initial period water requirement is more for hydration and gradually it reduces. Curing is
recommended for 28 days.

Properties of Cement Mortar: The following are the important properties of cement mortar:
1. When water is added to the dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement starts and it binds sand particles
and also the surrounding surfaces of masonry and concrete.
2. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
3. Well proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4. Leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand and hence the plastered surface is porous.
5. The strength of mortar depends upon the proportion of cement and sand.

Uses of Cement Mortar

1. To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, etc. 5. for preparing building blocks.
2. To plaster slab and walls make them impervious. 6. As a filler material in Ferro cement works.
3. To give neat finishing to walls and concrete works. 7. To fill joints and cracks in walls.
4. for pointing masonry joints. 8. as a filler material in stone masonry.

 LIME MORTAR
Limes, wherein the hardening is due to the conversion of hydroxides to carbonates, were formerly widely used as the
sole cementitious material, but their slow setting and hardening are not compatible with modern requirements. Use of
limes is beneficial in that their slow setting promotes healing, the recementing of hairline cracks.

The limes are classified as fat lime, hydraulic lime and poor lime.
(i)Fat lime: It is composed of 95 percentage of calcium oxide. When water is added, it slakes vigorously and its volume
increases to 2 to 2.5 times. It is white in colour. Its properties are:
(a) Hardens slowly (d) White in colour
(b) Has high degree of plasticity (e) Slakes vigorously.
(c) Sets slowly in the presence of air

(ii) Hydraulic lime: It contains clay and ferrous oxide. Depending upon the percentage of clay present, the hydraulic
lime is divided into the following three types:
(a) Feebly hydraulic lime (5 to 10% clay content)
(b) Moderately hydraulic lime (11 to 20% clay content)
(c) Eminently hydraulic lime (21 to 30% clay content)
The properties of hydraulic lime are:
 Sets under water
 Colour is not perfectly white
 Forms a thin paste with water and do not dissolve in water.
 Its binding property improves if its fine powder is mixed with sand and kept in the form of heap for a week,
before using.

Page 1 of Ch 3
A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
  Fat lime and hydraulic lime are used for making lime mortar. If fat lime is used sand mixed is normally 2 to 3
times its volume. If hydraulic lime is used sand mixed is only 2 times the volume of lime. Lime is prepared by
pounding, if quantity required is small or by grinding, if the required quantity is more.

Pounding: For pounding, pits are formed in hard grinds. The size of pit is usually 1.80 m long, 0.4 m wide and 0.5 m
deep. It is provided with lining of bricks or stones. Lime and sand dry mixed with required proportion is placed in the
pit. Small quantity of water is added at intervals. In each interval the mix is pounded with wooden pounders and
mortar is turned up and down. The process is continued till uniform colour and desired consistency is achieved.

Grinding: This is the better way of getting good mix. The grinding may be carried out in bullock driven grinding mill
or in power driven grinding mill.

Lime mortar is also having good grinding property. Fat lime mortar is used for plastering while hydraulic lime mortar
is used for masonry construction. This mortar was considered cheap in olden days and was commonly used in small
towns. However the cumbersome process of preparation and ease in availability of cement in market has almost
replaced the use of lime mortar.

 MUD MORTAR
Clay lumps are collected and are wetted with water and allowed to mature for 1 or 2 days. It is kneaded well until it
attains required consistency. Sometimes, fibrous material like gobber is added in the mix.
It prevents cracks in the plaster. If plaster is to be used for outer walls, it is sprayed or painted with bitumen.
It is cheap mortar. Its durability is less. It is normally used for the construction of temporary sheds and cheap houses
in rural areas.

 SPECIAL MORTAR
1. Cement Clay Mortar: Quality of clay mortar can be improved by adding cement to the mix. Normal proportion of
clay to cement is 1:1. It maintains the economy to some extent and there is sufficient improvement in the durability of
mud-mortar.

2. Gauged Mortar: It is the mortar obtained by adding cement to lime mortar. The usual proportion of cement, lime
and sand are 1:1:6, 1:2:9 and 1:3:12. This mortar is to be used within half an hour after mixing cement. Obviously, it is
cheaper than cement mortar and its quality is between that of cement mortar and lime mortar.

3. Decorative Mortar: These mortars are obtained by using coloured cement. They are used to give pleasant
appearance to outer walls.

3.2 Brick masonry (types, specifications)

Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar may be used but for
all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used. The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry
are:
1. Stretcher bond 2. Header bond 3. English bond 4. Flemish bond.

1. Stretcher Bond: A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm
× 90 mm × 90 mm, 190 mm × 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks are arranged in
stretcher courses as shown in Fig. 8.4. However care should be taken to break vertical joints. This type of construction
is useful for the construction half brick thick partition wall.
2. Header Bond: A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 90 mm
× 90 mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses as shown in Fig. below
This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.

Header bond

Page 2 of Ch 3
A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
 Stretcher bond

3. English Bond: In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest
bond. Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of vertical joints a brick is
cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen
closer. Figure below shows typical one brick and one and half brick thick wall with English bond.

English bond
4. Flemish Bond: In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher. Alternate courses start
with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with header. Every
header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.

Flemish bonds may be further

classified as
(a) Double Flemish Bond
(b) Single Flemish Bond.

In case of double flemish bond, both

faces of the wall have flemish look,
i.e. each course consist of alternate
header and stretcher, whereas
single flemish bond outer faces of
walls have flemish look whereas
inner faces have look of English
bond .
Construction of Flemish bond
needs greater skill. It gives more
pleasing appearance. But it is not
as strong as English bond. If only
pointing is to be used for finished
wall, Flemish bond may be used to
get good aesthetic view. If
plastering is going to be used, it is
better to use English bond.

Page 3 of Ch 3
A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Masonry over Stone Masonry
Advantages:
1. Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it does not need skilled labour for the construction.
2. Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
3. Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their weight is less. Stones are
to be brought from quarries which are located only at few places.
4. It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even mud mortar can be used.
5. Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
6. It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
7. Dead load of brick masonry is less.
8. In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced considerably.
9. Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to stone masonry.
Disadvantages:
1. Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry.
2. Durability of brick masonry is less.
3. Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing. Stone masonry doesn’t need them and
hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
4. Brick masonry absorbs water and there is possibility of dampness. There is no such problem in stone masonry.
5. More architectural effects can be given in stone masonry compared to that in brick masonry.
6. Stone masonry gives massive appearance and hence monumental buildings are built in stone masonry.

Specifications of brick masonry:

Bricks: The bricks shall be of a standard rectangular shape, burnt red, hand-formed or machine-made, and with a
crushing strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2. The higher the density and the strength, the better they will be. The
standard brick size of 240 x 115 x 57 mm with 10 mm thick horizontal and vertical mortar joints is preferable.
Tolerances of -10 mm on length, -5 mm on width and ±3mm on thickness shall be acceptable for the purpose of walls
of the thickness specified below.

Wall Thickness: A minimum thickness of one half-brick (115 mm) and a maximum thickness of one brick (240 mm)
conforming to NS 1:2035 shall be used for the walls constructed as non-load bearing walls in the buildings.

Mortar: Cement-sand mixes of 1:6 and 1:4 shall be adopted for one-brick and half-brick thick walls, respectively. The
addition of small quantities of freshly hydrated lime to the mortar in a lime-cement ratio of ¼ :1 to ½ :1 will increase
its plasticity greatly without reducing its strength.

Bricks shall be laid in English Bond unless otherwise specified. In half brick wall, bricks shall be laid in stretcher bond.
Half or cut bricks shall not be used except as closer where necessary to complete the bond. Closers in such cases, shall
be cut to the required size and used near the ends of the wall. Header bond shall be used in foundation footings unless
thickness of walls (width of footing) makes the use of headers impracticable. Where thickness of footing is uniform for
a number of courses, the top course of footing shall be headers.

The surface for bricks work shall be cleaned with a wire brush and surface wetted. Bricks shall be laid on a full bed of
mortar, when lying, each brick shall, be properly bedded and set in position by gently pressing with the handle of a
trowel. It’s inside face shall be buttered with mortar before the next brick is laid and pressed against it. Joints shall be
fully filled and packed with mortar.

The walls shall be taken up truly in plumb or true to the required batter where specified. All courses shall be laid truly
horizontal and all vertical joints shall be truly vertical. Vertical joints in the alternate course shall come directly one
over the other. Quoin, Jambs and other angles shall be properly plumbed as the work proceeds. Care shall be taken to
keep the perpends properly aligned within following maximum permissible tolerances:
(i) Deviation in verticality in total height of any wall of building more than one storey in height shall not exceed 12.5
mm.
(ii) Relative displacement between loads bearing wall in adjacent storey intended to be vertical alignments shall not
exceed 6 mm.
(iii) Deviation from position shown on plan of any brick work shall not exceed 12.5 mm.
(iv) Deviation from vertical within a storey shall not exceed 6 mm per 3 m height.

3.3 Stone masonry (random rubble, course rubble, ashlar)

Masonry means construction of buildings using building blocks like stone, bricks, concrete blocks etc. Masonry is used
for the construction of foundation, plinth, walls and columns. Mortar is the binding material for the building blocks. In

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A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
 this article different types of stone masonry used are explained and points to be observed while supervising stone
masonry works are listed.

Types of Stone Masonry

1. Rubble Masonry: In this type of constructions stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. To remove sharp
shapes they may be hammered. The rubble masonry may be coursed or uncoursed . In uncoursed rubble masonry the
wall is brought to level at every 300 mm to 500 mm. The mortar consumed in these constructions is more. Course
rubble masonry is used for the construction of public and residential buildings. Uncoursed rubble masonry is used for
the construction of foundations, compound walls, garages, labour quarters etc. A skilled mason may arrange the facing
stones in polygonal shapes to improve the aesthetic of the wall.

2. Ashlar Masonry: In this type of masonry stones are dressed to get suitable shapes and sizes. The height of the
stones varies from 250 mm to 300 mm. The length should not exceed three times the height. The dressing of the stone
need not be very accurate on all sides. Usually good dressing is made on facing side. In such construction mortar
consumption is less compared to rubble masonry. There are different types of ashlar masonry depending upon the
type of dressing such as Ashlar fine dressed, Ashlar rough dressed, Ashlar rock or quarry faced, Ashlar facing, Ashlar
chamfered etc. Figure 8.3 show some of such masonry.

3.4 Walls: retaining walls, cavity walls, parapet walls

Retaining walls: A retaining wall is defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to provide lateral support for
soil or rock. In some cases, such as basement walls and certain types of bridge abutments, it may also support vertical
loads. The more common types of retaining walls include gravity walls, cantilevered walls, counterfort walls, and
crib walls. Ref: foundation engineering for more detail on retaining walls.

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 Cavity wall:
These consist of an outer brick or block leaf or skin
separated from an inner brick or block leaf or skin by
an air space called a cavity. These walls have better
thermal insulation and weather resistance properties
than a comparable solid brick or block wall and
therefore are in general use for the enclosing walls of
domestic buildings. The size of cavity varies from 4 to
10 cm. the inner and outer skins should not be less than
10cm each (half brick)

Advantages of cavity walls:

Cavity walls have following advantages over other
walls:
 There is no direct contact between the inner and
outer leaves of the wall. Hence the external moisture
cannot travel inside the building.
 The cavity between the two leaves is full of air
which is bad conductor of heat. Hence transmission of
heat from external face to inside the room is very much
reduced.
 Cavity walls also offer good insulation against
sound.
 Efflorescence is reduced.
 They are cheaper and economical.
 Loads on foundations are reduced because of lesser
solid thickness.

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 Page 7 of Ch 3
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 Parapet wall is a low wall projecting above the level of a roof, bridge or balcony forming a guard or barrier at the
edge. Parapets are exposed to the elements on three faces namely front, rear and top and will therefore need careful
design and construction if they are to be durable and reliable.

Parapet walls require careful detailing. At the top of the wall it is good practice to provide a weathered coping. The
coping can be once or twice weathered - in other words it can slope in one direction or in both directions. A once
weathered coping normally directs the water onto the roof to avoid water running down the external face. In some
designs brick copings are used although careful detailing may be required if the copings don't have drips (sometimes
called throatings).
A good coping stone will overhang the wall either side and will incorporate small drips to prevent water running back
under the coping. A full-width DPC should be bedded in mortar to prevent water penetrating the coping through the
coping joints. The DPC should be laid on a rigid support to prevent it sagging into the cavity and allowing water to
pond where it may freeze and expand in cold weather. Any sagging may also form a trough and allow water to
penetrate the cavity where the DPC is lapped.

Because parapet walls are exposed on both sides a cavity tray is required to prevent water running down the cavity
face of the inner leaf and penetrating the building.

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 CHAPTER 7 Flooring
7.1 Flooring and its types

Floor are the horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the building into different level for the purpose of
creating more accommodation within a restricted space one above the other and provide support for the occupants,
furniture, equipment etc. of a building. Floor system is the building’s primary horizontal planes which support both live
and dead loads. Structurally the floor system must transfer these loads laterally to either beams or columns or to the
bearing walls while providing at the same time lateral support for adjacent walls.
 A floor consists of the following two components :
A Sub-floor (or Base Course, or Floor Base)
The purpose of this component is to impart strength and stability to support floor covering and all other superimposed
loads. For ground floor, its purpose is also to prevent settlement and to provide damp resistance and thermal insulation.
Floor Covering (or Paving, or Flooring)
This is the covering over the sub-floor and is meant to provide a hard, clean, smooth, impervious, durable and attractive
surface to the floor.

PURPOSE OF FLOORING
 Provide level surface with sufficient strength  Provide adequate fire resistance
 Supporting the occupants of building  Provide sound insulation
 Exclude passage of water and water vapor  Provide thermal insulation
 Provide resistance to heat loss through the
floor

Ground Floor
Apart from giving good finished surface, these floors should have good damp resistance. The ground surface is rammed
well and a layer of red earth or sand is placed which is compacted. A layer of broken bricks, stones etc. is provided up to
150 mm below floor finish level and rammed. While ramming the surface is kept moist to get good compaction. Then 1:
4: 8 concrete of 100 to 150 mm thickness is provided as base course. Over this bed floor finish is laid.

The ground floors that rest directly on the ground are known as solid floors while the floors supported above the
ground level are called suspended floors. Suspended floors are generally made of timber.

Basement floor
A floor when provided for the accommodation below the natural ground level is termed as basement floor. A basement
floor is similar to ground floor except its location.

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A Lecture note By Kishor Thapa
Upper Floors
An upper floor is basically a principal structural element, and the general structural design of a building will greatly
influence the choice of the type of floor. Upper floors are supported either on the walls or on beams. In olden days upper
floors were made of timber floors or steel joist and stone slabs.
Nowadays R.C.C. floors are commonly used. It may consist of only slab, if span is less or it may be beam and slab flooring.
In halls of hotels and assembly, many provide flat slabs i.e. slabs directly supported over columns. The columns are
provided with widened portion called column head.
They give elegant look to halls, particularly when the
head room is high. R.C.C. floors need proper thickness
and reinforcements. They are arrived at by structural
design engineers. Figure below shows typical R.C.C.
slabs.
In R.C.C., concrete is used to resist compression and
steel to resist tension. Hence the concrete in tension
zone do not contribute in resisting the load. It just
keeps the steel at required position.
In ribbed or hollow tiled flooring, the concrete in
tension portion is replaced by hollow tiles.

In precast concrete floor panels may be used which

helps in avoiding form works, storing of sand, coarse

aggregates etc. at the site and also curing. Factories
manufacture these units which are to be placed over
supports in the structure.

7.2 Special types of floor finishing

1. Mud and moorum 5. Terrazo 9. Timber

2. Brick 6. Mosaic 10. Rubber
3. Flag stone 7. Marble 11. P.V.C.
4. Cement concrete 8. Tiles

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1. Mud and Moorum Flooring: These floorings are used in low cost housing, especially in villages. Over the hard layer
of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided. In order to prevent formation of cracks after drying, chopped straw in
small quantity is mixed with the moist earth before ramming. The floor needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a
weak. They are cheap, hard, fairly impervious, easy in construction and easy in maintenance. They remain warm in
winter and cold in summer.

2. Brick Flooring: This is also a cheap floor construction. It is commonly used in warehouse and factories. Bricks are
laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should be used for the construction. Brick layer is provided on sand bed or
on lean concrete (1: 8: 16) bed. In both cases joints are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar. It is durable,
hard, cheaper than cement concrete, non slippery and easily repairable. But it is absorbent.

3. Flag Stone Flooring: Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm thick in the form of slabs of 300 mm × 300
mm or 450 mm × 450 mm or in the form of rectangles of size 450 mm × 600 mm are used as floor finishes. The stone
slabs are laid on 20 to 25 mm thick mortar spread over concrete bed. The joints are to be finished with rich mortar. It is
hard, durable, resistant to wear and tear, easy in construction but its usage is not comfortable. Its uses are limited to
workshops, garages and store houses etc.

4. Cement Concrete Floors: It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly used in residential,
commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two courses-base course and wearing coat. Base course is laid over
well compacted soil. Its thickness is usually 75 mm to 100 mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1 : 4 : 8) or lime
concrete containing 40% of 1 : 2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40 mm size. After base course is hardened
wearing coat of 40 mm is laid. It consists of panels of 1 m × 1 m, 2 m × 2 m or 1 m × 2 m. Alternate panels are laid with 1:
2: 4 concrete using wooden, glass or asbestos strip separators of 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm thickness. To get good bond
between base coarse and wearing coat cement slurry wash is given before laying wearing coat panels. After 3–4 days of
laying of one set of panel, another alternate panels are laid. Top of these panels are finished by tamping the surface with
wooden floats and tapping with trowels, till cement slurry appears on top. It needs curing for 7 to 14 days. To get good
appearance many times red-oxide finishing coat is provided. It is non-absorbent and thus very useful for water stores,
durable, smooth, pleasing in appearance, economical and possesses good wearing properties.

5. Terrazo Flooring: Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get pleasing appearance. Terrazo finish
consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips embedded in cement mortar. Marble chips are mixed in cement in the
proportion 1: 1.25 to 1: 2 and about 6 mm terrazo topping is laid. The top is tamped and rolled. Additional marble chips
are spread during tamping to get proper distribution of marble chips on the surface. After drying it for 12 to 20 hours, it
is cured for 2–3 days.
Then grinding is made in the following three steps:
Ist grinding—Using coarse grade (No. 60) carborundum stones.
IInd grinding—Using medium grade (No. 120) carborundum stones.
IIIrd grinding—Using fine grade (No. 320) carborundum stones.
Plenty of water is used during grinding. After each grinding, cement grout of cream-like consistency is applied and cured
for 6–7 days. After final grinding and curing the floor is washed with plenty of water and then with dilute oxalic acid
solution. Then floor is finished with polishing using machines and wax polish.

6. Mosaic Flooring: It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or of marble arranged in
different patterns set in lime-surkhi or cement mortar. The base course is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm
mortar layer is provided. On this mortar layer broken pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get different attractive
patterns. After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed with carborundum stone to get smooth and polished surface.

7. Marble Flooring: Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm thickness. They are laid on floors similar to
other tiles. With power driven machine surface is polished to get even and shining surface. This type of flooring is
widely used in hospitals and temples.

8. Tiled Flooring: This is an alternative to terrazo flooring, used commonly used in residential, office and commercial
buildings. Tiles of clay, cement or terrazo of standard sizes are manufactured in factories under controlled conditions.
On the concrete base, 25 mm to 30 mm thick mortar is laid and these tiles are placed and pressed with trowel or
wooden mallet. Before placing tiles care is taken to see that, neat cement slurry is applied to bottom side and sides of
tiles to get good bond. Next day joints are cleaned of loose mortar and raked up to 5 mm depth. Then that is filled with
coloured cement slurry to get uniform colour on the top surface. After curing for 7 days grinding and polishing is made
as in the case of terrazo flooring.

9. Timber Flooring: Timber flooring is used in dancing halls and in auditoriums. Timber plates may be directly placed
on concrete bed or may be provided over timber frame work. In latter case it is necessary to provide proper ventilation
below the floor. This flooring is costly.

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A Lecture note By Kishor Thapa
10. Rubber Flooring: Tiles or sheets of rubber with fillers such as cotton fibres, asbestos fibre or granulated cork are
manufactured in variety of patterns and colours. These sheets or tiles may be fixed to concrete or timber floors. These
floors are attractive and noise proof. However they are costly.

11. P.V.C. Flooring: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (PVC) is a plastic which is available in different colour and shade. Nowadays
tiles of this material are used widely. Adhesives are applied on concrete base as well as on bottom of PVC tiles. Then the
tile is pressed gently with 5 kg wooden roller till the oozing of adhesive is seen. The oozed out adhesive is wiped and the
floor is washed with warm soap water. The floor finish is smooth, attractive and can be easily cleaned. However it is
slippery and costly.

7.3 Floor and wall ties

The floor and wall connection should be such that when overloaded it should fail in a ductile manner. There are two
general method of connection for a tensile connection between walls and floors. If such connection are going to fail at
all, it is desirable that the failure be in the tie element and be a ductile failure.

In the first method reinforced bars are precast in the wall elements at regular spacing adjacent the intended final
position of a floor slab. Each bar is bent out at right angles to the wall and one end is tied to the floor slab.

The second method incorporates a screw thread elements attached reinforced rod within the wall elements. A thread
bar is attached to the screw threaded element and tied to the floor slab. This overcomes the difficulty of the first method
but is more expensive method of connection. Also within the presence of screw thread if failure occurs, one cannot
readily get ductile failure of the metal element.

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A Lecture note By Kishor Thapa
 CHAPTER 4 ROOFS
4.1 Roofs & their types

Roof may be defined as a covering provided over the top of a building with a view to keep out of rain, snow, sun
and wind and to protect the building from the adverse effects of these elements. A roof basically consists of roof
covering materials supported on structural elements installed on the building top. The structural elements may
be trusses, flat slab, shell, dome or space frame whereas the roof covering materials may be thatch, wooden
single, tiles, slates, A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets etc.

Functions of any roof:

 Prevent excessive heat loss in winter.  For fire safety.
 Keep the interior of the building cool in summer.  Provide resistance to the passage of sound.
 To keep out rain, wind, snow and dust.  Safety to occupants.
 For strength and stability of building.  Aesthetic beauty.
 For durability and free from maintenance.

Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:
1. Flat roofs 2. Pitched roofs 3. Shells and folded plates

Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate. Pitched roofs are preferred wherever
rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large column free areas required for auditoriums,
factories etc.

1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to drain out the rain
water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of these roofs are treated with
water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent
of reliable water proofing techniques such roofs are constructed even in areas with heavy rain fall.

The advantages of flat roofs are:

(a) The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
(b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
(c) They can suit to any shape of the building.
(d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
(e) They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.

The disadvantages of flat roofs are:

(a) They cannot cover large column free areas.
(b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once leakage problem starts, it
needs costly treatments.
(c) The dead weight of flat roofs is more.
(d) In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.
(e) The initial cost of construction is more.
(f) Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.

Types of Flat Roofs: All the types listed for upper floors can be used as flat roofs.

2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slope of roof shall be
more than 10°. They may have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also. The sloped roofs are known as pitched roofs.
The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses.
In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures.

3. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs: Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small
compared to the other dimensions. In these roofs lot of load is transferred by membrane compression instead of
by bending as in the case of conventional slab and beam constructions. Caves are having natural shell roofs. An
examination of places of worships built in India, Europe and Islamic nations show that shell structures were in
usage for the last 800 to 1000 years. However the shells of middle ages were massive masonry structures but
nowadays thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to cover large column free areas.

Page 1 of Ch-4
A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
4.1 Timber roofs (Single/double/ multiple timber roofs)
(a) Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are used.
(i) Lean to roofs (iii) Coupled-close roof
(ii) Coupled roofs (iv)Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main members taking load of the roof. Battens
run over the rafters to support tiles. Figure below shows various types of single roofs.

(b) Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increase and single roof becomes uneconomical.
For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred. The intermediate support is given to rafters by
purlins supported over collar beams. Figure below shows a typical double or purlin roof.

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(c) Trussed Roof: If span is more, frame works of slender members are used to support sloping roofs. These
frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get wall free longer halls. Purlins
are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be
used but for larger spans steel trusses are a must. In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to
connect various members at a joint. Bolts and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made using
gusset plates and by providing bolts or rivets or welding.
Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses are supported on walls or on
column.

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Steel trusses and their components (Angle & tubular truss)

They are used for span more than 10m.They are commonly used these days since they are more
economical, easy to construct or fabricate , fire proof , more rigid and permanent. It consists of rolled
steel sections welded and bolted in gusset plates. The sections may be tube (pipe) or angles.

In angular steel roof trusses, angle sections and plates are commonly used for fabrication though channel sections
and T-sections can be also used. The roof truss is so designed that the members carry only direct stresses, (i.e.,
either compression or tension) and no bending stress are induced. The principal rafters as well as the main tie are
generally made of two angle sections placed side by side, while the struts and ties are generally made of single
angle sections. The members are jointed together, using a gusset plate, either through rivets or by welding.

Page 4 of Ch-4
A lecture note compiled by: Er. Kishor Thapa
Tubular Steel roof trusses are used for
large span constructions such as
factories, industry work sheds, shopping
malls, huge exhibition centers,
multiplexes etc. They are generally used
for spans as large as 25-30m. Tubular
trusses are quite popular since they are
light weight and economical. Since
external loads are transferred to a truss
at the joints, various members of a truss
are subject only to direct stresses, either
tensile or compressive.
However, purlins are designed as
flexural members.

Roof coverings
Various types of covering materials are available for pitched roofs and their selection depends upon the climatic
conditions, fabrication facility, availability of materials and affordability of the owner. Commonly used pitched
roof covering materials are:
(a) Thatch (d) Slates
(b) Shingle (e) Asbestos cement (A.C.) sheets
(c) Tiles ( f ) Galvanised iron (G.I.) sheets

a) Thatch Covering: These coverings are provided for small spans, mainly for residential buildings in villages.
Thatch is a roof covering of straw, reeds or similar materials. The thatch is well-soaked in water or fire resisting
solution and packed bundles are laid with their butt ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm
to 300 mm. They are tied with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The supporting structure consists of
round bamboo rafters spaced at 200 mm to 300 mm over which split bamboos laid at right angles at close
spacing. It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while straw thatch may last for 20–25 years.
The advantage of thatch roof is they are cheap and do not need skilled workers to build them.
The disadvantages are they are very poor fire resistant and harbour rats and other insects.

(b) Shingles: Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin pieces of wood. Their size varies from 300
mm to 400 mm and length from 60 mm to 250 mm. Their thickness varies from 10 mm at one end to 3 mm at the
other end. They are nailed to supporting structures. They are commonly used in hilly areas for low cost housing.
They have very poor fire and termite resistance.

(c) Tiles: Various clay tiles are manufactured in different localities. They serve as good covering materials. Tiles
are supported over battens which are in turn supported by rafters/trusses etc. Allahabad tiles, Mangalore tiles
are excellent inter-locking tiles. They give good appearance also.

(d) Slates: A slate is a sedimentary rock. Its colour is gray. It can be easily split into thin sheets. Slates of size 450
mm to 600 mm wide, 300 mm long and 4 to 8 mm thick are used as covering materials of pitched roofs in the
areas where slate quarries are nearby. A good slate is hard, tough, and durable. They are having rough texture
and they give ringing bell like sound when struck. They do not absorb water.

(e) A.C. Sheets: Asbestos cement is a material which consists of 15 per cent of asbestos fibres evenly distributed
and pressed with cement. They are manufactured in sufficiently large size. The width of a A.C. sheet varies from
1.0 to 1.2 m and length from 1.75 to 3.0 m. To get sufficient strength with thin sections they are manufactured
with corrugation or with traffords . They are fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts. The roofing is quite
economical, waterproof. However, not very good thermal resistant. They are commonly used as covering
materials in ware houses, go downs or for larger halls. In auditorium etc., if these sheets are used, false ceilings
are provided to get good thermal resistance.

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( f ) G.I. Sheets: Galvanised iron corrugated sheets are manufactured in the sizes 1.0 to 1.2 m wide and 1.65 m
length. Galvanisation of iron makes them rust proof. They are fixed to steel purlins using J-bolts and washers.
They are durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no maintenance. They are commonly used as covering
materials for ware houses, go down, sheds etc. Table 8.6 gives comparison between GI and AC sheets for roof
covering.

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 CHAPTER-6 Doors and windows
6.1 Doors: frames, shutters and their fixing details
The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the building and to deny the access whenever
necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of the door should be of such dimension as will
facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to use the doors.
In case of the residential buildings, the size of the door should not be less than 0.9 m × 2.0 m. larger doors may be
provided at main entrance to the building to enhance the aesthetic view. Minimum sized doors are used for bath rooms
and water closets. The size recommended is 0.75 m × 1.9 m. As a thumb rule height of door should be 1 m more than its
width.

Types of Doors
Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis of arrangement of
shutters, method of constructions, principles of working operations and materials used.
Commonly used doors are briefly explained below:

1. Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20
mm thick wooden boards. Their length is that of door opening. The battens are
connected by horizontal planks, known as ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30
mm thick. Usually three ledges are used one at
top, one at bottom and the third one at mid-
height. This is the simplest form of door and
the cheapest also. Battens are secured by
tongued and grooved joint.

2. Battened, Ledged and

Braced Doors: If doors are
wide apart from using battens
and ledges diagonal members,
known as braces, are provided
to strengthen the door. Figure
below shows a typical
battened, ledged and braced
door.
Sometimes above two types of
shutters are provided within
wooden frame work and in
those cases they may be called
as battened, ledges and framed
doors.

Page 1 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
3. Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles and horizontal members
called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses
etc. The panels may be flat or of raised type to get good appearance. These are very commonly used doors. They may be
of single shutter or of double shutter. If glass panels are used they may be called as glazed doors.

4. Flush Doors: The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards.
They are of uniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive
veneer finishes. The time consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These
doors are suitable for interior portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are
commonly used in residential and office buildings. Figure 8.24 shows typical flush
door.

5. Louvered Doors: Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such doors

can be used. Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame of
shutter such that they prevent vision but permit free passage of air. The doors may be
fully or partially louvered. Such doors are commonly used for public bathrooms and
latrines. [Fig.8.25]

6. Revolving Doors: It consists of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are attached. The central
pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a bush bearing at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully
made-up of glass. A circular space of entrance is provided within which shutters rotate. As shutters rotate they give
entrance on one side and exit on other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks, hotels,
theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very much required in entrance to air conditioned public
buildings. Figure 8.26 shows a typical revolving door.

7. Swing Doors: Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of double action springs. Hence shutter can
move both inward and outward. They may be single shuttered or double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices

Page 2 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
and banks. Since these doors can open on both sides it is desirable to provide glass panels or peep holes to enable user
to see the persons from other side. [Fig. 8.27]

8. Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose runners and guide rails are provided.
Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three. Such doors are used in banks, offices etc. The arrangement of such
shutters in plan is shown in Fig. 8.28

9. Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed with 12 to 20 mm gap.
Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are hinged to them as shown in Fig. 8.29. The rollers are provided at
their top as well as at bottom so that shutter can be pulled or pushed sideways with slight force. There may be single or
double shutters. Usually these doors are used for additional
safety. They are commonly used for front doors, bank locker
rooms, school and college entrance doors.

10. Rolling Shutters: Figure show a typical rolling shutter

door. It consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter made of thin
steel plates. The width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m.
The shutter moves on steel guides provided on sides and can
easily roll up. For this counterbalancing is made with helical
springs on the drum. The shutter can be easily pulled down.
This type of doors is commonly used as additional doors to
shops, offices, banks, factory, and buildings from the point of
safety.

6.2 Windows & ventilators: types and their fixing details

A window is an opening formed in a wall or roof to admit daylight through some transparent of translucent material
fixed in the window opening. As the window is the part of a wall or roof envelope to the building, it should serve to
exclude wing and rain, and act as a barrier to excessive transfer of heat, sound and spread of fire in much the same way
that the surrounding wall of roof does.
Windows are located at a height of 0.75 m to 0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area
should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. It is preferable to have at least two openings in two different walls. Another
thumb rule used to determine the size of the window opening is for every 30 m³ inside volume there should be at least 1

Page 3 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
m2 window opening. For adequate natural light, the total area of glass panes in windows should be at least 8% of the
floor area.

Design of windows:
1. The size and number of windows should be sufficient to provide adequate light and ventilation in the room.
2. Windows should be located opposite to each other wherever possible. Windows provided on Northern side permit
maximum day light without glare.
3. The shutter of windows in external walls should open outside.
4. All external windows, specially the one’s on ground floor, should be provided with mild steel round or square bars or
steel grills to safe guard against theft.
5. Windows in external wall should be provided with chajja projections to prevent the entry of the rain water in the
room.

Types of windows:
 Based on materials use
1. Timber 3. Aluminum 5. Others
2. Steel 4. PVC windows
 Based on uses and Shutter
1. Casement/ordinary window 6. Double hung window 11. Lantern light window
2. Glazed/sash window 7. Gable window 12. Sky light window
3. Louvered window. 8. Dormer window 13. Sliding window
4. Pivoted window 9. Bay window 14. Venetian shutter
5. Corner window 10. Clarestorey window 15. Ankhi-Jhyal
16. Deshemaru-jhya etc.

Page 4 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
Ventilators:
Ventilation may be defined s supply of fresh air into an enclosed space or the removal of inside air from the enclosed
space. In other words, ventilation is the removal of all vitiated air from a building and its replacement with fresh air.
Ventilation may be achieved either by natural or by artificial mean.

Ventilators are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the window, generally about 30 to 50 cm below roof level
or ceiling level. The ventilator has a frame and a shutter, generally glazed, which can be opened or closed.
Ventilators may also be provided in continuation of a window or a door, at its top. Such a ventilator is also known as a
fan light.

Page 5 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
Points to be considered for door, window and ventilation:
Frames shall have smooth, well-plane (wrought) surfaces except the surfaces touching the walls, lintels, sill etc., which
may be left clean sawn.
Rebates, rounding or moulding shall be done before the members are jointed into frames. The depth of the rebate for
housing the shutters shall be 15 mm, and the width of the rebates shall be equal to the thickness of the shutters.
In frames a tolerance of ± 2 mm shall be permitted in the specified finished dimensions of timber sections.

Fixing of Frames:
(a) Before fixing a position the fames shall be got approved by the Engineer-in-Charge.
(b) The surface of the frames abutting masonry or concrete and the portions of the frames embedded in floors shall be
given a coating of coal tar.
(c) Frames shall be fixed to the abutting masonry or concrete with holdfasts or metallic fasteners as specified. After
fixing the jamb posts of the frames shall be plugged suitably and finished neat.
(d) Vertical members of the door frames shall be embedded in the floor for the full thickness of the floor finish and shall
be suitably strutted and wedged in order to prevent warping during construction.
(e) A minimum of three hold fasts shall be fixed on each side of door and window frames one at centre point and other
two at 30 cm from the top and bottom of the frames.
(f) In case of window and ventilator frames of less than 1 m in height two hold fasts shall be fixed on each side at quarter
point of the frames. Hold fasts and metallic fasteners shall be measured and paid for separately.

Page 6 of Ch 6
A Lecture note on Building Technology By Kishor Thapa
Ventilation and Thermal Insulation
Ventilation:
• It is a process of exchange of air between the inside and the outside of the
building
• There are 2 types of ventilation
• (1) Natural Ventilation (2) artificial
• If air exchange takes place by natural conditions such as door, windows
and other openings in building it is called natural ventilation. If it takes
place by some mechanical means such as fan, AC etc. then it is called
Artificial ventilation

Objective of ventilation:
a) remove stale air, toxic gases and supply fresh air
b) cool animal and human body and provide comfort
c) Underlying Principle
d) In an ill-ventilated occupied building stagnant air becomes warmer
and moist which leads to the concentration of dust, toxic gases and
pathogenic organisms that causes different diseases to animals.
: There is also problem of condensation in the absence of ventilation.
Hence ventilation is essential.
e) 2 forces are acting in in natural ventilation. These 2 forces may be
acting simultaneously or singly depending on the atmospheric
conditions:
(1) Thermal force (2) pressure force
• Thermal Force: warm and stale air inside the building is lighter than the
fresh air. When fresh air enters, warm /stale air moves up and exits through
properly designed openings. The circulation of air between inside and outside
continues due to the thermal force which is called “stack effect”
• Pressure Force:
• A house placed on air stream slows down and piles up air in the windward
side developing a high pressure zone
• The leeward side experiences low pressure
• The pressure difference between the windward and leeward side allows air
circulation in the building via openings

22
Thermal Insulation: It a process of reducing the flow of heat from and into the
building by the application of proper materials of low thermal conductivity
Functions of Thermal Insulation:
• Reduce heat loss from the building in winter and cut heat flow into it in
summer
• Saves fuel cost
• Controls condensation
• Keeps inner part of the building less affected from the sudden fluctuation in
weather

Types and uses of thermal insulation:

• Insulation of roof by False Ceiling
• Insulation of walls by cavity walls
• Reflective insulation by white paint

23
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modified atmospheric sto... ► Lesson- 33 Natural ventilation/Aeration, Mechanica...

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Lesson- 33 Natural ventilation/Aeration, Mechanical Ventilation/Aeration and Artificial
Home Drying of Grains
Site pages
Current course
Ventilation or Aeration is the process of moving the air through stored grain mass at
DSE
considerably lower air flow rates to maintain the quality. Ventilation provides three
Participants
major benefits the stored gain mass:
General
Module 1. Moisture 1. It cools the grain and slows down insect activity.
content and its
determination. 2. By cooling the grain, aeration prolongs the effectiveness of pesticides.
Module 2. EMC
Module 3. Drying 3. It can provide an appreciable drying function.
Theory and
Mechanism of There are mainly two types of ventilation systems, namely a) Natural ventilation and
drying b) Mechanical ventilation
Module 4. Air
pressure within the
grain bed, Shred...
Module 6. Study of 33.1 Natural Ventilation
different types of
dryers- perf... Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air through an indoor
Module 5. Different space without using mechanical systems and is shown in fig. 33.1. It refers to the flow
methods of drying
including pu...
of external air to an indoor space as a result of pressure or temperature differences.
Module 7. Study of
There are two types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven
drying and ventilation and buoyancy-driven ventilation. While wind is the main mechanism of
dehydration of wind driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven ventilation occurs as a result of the
agric...
directional buoyancy force that results from temperature differences between the
Module 8. Types
and causes of interior and exterior
spoilage in storage.
Module 9. Storage
of perishable
products, function...
Module 10.
Calculation of
refrigeration load.
Module 11.
Conditions for
modified
atmospheric sto...
Lesson - 29.
Storage of
Grains
Lesson-29 Q-1
Lesson - 30.
Destructive Fig.33.1 Natural Ventilation
Agents
Lesson-30 Q-1 The following Fig. 33.2 shows the example of natural ventilation structures for the
Lesson - 31. storage of grains in bags.
Respiration,
Moisture and
temperatur...
Lesson-31 Q-1
Lession- 32
Condition of
 environment
inside storage.
Lesson-32 Q-1
Lesson- 33
Natural
ventilation/Aerat
Mechanica...
Lesson-33 Q-1
Module 12. Storage
of grains:
destructive agents,
...
Module 13. Storage
of cereal grains and
their prod...
Module 14. Storage
condition for various
fruits an...
Module 15.
Economics aspect
of storage
Courses

Fig.33.2 Natural Ventilated for storing grain in bags

The static pressure of air is the pressure in a free-flowing air stream and is depicted by
isobars in weather maps. Differences in static pressure arise from global and
microclimate thermal phenomena and create the air flow we call wind. Dynamic
pressure is the pressure exerted when the wind comes into contact with an object such
as a hill or a building and it described by the following equation

where ,
q = dynamic pressure, Pa

p = fluid (air) density, kg/m3

v = fluid velocity, m/s.

The impact of wind on a building affects the ventilation and infiltration rates through it
and the associated heat losses or heat gains. Wind speed increases with height and is
lower towards the ground due to frictional drag. The impact of wind on the building
form creates areas of positive pressure on the windward side of a building and negative
pressure on the leeward and sides of the building. Thus building shape and local wind
patterns are crucial in creating the wind pressures that will drive air flow through its
apertures. In practical terms wind pressure will vary considerably creating complex air
flows and turbulence by its interaction with elements of the natural environment (trees,
hills) and urban context (buildings, structures). Vernacular and traditional buildings in
different climatic regions rely heavily on natural ventilation for maintaining thermal
comfort conditions in the enclosed spaces.
Building Design Guidelines for the Natural Ventilation Structures
The following design guidelines are normally practiced from the Whole Building
Design Guide, a program of the National Institute of Building Sciences:
 Maximize wind-induced ventilation by sitting the ridge of a building
perpendicular to the summer winds
Widths of naturally ventilated zone should be narrow {max 13.7 m (45 feet)}
Each room should have two separate supply and exhaust openings. Locate
exhaust high above inlet to maximize stack effect. Orient windows across the
room and offset from each other to maximize mixing within the room while
minimizing the obstructions to airflow within the room.
Window openings should be operable by the occupants
Consider the use of clerestories or vented skylights.
33.2 Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air by using
mechanical systems.

Fig.33.3 Mechanical Ventilation with Duct System for Grain Drying

Mechanical Ventilation systems can be installed in both horizontal and vertical
storages. The following set of basic design parameters are found suitable for cooling of
dry grains by mechanical ventilation.
Air flow rate: Silos 0.8 litre/second/tonne
Sheds 1.6 litre/second/tonne
Maximum duct velocity: 10 m/ s
Maximum entry velocity of air into grain: 0.15 m/ s
The most common air flow rates for aerating paddy range from 0.07-0.28
m3/minute/tonne of paddy. The above air flow rates for aeration are only a fraction of
 the air volume needed to dry grains. From above parameters, fan output, duct size and
duct surface area can be determined.
Air can be pulled or pushed through the grain in storage. The air can be moved from
the top to bottom or from the bottom to the top of the bin. In the tropical climates,
aeration should be done from bottom to top because any air trapped under the roof of a
storage structure is usually at high temperature. This high temperature air can be
forced out easily from the top. The cooler air from bottom also cools the warmer grain
stored in bin (Fig.33.3).

1. Fan 2. Solid duct 3. Perforated section

Fig.33.4 Central ventilation/aeration system in vertical silo
Axial fans are normally used for shed aeration. Non-overloading centrifugal fans
should be used for vertical storages because of the higher pressure requirements
(Fig.33.4). With overloading fan, it is recommended that a manually adjustable throttle
valve should be used in the inlet duct to cut back the airflow while aerating partly
filled silos. The principal parts of an aeration system are, (1) fans to move the air and
(2) ducts for carrying air from the fans to storage system.

Various configurations of ducting can be used for air distribution inside the grain mass.
Ventilation systems for silos are, usually; (1) central vertical system (Fig. 33.4), (2)
floor ducts (Fig. 33.5) and (3) perforated floors (Fig. 33.6).

Fig. 33.5 Floor ducts for aeration

 1. main duct 2. transferable lateral ducts 3. interspace on floor

Fig. 33.6 Perforated floor cross-section for aeration

In a vertical duct system the top part of the central duct is solid and the lower half
section is perforated. A fan at the top of the duct pulls the air through the grain and
perforations. The sucked air is blown out of the bin by the fan. When on-floor ducting
is used, it is often important to allow for its removal to facilitate floor sweeping. For
this reason, full round ducting is usually used in sheds where grain loads are moderate.
Both longitudinal and cross-floor ducting can be used in sheds. Generally ducting is
made from galvanized steel sheet with 2.5 mm perforations at 6 mm centers.
Ducting in silos is normally exposed to considerably higher grain pressures. In-floor
ducting requires the use of flat perforated sheet. Cost of such system is significantly
higher because of requirement of a structural frame below the perforated sheet for its
support. An alternative is perimeter ducting formed from quarter round corrugated
ducting.
Perforated ducts may be circular, semicircular, rectangular or inverted V-shaped. The
required cross-section area of a duct may be determined by the following expression.
33.3 Artificial Drying
Unlike sun drying, artificial drying has the advantage that suitable drying conditions
can be set, and that drying can be carried out any time of day or night. Use of artificial
drying may also reduce the labor costs of drying, especially if some form of artificial
turning or stirring of grain is practiced, as in the case of re-circulating dryers. In
general, artificially dried grain will produce better quality of grain as compared to sun
drying. Artificial drying will lead to more uniform drying of grain and higher milling
yield and head recovery. Grain re-circulation allows for uniformly dried grain and
automatic drying air temperature control will reduce over-heating or over-drying.
Two common types of grain dryers in Asia are the flatbed dryer and the re-circulating
batch dryer. They are both batch-fed dryers meaning that a certain quantity of grain is
loaded and dried before the dryer is unloaded and a new batch can be dried.
33.3.1 Flatbed type dryer
Flatbed dryers have a very simple design. Grain is laid out on a perforated screen,
and dried by forcing air from below as shown in fig. 33.7. The air fan that
provides the drying air is usually a simple axial flow fan that is powered by a
diesel or electric motor. Drying heat is provided by a kerosene burner or biomass
fueled stove. The capacity of the dryer varies from one ton to eight tons.
Generally the drying floor is flat although dryers with reclining sections (to
facilitate unloading) or vibrating sections (to facilitate stirring) exist as well. The
 height of the layer is usually 40 cm. The most common smaller dryers have a
capacity of one to three tons per day with drying times of six to twelve hours. For
drying of paddy in tropical areas, an air temperature of 40-45 ºC is normally used
with a heater capable of raising the air temperature 10-15 ºC above ambient. An
air velocity and typical fan power requirements are 0.15-0.25 m/s and 1.5-2.5 kW
/ton respectively for paddy crop. The efficiency of these dryers is improved by
stirring the grain during drying (Fig. 33.7).

Fig. 33.7 Flatbed type of dryer

33.3.2 Re-circulating batch dryers
Re-circulating batch dryers have been used for a long time in Japan, and are now
common in many Asian countries. This dryer consists of two centric circular
cylinders made of perforated (2 mm) mild steel sheet of 20 gauge. The two
cylinders are set 15 to 20 cm apart. These two cylinders are supported on four
channels sections. The whole frame can be supported by a suitable foundation or
may be bolted to a frame made of channel section. A bucket elevator of suitable
capacity is used to feed and re-circulate the grain into dryer. A centrifugal blower
blows the hot air into the inner cylinder which acts as a plenum. The hot air from
the plenum passes through the grain moving downward by gravity and comes out
of another perforated cylinder. A torch burner is employed to supply the necessary
heat, with kerosene oil as fuel. The designs of dryer for ½, 1 and 2 tonnes holding
capacity are available. The Re-circulating batch dryers of 2 tonnes holding
capacity is shown in Fig. 33.8.
The grain is fed to the top of the inside cylinder. While descending through the
annular space from the feed end to the discharge end by gravity, the grain comes in
contact with a cross flow of hot air, supplied inside the perforated inner cylinder.
The exhaust air comes out through the perforations of the outer cylinder and the
grain is discharged through the outlet of the hopper. The feed rate of the grain is
controlled by closing or opening the gate provided with the outlet pipe of
discharge hopper. The grain is re-circulated till it is dried to the desired moisture
level.
The main advantages of the re-circulating dryer are
1. Its
size and shape occupies only very limited floor space therefore it can
easily be place inside a grain store or warehouse
2. Price is reasonable.
3. Simple design amongst all flow type dryers.
4. Easy to operate.
5. It can be used on the farm and rice mill as well.
6. Operating cost is low with husk fired furnace.
However, the loading, unloading and circulation of grain create dust which needs
to be collected in a collection system. In addition, it is recommended to pre-clean
 the grain prior to loading and drying. As with the flatbed dryer, re-circulating
dryers come in a variety of capacities, from 2 tons (for seed production stations)
up to 20 tons (for cooperative drying stations).

General precautions in using artificial grain dryers

Before loading the dryer, clean the grain by removing fines and green,
immature grains . Fines reduce the air flow through rice causing increased
drying time and wet spots.
In the dryer, do not mix dry rice with wet rice. The drying air gains
moisture as it passes through the dryer and may cause the dry rice to
fissure.
Reference:
1. Website : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_ventilation.
2. Website: http://www.ctu.edu.vn/institutes/mdi/extension/iot/rice-product/ppfm/
Drying_and_Storage/Drying_lesson07.htm
3. DryingEar Corn by Mechanical Ventilation; Miscellaneous Publication No. 919, U.S.
Department of Agriculture.

4. A Text Book Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing by K.M Sahay and

K.K.Singh

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Home ► Courses ► Existing Courses ► UG Courses - Agricultural Engineering ► Agricultural Engineering ► AS&EC ► MODULE 1. Planning of
LESSON 1. Planning of Farmstead and Farm Residence

LESSON 1. Planning of Farmstead and Farm Residence

1.1 Introduction
Farmers in India usually live in Villages located some distance away from their
farms. In the past, living in villages was favoured for mutual protection, for social
life, for the services of those serving the community as a whole, and for convenience
in getting water supply. The fragmentation of holdings is another reason favouring
living in a village. But from an agricultural point of view, this arrangement
generally puts a farmer away from his land, thus reducing the supervision and
attention he can give to his crops. More time is required to go to and from the fields
and the trouble of taking animals and implements back and forth is increased.
Moreover, the reasons which favoured living in villages in the past are not important
now, with the more secured social life.

1.1.1 Location of Farmstead

A farmstead is satisfactory, if it is on a suitable site, if the individual buildings are

properly designed for the functions they serve, and if their grouping is properly
planned. The primary objectives of good planning are sanitation and well-being of the
human beings and animals, economy in labour management, economy in initial cost
and low cost of maintenance. The most convenient location from the management,
sanitation, and other convenience point of view may be decided as indicated below.

1. From the management point of view, the farmstead should be located near the
centre of the farm or in the middle of the long side. However, this arrangement
is possible only in large farms where the farm labourers also live near the
farmstead, as otherwise the farmstead becomes very much isolated.

2. Location at one side or even at a corner near a road is always helpful in

procuring the farm supplies and in disposing of farm produce. This will
facilitate better social life and protection, common water supply arrangement
and other conveniences.

3. A site having high elevation and good natural drainage should be selected.

4. The farmstead should be located near a source of permanent water supply.

Advantage of an existing well can be taken while deciding the farmstead
location.

5. Siteswhich have trees around will provide protection against high wind
velocities and dust storms, and will provide shade for human beings and
animals.

1.1.2 Size and Arrangement of the Farmstead

 The farmstead area is occupied by residential buildings, storage buildings, dairy barn,
bullock shed, poultry houses, other service buildings, threshing yard, roads, etc. and
this area usually varies from 3 to 5 per cent of the farm area.

Residential buildings should be located away from the cattle shed and other buildings.
This will ensure privacy and reduce the nuisance of flies and smell coming from the
dairy barn.

Residences and animals houses should be so located that the prevailing wind will not
blow from the animal houses to the residences. Various buildings are arranged to
provide the minimum of walking from one to the other in doing the required work. The
silo pits and feed storages should be located near the animal shelters. The milk room
or milk house is generally placed about 6m away from the barn.

The layout of the farmstead should allow for possible future extension of buildings.
Care should be given, in designing the buildings to get maximum convenience without
much additional cost of construction. Unnecessary ornamentation or carving on the
buildings does not add to the convenience, and on the other hand involves extra
expenditure.

1.2 Planning of Farm Residence

The residential building on a farm is the heart of the farmstead. It should be so
designed and constructed that the owner has the satisfaction of staying in a most
comfortable and attractive place. A residence is not merely a shelter alone, but is the
centre of a social life, a place of health, comfort and happiness of the entire family in
all stages and walks of life. It must provide conveniences for all the life activities.
There must be places for cooking, dining, sleeping, study, guests, and other special
requirements, to take maximum advantage of the sun light, the residence should face
south or north. Facing the residence onto the main road and rivers or streams in
another desirable feature.
However, the traditional designs of village houses have the following defects :

1. Construction is unsatisfactory and not water proof.

2. Windows are too small

3. Rooms are too small

4. Kitchen are not properly constructed to remove the smoke

5. Animals are also kept in or around the house

6. Surroundings are often used as a waste disposal place.

Hence, a good house should have the following facilities:

1. Bedrooms-the number depends on the size of the family.

2. Verandahs both for sitting out and house work.

3. A Kitchen with good ventilation

4. Food grain store

5. Fuel wood store

 6. Animal shelter

7. Animal fodder store

8. Latrine cum urinal and a bathing place

9. Sitting room cum DALAN

10. Open space inside or outside the house well enclosed for social gatherings.

11. Space for biogas plant and slurry dump

12. Space for kitchen garden

13. Space for washing purposes

14. Space for farm tools and machinery storage

1.3 Improved Farm House Design

A farm house should be designed to provide maximum utility and comfort. The
various rooms should be so located as to provide adequate comfort and minimum time
and energy wastage in going from one to the other.

Farmstead
A farmstead comprises of all farm buildings and facilities associated with
the production of crops and livestock eg residential buildings, grain and
feed storage, threshing yard etc. Area of farmstead is normally 3-5% of the
total farm area
Developing farmstead planning : factors to be considered
site selection: following area should be avoided for farmstead planning

-steep and unstable slope is a potential danger for landslide and rock fall.
Better avoid such area, if not avoidable retaining walls and green barriers have
to be provided
-Riverbank isprone to frequentflooding).Avoid sucharea if not avoidable goes
ahead only after some protection works.
-water logged area is a potential danger for flooding and settlement
(improvement can be made by pumping and gravel packing)
-filled area has low bearingcapacity. If such area is unavoidable foundation must
rest on firm ground
Location: the highest elevation and infertile soil should be chosen so that
drainage is easy and fertile soil can be used for cultivation
Availability: Adequate Water supply,electricity facility and skilled labor is
necessary
Accessibility and marketing: building should be near the main road and at a
place from where there is no problem of marketing
Orientation: longer axis should be north-south in the cold region and east-west
in the hot region for the best utilization of the sun light.
The two floor plans (Fig. 1.1 and 1.2) presented in these figures are meant for small
family sizes living in the villages. These houses are sufficient to provide necessary
facilities to a modern farmer. Two conceptual drawings of traditional and improved
houses are shown in Fig. 1.2 (a).

1.3.1 Bed Room : A typical be room of 3.6 x 3m will accommodate two single beds of
1 x 2 m. Cross ventilation with one side exposed to the prevailing breeze is a desirable
feature in desing. Every bed room should be provided with attached toilet facilities or
should have an independent access to the common toilet room. Some storage space is
essential in every bed room.
1.3.2 Drawing Room : The drawing room generally serves as the room for recreation
and social gathering. The minimum size of the drawing room is 4.5 x 3.6 m but some
people prefer to have one large room of about 6 x 4.5 m to serve as a drawing room
cum dining room. The drawing room is best suited to be on one side of the house, and
should generally open into the front porch, kitchen, and bed room. Wall space in the
drawing room should have plenty of provision for natural light and ventilation.
1.3.3 Kitchen : The kitchen is preferably place near the living room but away from the
bed rooms. It should be equipped with a sink and many built-in-racks for storage of
utensils and supplies. Floor space of kitchens usually varies form 9.3 to 14 sq. m.
Store rooms and fuel storage space should be attached to the kitchen. Besides a large
size chimney to carry out the smoke from the built-in-cook stove, the kitchen should
have cross ventilation. One of the windows and a door must directly open to the
kitchen garden. The kitchen must have an eastern location if possible, so that the rays
of morning sun can provide adequate light. Availabilities of LPG in rural areas have
made considerable difference in the design and layout of kitchen in villages. Where
gas stoves are not being used, improved fire wood CHULHAS are being introduced.
1.3.4 Toilet Rooms : For Indian families, bath room and lavatory should usually be
separated. In the bath room, provision should be made for both a shower and a direct
tap bath. If the water supply is not maintained throughout the day and night, a small
water reservoir may be a part of the bath room. A hanger fro towels and a rack for
soap, etc., are very useful. For the lavatory, a flush arrangement is essential.
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Reactions of Livestock ► LESSON 2. Reactions of Animals to Thermal & Ot...

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LESSON 2. Reactions of Animals to Thermal & Other environmental factors
Home
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1.1 Introduction
Current course
AS&EC Functions of all organs and systems ultimately depend upon absorption and
Participants nutrition. The food taken in by the animal is used in constructing new tissue while
General some is broken down that ie., oxidized by tissue cells to produce heat and energy.
MODULE 1. The heat produced by oxidation processes can be measured which will determine the
Planning of
Farmstead
metabolic rate. The metabolic rate of animals is an therefore indicator of their
MODULE 2. nutritive and productive status. It is also verymuch influenced by the environmental
Physiological variables such as temperature humidity air velocity and radiation. The heat and
Reactions of moisture released through respiration are simples and his heat must be dissipated
Livestock
out.
LESSON 2.
Reactions of
Animals to
Thermal & Ot...
1.2 Homeostasis
LESSON 3.
Physiological
Reactions of Homeo – like or similar
Farm Animals
MODULE 3. BIS
Stasis - standing
Standards
Preventing changes or keeping things the same. It refers to the maintenance of a fixed
MODULE 4. Farm
Structures internal environment in animals through dynamic, self – regulating processes,
MODULE 5. operating on the feedback principle. Many internal factors are maintained constant.
MODULE 6. Rural These include body temperature, mature body weight, blood pressure, respiration,
Living and body fluid, hormones and movement.
Development
MODULE 7. Water Homeothermy:
Supply
Topic 8 Maintenance of appropriate internal body temperature is an excellent example of
Topic 9 homeostasis, sometimes called homeothermy.
Topic 10
The regulation of internal temperature is carried out through several sets of feedback
Courses
mechanisms. Mammals and birds are homeotherms and they are equipped with
peripheral receptors in the skin and central receptors in the brain. There exists for
each species a range of environmental temperature that is optimal in terms of
minimum action by the regulating mechanisms. This range is the thermoneutral
condition. When the environment cools below this range, the condition is sensed
peripherally and transmitted to a specific part of the brain, (the posterior
hypothalamus), which activates a set of protective actions. These include increase in
appetite and rate of heat production, decrease in blood flow to the periphery, and
change in posture of hair coat or feathers. With continued decrease in external
temperature shivering is initiated. Shivering is involuntary muscle contractions that
increase the rate of heat production.
When external temperature rises above the optimal, another set of protection devices is
activated. The surface blood vessels dilate, appetite decreases, rate of moisture
evaporation increases, respiration rate increases, in humans, profuse sweating occurs.
These actions are involuntary and are mainly controlled by the anterior hypothalamus
 in response to blood temperature changes. Increase in appetite increases metabolic
rate, the other actions serve to increase rate of heat loss to the environment.
Thermonentrality occurs within a range of environmental temperatures in which the
body’s homeothering mechanism maintain, a balance between heat loss and heat
production without stress. Within this range the thermal regulation is minimal –
neither heat nor cold in felt. In these terms, thermonentrality defines a “comfort”
zone. The overall objective in animal housing systems design thus is to create
environments in which the animals approach thermonentrality, but with appropriate
balance between the productive value of thermonentrality and the cost of systems to
maintain it.
Animal Reactions
The reactions of animals to environmental factors can be arbitrarily divided into two
classes Productive and physiological. The distinction is artificial rather than real, but
has value to an engineer to whom the productive factors are more useful. The
physiological reactions are body temp, pulse rate, and respiration rate.
(i) Temperature:
This is the most significant parameter Environmental temperature is the
integrated total of all temperatures surrounding the animal is 4πsr
(steradions). If the walls, ceiling, floor and air temperatures are identical, then
the environmental temperature is simply the air temperature. But this is a rare
case. The more usual case is that surfaces and air are at different temperatures
and adjoining A THI of 75 is a critical value for even the low producers while
the higher producers are already affected at this THI. Hence THI should be
between 72-75 for normal cows.
Light
The seasonal variations in physiology of farm animals are related to light, including
both duration and dimate. It appears that length of day, or rate of change of day
length, have marked effects on hair coat of cattle andwool growth and breeding
behaviours of sheep.
Air movement:
Animal heat loss is influenced by air velocity, which is important at both low and high
temperatures. Under confinement conditions the air velocity can usually be regulated
by fans. In the case of dairy cattle held at 95°F air temperature an increase in air flow
rate from 0.5 to 10 mph (mily per hour) tended to reduce production losses normally
experienced at such high temperatures. However, 10mph is a rather high velocity
inside a building and would be particularly annoying if conditions happened to be
dusty. The favorable effect of increased air flow at high temperatures is due to the
increase in evaporative heat loss. The daily weight gains of beef cattle in summer are
considerably less at 0.5 mph compared to 4mph. Increasing air velocity above the
latter figure, however gives no further advantage.

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Reactions of Livestock ► LESSON 3. Physiological Reactions of Farm Animals

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LESSON 3. Physiological Reactions of Farm Animals
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Introduction
Current course
AS&EC Since the major purpose of environmental control in buildings for housing livestock
Participants is for comfort of the animals, it should be fairly obvious that the physiological
General reactions of the animals are of extreme importance in determining design
MODULE 1. conditions. Warm-blooded animals, such as cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry, give
Planning of
Farmstead
off heat and moisture during normal living processes. The rate at which these are
MODULE 2. expelled will vary with environmental conditions. Unfortunately, complete
Physiological information is not available on the reactions of all animals under all conditions.
Reactions of Research is under way at various stations in the United States to determine this
Livestock
information where such information are based on practical experience.
LESSON 2.
Reactions of
Animals to
Thermal & Ot...
Dairy Cattle: The first approach to presenting information on the heat and moisture
LESSON 3.
Physiological production of dairy cows was made in 1921 by Armsby, who presented a method of
Reactions of computing the heat production of dairy cows. Based on Armsby’s method, together with
Farm Animals
research information on steers presented by various works, Strahan suggested basic
MODULE 3. BIS
Standards information to be used in design of insulation and ventilation for dairy barns. 1 This
MODULE 4. Farm information is shown in Figure 14.4. Curve A shows the effect of environmental
Structures temperature on the percentage of total heat in latent form. Latent heat is that heat
MODULE 5. contained in the vaporized moisture expelled by the animal. As the temperature increases,
MODULE 6. Rural more moisture is given off by the animal, carrying with it moreheat in latent form to
Living and
Development regulate the body temperature of the animal. Curves B and C show the reduction in
MODULE 7. Water sensible-heat production with increasing temperature; Fig. 14.4. Effect of temperature on
Supply heat and moisture production of dairy cattle. (From J. L. Strahan, A method for Designing
Topic 8 Insulation and ventilation for Animal Shelter Buildings, Agr. Engg.)
Topic 9
1Samuel Brody, Physiological Backgrounds, Ho. Agr. Fept. Sta. Research Bull, 423,
Topic 10
Courses September, 1948.
One of the first important considerations is the effect of temperature on milk
production. Data from the Missouri study on the influence of ambient temperatures
from 4 to 95°F on the milk production of Jersey and Holstein cows indicate the
following:1
1. Lowering the temperature from 50 to 4°F depressed the milk production.
Effects of sudden lowering of temperature from 50 to 4°F were much more
striking on unacclimatized cows than on acclimatized cows.
2. The optimal temperature zone for milk production appeared to be not far from
50°F. Critical high temperature was apparently 80°F, whereas no critical low
temperature was evident.
3. Rising temperatures were more detrimental to the Holsteins, and declining
temperatures more detrimental to the Jerseys. The effect of lowering temperatures
below 50°F was much less for both breeds than rising temperatures above 50°F.
 Date on the influence of ambient temperature on moisture given off by Jersey and
Holstein cattle indicate the following:2
At 0°F, about 8 percent of the total heat given off by the animals was dissipated by
evaporative losses; at about 102°F all of the heat produced was dissipated by moisture
vaporization.
1. Between 90 and 100°F, the cows vaporized about 2 pounds of moisture per
hour.
2. Atother temperatures, data presented showed the following ranges of
moisture vaporization per 1000-pound animal unit.
0-20°F 0.3-0.4 pound per hour
20-40°F 0.4-0.6 pound per hour
40-60°F 0.6-0.8 pound per hour
60-80°F 0.8-1.7 pounds per hour
When computed to a comparable basis, these figures are higher than those proposed by
Strahan.
Data on the effect of ambient temperature on heat production of Holstein and Jersey
cows indicated the following:2
1A.G.Ragsdale, D.M. Worstell, H.J. Thompson, and Samuel Brody, Influence of
Temperature, 50° to 0°F and 50° to 95°F, on Milk Production, Feed and Water
Consumption and Body Weight in Jersey and Holstein Cows, Mo. Agr. Expl. Sta.
Research Bull. 449, September, 1949.
2H. J. Ragsdale, D.M. Worstell, H.J. Thompson, and Samuel Brody, Influence of
Ambient Temperature, 0° to 105°F, on Insensible Weight Loss and Moisture
Vaporization in Hostein and Jersey Cattle, Mo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Research Bul, 451,
October, 1949.
3H. H. Kibler and Samuel Brody, Influence of Temperature, 50° to 5°F and 50° to
95°F, on Heat Production and Cardiorespiratory Activities of Dairy Cattle, Mo. Agr.
Expt. Sta. Research Bull, 450, October, 1949.
1. An increase in heat production of 30 to 3 percent in lactating Jerseys and of 20
to 30 per cent in lactating Folsteins for gradually decreasing temperatures from
50 to 5°F.
2. A decrease in heat production by both breads of 20 to 30 per cent above 70 to
80°F with gradually increasing temperatures from 50 to 100°F.
Actual values of heat production in the data around the 50°F range did not differ
greatly from the figures proposed by Strahan.
Poultry. Studies of the physiological reation of poultry to environmental conditions are
under way at Beltsville, Mayland, by the Division of Farm Bujildings and Rural Housing,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, USDA. Although these
studies have not been completed, some information has been reported which can be used
as tentative considerations for design procedure.1 Results of this study to date are shown
graphically in Figure 14.5. All data re converted to a single basis of 5-pound Rhode Island
Red hens. Results shown on the lower chart would indicate that the optimal temperature
range for egg production lies in the neighborhood of 50 to 55°F. Temperatures as low as
45° and as high as 65° do not seem seriously affect egg production.
The upper chart shows a reduction in total heat and sensible heat and an increase in
latent heat with increasing temperature. The amount of moisture produced can be
estimated from the latent-heat production. It takes approximately 1070 But to change I
pound of water to vapor at 40°F and about 1040 at 90°F. Considering that the latent-
heat production is about 22 But per hour at 50°F and 1065 But are required to
evaporate water at this temperature, then the equivalent moisture vapor produced could
be computed as follows:

pound of moisture produced per day by a 5 lb hen at 50°F

This value is higher than estimates made by previous workers. The authors of the
report emphasize that the work must be considered as preliminary since it was based
on a limited number of hens. Further work should produce valuable design
information for poultry laying houses.
When baby chicks are first hatched, they do not have the facility to produce heat.
Hence the beat must be supplied artificially. It has long been accepted practice to start
day-old chicks at a temperature of 95°F and drop the temperature 5°F each week until
70 is reached.
Considerable interest is being shown in the broading of chicks at lower.
1Hajime Ota, H. L. Garver, and Wallace Ashby, Heat and Moisture Production of
Laying Hens, Agr. Eng. 34:163-167, March, 1953.
FrG. 14.5. Effect of temperature on heat and egg production of poultry. (From Hajime
Ola, h.L. Garver, and Wallace Ashby, Heat and Moisture Production of laying Hens,
Agr. Engg. 34:163-167, march 1953.)
Temperatures under infrared lamps. Experimental work on this method has been
reported by Baker and Bywaters.1 More information is needed than is available at the
time of this writing before specific recommendations can be made.
1vernon Baker and James Bywaters, Boording Poultry with Infrared Energy, Agr. Eng.,
part, 32:316-320, June, 1951, and part II, 33:15-18, January, 1952.
Swine, Studeis of the effects of environmental conditions on the Physiological
reactions of swine are being made at the University of California at Davis jointly with
the U.S. Dep[artment of Agriculture. A report on heat and moisture production based
on preliminary studies has been made by Bond et al.1
FIG. 14.6 Effect of environmental temperature on heat and moisture production of
hogs. (from T.E. Bond, C.G. Kelly, and Hubert Heitman, Jr., Heat and Moisture Losses
from swine, Agr. Eng., 33:148-154, march, 1952.)

Some of the data collected by these workers are shown in Figure 14.6. Based on these
data, the reactions of a 100-pound hog could be determined as follows. In Figure
14.6b, such a hog would produce about 350 Btu per hour sensible heat and about 410
Btu per hour total heat at 60°. This means that 60 But per hour is produced in
moisture. It 1060 Btu is required to evaporate a pound of moisture, the hog would be
roducing approximately 0.06 pound of water vapor per hour.
1T.E. bond, C.G. Kelly, and Hubert Heitman, Jr., Heat and Moisture Loss from Swine,
Agr. Eng., 33:148-154, March, 1952.
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Structures ► LESSON 7. Design and construction of Fodder Silo

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LESSON 7. Design and construction of Fodder Silo
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1 Introduction
Current course
AS&EC It is need to store animal fodder and feeds, fertilizers, seeds, vegetables, milk and
Participants milk products, farm machineries etc., in a variety of storage structures.
General
MODULE 1.
Planning of
Farmstead 1.1 The Silo
MODULE 2.
Physiological Silo is a farm structure which stores and products the animal fodder providing an ideal
Reactions of condition. The fodder is cut and packed in the silo in an air tight condition to favor for
Livestock
partial fermentation. The stored fodder is known is known as silage. Silage can be
MODULE 3. BIS
Standards
made from any green crop with moderately tough stalk. e.g. Grass, Sugarcane,
MODULE 4. Farm
legumes, etc.
Structures
Silage is more nutritive then dries stalk. But when compared to green fodder, there is
LESSON 6.
Composting some loss of nutritive value in silage, because the sugar is converted into lactic acid
Process and giving a sour taste. Losses are also occurring due to surface spoilage, fermentation and
Techniques
seepage. Loading of tower silos is difficult. It heeds a mechanical loader or a large
LESSON 7.
Design and
capacity blower for elevating the cut fodder. The wall should be smooth, circular and
construction of strong enough to avoid cracking due to lateral pressure. Hence, a heavy reinforcement
Fodder Silo is a must.
LESSON 8.
Construction of The only advantage is if the water table is very close to the ground level, tower silos
Farm Fencing
are preferred. The cost of constructing these silos is comparatively much higher than
LESSON 9.
Machinery and
that of horizontal types.
Implements
Shed 1.2 Horizontal silos
LESSON 10.
Animal Shed or
Horizontal surface silos are really used for storing silage. These silos are readily and
Shelters Dairy cheaper made at any time and they can be easily filled and unloaded without any
Barn equipment. They are successful in areas having a deep water tale. The dry matter
LESSON 11. losses ranges from 20-30% while filling either trench or pit site. Chopped silage
Fundamental
Requirements of should be spread, leveled and packed. They are filled, till the silage reaches the above
a Poultry h... G.L. They should be covers with dry paddy straw or plastic covers. Well packed silage
MODULE 5. weighs 480-800 g per m3. Area=650 kg/m3.
MODULE 6. Rural
Living and 1.2.1 Pit silos
Development
MODULE 7. Water It is a circular deep well which is lined all along the side and bottom to prevent the
Supply
water entering it. They can be made of bricks or stores or concrete with either lime or
Topic 8
cement. Up to a depth of 15m a 22.5m wall is provided with plastering the entire inner
Topic 9
surface. A simple roof over the silo can be provided to protect the silage from sun and
Topic 10
rain. Generally a cow is feed about 1.4kg of silage per 45kg of her body weight per
Courses
day. i.e. 1.4 kg/45 kg /day or 3 kg/100 kg of body weight.
Diameter of the silo is determined by the quantity of silage feed daily. The rate
removal should at the rate of 10cm/day. The diameter is limited to 6 m and its depth is
kept 2-3 times the diameter.
Design criteria
1. Rate of removal - 10 cm/day
2. Silage fed per day - 3 kg/100kg of body weight
3. Maximum diameter - 6m
4. Depth - 2-3 times diameter
5.
3
1m of silage - 650 kg
Problem: Work out the economical diameter and depth of a silo to store sufficient
quantity of silage for a herd of 300 dairy cows having an average body weight of 450
kg each. The cows fed with silage for 200 days /year.
Given :
No. cows - 300
Body weight - 450 kg
No of days per year - 200 days /year.
Solution:

Let i) 1m3 of silage = 650kg.

ii) Thickness of silage fed per day = 10 cm/day.
iii) Let each cow I fed 3kg of silage per 100 kg of the body weight.
Weight of silage required for each cow = (3/100) X 450

= 13.5 kg / day
Weight of silage required for 300 cows =13.5 X 300
= 4050 kg / day
Volume of silage required to be stored =4050/650

= 6.23 m3 ------------------- (1)

Allowing 20 % loss, Actual volume of silage = 6.23 + 0.2x6.23 = 7.476 m3

Volume of pit for a daily withdrawal depth of 10 cm = -------------

- (2)

Equating (1) & (2) = 7.476

Depth of the silo = daily depth x no. of days = 0.1 x 200 = 20 m

1.2.2 Trench silos
It can be either lined one or unlined one. Unlined silo is easy to construct but give
more spoilage of silage and caving in of sides due to rain. A lined trench silo is
advantageous and the lining can be made with brick concrete or cement plaster with
reinforcing wire mesh. Filling packing and sealing are similar to pit silo. The drainage
 water should not be allowed to collect near the trench and so drains should be made
around the trench. The cross section depends on number of animals to be fed and the
length is determined by the number of days, the silage is fed in a year.
Problem: Design a trench silo for a small farm having 140 buffaloes weighing 680 kg
each and has to be fed at the rate of 4 kg/100 kg of its weight. The silage is fed 160
days in a year.
Given Data:
No. of animals = 140
Wt. of each animal = 680 kg
Feeding rate = 4 kg / 100 kg of body weight
No. of days of feeding = 160 days
Solution:
Let the depth of silo be 2.5 m
Length of feed per day be 15 cm
Side Slope be 1 : 2

Equating (1) & (2)

Result:
Top width of silo = 16.87 m
Bottom width of silo = 14.37 m
Depth of silo = 24.0 m
Length of silo = 28.8 m.

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Structures ► LESSON 8. Construction of Farm Fencing

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LESSON 8. Construction of Farm Fencing
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1.1 Introduction
Current course
AS&EC For a farm, fencing is adopted to enclose the farm to distinguish the boundaries and
Participants to prevent trees passing of animals etc. It is also used for open yards to keep the
General animals confined in it. Live hedges, compound walls, wire fencing etc., are
MODULE 1. ordinarily adopted in India. The compound wall construction is costlier when
Planning of
Farmstead
compared to the wire fencing.
MODULE 2.
In wire fencing upright posts made of wood, angle iron or concrete are used and to
Physiological
Reactions of these barbed wires, plane wires or mesh wires are attached. Mesh wire are generally
Livestock convenient for cattle sheds and poultry houses whereas barbed wire is used for
MODULE 3. BIS demarcating the boundaries.
Standards
MODULE 4. Farm
Structures
LESSON 6. Upright posts:
Composting
Process and Upright posts made of wood are cheaper but does not last long. They become
Techniques
uneconomical due to painting of them year after a year and renewing owing to white
LESSON 7.
Design and
ants, rot and deterioration. Next in order of present day popularity for fence post is
construction of iron, which also has to be continuously painted and guarded against rust, which is the
Fodder Silo ever present enemy of iron material. The concrete posts are better than both wooden
LESSON 8. and iron ones and durable though the cost is slightly more than other two.
Construction of
Farm Fencing
The concrete posts can be manufactured on the farm itself. They are made as square
LESSON 9.
Machinery and
posts, square tapered posts or as posts with triangular coping. Concrete posts are easy
Implements to construct. The posts are usually made for 1.8 m to 2.1 m (6 ft. to 7 ft.) length and
Shed the size of the posts being 12.5 cm square (5 inches) square or 12.5 cm square (5
LESSON 10. inches square) bottom and 7.5 cm square (3 inches square) at top. These posts are
Animal Shed or
Shelters Dairy made on the form by using rectangular wooden moulds without top or bottom. The
Barn moulds are placed over a platform and reinforcement bars (steel rods) are placed in
LESSON 11. position leaving a cover of 1.9 cm to 2.5 cm (3/4 inch to 1 inch) alround by propping.
Fundamental
Requirements of
The size of rods adopted for reinforcements may be of 6 mm or 10 mm (1/4 inche or
a Poultry h... 3/8 inch). The smaller diameter rods are adopted for ordinary posts, but when heavy
MODULE 5. usage is expected and a bigger post is therefore necessary, larger diameter may be
MODULE 6. Rural used. As a fence post has usually to resist lateral or bending pressure and it is difficult
Living and to determine from which direction the pressure acts, it is safe to reinforce all the four
Development
sides.
MODULE 7. Water
Supply
Fig. 6.2. Cross section of concrete post with reinforcement.
Topic 8
Topic 9 The rods are laid lengthwise, the ends built up at right angles to exclude any change of
Topic 10 the concrete pulling away from the steel. The rod should be kept apart by 3 mm (1/8”)
Courses wire wound round in the form of spirals at 30 cm (12 inches) apcing.
Casting posts :
The concrete is prepared by mixing broken stones 1.9 cm (3/4 inches gauge with sand
and cement in the proportion of 4:2:1 or 3: 1.5:1 by volume. This is mixed well by
 adding clean water at the rate of not more than (5 gallons) pr bag of cement. The
mixture after the water is added should be of medium wetness and thoroughly plastic,
but not too slopy. Before concrete is placed in the mould ; the latter should be lightly
greased or rubbed with oil or soft soap. Instead, they can be thoroughly wetted by
pouring water. The concrete should be placed within the mould as soon as mixing is
completed as the concrete sets within 30 minutes. The mixture filled in thin layer
should be tamped well to ensure complete filling of the space without any voids. The
top surface should be trowelled to level the surf ace and left to settle.
Fig. 6.3. Mould for Post.
If holes are to be provided for inserting the wires or to be tied, rods should be inserted
through the holes provided in the side of the boxes before the concrete is placed.
These rods should be withdrawn after the concrete has set sufficiently to retain its
shape which varies from 4 to 6 hours.
The castings should be left in the mould for 24 hours after which time the mould can
be dismantled are reused. Then the post should be cured on the platform itself for 4
days by covering it wetted sand. It is then lifted from the platform and put in a water
tub or pond for curing. If no pond is available it can be placed over a bed of wet sand
and water sprinkled on it. The curing should be done for two or three weeks. The
posts should be used preferably after 3 months period after casting but in no case it
should be used before 30 days.
Spacing of posts:
The life of fence and maintenance cost is dependant upon the size of spacing of
fencing posts. usually a spacing of 2.4 m to 3.0m (8 ft. to 10 ft.) is better for wire
fences. The corner posts and straining posts should be heavier than the line posts and
must be supported by struts. For this a mortise is made near the top of the post. The
struts are made to 7.5 cm x 7.5 cm(3” x 2”) and reinforced with four 6mm (1/4”)
diameter rods. The struts are placed into the ground and covered by concrete.
Fig. 6.4. Barbed wire fence showing upright and strut.
Erecting fence posts and wire:
The posts should be set in the ground for 52.5 cm (1.75 ft.) or 60 cm (2 ft.) depth and
should be concreted with a mix of 1:2.5:5. The wires are fastened to the posts and
stretched well. The different methods of fastening the wires to the posts are given in
fig.
Fig. 6.6. Woven wire fence.
The selection of wires depends on the purpose for which it is used. Barbed wire is
effective for fencing the boundaries to prevent animal trespassing. But it is not
suitable for poultry yards. Plain wires are best suited for cattle yard with or without
barbed wire. Wire mesh is suitable for poultry yards. In fencing with barbed wire,
plain wire or wire mesh, the arrangement of horizontal wires at the bottom should be
closer than at the top.
Farm gates :
Gate and position should be selected so that unnecessary travel distance should be
reduced. The gate way should be wide enough to give access to easy traffic. The
gates provided should be strong and durable. For farm gates separate gate pillars of
heavier sections should be provided to bear the weight of gates. The gates may be
 wooden, or iron with necessary locking arrangements. Some of the simple type of
gates that can be made in the farm itself is given in figure.
Fig. 6.7. Simple farm gates.

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Structures ► LESSON 10. Animal Shed or Shelters Dairy Barn

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LESSON 10. Animal Shed or Shelters Dairy Barn
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In India, the need for expanding the supplementary and subsidiary foods especially
Current course
proteins has been increasingly realized in recent years. The demand for these
AS&EC
articles has specially increased and with the rise in income it is likely to increase
Participants
more rapidly in future. The prospects of augmenting the supply of milk and milk
General
products, table birds, eggs etc depends on the development of dairy farming and
MODULE 1.
Planning of poultry keeping which are an integral part of a sound system of diversified
Farmstead agriculture. Therefore special emphasis is laid on mixed farming, in which crop
MODULE 2. production and animal husbandry are dovetailed for efficient and economic
Physiological
Reactions of
utilization of land laboures and capital. The integration of farming with animal
Livestock husbandry is essential for the fuller utilization of farm by products maintenance of
MODULE 3. BIS soil fertility fuller employment ofr agriculturists throughout the year and increase in
Standards rural incomes. Hence for better management and breeding of the farm animals in
MODULE 4. Farm healthy condition animal shelters are inevitable.
Structures
LESSON 6.
Composting
Process and
The kindof shelter required for an animal depends upon the kind of animal and the
Techniques
climate condition of the region. The rapid increase in temperature and extreme
LESSON 7.
Design and temperatures affects the animals. So to maintain the in properly, a shed is to be
construction of provided with a roof. The space available for each animal should be sufficient to
Fodder Silo
allow free movement so as to maximize the ability to adjust to the environments. In
LESSON 8.
Construction of the case of high velocity wind also, animals are affected and hence to protect them
Farm Fencing from wind droughts, enclosures is of provided. The sheds for housing the clarity cows
LESSON 9. and poultry hers are dealt in detail.
Machinery and
Implements Dairy Barns
Shed
LESSON 10. When planning a new dairy form, the size and location of barn with relation to the
Animal Shed or entire farm, the fields, roads, drainage channels, prevailing winds and landscaping are
Shelters Dairy
Barn of importance are of importance and should be considered. The requirements of the
LESSON 11. dairy cows and calves should also be considered before any construction work is
Fundamental undertaken. The location of the fodder and feeder storage buildings should be
Requirements of
a Poultry h...
included in the plan.
MODULE 5. Milk straining, weighing, cooling and cleaning of the milk utensils require significant
MODULE 6. Rural
Living and
of labour and therefore the location of a well planned milk house should be carefully
Development chosen. Before a new dairy barn is planned the future expansion of the business
MODULE 7. Water should also be considered. The size of the hard is usually determined on the basis of
Supply the total quantity of fodder the farm is capable of producing annually. Generally, it is
Topic 8 economical to produce fodder on the farm and to buy concentrates from the market,
Topic 9 and thus are can afford to have a large size hard than if its farm itself had to provide all
Topic 10 the feed stuffs.
Courses
The dairy barn, when properly located should have a good approach from the highway,
as well as from the farm house. The milk house is best located on a clean, well
drained site near the barn, but separated from it by a 6 m long paved passage. It
should face the road and be provided with doors fixed with wire mesh to keep off the
flies. In tropical countries like India, it is better to have enclosed becomes facing in
the east west direction. The location of the feed and fodder stores w.r.r barn should be
planned so that the minimum time is spent in taking the supplies to the barn. The
topography of the barn site determines the drainage pattern required. Drainage should
be diverted around the barn by proper grading of the surrounding land.
Besides the natural rainwater, water used in grooming the cows, and cleaning the barn
and dairy utensils has to be disposed off. It is desirable to have paved approaches to
the dairy barn, since this prevents stagnation of water and mud formation. Under these
conditions, it is not possible to transport the cow dung from the barn daily, it is
desirable to fence an area near the barn of storage of manure.

Types of Dairy Barn

There are three general types of barns.
i) Stanchion barn
ii) The loose housing barn with milking room and
iii) The open air barn
In the stanchion barn the cows are housed and milled in the some building. It is also
called the general purpose barn of the cow. The loose housing barn is one in which the
cows are housed in a covered or partially covered yard, but they are milked in batches
in a special milking house called the milking barlour. This system is also called the
milking house system. the open air barn does not have any coves. The cows live in
field and they are fed and milked there. The system is also known as the leafing barn
system and is not common on a well established dairy barn.
Stanchion barn is one is which the cow is kept tied in separate stalls and provided with
feed. Each stall consists of a bedding place and feed place so that the cow can be kept
in the stall itself at all times. Stanchion is a frame work made up of pipe or angle iron
with an oval shaped adjustable ring kept one end hanging from the frame and the other
hinged to the floor. It shoul0d be wide enough to pin it on easily to the neck to the
animal and to lock it. It should also give facility for the animal to rest and move its
neck side ways to reach feed l./ and water. Instead of using oval shaped ring chains are
also used to fasten the animals to the stanchion. For this a strap is around the neck of
each animal.
The animals are arranged in rows according to the members to be housed. In enclosed
shelters for more than 8 cows two rows is preferable. The rows can be arranged so
that they may be facing each other known as ‘face in’ arrangement of is the opposite
direction known as ‘face out’ arrangement. Face in type arrangements will reduce the
floor area give facility for cleaning manure to the open sides an is suited mostly for
unenclosed barns or for bullodes. The stalls are separated by a small partition wall
usually of concrete to 12.5cm height, with a bent pipe fixed equal to the length of stall
for efficiency of management the length of rows should be restricted to have maximum
of 10 cows in a row. If the limit is exuded.
Stall size: The size of stall depend upon the size and age of animals. Narrow and
cramped stall should be avoided, as it restricts the movement of animal resulting in
discomfort and even injury to the animal which will affect the milk yield. As the size
old cow varies with different breeds, a general space requirement of each type of the
basis of its weight is given in the following table
Table . Dimensions of cow stall
 Weight of cow Girth (per meter) Stall width Stall lengt

Kg lb cm inch cm feet cm fe

363 800 162.5 65.0 100.0 3’4” 135 4’6”

454 1000 176.25 70.5 110.0 3’8” 140 4’8”

544 1200 187.50 75.0 120.0 4’0” 150 5’0”

634 1400 198.75 79.5 130.0 4’4” 160 5’4”

723 1600 210.0 84.0 140.0 4’8” 170 5’8”

Mangers : are feeding structures for the animals. The size of the mangers should be
sufficient to hold the feed. It should, be sufficient to hold the feed. It should be
shaped in a curved form so that no wastage of feed is allowed. The two usual types of
mangers adopted are shown in figures.
The low manger known as “sweep in” is simple and easy to construct and it affords
facility for quick feeding. The waste thrown by the animal away from the manger can
easily be swept back. The high front manger, though a bit difficult and costlier in
construction, is still adopted of less wastage by throwing the feet out of mangers. The
usual width of manger varies from 60 cm to 90 cm. The back of low manger is flush
with feeder alley and the back of height front manger is about 70 cm above the feeder
alley.
At the foot of manger a stanchion curb of height 12.5 cm is provided to prevent the
animal from dragging the feed into the stall. This curb separate the manger and the
stall and provides support for the bottom of stanchion.

Cement concrete tubes of 150-200 liter capacity are provided in between two cows.
Space for pathways: To increase the efficiency of diary management enough space for
pathways should be provided for conveying feed to the manger, milking the cows and
removing the manure waste etc. The pathways provided in a stanchion barn are feed
alleys and litter alleys. Feed alleys are pathways provided between two rows of
mangers in case of face in system or pathways between the mangers and side wall in
the case of face out system. the usual space left is 1.2 m so as to allow the conveyance
of feed in a push cart. In the case of big dairy barns the should be wide enough for a
farm cart drawn by bullocks or farm tractor. In the case of face in arrangement no
separate litter alley is provided as the sides are not enclosed. But in face ant
arrangement litter alleys are provided for a width of 1.8m to 2.4 m for facility of
milking and taking out animals. Cross alleys are also provided where the number of
animal are more to have access from one side to the other without back tracking.
Cutters: these are provided to convey the animal waste and to drain urine and wash-
water to manure pits provided out side the dairy barn. These are provided by the side
of litter alleys and their width varies from 40cm to 45cm and the depth is 15 cm. A
minimum bed slope of 2% should be given for the gutters to drain without any
stagnation.
Flooring: The flooring for dairy barns may be laid either with cement or lime concrete
as sub grade, with a meet rough finish on top with c.m. The stall platforms should be
sloped well for maintaining the clean liners. The top surface of the flooring should not
be left smooth as it may cause slipping of animals. Thread linings. Made on the floor
renders grip to the animals. A toe hold known as toe drain provided at the front of the
stall for 1/3 length helps the animals to sit or stand without slipping.
Walls : Brick or rubble mesory in lime or cement marker can be adopted for enclosing
the barn. The length should be a minimum of 2.4m. ventilators or opening of 0.37
sqm (4 sq ft) per each cow should be provided to give natural lighting & air. It climate
and environment do not call for enclosures, pillars at 2.4m to 3m apart (8 to 10 ft) can
be had to support the roof.
Roofing: In not regions, tiled roofing can be advantage adopted rather than A.C. sheet
or other corrugated sheet roofing, be cause of its less heat radiation. A.C. sheet can be
adopted where the temp is moderate. Concrete roofing is the best, if the investment in
justifiable. In the case of two rows. Barns, roof trusses of iron or timber should be
used, since the width will be more than gm.
Loose housing system : In this system of housing the milking, feeding and bedding
operations are arranged in separate places. An open exercising yard is also provided in
this system. the labour requirement is less and efficiency of management is more since
the milking is done in a small enclosed area and he manure allowed to accumulate in
the bedding area to cleared once or twice is an year. The success of this method is
related to the allotment of enough space and shelter.
Feeding shed This is a covered shed to protect the feed from rain and an area of 3.7
sqm (40 sqft) is recorded for each cow. Pavement with mangers is betters for keeping
the feeding area clean. The space of manger for each cow varies from 67.5 cm to 75
cm. and the depth should be sufficient to prevent wastage by dragging out of the
mangers. Water tub of 300 litres capacity are provided for every 15 cows in the
feeding room. For feeding shed a lean to root shed with no enclosure on are side is
economical and suitable.
Bedding area: This is also a covered area with an ample space of 6.4 sqm per cow.
The shed room should be a min. of 3m to allow piling up of manure for 0.9m height.
The bedding area should include separate place for caves at the rate of 2.8 sqm (30
sqft) per cow.
Exercising yard: This is an open enclosed space to afford free movement of animals to
get fresh air and exercise. The space required for each cow is 9.2 sqm (100 sqft). This
is provided adjoining the bedding area. The yard should have a slope of 1 in 6 for the
first 1.0m width and then 2% slope away from the bedding ara for draining water.
Milking rooms : The milking room is provided separately where facilities are made
for milking a few cows at a time. This is constructed adjoining the feed room so that
other animals can be kept there awaiting their turn to be led to milking. For providing
facility for milking, stalls should be constructed to keep the animals at the floor level
or raise above the floor where the operator works. The level floor stall arrangements
are similar to stall barns with space for litter and feeder alleys. The room is covered
on the sides and top to keep it clean.
Stall systems are either floor level, with the platforms at the same level as he floor on
which the operator works or elevated with the cow platform from 30” to 36” above the
operators (fig) floor level stalls are usually arranged abreast like the stalls in a stall
barn.
 The cows may walk thro after milking or back at F or one operator the most
convenient number of stalls in this arrangement see was to be 6 to 1, for two
operators, 8 to 12 or 16 stalls should be provided.
The elevated stall system places to cows at a more convenient and comfortable work
height for the operator. If milk is carried from milking room to milk house, the
operators floor should be at the same level as the milk house floor. The stalls are the a
elevate and suitable ramps provided for the cows.
Chute: There are a no of arrangements of stalls suited to the elevated stall system. the
chute type stalls are probably the least expensive to construct, because no wall fot eh
cows is necessary and fewer gates need be provided for handing the cows. However
all the cows, in one line must be let in and released at one time. A slow milker may
hold up the line and cause lost time. Feed boxes that slide out into 1 operators ara
permit clean. Passage for the cows to move thro. The chute arrangement can be built
force single row or two rows of cows. Feed in tube is filled with feed with the help of
chute pipe from an elevated feed storage hub.
Tandem type: The tandem type of arrangement permit cows to enter and be released
individually. However a wale for the cows must be provided along the side. Gate
must be provided on each stall, one for entrance and one for exit. The tandem
arrangement man be built for one or two cows of cows.
U Type: or square type of arrangements are modifications of the tandem arrangement.
In both the cows can be brought in and released individually. These arrangements may
centralize the milking operation more than other types.
Montana: It is an abreast arrangement with elevated stall. For one operator, one
working area and two stalls are provided for two operators, two working areas and
four stalls are provided.
Dairy Cattle Housing
Stall systems for the milking room. Stall systems are another floor-level, with the
platforms at the same level as the floor on which the operator works, or elevated, with
the cow platform from 30 to 36 inches above the operator floor (See Figure 16.14).
Floor level stalls are usually arranged abreast like the stalls in a stall barn (Figure
16.15)
The cows may walk through after milking or back out. For one operator, the most
convenient number of stalls in this arrangement seems to be 6 to 1; for two operators,
8 to 12 or 16 stalls should be provided.
The elevated-stall system places the cows at a more convenient and comfortable work
height for the operator (Figure 16.16). If milk is carried from milking room to milk
house, the operator floor should be at the same level as the level as the milk-house
floor. The stalls are then elevated, and suitable range provided for the cows. With the
pipeline milker, the operator may be in a pit, and the cows at the same level as the
holding area.
Chute. There are a number of arrangements of stalls sited to the elevated-stall system.
The chute-type stalls are probably the lest expensive to construct, because no walk for
the cows is necessary, and fewer gates need to provided for handling the cows.
However, all the cows in one line must be let in and released at one time. A slow
milker may hold up the line and cause lost time. Fed boxes that slide out into the
operators area permit clear passage for the cows to move through. The chute
arrangement can be built for a single row or two rows of cows.
 Tandem. The tandem type of arrangement permits cows to enter and be released
individually. However, a walk for the cows must be provided along the side. Gates
must be provided on each stall, one for entrance and one for exit. Ropes over pulleys
from the gates to the operator’s area facilitate the handling of the cows. The tandem
arrangement can be built for one or two rows of cows.
U type. The U-type and square-type arrangements are moderations of the tandem
arrangement. In both, the cows can be brought in and released individually. These
arrangements may centralize the milking operation more than other types. In the
square-type arrangement the pipeline milker is essential, because the operator has no
exit through which to carry the milk when the cows are in the stalls.
Montana. The Montana-type milking room is an abreast arrangement with elevated
stalls. For one operator, one working area and two stalls are provided for two
operators, two working areas and four stalls are provided.
Since concentrate grain is normally fed in the milking room, an adequate supply
should be readily available at milking time. This can be provided by overhead storage
with chutes, or by storage in a large container in the operation’s area.
In some regions of mild climate, where little or no housing is required for dairy
animal, the milking area is a separate milking barn. This milking barn is similar in
arrangement to the loose housing milking area.
Arrangement for efficiency. For maximum efficiency in operating the loose housing
system. it is essential that he various units be correctly located with respect to one
another. Such an efficient layout incorporating the ideas already discussed is shown in
Space Requirements of Dairy Animals and Layouts of Dairy Farms

All animals require shelter for protection and comfort. They can perform better under
favourable environmental conditions. Housing of animals need initial capital to the
extent the dairy farmers can afford. The animals are to be protected from high and low
temperature, strong sunlight, heavy rainfall, high humidity, frost, snowfall, strong
winds, ecto-parasite and endo-parasites. The comfortable temperature range for dairy
breeds of cattle, buffaloes and goats is 150C to 270C. Climatic stress occurs when the
temperature goes 50C below or above this range.
High humidity combined with high temperature causes more stress to animals in
tropics. Rainfall in cold climate also causes stress in temperate zone. Strong winds
further aggravate the conditions both in tropics and temperate climate. Several
techniques are available to provide relief from hot weather conditions for lactating
dairy cows. In tropical and sub-tropical climates, well-ventilated shed is a necessity at
points of high heat stress, such as feed barns, loafing areas, and in holding areas. It is
important to provide a sufficient flow of air through the building in which the animals
are kept to ensure optimum thermal conditions for dairy animals.
The space requirements of dairy animals as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) are
given in table belo

Floor, feeding manger and watering space requirements of dairy animals

SR. TYPE FLOOR SPACE) FEEDING WATER MODE OF

NO OF 2
PER ANIMAL (M ) (MANGER) TROUGH HOUSING
ANIMAL SPACE PER SPACE/
COVERED OPEN ANIMAL ANIMAL
AREA AREA (CM) (CM)
 Individual
Young
or in
1 calves (< 1.0 2.0 40- 50 10-15
groups of
8 weeks)
below 5

Older
Groups of
2 calves (> 2.0 4.0 40-50 10-15
below 15
8 wks)

Groups of
3 Heifers 2.0 4.0-5.0 45-60 30-45
below 25

Adult Groups of
4 3.5 7.0 60-75 45-60
cows below 25

Groups of
Adult
5 4.0 8.0 60-75 60-75 below 25-
Buffaloes
30

Down
6 12.0 20-25 60-75 60-75 Individual
calvers

7 Bulls 12.0 120.0 60-75 60-75 Individual

8 Bullocks 3.5 7.0 60-75 60-75 Pairs

* Based on ISI Standards for housing in India.

** The actual length and width of water trough may be decided as per the strength of
group and size of the paddock.

Model Layouts of Dairy Farms of Various Sizes

Model layouts for the construction of various farm buildings have been prepared under
loose system of housing. The loose system of housing dairy animals has been
recommended for most of the agro-climatic zones of the country with minor
modifications except in heavy rainfall regions and the high altitude regions where
winters are very harsh. The dairy animals under lose system of housing are grouped
together based on their age in case of growing animals and based on their
physiological condition when they are adults. The various categories of dairy animals
may be formed such as milking cows, dry and pregnant cows, down-calvers, bulls,
heifers and the calves. All these animals need to be housed in separate sheds and the
provision in the layout has to be made accordingly.

Apart from the animal sheds the certain other ancillary buildings/structures are also
required to be constructed such as chaff cutter shed, feed store, implements store, straw
store, milking parlour, milk room, silo pits and manure pits apart from the office, lawns.
The large sized dairy farms may also need overhead water storage tank, a small sized
workshop and parking space. The farm building may be arranged in such a manner that
they result in higher animal productivity and labour efficiency with minimum movement
of people and the animals. For example, the milking parlour may be situated close to the
milking cows shed; the milk room may be adjacent to the milking parlour, the feed storage
room also should be close to the milking parlour as the compound feed in mostly fed in the
milking parlour during milking. The calf shed should be cloase to the milking cows shed if
weaning of calves is practiced. The farm building should be constructed using cheaper
locally availbale construction materials so that the construction cost is minimized.
Given under are some model layouts of dairy farms of various sizes for the setting up of
commercial dairy farms.
Layout od Dairy Farm for 20 Cow/Buffalo Unit
As prepared by Dr. M.L.Kamboj (NDRI, Karnal)
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LESSON 11. Fundamental Requirements of a Poultry house
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1.1 Environmental Temperature / ambient temp.
Current course
AS&EC The optional temperature range for egg production lies in the range of 50-55°F. But
Participants temperature as low as 45° and, as high as 65° also do not affect egg production.
General When the baby chicks are first hatched, they do not have the facility to produce
MODULE 1. heat. Hence heat must be supplied artificially. It is an accepted practice to keep one
Planning of
Farmstead
day – old chicks at a temperature of 95°F and drop the temperature at 5°F each week
MODULE 2. until 70 is reached.
Physiological
Reactions of
Livestock
MODULE 3. BIS 1.2 Humidity
Standards
MODULE 4. Farm
When the temperature is between 32 and 45°F, the humidity should be kept below
Structures 85%. For higher temperatures the humidity should be kept below 75%. High
LESSON 6. humidities at high temperatures create undesirable conditions for the hens and result
Composting in excessive condensation in the building.
Process and
Techniques
1.3 Air and its movement
LESSON 7.
Design and A properly designed ventilation system should provide an adequate supply of fresh air
construction of
Fodder Silo for the birds and remove the products of respiration, the excess heat produced and the
LESSON 8. moisture from the breath and litter, all without causing undesirable drafts. A laying hen
Construction of will produce 40-50 BTU total heat per hour of which 25-30 BTU will be sensible heat.
Farm Fencing
The moisture which must be removed by ventilation will amount to @ 1/3rd lb of
LESSON 9.
Machinery and water per less in a day. The ventilation rate and amount of insulation should be
Implements balanced in design. An average of 2/3rd cubic foot of air/min. for each sq. feet of floor
Shed
area is required. The exhaust duct size or fan capacity can be easily determined from
LESSON 10.
Animal Shed or the computed ventilation rate. Various types of ventilation in inlets have been used
Shelters Dairy successfully in poultry laying houses. No inlet should be placed closer to any flue or
Barn
exhaust fan.
LESSON 11.
Fundamental 1.4 Light
Requirements
of a Poultry h...
Natural delight well distributed throughout the house provides the necessary lighting
MODULE 5.
for chores and for the hens to feed. The recommended window area ranges from 6-
MODULE 6. Rural
Living and 25% of the floor area for ordinary window glass. This area can be considerably
Development increased in solar-oriented houses with insulating glass. The windows should be so
MODULE 7. Water distributed that 75% of the window area extends continuously across the front of the
Supply
house. Artificial lighting is new commercially used during the winter season to extend
Topic 8
the length of day for increased egg production. A 12-14 hours length of day is
Topic 9
recommended. The light requirement is the equivalent of the 40 watt lamp hung at 6
Topic 10
feet above each 200 sq. feet of floor area.
Courses
1.5 Heat and moisture production inside poultry
Excessive moisture in farm buildings can cause considerable damage. Apart from
spoiling the appearance where moisture collects on walls and leaves stains,
 considerable damage can result from rotting of wood members by moisture; moisture
in walls reduces insulation value.
One of the primary sources of moisture in a building for housing poultry is that which
has been given off to the air in the form of vapour by the birds.
Condensation: The most obvious moisture is that which condenses on the inside
surfaces of the walls or windows because it is visible. Condensation will occur on any
surface which in below the dew point temperature of the air surrounding it. The air in
close contact with the surface is cooled, thus increasing its relative humidity. When
cooled to the saturation point, any further cooling results in condensation.
The inside surface of walls of buildings are cooler than the inside air whenever the
outside of the wall is exposed to a lower outside temperature. To determine whether
the condensation will occur, the inside surface temperature must be computed to
determine whether it is below the dew point of the inside dir.
The temperature of the inside surface may be computed by the formula.

Sanitation for Poultry

Cleanliness and sanitation are of extreme importance in carrying for poultry. Hens are
subject to numerous diseases and insect infestations. Although sanitation is principally
a management consideration, certain structural practices can facilitate the maintenance
of sanitary conditions. Providing a suitable environment and cleaning the litter inside
the house leed to sanitation.
The construction of the house with smooth surfaces can reduce the accumulation of
dirt and facilitate cleaning and disinfecting. Equipments used in the poultry house,
such as waterers, nests and feeders, should be of a type that can easily be cleaned out
and disinfected.

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AS&EC
Farm Building Designs
1. Dairy Cattle House

Functional Requirements:
• Space
• Sanitation
• Environmental control
• Economical
Total Space: static space+ biological space + social space
-static: space occupied while sitting or standing
-biological: space required for various biological activities such as feeding,
exercising etc.
-social: space required to meet their social activities eg like colored cows tend to
come together
Sanitation: Cow stall should have easily cleaned floor and walls and solid and
liquid waste should be properly managed.
Environmental control: provision of ventilation, thermal insulation, plantation
around the building should be made
Economical: To minimize travelling distance feed storage, milk storage, hay
stacks, should nearest to the point of use. Manure pits should be judiciously
located. Mangers should be properly designed to minimize feed wastage and
cross alleys have to be provided properly

24
Dairy Cattle Housing System
• Loose Housing System
• Confined Housing System

Loose Housing System

-animals are left untied.
-suitable for large herd and moderate climate
-there is some covered and some uncovered area
-covered area protects animal from direct sun and rain
- uncovered area is paved and usually planted
-cows can move freely and get exercise loose
-cows are milked in separate milking room
-space is 9-11m2 per cow
-there is a long continuous manger in the covered area

Confined Housing System

-Each animal is tied in a separate stall and
-suitable for relatively small herd and extreme climate
• Confined Housing are of 2 types
(1)Tail to Tail (2) Head to Head
Advantages of Tail to Tail System
-better inspection (as most of the time is spent on tail side)
-less chances of disease infection and
-cows can get fresh air
-central passage can be utilized while milking

Advantages of Head to Head System

-suitable when house is without wall as open space can be used as manure alley
-self sanitization process prevails as gutter is exposed to the sun
-feeding is possible from the single feed alley
-visitors can inspect cows in two rows at the same time

Constructional Detail
Floor
• Should be easily cleanable but non-slipping
• Should be impervious to water and urine
• Brick paving or fairly rough concrete can be used. Concrete flooring can be
lined with circular or hexagonal linings while the concrete is green
Pillar &Wall: - Pillars used to support roof load

25
• Brick wall erected upto 3ft and wire mesh used above, which not only
protects cows from wild fox, dogs etc. but also provides light and fresh air
circulation. Walls should be plastered to prevent accumulation of dirt.
• Roof: Roof height can be9-10ft in side and 15-16ft in the center and CGI
sheet is a good option. For thermal insulation false ceiling can be used.
• Manger: continuous type concrete manger with removable portion can be
made. (Size see fig). Inside of the manger should be curved to make
compatible to the swinging move of cow’s head
• Alleys: Manure alley, Feed Alley, Cross alley (Size see fig)
• Gutter: required to pass water and urine, slope 2% (Size see fig)
• Stall: (Size see fig), slope 1” down toward gutter. Greater slope may cause
injury
• Door: size see fig. For single row 5ft wide and 7ft high door is OK.

Ansillary Structure
• Isolation box: Sick and calving cows need isolated shed, to take special
care and prevent other cows from infectious disease. 1 isolation box for 25
cows. Size 13’ long,11’ wide is sufficient.
• Calf Housing: Young calves should not be accomodated with adult.
Community housing with adequate ventilation and light should be
constructed. Damp and ill drained building cause respiratory problems in
the young stocks. It is always beneficial to house the yougs in 3 category
depending upon the age:
(i) Calves below 1 yr. (ii) male calves above 1 yr. (iii) female above 1 yr.
• Space requirement for calf housing
-20-25 sqft/calf for calf of age less than 3 month
-25-30 sqft/calf for calf of age between 3-6month
-30-40 sqft/calf for calf of age between 6-12month
-40-50 sqft/calf for calf of age above 12month
Bull Pen: A bull should not be kept in confinement for long period which causes
over weight due to lack of exercise. A loose housing with covered area 100-
150sqft and an open lot of 200-250sqft is provided in each bull pen. Feeding and
watering trough should be arranged such that water and feed could be served
without actually entering the pen.

26
Typical Dairy Cattle House Plan

27
Poultry Housing
Functional Requirements:
-Space: Space requirement depends on
-Stocking density (no. of birds /floor area)
-Behavior (such as cannibalism)
-climate
In genera 0.35m2 per bird of space is required
• Ventilation: Adequate ventilation required to providethe birds with fresh
air and remove harmful gases and control humidity
• Temperature control: Plantation of trees cuts solar radiation in summer and
protects from chilling air in winter
• Light: poultry birds need adequate sunlight and brightness. Artificial light
can also be managed in commercial poultry house
• Dryness: Absolute dryness is essential in a poultry house. So, the floor has
to be raised reasonably above the ground and proper ventilation
maintained, water leakage prevented

System of Poultry Housing:

• Deep litter system
• Wired floor
• Cage housing

Deep litter System:

• Birds are kept on suitable litter material of about 15 to 20cm depth.
• saves labor involved in frequent cleaning however it needs periodical
stirring
• It provides good thermal insulation
• The deep litter manure is a useful fertilizer
• Birds can get food from the litter

28
Wired floor
• Floor is made of metal wire and is about 45cm above the ground.
• Birds spend most of the time in the floor and droppings fall on the rammed
floor
• Floor is slightly sloped toward the central alley
• Series of roosts are placed along the length to take rest and nests with
slopping (12.5%) floor are provided for laying eggs
• Feeding and water troughs are suitably placed to facilitate work
• Birds in contact with litter and soil are more prone to infectious disease
• Dust concentration deteriorates air quality in deep litter system
• Overall size of the house for 400 birds is 23x5.5m.

29
 Swine House
• Swine house varies with climatic conditions, available local materials and
cost. So no unique set of swine house can be advised
• Generally, there is double rows of pen with covered and uncovered area
• Total Space required : pigs under 45kg 1.62m2,sows and boars 8.6 m2
• Each pen can accommodate one or more swine

Constructional Details
• Floor: hard, impervious and easy to clean. PCC makes good quality
flooring
• Roof: thatch or CGI sheet can be used. If CGI sheet is used false ceiling is
preferable
• Doors and windows: doors should be strong and close to the floor. Door
size should be3’-6”wide and 7’ high. In a closed house window opening
should be 13.5% of floor area
• Feeding and watering trough: separate feeding and watering trough of size
18”x18”x6”is required. They may be fixed or portable.

Typical Swine Housing Plan:

30
 Sectional Elevation

Storage Structures
Grain Storage Structure
In commercial farming huge quantity of grains has to be stored preventing its loss
in terms of quantity and quality. A good storage structure should satisfy the
following requirements
1. Protection from rodents, birds, insects etc.
2. Protection from moisture and temperature
3. Easy aeration
4. Easy inspection
5. Easy loading and unloading
6. Last but not least, it should be economical
Types of grain storage structure: There are 2 types of storage structure: (1) Bag
Storage Structure (2) Bulk Storage Structure.

Bag Storage Structure:These structures are generally used to store up to 5000

tonnes of grains. Each of the structure is provided with 2 doors of 2.4x2.4m in
size. Besides this sufficient ventilators are provided. Bagged grains are arranged
in stacks with a base of 6mx10m and stack height varying from 4-5m.
• Example1: Design a bag storage structure to store 500 tonnes of paddy.
Assume reasonable data wherever necessary.
• Example2: Design a bag storage structure to store 1500 tonnes of paddy.
Assume reasonable data wherever necessary.

Bulk Storage Structure:

• There are 2 types of Bulk Storage Structure (i) Rectangular bin. (ii)
• Rectangular bins are made to store different varieties of grains separately
under the same shed
• Cylindrical bin are structures that can generally store up to 40 tonnes of
grains. A typical Cylindrical types of structure is shown in the figure to
store 10 tonnes of rice
31
• Rankine’s formula is used to design cylindrical bin
• Accordin to Rankine’s formula, H/D=tan (45+Φ/2), where H=ht of bin, D
=diameter of bin, Φ=angle of repose of
• Design a cylindrical bin to store 15 tonnes of rice. Assume data reasonably
wherever necessary.

Feed Storage Structure

 Farm Silo: It is a farm structure used to store and protect fodder so
that loss in nutrients is minimized. There are 3 types of silos:
-Pit silo
-trench silo
-tower silo
Pit silo:
• It is a circular well type pit
• Used where ground water table is deep
• side and bottom part is lined with brick masonry or concrete to protect silo
from moisture
• It is desirable to have a Shed over the silo to protect from the sun and rain
• Stair is made along the wall but it may cause air pocket, so rope and pulley
can be used to take out silage
Trench Silo:
• It is a trapezoidal type of trench
• Used where ground water table is shallow
• Its depth is limited to 2.5m
• It is covered with straw and mud plaster done over it
Tower silo:
• It is built above the ground surface
• Used where ground water table is very near to ground surface
• It is costly in comparison to other type of silo
• Loading and unloading is difficult
32
 Design
• Example 1: Design a pit silo to store silage for a herd of 400 cows having
an average body weight of 450kg each. The cows are fed silage for 200
days. Assume suitable suitable data wherever necessary.
• Example 2: Work out the major dimension of pit silo for a small herd of 50
cows weighing 400kg each. Make rational assumptions.
• Example 3: Design a trench silo for a small farm having the following herd.
Silage is fed for 160 days at the rate of 3.4kg per 100kg of animal body
weght
• Animal sBody wt No. Rate of feeding per 100kg
body weight (kg)
Buffaloes 680 40 4
Cows 450 60 3
Bullocks 500 ` 20 3.5
Heifers 180 20 3

33
Animal environmental requirements

Contents - Previous - Next

The capacity of an animal to produce differs between species, breeds and strains as a result of genetic factors. However, a complex of inter-related factors in the
animal husbandry will influence the animal's ability to utilize that capacity for growth, development and production.

Progress in breeding and feeding for further increase in production and efficiency can be limited by environmental factors. Research into these factors has
therefore been increasing in recent years, especially in countries having intensive animal production.

Animal housing design is mainly concerned with the physical environment, in particular climatic and mechanical factors, but all other factors should also be
considered in order to create a good layout, where healthy, high yielding animals can be provided with correct feeding, can be easily handled and can produce
without stress or suffering physical harm.

Heat Regulation

All domestic livestock are homeotherms; that is, they maintain relatively constant internal body temperatures, usually within a 1 to 2° C range. Normal body
temperatures of some domestic animals and humans are given in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Normal Body Temperatures of Domestic Animals and Humans

Animals Temperature °C
Average Range
Dairy Cow 38.6 38.0 - 39.3
Beef Cow 38.3 36.7 - 39.1
Pig 39.2 38.7- 39.8
Sheep 39.1 38.3 - 39.9
Goat 38.7 - 40.7
Horse 37.9 37.2- 38.2
Chicken 41.7 40.6 - 43.0
Human 37.0

The body temperature of most domestic animals is considerably higher than the environmental temperature to which they are exposed most of the time. They
maintain their body temperatures by balancing internal heat production and heat loss to the environment. The hypothalmus gland acts as a body thermostat by
stimulating mechanisms to counteract either high or low ambient temperatures. For example, increased conversion of feed to-heat energy is used to counteract
low ambient temperatures, while for example increased respiration (rate and volume) and blood circulation in the skin counteracts high ambient temperatures.
Varying temperature also results in changed behaviour. Most animals reduce their level of activity in a hot environment and, for example, pigs lie clustered in a
heap at low temperatures, while they lie spread out with extended limbs at high temperatures. This would suggest increased space requirement for pigs held in a
warm, tropical climate. The body can tolerate short periods of heat stress, but if the ambient temperature exceeds the body temperature for an extended period, it
may prove fatal.

Figure 10. 1 Classification of factors influencing livestock production.

When feed is converted by the animal's metabolism for the production of milk, eggs, meat, off-spring etc., heat is produced as a by-product. An increased
production level and thus feed requirement will therefore result in increased internal heat production. High yielding animals are consequently more likely to
suffer from heat stress in a hot climate than are low yielding ones.

Feeding fibre-rich, low digestible feed stuffs like hay will result in high heat-production because of increased muscular activity in the alimentary tract and, in
ruminants, increased micro-organism activity in the rumen. An increased share of concentrates in the feed may therefore reduce heat stress in an animal under
hot climatic conditions.

Animal Moisture and Heat Production

Heat is produced centrally in the deep body. The surplus is conducted to the skin surface where it is given off to the atmosphere as sensible heat by means of
convection, conduction and radiation and as latent heat by means of evaporation of moisture from the lungs and skin. Increasing ambient temperature, resulting
in less temperature difference between the body surface and the air, will decrease the amount of heat that can be emitted as sensible heat. Instead a larger
proportion is given off as latent heat, that is, heat employed to vapourize moisture.

Table 10.2 lists values for animal heat and moisture production at various temperatures. The heat and moisture produced by the animals confined in a structure
must be removed by ventilation. In the tropics, sufficient ventilation flow is usually provided for by the use of opensided structures.

However, if an enclosed building is used, a range of ventilation flow rates must be provided for in the building design. The minimum ventilation rate should
remove the moisture produced, but retain as much sensible heat as possible during cold periods. The maximum ventilation rate should remove enough of the
sensible heat produced so that a small temperature difference, usually 2 to 4°C, can be maintained between inside and outside. It should be noted that ventilation
alone can only maintain the building temperature at slightly above ambient. Ventilation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

Climatic Factors
Temperature

The over-riding environmental factor affecting the physiological functions of domestic animals is temperature. For most farm animals a mean daily temperature
in the range 10 to 20°C is referred to as the "comfort zone". In this range the animal's heat exchange can be regulated solely by physical means such as
constriction and dilation of blood vessels in the skin, ruffling up the fur or feathers and regulation of the evaporation from lungs and skin. At the upper and
lower critical temperatures the physical regulation will not be sufficient to maintain a constant body temperature and the animal must, in addition, decrease or
increase its metabolic heat production.
A further decrease or increase in temperature will eventually bring the temperature to a point beyond which not even a change in heat production will be
sufficient to maintain homeothermy.

A very young animal, lacking fully developed temperature-regulating mechanisms, particularly the ability to increase heat production by increased metabolism,
is much more sensitive to its thermal environment and requires higher temperatures.

Humidity

Poultry do not have sweat glands, so all evaporative heat loss must originate from the respiratory tract. Other livestock species have varying abilities to sweat
and in descending order they are as follows: Horse, donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and pig.

In a hot-dry climate evaporation is rapid, but in a hot humid climate the ability of the air to absorb additional moisture is limited and the inadequate cooling may
result in heatstress.

Too low humidity in the air will cause irritation of the mucous membranes, while too high humidity may promote growth of fungus infections. High humidity
may also contribute to decay in structures. If possible keep the relative humidity in the range of 40 to 80%.

Radiation

The heat load on a grazing animal can be considerably increased by direct solar radiation and radiation reflected from clouds or the ground. A white hair coat
will absorb less radiant energy than a dark, but the heat penetrates deeper in a white, loose coat. Air movements will dispel the heat and reduce the differences.
Furthermore, solar radiation may adversely affect the animal's skin in particular breeds having unpigmented skin.

Heat gain by radiation can be effectively reduced by the provision of a shaded area. It must, however, be sufficiently large to allow space between the animals so
that the heat loss by other means is not reduced. Grass covered ground in the surroundings of the shade will reflect less radiation than bare soil.

Air Movements

Air movements will assist in heat loss by evaporation and by conduction/ convection as long as the air temperature is lower than the skin temperature. When the
air temperature approaches the skin temperature rapid air movements are experienced as comfortable, but at low temperatures it will lead to excessive cooling of
unprotected skin areas (cold draught). In addition air movements are required to remove noxious and toxic gases and to supply the animal with fresh air for
breathing. A wind velocity of 0.2m/s is generally regarded as a minimum requirement, but it can be increased to 1.0m/s, when the temperature is nearing the
upper critical, or more when it goes beyond that.

Precipitation

Heavy rain my penetrate the fur of an animal and decrease its insulation value. A strong wind can in such circumstances lead to excessive cooling. However, a
naturally greasy hair coat will resist water penetration and with the provision of a shelter for the animals the problem may be avoided altogether.

Effect of Climatic Factors on Livestock Performance

In tropical and subtropical countries an animal may often be under heat stress. When the environmental temperature exceeds the upper critical level (18 to 24°C,
depending on the species) there is usually a drop in production or a reduced rate of gain. Furthermore, when the temperature falls outside the comfort zone,
other climatic factors assume greater significance. Humidity becomes increasingly important as do solar radiation and wind velocity.

Dairy Cattle show a reduced feed-intake under heat stress resulting in lowered milk production and reduced growth. Reproduction is also adversely affected.
There are, however, important differences between breeds. European cattle (Bos Taurus) produce well at temperatures ranging from 4 to 24° C even at high
humidity. Much lower temperatures (-10°C) have little effect as long as fluctuations are not too rapid or frequent. On the other hand, a drop in milk production
results with temperatures exceeding 25°C. The drop may be as much as 50% at temperatures of 32°C or higher. In contrast, Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), which are
native to warm climates, have a comfort zone of 1 5 to 27° C and milk production begins to drop only when temperatures rise above 35°C.

Table 10.2 Animal Heat and Moisture Production

Livestock Weight Ambient Moisture g/h, Sensible heat Total heat1 /animal
temperature* animal /animal
kg °C *°C +25° C *° C +25° C *° C +25°
Dairy Cow 400 +12 410 835 685 395 960 960
500 +12 445 910 745 430 1045 1045
600 +12 485 985 805 465 1130 1130
700 +12 515 1045 855 495 1200 1200
Dairy Calf 50 +12 70 105 70 75 115 145
75 +12 185 365 220 120 345 365
150 +12 205 365 280 170 420 420
200 +12 160 330 270 155 380 380
300 +12 220 450 370 215 520 520
400 +12 275 565 460 265 645 645
Swine 5 +27 30 20 - 40
10 +24 35 40 35 35 60 60
20 +20 60 70 55 50 95 95
30 + 16 65 90 80 65 125 125
50 +16 75 120 125 85 175 165
70 +16 100 150 145 105 215 205
 90 +16 115 170 165 120 245 235
Dry sow 180 +12 85 165 210 135 270 245
Sow one week 180 +12 120 220 285 185 365 335
prior to birth
Sow with 180 +16 175 300 340 245 460 450
piglets
Laying hen 1.5 +20 5.2 6.5 6.6 5.7 10.1 10.1
2.0 +20 6.0 7.6 7.6 6.6 11.7 11.7
Broilers 0.1 +32 3.1 - 0.9 --- 3.0
1.0 +20 5.0 6.5 6.6 5.6 10.0 10.0
1.5 +20 6.2 8.0 8.1 6.9 12.3 12.3

*Referring to temperature stated in the column "ambient temperature".

1Total heat equals sensible heat plus latent heat (latent heat equals moisture in g/h x 0.675 Wh/g).

It is important to note some of the physical differences between these two types of cattle that suits each to its climate of origin. The Zebu is characterized by a
hump, large ears and loose, thin skin including a prominent dewlap. These characteristics promote heat loss by convection and evaporation and thus efficient
body temperature regulation under hot climatic conditions. In addition, the Zebu has less subcutaneous fat, a lower body volume for the surface area, and short
smooth hair all of which contribute to the animal's comfort under hot conditions. The European breeds on the other hand have thick skin held tightly to the body,
long hair and a large amount of fat which serve as insulators, traits desirable for cold or temperate climates. Although there is a considerable range in size within
each bread, the Zebu is a relatively small animal, a fully grown bull rarely exceeds 700 kg, while the European cattle are large, reaching 1,000 kg liveweight.
Figure 10.2 illustrates the configurations of the two types of cattle. Calves seem most sensitive to cold draughts and poor ventilation, but are quite tolerant of a
wide range of temperatures.

Figure 10.2 Characteristic appearance of Zebu and [European type cattle.

Beef Cattle make their best gains at temperatures below 25° C. They can easily tolerate temperatures below 0° C if they have a good supply of feed.

Pigs require a change in ambient temperature as they age and grow, and like cattle, they show a decreased feed intake when under heat stress. Piglets survive
and develop best at 30 to 32°C initially followed by a gradual reduction to 20°C over the first three weeks. Feeder pigs (30 to 65 kg) make good gains in the
temperature range of 10 to 25°C with 24° C reported optimum. The optimal ambient temperature for pigs weighing 75 to 120 kg is 15° C. Brood sows do well at
15°C but suffer badly at 25°C and above since they do not perspire when hot. Reproduction rates fall under heat stress and sows are more apt to trample their
baby pigs in the discomfort of hot weather.
Sheep can tolerate a wide range of temperatures but should be protected from wind and rain. However, a long period of high ambient temperatures inhibits
reproduction. Heat stress also reduces lambing percentage, decreases the incidence of twinning, and decreases the birth weight of lambs. When temperatures are
below 7°C at breeding time, ewes show improved reproductive efficiency.

Goats are affected by temperature, humidity and rain. In hot climates, goats need shelter from intense heat during the day. In humid areas they need protection
from prolonged heavy rain. Excessive wetting from rain can cause pneumonia and an increase in parasitic infestation.

Poultry. The environmental requirements for poultry vary with age. Chicks should be started at 35° C. After one week the temperature is reduced gradually to
24°C by the fifth week. Broilers and young turkeys reared at ambient temperatures below 18°C are heavier than similar stock reared within the 18 to 35°C
range, but their feed conversion efficiency will be less. Laying birds produce the greatest number of eggs and the largest sized eggs at 13 to 24° C. The best feed
conversion efficiency is achieved between 21 to 24° C. With increasing environmental temperature there is a decrease in feedintake and alterations in behaviour.
Within the temperature range of 5 to 30°C there is a reduction of about 1.6% in feed intake for every 10°C increase in ambient temperature. Above 24°C there is
a reduction in egg production and egg size. A continued rise in temperature to 38°C or more may prove lethal. High humidities at high temperatures create
conditions that are more likely to be lethal because of a breakdown in body cooling through respiration.

Rabbits are affected most by sun and heat, wind, rain and draughts. Sunlight is of benefit to breading stock and the growing young, but it will also fade the coat
of coloured rabbits and discolour a white one. While rabbits enjoy the sun, they must have the chance to get out of the direct rays. Because of their thick fur
coats they tolerate cold better than extreme heat, but they are susceptible to chilling from draughts. Rabbits also need protection from rain and dampness.

Horses. Horses do not require warm surroundings, but they do not easily tolerate draughts, dampness and high humidity. When exposed to high temperatures
and vigorous exercise, horses sweat and the evaporation of this perspiration cools the skin and helps to maintain normal body temperature.

Humans. In as much as the subject of rural housing is covered elsewhere in the book, human comfort zones will be discussed briefly. Man has the ability to
become acclimatized to a constant temperature. Thus people living in cold climates easily tolerate low temperatures just as people living in tropical climates do
not mind the heat. In temperate climates, most sedentary people dressed in light clothing find optimum comfort at approximately 26°C. However, a relative
humidity of over 70% may produce discomfort. At 22°C people may feel cool regardless of humidity. Above 26°C they are likely to feel warm and as the
relative humidity rises above 45%, discomfort increases. People who are dressed warmly and doing active work can be comfortable to temperatures of 0°C and
below.

Microbiological Environment

Disease remains a major profit-limiting factor in animal production in many tropical countries. Sanitary control measures should be incorporated in any building
design, so that a good hygienic standard can be easily maintained. An animal which is well fed and watered and in good condition will have a high resistance to
disease. Good management can do much to remove or reduce the effects of adverse environmental factors, such as climatic stress, which otherwise would
weaken the body's natural defences.

New born stock should always receive colostrum (first milk), which contains antibodies. It takes time for an effective immune system to develop in an animal
and therefore good hygiene is of special importance in facilities for young animals. Pens, in particular those for calving, farrowing, etc., should be constructed in
easily cleaned and disinfected materials and be without corners and recesses where manure and dirt can accumulate.
The whole building should be cleaned and disinfected periodically and any pen that is emptied should be thoroughly cleaned before other animals are
transferred to it. Rearing and fattening of young animals should be organised so that the building can be emptied, cleaned and disinfected between batches. This
'all-in, all-out' policy is particularly beneficial for disease control, where the animals are bought from outside the farm and in finishing units for pigs as well as
broiler and layer houses.

Disease is transmitted in many ways including direct contact between animals, air-borne micro-organisms, biting insects and ticks, manure, soil, contaminated
feed and water, birds and rodents and the stockman's boots. Direct contact between animals can be reduced by decreasing the number of animals in each group
and by constructing solid partitions between pens. Solid walls may however obstruct air movements and thus contribute to heat-stress. Ideally, the waste
handling system should prevent animals of different groups coming into contact with each other's manure. Especially young animals must be prevented from
contact with manure from adult animals.

Good stockmanship includes regular observation of the animals to detect any change in behaviour, which could indicate disease. Sick animals should
immediately be separated from the herd to prevent further spread of infectious disease and to allow the animal to rest. The sick animal should be isolated in a
pen kept especially for this purpose and ideally in a separate building.

Newly acquired animals and animals returning from a market or other place where they may have been exposed to the risk of infection must be quarantined for
an adequate length of time to detect any disease they may be carrying before they are allowed into the herd.

Other Environmental Factors

Acoustical factors will only, as far as known, have marginal effect on the animal's development and production. Nervous animals may, however, react adversely
to intermittent sudden noises. Pig squeals prior to feeding can become a hazard to the stockman's hearing. Soft radio music in a milking parlour may have a
smoothing effect on the cows.

Day length or photoperiod varies with latitude and season and has a direct influence on animal performance, especially on the breeding season for sheep and egg
production of poultry. Under natural conditions, there is a correlation between length of day and rate of laying. Artificial light is used in the temperate zone to
equalize egg production throughout the year. Additional hours of light before dawn and after dusk are recommended in hot climates to encourage the hens to eat
during the cooler hours.

Dust can carry micro-organisms, which may cause an outbreak of disease.

Toxic and noxious gases are produced by manure which accumulates in buildings or storages. Especially in connection with agitation of manure slurry stored in
a pit in a building, harmful amounts of gases can be released. However, problems with gases are not likely to arise in the open-sided buildings used in the
tropics.

Contents - Previous - Next

Cattle housing

Contents - Previous - Next

Cows play an extremely important role in most African cultures. The ownership of cattle will often be the deciding factor in a man's social position in the
community because the herd may be the only practical way of accumulating wealth. However, of greater importance is the fact that cattle represent a source of
high protein food, both milk and meat.

This chapter focuses on housing requirements for cattle kept primarily for milk production. Little or no housing is required for herds maintained only for beef
production and special handling and support facilities are discussed separately.

Much of the dairying in East and Southeast Africa occurs at elevations of 1500 metres or more. European breeds have been successfully established under these
circumstances. However, European bulls crossed with Zebu cows have produced animals that are more tolerant of high temperatures than the European breeds
and significantly better producers than the Zebus. Whether purebreds or crosses, they will not provide a profit to the farmer if they are left to find their own feed
and water and are milked irregularly. Experience has shown that cattle respond favorably to good management, feeding and hygiene all of which is possible in a
system with suitable housing.

Herd Profiles

The composition and management of cattle herds vary considerably. At one extreme, nomadic herdsmen graze their entire herd as one unit. The small holder
with only a few head may keep his heifer calves for replacements or sell them. The commercial dairy producer typically has about four-fifths of his cows
milking and one-fifth waiting to calve, while heifers 10 months to calving age plus calves of various ages will approximately equal the number of milkers.
Mature dairy cows are bred annually and are milked for 300 to 330 days after calving.

At a closer examination it will be found that several factors influence the number of animals of various categories found in the dairy herd. In a herd of say, 24
cows, having calving evenly distributed throughout the year and a 12-month calving interval there will be, on an average, two calves born per month. The calves
are normally kept in individual pens for two to three months, there is thus a requirement for four to six pens in a herd of 24 cows. However, the need for calf-
pens is halved in herds where the bull calves are sold or otherwise removed from the herd at one to three weeks of age. A longer calving interval and high
mortality among the calves will decrease the required number of calf-pens, while a concentration of the calving season in the herd will increase the pen
requirements. If all calving is concentrated in six months of the year, the requirement of calf-pens will be doubled.

A number of cows in a dairy herd will be culled each year for reasons of low milk yield, infertility, disease, old age, etc. These cows are best replaced with
young stock from their own herd, since any animals acquired from outside the farm may bring disease to the herd. Cows are commonly culled after three to five
lactations, corresponding to a replacement rate of 20 to 30% per year.

In herds with very intensive production there is a tendency for higher replacement rate, but it can not exceed 40%, if the heifers are obtained exclusively from
the herd itself, since only about half of the calves born are female and of these some will die or be culled before first calving due to disease, infertility, etc.
The number of maturing heifers will increase with increasing age of the heifers at first calving, increased replacement percentage and a shorter calving interval.
Concentrated calving may slightly increase the number of animals during some periods of the year, and will greatly affect the distribution of animals to the
different age groups. The age at first calving of heifers of European breeds is typically 24 to 27 months, while heifers of the slower maturing Zebu cattle often
are 36 months or more.

Maturing heifers require little or no housing facilities in the tropics. Knowledge of their exact number and distribution in various age groups during different
months is therefore not as important to a building designer as to the manager of the herd.

Heifers should be introduced in the dairy herd at least a couple of months prior to their first calving to learn and become adjusted to the handling routines and
feed. In loose housing systems with free stalls (cubicles) or in tiebarns this may slightly increase the need for stalls, but normally the heifer will simply take over
the stall used by the culled cow, which it replaces.

In herds where cows are taken to a special calving pen during calving, one such pen per 30 cows is sufficient, since the cow and her calf will spend only a few
days there. However, in herds where the calving is concentrated in a short period the requirement can increase to one calving pen per 20 cows. The pen should
be at least 3.3m by 3.3m.

General Housing Requirements

As has been pointed out, cattle will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, i.e. temperatures of
25 to 30°C, and particularly from direct sunshine. Thus in tropical and subtropical climates shade becomes an important factor. If cattle are kept in a confined
area, it should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per cow is
limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

Sun Shade

With these needs in mind a shade structure allowing 2.5 to 3m: per animal will give the minimum desirable protection for cattle, whether it be for one animal
belonging to a small holder or many animals in a commercial herd. A 3x7m roof will provide adequate shade for up to X cows. The roof should be a minimum
of 3m high to allow air movement. If financially feasible, all the area that will be shaded some time during the day should be paved with good quality concrete.
The size of this paved area depends on the orientation of the shade structure. If the longitudinal axis is east and west, pan of the floor under the roof will be in
shade all day. Extending the floor approximately one third its length on the east and on the west as shown in Figure 10. 3, a paved surface will provide for the
shaded area at all times.

If the longitudinal axis is north and south, the paved area must be 3 times the roof area i.e. 1/3 to the east, 1/3 to the west and l/3 underneath. Obviously this
means an increase in the cost of paving. In deciding which orientation to build, the following factors need be considered:

1 With the east-west orientation the feed and water troughs can be under the shade which will allow the cows to eat and drink in shade at any time of the
day. The shaded area, however, should be increased to 3 to 4m² per cow. By locating the feed and water in the shade, feed consumption will be
encouraged, but also more manure will be dropped in the shaded area which in turn will lead to dirty cows.
2 With the north-south orientation, the sun will strike every part of the floor area under and on either side of the roof at some time during the day. This
will help to keep the floored area dry. A shaded area of 2.5 to 3m² per cow is adequate if feed and water troughs are placed away from the shaded area.
 3 If it is felt that paving is too costly, the north-south orientation is the best choice in order to keep the area as dry as possible.
4 In regions where temperatures average 30°C or more for up to five hours per day during some period of the year, the east-west orientation is most
beneficial.

Figure 10.3 shows shade patterns at various times and orientations. A gable roof shade is shown in Figure 10.4. The gable roof is more wind resistant than a
single pitch roof and allows for a center vent. A woven mat of local materials can be installed between the rafters and the corrugated iron roof to reduce
radiation from the steel and lower temperatures just under the roof by 10°C or more.

Figure 10.3 Shadows cast at various times and dates at latitude 10° south.

Figure 10.4 Sunshade with insulated corrugated steel roof:

Yards

If space is severely limited and only 4 to 5m² per cow is available, then concrete paving is highly desirable. If up to 40 to 60m² per cow is available, then
unpaved yards should be quite satisfactory as long as the feed and shade areas are paved and the yard is graded for good drainage.

If the small holder is unable to afford an improved structure such as a shade or a paved area for feeding, then conditions can be prevented from becoming
intolerable by building mounds of earth in the yard with drainage ditches between them as shown in Figure 10.5. From 20 to 30m² per cow will keep the animals
out of the worst of the mud. The soil in the mounds can be stabilized by working chopped straw or straw and manure into the surface. A number of trees in the
yard will provide sufficient shade.

Figure 10. 5a Yard with fenceline feed trough, paved feed area and earth mound.

Figure 10.5b Dimensions for an earth mound.

Deep-Bedded Sheds

In a deep-bedded system, straw, sawdust, shavings or other bedding material is periodically placed in the resting area so that a mixture of bedding and manure
builds up in a thick layer. Although this increases the bulk of manure, it may be easier to handle than wet manure alone. This system is most practical when
bedding is plentiful and cheap. Table 10.3 gives the space requirements for various ages of animals when there is access to a yard. By designing the building to
be partially enclosed on the east and west, the shading characteristics can be improved. In as much as a well drained earth floor is quite adequate, such a
building will compare favourably in cost with a shaded area which is paved.

Loose Housing with Free Stalls (Cubicles)

Although simple yard and a shade or yard and bedded shed systems are entirely satisfactory in warm climates, particularly in semi-arid areas, some farmers may
prefer a system with somewhat more protection. A loose housing yard and shed with free stalls will satisfy this need. Less bedding will be required and less
manure will have to be removed. Free stalls must be of the right size in order to keep the animals clean and to reduce injuries to a minimum. When stalls are too
small, injuries to teats will increase and the cows may also tend to lie in other areas that are less clean than the stalls. If the stalls are too large, cows will get
dirty from manure dropped in the stall and more labour will be expended in cleaning the shed area. A bar placed across the top of the free stalls will prevent the
cow from moving too far forward in the stall for comfortable lying down movements, and it will encourage her to take a step backwards when standing so that
manure is dropped outside the stall.

The bar must, however, not interfere with her normal lying and rising movements. Table 10.3 lists recommended dimensions for stalls. The floor of the stall
must be of a non-slippery material, such as soil. A good foothold is essential during rising and tying down movements to avoid injury. A 100mm ledge at the
back edge of the free stall will prevent any bedding from being pulled out to the alley. The number of stalls should ordinarily correspond with the number of
animals housed, except that in large herds (80 or more), only about 90% of the animals need to be accommodated at one time. Figure 10.6 shows two free stall
designs.

Young stock may be held in yards with shade or in sheds with either free stalls or deep bedding.

The alley behind the free stalls (cubicles) must be wide enough to allow the cows smooth passage and the following minimum widths apply:

Tie-Stall Sheds

Only in the case of purebred herds where considerable individual attention is given to cows can a tie-stall system be justified in tropical areas. If such a system
is chosen, stalls and equipment may be purchased, in which case floor plans and elevations may be available from the equipment supplier. However, if
equipment is to be manufactured locally, Table 10.5 provides some typical dimensions.

Table 10.4 Alley Widths in Conjunction with Free Stalls (Cubicles)

Alley between a row of free stalls and a through 2.7 - 3.5m

(increase to 4.0m if there are more than 60 cows
in the group)
Alley between a row of free stalls and a wall 2.0 - 2.4m
Alley between two rows of free stalls 2.4 - 3.0m
Alley between a feed trough and a wall 2.7 - 3.5m

Table 10.3 Area for Bedded Sheds and Dimensions of Free Stalls (Cubicles)

Animal Age Months Weight kg Bedded ShedArea per Free Stalls

Animal (m²)
Dimensions (m)
A B Length Width
Young stock 1.5 - 3 70 - 100 1.5 1.4 1.2 0.6
Young stock 3-6 100- 175 2.0 1.8 1.5 0.7
 Young stock 6 - 12 175 - 250 2.5 2.1 1.8 0.8
Young stock 12 - 18 250 - 350 3.0 2.3 1.9 0.9
Bred heifers and small 400 - 500 3.5 2.5 2.1 1. 1
milking cows
Milking cows 500 - 600 4.0 3.0 2.2 1.2
Large milking cows > 600 5.0 3.5 2.3 1.2

A - Enclosed and fully covered bedded shed

B - Bedded shed in conjunction with exercise yard

Figure 10.6 Free-stall cubicle designs.

Table 10.5 Tie-Stall System Dimensions (metres)

Cow live weight

Stall Section 450 kg 550 kg 650 kg
Platform width 1.1 1.2 1.3
length1 1.6 1.7 1.8
Manger width 0.5 0.6 0.65
Platform slope 2 - 4%
Nose Out Nose In
System System
Flat manger feed alley 1.7 - 2.0 1.6 - 2.0
Feed Alley (excluding step 1.2 -1.4 1.2 -1.4
manger)
Service alley width 1.4 - 2.0
Manure gutter width 0.4 - 0.7
depth 0.25 - 0.35

1 If cows are allowed to lie with their heads over the through, otherwise add 0.4 - 0.5m to the length.
The tie and feed barrier construction must allow the cow free head movements while lying down as well as standing up, but should prevent her from stepping
forward into the feed trough. Most types of yokes restrict the cow's movements too much. A single neck nail, set about 1 m high and 0.2m in over the merger
may bruise the cow's neck when she pushes forward to reach the feed. The feed barriers that best meet the requirements are shoulder supports and the comfort
stall, shown in Figure 10.7. Note the fixing rods for the cross tie which allows vertical movements of the chain. Stall partitions should be used at least between
every second cow to prevent cows from trampling each other's teats and to keep the cow standing straight so that the manure falls in the gutter.(figure 10.7c)

Figure 10.7a Shoulder support system.

Figure 10.7b Comfort stall.

Figure 10.7c Stall Partitions.

Bull Pens

A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12 to 15m² and a large exercise area of 20 to 30m². The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight horizontal rails of
minimum 100mm round timber or 50mm galvanised steel tubes to a total height of 1.5m and fixed to 200mm timber posts not more than 2m apart will be
sufficient. The gate must be designed so that the bull cannot lift it off its hinges and there should be at least two exits where the herdsman can escape.

A service stall where the cow can be tethered prior to and during service is usually provided close to the bull pen. The stall can have ramps at the sides to
support the bull's front feet.

Calf Pens

Calf mortality is often high in tropical countries, but proper management and suitable housing that protects the calf from climatic stress, infections and parasites
can reduce this.

Individual pens for calves from birth to 2 to 3 months of age are often built with an elevated slatted floor. This floor, which is best constructed from 37 to 50mm
by 75 to 100mm sawn timber boards leaving a 25 to 30mm slat between each board, will ensure that the calf is always dry and clean. The required minimum
internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 1200 by 800mm for a pen where the calf is kept to two weeks of age, 1200 by l000mm where the calf is kept
to 6 to 8 weeks of age and 1500 by 1 200mm where the calf is kept from 6 to 14 weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be tight to prevent contact with
other calves and* to prevent draughts. Draughts through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with litter until the calf is at least one month of
age. The front of the pen should be made so that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water easily from buckets or a trough fixed to the outside of the pen
and so that the calf can be moved out of the pen without lifting. The milk or milk substitute fed to the calf will not provide it with enough liquid and therefore it
should be given fresh, clean water daily or preferably have continuous access to water in a drinking nipple. All calves, but especially those which are weaned
early, should have access to good quality forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development. Forage can be supplied in a rack placed above the side
wall of the pen. Figure 10.8 shows a thatched shed with six slatted floor calf pens. This construction with a feed alley will be rather expensive but can be
cheaper if calves are fed from outside. Calf pens are recommended where the cows are kept in a semi-zero grazing or zero grazing system.

Another system that works well is the use of individual hutches as shown in Figure 10.9. The hutch must be thoroughly cleanedset up in a new location each
time a new calf is housed in it. Plenty of litter is placed directly on the ground inside the hutch. Protection from wind, rain and sun is all the calf requires, but
always moving the hutch to clean ground is the key to success.

Housing for the Small Herd

For the small holder who wants to make the very best use of his crop land and to provide his cattle with good housing that will encourage high production, a
zero grazing system is recommended.

Figure 10.10 shows perspective, elevation and plan views of a zero grazing unit for 3 cows, 2 heifers and a young calf. Additional stalls can be added up to a
total of about 10. After that consideration should be given to two milking places and a larger feed store.

Gum poles may be used instead of the cedar posts and sawn rafters, but any wood in contact with or within 5Ocm of the ground should be well treated with
wood preservative. It is desirable to pave the alley, but if that is not possible, the distance between the free stalls (cubicles) and the feed trough should be
doubled or tripled.

A concrete pit or sloping slab in which to accumulate manure is essential. If the alley is paved, the pit can also collect urine. In fact, paving the alley not only
saves space, but the value of the urine will help to pay for the paving.

The circular manure tank shown in Figure 10.10 has a volume of 10m³. This will be adequate to store the manure produced during one month plus any rainfall
collected in the alley. If more stalls are added the capacity of the tank will need to be increased or the interval between the emptyings shortened.

A water tank to collect water from the roof can be very useful unless there is an abundant supply of water nearby.

Housing for the Medium to Large Scale Herds

For the farmer with up to about 30 cows a yard with paved shade and feed area would be suitable. The yard and feeding area may alternatively be combined
with an open sided barn designed for deep bedding or equipped with freestalls and where the herd consists of high yielding cows the milking shed may be
equipped with a bucket milking machine. Some farmers with up to 30 cows may even consider using an open sided tie-stall shed.

In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following facilities:

1 Resting area for cows: a Paved shade, or b Deep bedding in an open sided barn, or c Free-stalls in an open sided barn
2 Exercise yard (paved or unpaved)
3 Paved feed area:

a Fence line feed trough (shaded or unshaded), or

b Self feeding from a silage clamp

4 Milking Centre:

a Milking shed or parlour, and

b Collecting yard (part of the exercise yard), and
 c Dairy including milk store, and
d Motor room

5 Bull pen with a service stall

6 Calving pen(s)
7 Calf accommodation
8 Young stock accommodation (yard with paved shade and feed area)
9 Bulk feed store (hay and silage)
10 Concentrate feed store
11 Veterinary facilities:

a Diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls, and

b Isolation pen

12 Waste store:

a Slurry storage, or
b Separate storage of solids and effluents

13 Office and staff facilities

Figure 10.8 Calf shed.

Each of the parts of the dairy unit may be planned in many different ways to suit the production management system, and the chosen method of feeding. Some
require ments and work routines to consider when the layout is planned are as follows:

1 Movement of cattle for feeding, milking and perhaps to pasture.

Figure 10.9 Calf hutch.

Figure 10.10 Zero grazing system for the small holder.

2 Movement of bulk feed from store to feeding area and concentrates from store to milking shed or parlour.
3 Transfer of milk from milking shed or parlour to dairy and then off the farm. Clean and dirty activities, such as milk handling and waste disposal, should
be separated as far as possible.
4 The diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls and any bull pen should be close to the milking centre as any symptoms of heat or illness are
commonly discovered during milking and cows are easily separated from the rest of the herd while leaving the milking.
5 Easy and periodical cleaning of accommodation, yards, milking facilities and dairy, and transfer of the waste to storage and then to the fields.
6 The movements of the herdsman. Minimum travel to move cows in or out of milking area.
7 Provision for future expansion of the various parts of the unit.
Milking and Milk Handling
Hand Milking vs. Machine Milking

In developed countries, where labour is scarce and expensive, machine milking has become very widespread and it is also practiced on many large commercial
dairy farms in the tropics. Milking machines not only reduces labour requirement and eliminates the drudgery of hand milking, but in most cases performs a
better quality milking operation than would be done by hand. However, most of the many small dairy farms in developing countries have a surplus of cheap
labour and the number of cows milked at each of them is not sufficient to economically justify the installation of a machine. Furthermore, machines require
power and are more expensive to purchase then the few pieces of equipment needed for hand milking. In many developing countries there is an irregular supply
of spare parts and a lack of skilled mechanics.

Machine Milking gives a good quality and operates with a uniform vacuum of 275 - 350mm of mercury, provides a massaging effect on the teats, and is easily
cleaned. The milking machine simulates nursing by the calf. Two vacuum lines lead to the teat cups. A pulsator supplies an intermittent vacuum to one line at
the rate of 45 to 60 pulses per minute. The line, connected to the shell of the teat cup, causes the teat inflation (rubber liner) to alternately expand and collapse.
This massaging action promotes normal blood circulation in the teat. The second line maintains a continuous vacuum on the teat and carries the milk either to a
stainless steel bucket or through a pipeline directly to the milk cooler.

Figure 10.11 Basic sketch of a layout for a medium to large scale dairy unit, showing the relative location of the various parts and a suggestion for extension.
(Not drawn to scale).

Bucket Milking Machine as shown figure 10.12 is the simplest and least expensive to install, but the milk must be hand carried to the cooler. This type of system
is often chosen for the small and medium size herd and where the cows are milked on a level floor of a stable or milking shed. The labor of carrying the milk to
the cooler can be avoided by installing a transfer system. This consists of a 30 litres receiving tank, including a built in filter, mounted on wheels so that it can
be moved around the stable. It is connected to the cooler with a plastic hose and the milk is drawn to the cooler by vacuum from the milker pump. The hose is
reeled in or out as necessary as the cart is moved around the stable.

Pipeline Milking Plants transports the milk through a pipe direct from the cow's udder to the milk cooler. Figure 10.13 illustrates such a system. Pipeline
milking systems are usually installed in milking parlouts where the operator stands below the level of the cows. Although they are expensive, they save
backbreaking labour and are usually designed to be cleaned in place, a feature that not only saves labour but helps to ensure good sanitation. They may also be
installed in stanchion or tie-stall bates but the extra pipeline needed makes the system even more expensive.

Milk Room and Cooler

Sanitation is the primary consideration in the handling of milk whether it is from one or two cows belonging to a small holder or from a commercial herd
supplying milk for the city. In either case an adequate supply of potable water is essential for cleaning the milking equipment immediately after use. Hot water
(85°C) mixed with a chemical detergent is required for effective cleaning and cold water is used for rinsing.

Milk should be handled in a separate area that can be easily cleaned and that is free of insects, birds, rodents and dust. The small holder producing milk only for
his own household, may be able to process, curdle, or consume his milk within a short time so that cooling is not necessary.
Selling milk to the public requires higher standards of sanitation and more elaborate facilities. Whether the cows are hand or machine milked, a separate milk
room adjacent to the milking stalls or milking parlour is needed. This room should be well ventilated and designed with a concrete floor sloped 20mm/m to a
drain and with masonry walls having a smooth, water resistant surface that can be easily and thoroughly cleaned.

Figure 10.12 Bucket milking machine.

Figure 10.13 Pipeline milking system.

Table10.6 Minimum Water Requirements for Parlour and Milkroom Washing

Hot Water, 85°C Warm Water, Cold Water 4 - 10°C

40°C
litre litre litre
Hand milking equipment 10/wash 20/wash
Bucket milking equipment 20/wash 40/wash
Pipeline milking equipment 30/ wash 60/ wash
Cooling of milk in 2 - 3 times the
plate type milk cooler amount of milk
Parlour floor wash 1/ m², day 3 - 6/ m², day
Milkroom floor wash l / m², day 1 - 3/ m², day
Car wash 3/car 6/car
Bulk tank wash 25 - 40/wash 20 - 30/wash 25 - 35/wash
Miscellaneous 20- 50/day 30 -100/day

Milk is strained and cooled in this room in preparation for sale. As soon as the cow has been milked the bacteria in the milk starts to multiply, but cooling of the
milk to about 4° C within 2 hours will drastically reduce bacterial growth. However, proper cooling is a very difficult problem for the small scale producer. The
only practical solution may be for the individual farmers in an area to bring their milk to a central collection depot for cooling immediately after milking. Figure
10.14.

On dairy farms of sufficient size and where power is available, the milk can be cooled by cold water circulated between an evaporative water cooler and a milk
cooler (plate heat exchanger), through which the milk is passed until it is adequately cooled. Where milk is stored and transported in cans, cooling can be
accomplished by immersing the full cans in a water-filled refrigerated cooler or by passing cold water through a coil, which is immersed in the can. The large
scale dairy farm, having a pipeline milking system, and the milk collection by a road tank van, will require a refrigerated cooler and holding tank.

Figure 10.14 Milk collection centre. The dimensions (A) should vary with the capacity of the cooling and holding tank.
Milking Parlour for the Medium Scale Herd

For the farmer with 10 to 30 cows and a yard with a paved shade and feed area, the milking parlour shown in Figure 10.15 is of suitable design. Two stands will
be sufficient where the herd number is 8 to 14, but more stands should be added as indicated when the herd number increases. Hand milking would probably be
used for an operation of this size. If machine milking is installed the vacuum pump and the engine, which powers it, can be put in the engine room, which is
indicated in outline in the plan view. This is arranged by closing off a portion of the store room with a simple partition.

A milk cooler will be necessary to cool and hold the milk for pick up. This and facilities for washing and storing the milking equipment will be accommodated
in the milk room, while concentrates are kept in the store room.

A milk room should face the prevailing wind to ensure good ventilation and to keep it as cool as possible, but any openings should be screened with insect
mesh.

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Milking Parlour

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On commercial farms where several cows are milked at the time, a milking parlour becomes a feasible investment. Several types of milking parlours are in use
in dairy regions throughout the world. Figure 10.16 a, b, c and d, illustrate some of the most common types.

Any type of parlour should have a high quality concrete floor and metal railings for durability and ease of cleaning. Walls are not required, but if supplied they
should at least be plastered masonry walls. The pit where the milker stands should have a floor level 900mm below that of the cattle stands for the most
comfortable work position.

The number of stands is determined by the allowable milking time of the herd or time taken to the concentrate ration.

Abreast Parlour

The abreast parlour allows cows to enter and leave individually. The variation of this parlour shown here, in which the front of the stands can be opened so that
the cows can proceed forward out of the parlour after milking has proved effective. The main drawback with the abreast parlour is the relatively long distance to
walk between milking points, and cows obstructing the herdsman, since they share the same floor space.

The stands should be 1.0 to 1.1m wide when a bucket milking machine is used or when hand milking is practiced, while 0.7 to 0.8m is adequate when a pipeline
milking system is installed. In both cases the width for the milker should be 0.6 to 0.8m. A two-level abreast parlour, in which the milker works at a lower level
than the cows stand, is more difficult to construct and has no outstanding advantages over the single level type. The abreast parlour has been common in East
Africa for herds of more than 40 cows, but its uses is decreasing and giving way to the double herringbone parlour.

Tandem Parlour

The tandem parlour also allows for individual care of the cows. It is used mostly for smaller commercial herds and in particular, for herds with high yielding
cows. The main drawbacks with this type of parlour are its larger space requirement and more expensive construction when compared to other types of parlours;
of similar capacity. The parlour capacity in terms of cows milked per hour and labour efficiency can compare to that of a small herringbone parlour.

Figure 10.15 Milking parlour for a medium size herd.

Walk-through Parlour

In walk-through or chute parlours cows enter and leave in batches. They have been used mainly for small herds. Their narrow width can be an advantage where
a parlour is to be fitted in an existing building, but it is inferior to other types in most other respects, however, it is cheaper to construct than a tandem parlour.

Herringbone Parlour
The herringbone parlour layout results in a compact working area and allows feeders to be fixed to the side walls. Four stands on each side of the pit, as shown
in Figure 10.16c, is the minimum size of this type for high labour efficiency. If the herd has fewer than 80 cows, then a double-three parlour will keep the
investment lower with only a small drop in labour efficiency. The popularity of the herringbone parlour is mainly due to its simplicity and its high capacity
measured in numbers of cows milked per man-hour. (A man-hour is the equivalent of one man working for one hour). However, the risk of cows kicking the
herdsman is greater in this type than in parlours where the herdsman stands alongside the cow.

Double 6, 8, 10 and even 12 stand parlours are used for very large herds. These larger parlours allow more cows to be milked per hour, but because of the need
for more workers and the increased waiting time to allow all cows on one side to finish before they are released, the output per man-hour is usually less.

Grain Feeders

It is advantageous to equip milking parlours with grain feeders which allow each cow to be fed in ratio to her production. Since cows are more likely to enter the
parlour when they expect to be feds some labour will be saved. Manual distribution of the concentrates with a measuring scoop is recommended except in the
largest herds. Semi automatic and automatic systems are expensive to install and require spare parts and mechanics for their maintenance and these may not be
available when needed.

Figure 10.16a Abreast parlour.

Figure 10.16c Walk through parlour.

Figure 10.16b Tandem parlour.

Figure 10.16d Herring-bone parlour.

Collecting Yard

The cows are normally assembled in a collecting yard (holding area) before milking. This may be a portion of the yard that is temporarily fenced off with
chains. The collecting yard should have a minimum size of 1.1 to 2.0m² per cow. Large horned cows and a low herd number will require the largest space per
cow. Provision must be made for water for the cows awaiting their turn to enter the parlour. The area should slope away from the parlour 20 to 100mm/m. This
not only improves drainage, but also encourages the cows to face the entrance.

The collecting yard should be paved for easy cleaning and to allow for sanitary conditions in the parlour. A roof is desirable for shade and to avoid wet cows
entering the parlour in the rainy season and it will reduce the amount of rainwater that has to be stored in the manure pit.

Entrance and Exit

An entrance into the parlour that is straight (no turns) will ensure a smooth and convenient operation. Once trained, cows and heifers will walk readily into the
parlour. A single step of about 100mm will help to keep manure from being carried into the parlour.

An exit leading into an uncrowded area will facilitate animal flow. A straight exit is desirable but not as important as a straight entry. If exiting alleys are needed
they should be narrow (700 to 900mm depending on cow size), to keep the cows from turning around.
Feeding Equipment

One advantage of loose housing of cattle is the opportunity to construct the feed trough in the fence allowing easy access for filling. The simplest type of
manger consists of a low barrier with a rail fixed above. However, cattle have a tendency to throw feed forwards while eating, but a wall in front, as shown in
Figure 10.18, will reduce this problem. The dimensions of the trough must be chosen to conform with the height, reach and required width of the feeding space
for the animals to be fed, while providing enough volume for the amount of feed distributed at each feeding time. Figures 10.17, 10.18 and 10.19.

Although timber construction is simple to install, concrete should be considered because of its greater durability. When timber is used, the base should be well
treated with wood preservative. However, the preservative should not be used on any surface which cattle can reach to lick as some preservative materials are
toxic to animals. When concrete is used, it should be at least C20, or a nominal mix of 1:2:4; since a lower grade concrete would soon deteriorate due to
chemical attack by feed stuffs and the cow's saliva. The cows will press against the barrier before and during the feeding so that the head rail must be firmly
fixed to the vertical posts, which are immovably set in the ground.

A 2.5m wide concrete apron along the feed trough will reduce the accumulation of mud. A narrow step next to the trough will help to keep the trough free of
manure as animals will not back up on to such a step. The bottom of the feed trough should be at a level 100 to 400mm above the level at which the cow is
standing with her front feet.

A slightly more elaborate feed trough separates the cattle by vertical rails or tomb stone barriers, as shown in Figure 10.19, to reduce competition during eating.
The tombstone barrier may also reduce fodder spillage because the cow has to lift her head before withdrawing it from the trough.

A simple roof constructed over the feed trough and the area where the cows stand to eat will serve as a shade and encourage daytime feeding in bright weather
while serving to protect the feed from water damage in rainy periods.

Watering Equipment

Drinking water for cattle must be clean. Impurities may disturb the microbiological activities in the rumen. Table 10.7 shows the requirement of drinking water,
but a hot environment may considerably increase it. In dairy cows the need for water will increase with milk yield.

Calves Heifers Mature

Cows
A Reach at ground level 550 650 700
B Reach at 300mm above 700 850 900
ground level
C Throught height 350 500 600
D Height to the withers 1000 1200 1300
Width of feeding space:when 350 - 500 500 - 650 650 - 750
all animals feed at once
feed always available 100 150 220
Level of feed trough bottom 50 - 200 100 - 300 100 - 400
above level of stand

Figure 10.17 Dimension for feed trough design for cattle.

Figure 10.18a Perspective view of Timber Feed Trough.

Figure 10.18b Timber Trough.

Figure 10.18c Concrete Trough and a Step in front of the Trough.

Figure 10.18d Masonry Walls in the Trough.

Dimension Calves Heifers Mature Cows

A 800 - 900 900 -1000 1000 - 1200
B 300 400 500
C 50 - 200 100 - 300 100 - 400
D 500 - 700 650- 850 700 - 900
E 300 - 550 400 - 650 450 - 700

Figure 10.19a Perspective view.

Figure 10.19b Section.

Figure 10.19c Alternative Design.

Dimension Calves Heifers Mature Cows

A 850-950 1000- 1100 1100- 1200
B 350 450 - 500 550
C 50 - 200 100 - 300 100 - 400
D 500 - 700 650 - 850 700 - 900
E 300 - 550 400 - 650 450 - 700
F 150 - 250 150 - 450 500
G 130 - 150 170 - 200 200

Table 10. 7 Drinking Water Requirement for Cattle

litre/day
Calves 10
Young stock, average 25 (8 - 12/100 kg body weight)
Heifers 35 - 45
Beef cows 30 - 45
Beef cattle 15 - 30
(30 - 60 in hot environment)
Dry dairy cows 40 - 60
Milking cows SO - 100

Water Troughs

The size of a water trough depends on whether the herd is taken for watering periodically or is given water on a continuous basis. If water is limited, the length
of the trough should be such that all of the cows can drink at one time. A trough space of 60 to 70cm should be allowed for each cow. For free choice, the trough
should be sized for 2 to 3 cows at a time. One trough should be provided for each 50 animals. Figure 10.20a and b shows a well designed trough made of
concrete. The length may be increased if necessary. A float valve installed on the water supply pipe will control the level automatically. A minimum flow rate of
5 to 8 litres per minute for each cow drinking at one time is desirable. To prevent contamination of the water trough with manure, the trough should preferably
have a 300 to 400mm wide step along the front. The animals will readily step up to drink, but will not back up onto the raised area. An alternative is to make the
sides facing the cattle sloping as shown in Figure 10.20c.

Young stock held in a loose housing system require one water trough for each 50 to 60 animals. A 60cm height is satisfactory. A minimum flow rate of 4 to 5
litres per minute for each animal drinking at one time is desirable.

Figure 10.20 Concrete water trough.

Automatic Drinkers

Automatic drinkers which are activated by the animals provide a hygienic means of supplying water for cows and young stock. Figure 10.21. When used in
loose housing systems for cows the bowl should be placed at a height of 100cm and be protected by a raised area beneath it. (1m² and 150 to 200mm heigh).
One bowl should be provided for each 10 to 15 cows.
A nipple drinker without bowl provides the most hygienic means of watering for young stock, but most nipples have limited flow rate and can therefore not be
used for calves older than 6 months.

Feed Handling

The types and quantities of feed stuffs to be handled varies greatly from farm to farm.

Figure 10.21 Automatic Drinker.

Dry Hay or Forage

If an adequate supply of green forage can be grown throughout the year, then only temporary forage storage and space for chopping is required. On the other
hand if a prolonged dry season makes it necessary to conserve dry forage, a storage method that will prevent spoilage is essential. A raised slatted floor with a
thatched or corrugated steel roof will provide good protection for hay. A simple storage similar to the sunshade shown in Figure 10.4 will be adequate.

If the store is filled gradually, it may help to have some poles in the top of the shed on which to spread hay for final drying before it is packed into the store.
Loose hay weighs about 60 to 70 kg/m³. Although requirements will vary greatly a rough guide is 3 to 5 kg of hay or other forage per animal per day of storage.

Silage

Good quality silage is an excellent feed for cattle. However, it is not practical for the small holder with only a few cows because it is difficult to make small
quantities of silage without excessive spoilage.

Successful silage making starts with the right crop. The entire maize plant including the grain is ideal as it has enough starch and sugar to ferment well. In
contrast many grasses and legumes do not ferment well unless a preservative such as molasses is added as the forage is put into the silo.

It takes a good silo to make good silage. The walls must be smooth, air-tight and for a horizontal silo the walls should slope about 1:4 so that the silage packs
tighter as it settles. The forage to be made into silage should be at about 30 to 50% moisture content and must be chopped finely and then packed tightly into the
silo. The freshly placed material must be covered and sealed with a plastic sheet. Failure at any step along the way spells disaster.

The large commercial farmer, with well constructed horizontal or tower silos and the equipment to fill them, has the chance to make excellent feed. However,
good management is no less important, regardless of size.

Concentrates and Grains

Again the amount to be stored is highly variable. The method of storing is little different from food grains and suitable storage facilities are discussed in Chapter
9.

Manure Handling

Careful waste management is needed:

 to utilize the fertilizing qualities of the manure, urine and other wastes;
to maintain good animal health through sanitary facilities;
to avoid pollution of air and water and to provide good hygiene around the farmstead.

The method of disposal depends on the type of wastes being handled. Solids can be stacked and spread on fields at the optimum time of year, while liquids must
be collected in a tank and may be spread from tank-wagons.

Manure from a livestock production unit may contain not only faeces and urine, but also straw or other litter materials, spillage from feeding, and water. If silage
is produced on the farm, the runoff from the silos should be led to the urine collection tank. Depending on the wilt the amount of effluent can vary from zero to
0.1 m³ or more per tonne of silage but normal storage allowance is 0.05 m³ per tonne.

Manure is handled as solid when the dry matter content exceeds 25%. In this condition the manure can be stacked up to a height of 1.5 to 2 metres. This
condition of the manure is only obtained when urine is drained away immediately and a prescribed amount of litter, like straw or sawdust, is used. The use of 1
to 2.5 kg of litter per cow per day will ensure that the manure can be handled as a solid. Manure with less than 20% solids has the consistency of thick slurry. It
must be collected in a tank or pit but is too thick to handle effectively with pumps. It must be diluted with water to less than 15% solids before it can be pumped
with a conventional centrifugal pump. If diluted in order to use irrigation equipment for spreading liquid manure, the solids must be below 4%.

The amount of manure as well as the composition varies depending upon factors such as feeding, milk yield, animal weight, position in the lactation period, and
health of the animal. Cattle fed on 'wet' silages or grass produce more urine. Table 10.8 shows the manure production in relation to the weight of the animals.

To estimate the volume of manure and bedding, add the volume of manure from Table 10.8 to half the volume of bedding used. Heavy rains requires removal of
liquid for stacked manure, within the storage period. Similarly the storage capacity must be increased by about 50% or a roof should be built over the storage
when slurry or liquid manure.

Example

Find suitable dimensions for a slurry manure pit with access ramp given the following:

Animals: 5 dairy cows 500 kg

Storage period: 30 days

Maximum slope of access ramp: 15%

Storage capacity (V) needed (see Table 10.8);

V = 5 x 30 x 0.055 = 8.25m³

Table 10.8 Manure Production in Cattle

Weight of animal Faeces Urine Total Manure Storage

 capacity to be allow*
kg kg/day kg/day kg/day m³/day
Dairy cattle
50 2.7 1.2 3.9 0.004
100 5.2 2.3 7.5 0.009
250 14 6 20 0.025
400 23 10 33 0.045
600 35 15 50 0.065
Beef cattle
350 15 6 21 0.025
450 19 8 27 0.035
550 24 10 34 0.045

* These values are for manure only - no bedding is including. Washing water used in the milking parlour may amount up to 300 litres/stall/milking. Usually 50
litres/head/day to allowed.

(Normal variation can be as much as ±20% of the tabled figures).

Assume the pit will be 0.5m deep and 5m long, see sketch

Total width (W) will then be:

W = V / (l1 + 0 5l2) h

I2 = h / 0.15 = 0.5 / 0.15 = 3.3m

l1= l - 12 = 5 - 3.3 = 1.7m

W = 8.25 / ( 1.7 x 0.5 x 3.3) x 0.5 = 4.9m

A pit 5 x 5 x 0.5m with a slope on the access ram of 15% is chosen.

Cattle Dips
Ticks continue to be one of the most harmful livestock pests in East Africa. As vectors of animal diseases ticks have been a great hindrance to livestock
development especially in areas where breeds of cattle exotic to the environment have been introduced.

At present the only effective method of control for most of these diseases is control of the vector ticks. Dipping or spraying with an acaricide is the mose
efficient way of reducing the number of ticks.

Siting a Dip

The ground where a dip is to be built, and the area around should be slightly sloping and as hard as possible, but not so rocky that a hole for the dip cannot be
dug. Laterite (murram) soil is ideal: The ground must:

support the structure of the dip;

be well drained and not muddy in wet weather, and
be resistant to erosion or gullying of cattle tracks.

Cattle must not be hot or thirsty when they are dipped, so it is important to have a water trough inside the collecting yard fence.

Figure 10.22 Manure pit with access ramp.

Waste Disposal and Pollution

All dipping tanks need to be cleaned out from time to time and disposed of the accumulated sediment. It is normal for all the waste dip-wash to be thrown into a
'waste pit' that is dug close to the dip. In addition dipping tanks may crack with leakage of acaricide as a result.

The siting of the dip and the waste pit must therefore ensure that there is no risk of acaricide getting into drinking water supplies, either by overflowing or by
percolating through the ground. The waste pit should be at least 50 metres from any river or stream, 100 metres from a spring or well, and considerably more
than that if the subsoil is sandy or porous. Figure 10.23 shows a typical site layout and describes the features in the order that the cattle come to them.

Footbaths

Footbaths are provided to wash mud off the feet of the cattle to help keep the dip clean. At least two are recommended, each 4.5 metres long and 25 to 30cm
deep, but in muddy areas it is desirable to have more. Up to 30 metres total length may sometimes be required. Figure 10.23.

The floor of the baths should be studded with hard stones set into the concrete to provide grip, and to splay the hoofs apart to loosen any mud between them.

The footbaths should be arranged in a cascade, so that clean water added continuously at the end near the dip, overflows from each bath into the one before it,
with an overflow outlet to the side near the collecting pen. Floor level outlet pipes from each bath can be opened for cleaning.

If water supply is extremely limited, footbath water can be collected in settling tanks and reused later.

Jumping Place A narrow steep flight of short steps ensures:

 that animals can grip and jump centrally into the dip,
that their heads are lower than their rumps at take-off,
that they jump one at a time, and
that dip-wash splashing backwards returns to the dip.

The lip of the jumping place experience extreme wear and should be reinforced with a length of 10cm diameter steel pip.

Figure 10.24 shows the jumping place 40cm above the dip-wash level. While such a height is desirable to give maximum immersion, there could be some
danger to heavily pregnant cows if the water level was allowed to fall a further 40cm. (The dipping of 1,000 cattle without replensihment would lower the water
level to 60cm below the jumping place).

Splash walls and ceiling are provided to catch the splash and prevent the loss of any acaricide. The ceiling will protect a galvanized roof from corrosion. The
walls can be made of wood, but masonry is most durable.

Figure 10.23 Cattle dip layout.

Figure 10.24 Cattle dip.

The Dipping Tank

The dipping tank is designed to a size and shape to fit a jumping cow and allow her to climb out, while economizing as far as possible on the cost of
construction and the recurrent cost of acaricide for refilling. A longer tank is needed if an operator standing on the side is to have a good chance of reimmersing
the heads of the animals while they are swimming, and increased volume can slightly prolong the time until the dip must be cleaned out. In areas with cattle of
the 'Ankole' type with very long horns, the diptank needs to be much wider at the top.

Poured reinforced concrete is the best material to use in constructing a dipping tank in any type of soil although expensive if only a single tank is to be built,
because of the cost of the form-work involved, the forms can be reused. If 5 tanks are built with one set of forms the cost per tank is less than the cost of
building with other materials, such as concrete blocks or bricks. A reinforced concrete dipping tank is the only type with a good chance of surviving without
cracking in unstable ground. In areas prone to earthquakes a one-piece tank is essential.

Catwalk and hand rails are provided to allow a person to walk between the splashwalls to rescue an animal in difficulty.

In addition to providing shade, a roof over the dipping tank reduces evaporation of the dip-wash, prevents dilution of the dip-wash by rain, and in many cases,
collects rain water for storage in a tank for subsequent use in the dip.

Draining Race

The return of surplus dip-wash to the dipping tank depends on a smooth, watertight, sloping floor in the draining race.

A double race reduces the length and is slightly cheaper in materials, but a very long single race is preferable where large numbers of cattle are being dipped.
Side-sloping of the standing area towards a channel or gutter increases the back-flow rate. The total standing area of the draining race is the factor that limits the
number of cattle that can be dipped per hour, and the size shown in the drawings should be taken as the minimum.

A silt trap allows settling of some of the mud and dung from the dip-wash flowing back to the tank from the draining race. The inlet and outlet should be
arranged so that there is no direct cross-flow. Provision must be made to divert rain water away from the dip.

Cattle Spray Race

A spray race site requires the same features as a dip site and these have already been described. The only difference is that the dip tank has been changed for a
spray race. The race consists of an approximately 6m long and 1m wide tunnel with masonry side walls and a concrete floor. A spray pipe system on a length of
3 to 3.5m in the tunnel having 25 to 30 nozzles place in the walls, ceiling and floor, discharge dip liquid at high pressure and expose the cattle passing through to
a dense spray. The fluid is circulated by a centrifugal pump giving a flow of 800 litres per minute at 1.4 kg/ cm² pressure. Power for the pump can be supplied
by a 6 to 8 horsepower stationary engine, a tractor power take-off, or a 5-horse-power electric motor. The discharged fluid collected on the floor of the tunnel
and draining race is led to a sump and re-circulated. In addition to being cheaper to install than a dipping tank the spray race uses less liquid per animal and
operates with a smaller quantity of wash, which can be freshly made up each day. Spraying is quicker than dipping and causes less disturbance to the animals.
However, spray may not efficiently reach all parts of the body or penetrate a fur of long hair. The mechanical equipment used requires power, maintenance and
spare parts and the nozzles tend to get clogged and damaged by horns.

Handspraying is an alternative method that can work well if carried out by an experienced person on an animal properly secured in a crush. The cost of the
necessary eqyuipment is low, but the consumption of liquid is high as it is not re-circulated. The method is time consuming and therefore only practicable for
small herds where there is no communal dip tank or spray race.

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Semi-intensive Systems

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Semi-intensive systems are commonly used by small scale producers and are characterized by having one or more pens in which the birds can forage on natural
vegetation and insects to supplement the feed supplied. It is desirable to provide at least two runs for alternating use to avoid build up of disease and parasites.
Each run should allow at least 10 to 15m² per hen and be fenced, but a free-range allowing 40 to 80m² per hen will be required where the hens are expected to
obtain a substantial part of their diet by foraging. A small, simple house, which allows 0.3 to 0.4m² per bird, and which has a thatched roof a littered earth floor
and slatted or chicken wire walls on at least three side will provide protection from inclement weather, from predators at night and offer shade in the daytime.
The shelter should be large enough to enter to collect eggs and be equipped with nextboxes, feeders, drinkers and perches. For convenience the house should be
situated so that access to each of the runs can be provided with small outlet doors or 'popholes'.

Figure 10.38 shows another type of shelter for roosting and laying, which can be used in combination with daytime foraging by the hens. The legs of this
structure have rat guards and ant protection and may be equipped with skids or wheels to make the whole unit easily movable between runs. Feed and water are
provided in troughs outside the house.

This system is low in cost, but growth of the birds and egg production are likely to be less than with systems offering closer confinement and better feed. Losses
may be encountered by birds of prey and from failure to find eggs laid in bushy areas. The poultry run requires a considerable amount of fencing.

A fold unit is a house and run combined, having part of it covered with chicken wire and the remainder with solid walls. The unit should allow 0.5m² per bird
and must be moved each day over an area of grassland. A unit 6 by 1.5m will take 16 to 18 birds and can normally be handled by one man. For larger flocks
several such units will be used. Portable units are generally more expensive than permanent houses and may decay quickly because of the contact with the
ground. The hens have reasonable protection against birds of prey and inclement weather, and parasites, if the unit is not returned to the same area within 30
days.

In areas where grassland is limited a yard deeply littered with straw and allowing only 0.4 to 0.7m² per bird will provide for an outdoor exercise area. This
system is similar to the deep litter system, but requires more space, a considerable amount of litter for the yard and the fresh green food has to be carried to the
birds.

Figure 10.38 Poultry shelter for 50 layers.

Figure 10.39 Fold unit for /8 layers.

Deep Litter System

Deep litter houses, Figure 10.40, confine the birds in a building that offers good protection with a reasonable investment. If well designed with low masonry
walls set on a concrete floor and wire mesh completing the upper part of the walls, the building will exclude rats and birds.

The principal advantages of this system are easy access for feeding, watering and egg gathering, good protection and reasonable investment. The principal
disadvantage is the need for high quality litter. If this is produced by the owner, it is of little significance, but if it must be purchased, it becomes an economic
factor. In either case, the litter and manure must be removed periodically.

The deep litter house can be designed up to 9m in width and any length that is needed. Approximately 4 to 5 birds/ m² of floor area is a satisfactory density.

Slatted or Wire Floor System

Figure 10.40 Deep litter house for 130 layers (or 350 broilers). Note the solid wall facing the prevailing wind.

A small house of this type with slatted floor is shown in Figure 10.41. Alternatively wire mesh can be used for the floor. It is built on treated wooden piers 0.8 to
1m above the ground. Ventilation and manure removal are both facilitated, no litter is required and bird density can be 6 to 8 per m². Feeding, watering and egg
gathering are all efficiently handled from the outside. Either a double pitch thatch roof or a single pitch corrugated steel roof may be installed with the eaves
about 1.5m above the floor. If the latter is used, some insulation under the roof is desirable. The feed troughs should be equipped with hinged covers and rat
guards should be installed at the top of each pier. The width of this type of building should be limited to about 2m to allow easy removal of manure and
adequate wall space for feed and nests. The building should be oriented east and west and may be of any length. However, if it is more than 5m long, nests will
need to be put on the sides and all remaining wall space on either side used for feeders in order to allow the required 100mm/bird. See Table 10.13.

If using a slatted floor' made sufficiently strong for a person to walk on, then a wider building is feasible as feeders can be placed completely inside where the
chickens have access to both sides of the trough. The floor is sectioned for easy removal during cleaning out of manure.

This type of houses is said to be cooler than other types, but the building cost is high and management is more complicated.

Figure 10.41 Slatted floor house for 50 layers.

Combination of Slatted Floor and Deep Litter

A combination deep litter, slatted floor house, offers some advantages over a simple deep litter house, but with some increase in investment. Figure 10.42 shows
a house of this type for the small producer.

Approximately l/2 of the floor area is covered with small gum pole slats or with wire mesh. This area is raised above the concrete floor 0.5m or more so that
cleaning under the slatted portion may be done from the outside. Waterers and feeders are placed on the slatted area. This type of house is limited in width to 3
to 4m so that feeders and waterers can be handled from the litter area and manure beneath the slatted area can be easily removed from the outside without
moving the slats or disturbing the birds. Although this system entails added expense for materials and labour to install the slats, the bird density can be increased
to 5 to 7 per m², so there is little difference in the cost per bird. This system saves on litter, increases litter life, reduces contact between birds and manure, and
allows manure removal without disturbing the hens. Ventilation is improved due to the slatted floor. Perhaps the biggest disadvantage is the limited width for
convenient operation and the need for some litter.

In medium to large scale houses of this type the slatted floor must be made removable in sections and at least part of it made strong enough to walk on. An
increased building cost and a more complicated management will result, however. The house shown in Figure 10.43 has slats over 2/3 of the floor area. This is
generally considered maximum for this type of house and allows for a stocking density of up to 8 birds per m². Automatic tube feeders are placed on the slatted
floor. One such feeder, with a bottom diameter of 0.6m can serve for 60 to 75 birds, depending on size of breed. The water troughs are suspended from the
ceiling. The nestboxes are doubled by arranging them back-toback and have one end resting on the slatted floor and the other suspended from the ceiling. Egg
collection can be facilitated by the use of a trolley, which is supported on a rail just below the ceiling. Cleaning out between batches can be done by a tractor
shovel, if all furnishings and part of the end walls are made removable.

Figure 10.42 Poultry house fot 40 layers half deep litter/ half slatted floor.

Figure 10.43 Poultry house with l/3 deep litter and 2/3 slatted floor for 1100 to 1200 layers.

Cage or Battery Systems

Cage management of layers in very large, well insulated, windowless buildings has become the standard practice in much of Europe and the colder parts of the
United States. With complete mechanization of feed, water, egg collection, manure removal and environmental control, two to three people can care for
thousands of birds.

It should be noted that a very large investment is made in order to obtain labour efficiency and ideal environmental conditions. East and South-East Africa has
relatively low labour costs and a mild climate making a mechanized cage system in an insulated building unnecessary and impractical.

Nevertheless, there are much simpler cage systems that may work very well for commercial growers in this region. These consist of rows of stair-step cages in
long narrow shelters. Figure 10.44. The thatch roof or insulated metal roof shelter can be completely open on the sides with perhaps some hessian curtains in
areas where cold winds are experienced. The buildings should be oriented east and west and designed to provide shade for the cages near the ends.

A 3.4 metre width will allow for four cages without overlap and an alley of about 0.9 metre. While a concrete floor makes cleaning easy, smooth hard soil is less
expensive and quite satisfactory. A little loose sand or other litter spread on the soil before the manure collects will make manure removal easier. The building
posts should be treated with wood preservative and be sturdy enough to support the cages. Rat guards should be installed on the posts at a height of 0.8 to 1 m.
A central alley, raised 20cm and cast of concrete is easily cleaned and keeps manure from encroaching on the work area. Feeding and egg collecting are easily
done by hand while watering may be either by hand or with an automatic system. It is important that the watering trough be carefully adjusted so that all birds
receive water. The simplest method of supplying water automatically or by hand at one end is to slope the entire building and row of cages 10mm/3m of length.

The trough can then be attached parallel with the cages. Water must run the total length of the trough and it is inevitable that some will be wasted. Consequently
a good water supply is essential.

Even though feed is distributed by hand, feed stores should be built convenient to each building to reduce carrying to a minimum. Eggs can be collected directly
on to the "flats" that are stacked on a cart which is pushed down the alley. The cart can be made self-guiding by means of side rollers that follow along the edge
of the feed troughs or the raised central alley.

Cage types that are equipped with pans to catch the manure are not advocated because they restrict ventilation. Previously used cages should be considered only
if they are of a suitable design, and have been carefully inspected for condition prior to purchasing.

Figure 10.44 Cage compartment and various arrangements of cage tiers in open-side houses.

Table 10.14 Recommended Minimum Dimensions of Cages for Laying Hens

Layers per Cage Area1 Width Depth Height Floor
cage per bird front back slope
No. cm² mm mm mm mm %
1 1100- 1300 250 450 500 400 11 - 15
2 700-900 360 450 500 400 11 - 15
3 600-750 450 450 500 400 11-15
4 550 - 650 530 450 500 400 11 - 15
5 500 - 600 600 450 500 400 11 - 15
20 800 - 900 2000 850 650 500 15 - 20

1 Depending on the size of the breed

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Summary

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The housing systems for layers that have been described should meet the needs of most situations encountered in East and South-East Africa. In the few cases
where much colder weather occurs, the buildings described should be built with one or more tight walls. However, it must be emphasized that chickens tolerate
cold weather better than wet, sticky, foul smelling litter resulting from inadequate ventilation. If the temperature falls below freezing it is essential that the
chickens have a continuous supply of free flowing water (not ice) and that eggs are collected frequently enough to avoid freezing.

Planning for Continuous Production

The producer who can supply his market with either eggs or meat on a regular and uniform basis will undoubtedly find his produce in demand at the best market
prices. Planning the poultry housing system has much to do with uniform production.

A programme for 1,000 layers is diagrammed in Figure 10.45. A larger or smaller operation can be designed with the same number of buildings, but of a
different size.

It is assumed that the brooder house is large enough for brooding only and that pullets will be transferred to a laying house for growing to laying age. New
chicks are started every 13 weeks, brooded 7 to 8 weeks, and then transferred to the laying house. After approximately 11 weeks they will start a laying period
of 52 weeks, after which they are sold and the house cleaned and rested for two weeks before the cycle is renewed. Five laying houses are required. At any one
time four will have layers in full production and the fifth will either be housing growing pullets or be empty for cleaning. Each house is on a 65 week cycle: 11
weeks growers, 52 weeks layers, 2 weeks cleaning. The brooder house is on a 13 week cycle: 7 to 8 weeks brooding, 5 to 6 weeks cleaning and resting. A
suggested housing layout is shown in Figure 10.46.

Housing for Breeders

Breeders must be housed in one of the floor systems since cocks need to run with the hens. One cock per 5 to l0 hens is sufficient. Special emphasis is placed on
disease control, so frequently a partially or completely slatted floor design is preferred.

Few commercial producers will breed their own replacements, but will instead buy day-old chicks from a commercial hatchery.

However, most chicks of indigenous breeds are produced by natural incubation at small scale farms. A hen sitting on some 8 to 10 eggs, needs little feed and
even less attention, but a cool, clean nest at ground level that is enclosed to protect the hen and later the chicks from insect pests, vermin and predators, and a
supply of feed and clean water may improve the breeding result.

Brooders

Naturally hatched chicks are reared and protected by the broody hen and can be left undisturbed as long as their yard is protected from predators, is of good
sanitary standard and has a supply of feed and water.
Artificially incubated chicks must be started under gas or oil-fired brooders to compensate for the absence of a natural mother and to keep them warm without
their crowding together. If electricity is available a 250W infrared ray lamp is a more reliable and comfortable solution, but is also more expensive.

A cheap, simple but still efficient brooding arrangement that will serve for about 100 chicks is shown on Figure 10.47. The hover, which prevents the heat from
escaping and protects the chicks from draught, is made from a halved oil drum and is equipped underneath with two heaters, e.g. kerosene storm lanterns
protected by netting. The hover is suspended by chains from the roof structure and its height over the floor is adjusted according to the required temperature.

A similar but larger brooder for 400 to 500 chicks has a hover made from two 3m long corrugated roofing sheets, is equipped with 6 heaters and has a
proportionally larger area enclosed by the 60cm wall and is supplied with 10 water founts and 10 feed troughs.

Figure 10.45 Production flow when starting chicks every three months.

Figure 10.46 Layout of buildings for 1000 layers and brooder house for replacements.

Figure 10.47 Brooding arrangement for approximately 100 chicks.

Housing for Pullets and Broilers

In the past, poultry meat has been derived chiefly from culled layers. This is still the main source of poultry meat in most developing countries, although there is
an increasing shift to rearing chickens specifically for meat. Broilers, the common term for meat birds, are fastgrowing strains which reach market weight of 1.6
kg in 8 to 12 weeks. The commercial production of poultry meat is now based primarily on broilers.

In a semi-intensive system the growing pullets may obtain part of their food by scavenging for forage, seed, etc. A fenced yard allowing 5 to 8m² per bird is
preferable to open land. At least part of the yard should have shade cover and a simple building in which the birds can be enclosed at night will be required. The
building should allow 0.2m² per bird, have good ventilation, perches for roosting and offer protection against predators and inclement weather. The birds should
be moved at regular intervals to a different yard in order to avoid a build-up of worm infestation.

There is little difference in the rearing of chicks to become pullet replacements for the laying flock or broilers for market. The same environment and housing
are suitable, so they will be considered together.

Brooding and rearing are floor-managed operations. It is common practice to keep broilers or pullets in the same house from the time they are one day old, first
on newspapers or thinly spread litter, and later, on deep litter. When broilers are marketed at 8 to 10 weeks of age, or pullets are transferred to the laying house
at 16 to 18 weeks of age, the litter is removed so that the house can be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Therefore, the house should be designed and built to
allow for easy and efficient cleaning. Pullets and broilers are not grown together because of the different length growing periods and differing schedules for
artificial lighting.

Chicks are started in a brooder, which may be of the type discussed in the previous section and remain there for six to eight weeks. During this time it is
desirable to conserve heat and to prevent draughts, and in this, the building design can be an important factor. A method that is widely used in the United States
called "end room" brooding works well and seems adaptable to warm climates as well. By taking advantage of the fact that chicks up to 4 weeks old require
only 1/3 to 1/2 as much floor space as they will need later on, one end and enough of the adjacent sides are closed in tightly to provide 0.05m² of floor space per
chick to be brooded. Off-cuts, with low thermal capacity, are ideal for enclosing the wall. A hessian curtain makes the fourth (inside) wall to complete the
temporary enclosure. The baby chicks can then be confined in the space around the brooder in the enclosed end of the house. See Figure 10.48.

The balance of the walls are covered with 18 to 25mm wire mesh. At the end of the brooding period the brooder is raised to the ceiling for storage, the Hessian
curtain is lifted and the chicks are allowed into the balance of the house which should provide from 0.08m²/bird for broilers to 0. 17m²/ bird for pullets.

Depending on the maximum temperatures expected, it may be necessary to provide some ventilator openings in the tight walls. An adjustable gable-end
ventilator is particularly desirable as the roof will not have a ridge vent due to the brooding operation.

If cool, breezy weather is expected, one or more of the screened sides may be equipped with Hessian curtains.

Equipment and Stores

In addition to what has already been described, any chicken house will require equipment such as waterers, feeders and a feed store and perhaps perches for
roosting. Houses for floor managed layers or breeders will require nestboxes. A store for eggs may be required in any laying house. Feeders and waterers should
be in sufficient numbers for easy access (particularly important for young chicks), be long enough for each bird to have its place and have sufficient holding
capacity. The Tables 10.13 and 10.15 provide some information for their design. Most chickens in intensive production are fed water and mash on a free choice
basis.

Note: The cumulative feed consumption in pullets from one day to the point of laying at 20 to 24 weeks is 1012 kg. The rearing of one broiler from one day old
to marketable weight (2 kg live weight) at 9-12 weeks of age requires 4 to 6 kg feed.

Feeders

Either trough or tube feeders are used for day-old chicks, growing birds and layers, but their size must be selected to suit the birds to be fed. The number of
feeders should be such that the distance to the nearest feeder should not exceed 2m from any point in the house. A trough should not be too wide, be easily
cleaned and have a design that prevents the hens from leaving their droppings in it.

Figure 10.48 A closed end brooder and growing house.

Table 10.15 Feed and Water Requirement for Pullets and Broilers Relative to Their Age and for Layers Relative to Their Weight and Egg Production.

Chickens Feed Requirements kg/week bird Water Requirement l/

Pullets Broilers day per bird

Rearing birds
1 - 4 weeks of age 0.07 - 0.20 0.10 - 0.40 0.05 - 0.15
5 - 8 weeks of age 0.26 - 0.36 0.50 - 0.90 0.16 - 0.25
9-12 weeks of age 0.40-0.49 1.00-1.10 0.20-0.35
13 - 20 weeks of age 0.51 - 0.78 - 0.25 - 0.40

Egg production: No. of eggs/year

Layers 100 200 300

Light breed 0.54 0.65 0.78 0.25-0.35
Medium breed 0.69 0.82 0.94 0.27-0.40
Heavy breed 0.84 0.96 1.10 0.30-0.45

Figure 10.49a shows a good type of trough that can be made by the farmer. If used outside in a run the trough should be sheltered by a roof. Small trough
feeders for chicks are used on the floor, but the larger ones are usually mounted on a stand to prevent the chickens from kicking litter into them and have perches
where they can stand while eating, see figure 10.49b. The tube feeders, as shown in Figure 10.49c, are suspended from the ceiling and are easily adjusted for
height (0.3m above ground is recommended for mature birds).

Drinkers

An ordinary 10 or 15 litre bucket serves very well as drinker for layers. If it is sunk into the floor or ground so that only about 10 centimetres are out it may be
used for chicks as well. Another arrangement for chicks consists of a shallow bowl supplied with water from an upside down bottle, as shown in Figure 10.62.
Water fountains of the type shown in Figure 10.49d are available in sizes for all ages. Like feeders they are used on the floor for small chicks and on stands for
older birds. The number of drinkers should be such that all chickens have access to one within a distance of 3m.

Automatic drinking nipples may be used for layers in cages. There should be at least one nipple per every two hens. It is desirable that every hen have access to
two nipples as clogging of a nipple is not always readily detected.

Figure 10.49a Trough

Figure 10.49b Trough on a stand

Figure 10.49c Tube feeder

Figure 10.49d Woter fount

Nest Boxes

Layers and breeders, except those managed in cage systems, should have access to nestboxes in which they can lay their eggs. The nests can be such that they
can be used by one or more birds at a time. Single nests commonly have the dimensions 250 to 300mm wide, 300 to 380mm deep and 300 to 350mm high, have
a 100mm litter retaining board across the bottom of the opening and have a perch 150 to 200mm in front of the entrance. Communal nests should have a space
allowance of at least 0.09m² per bird. The top of the nest should be steeply sloped to prevent birds from roosting there. One nest should be supplied for every
five birds in the flock. Figure 10.50 shows a twotiered nestbox arrangement. The bottom row of nests should be 450 to 600mm off the floor.

Perches

Chickens have a natural instinct to roost in trees at night. To provide for this perches are commonly installed in chicken houses from 6 to 8 weeks of age and
after, in particular in semi-intensive systems. Perches for young birds should have a diameter of about 35mm and provide

0.1 to 0.15m space per bird, while those for adult birds should be about 5Omm diameter and provide 0.2 to 0.3m space. The perches should be fixed to solid
stands, be 0.6 to 1.0m above the floor, be 0.35 to 0.4m apart and preferably be placed lengthwise at the centre of the house. A deck about 200mm underneath to
collect manure is desirable.

Feed Stores

Grain stores are discussed in Chapter 9. The feed stores for a small flock would be very much like those shown for food grains. For the commercial flock, the
type of store depends on how the feed is handled. If it is purchased in bag lots, then a masonry building with an iron roof that is secure against rodents and birds
is most suitable. If feed is delivered in bulk, then one or more overhead bins from which the feed is removed by gravity will be convenient and safe.

The size of the store required depends entirely on the frequency and size of deliveries, but can be estimated as 0.0035m² floor area per bird in the flock where
feed is purchased in bags. If part of the grain is produced on the farm, then some long term storage of the type shown in Chapter 9 will be required.

Figure 10.50 A battery of single laying nests for 50 lo 60 hens.

Figure 10.51 Perches.

Manure Handling

A layer is estimated to produce on average 0.15 to 0.20 kg manure per day and a broiler 0.08 to 0.12 kg manure per day. In deep litter systems the litter used
may more than double these amounts. Poultry manure is commonly allowed to accumulate in the house, under a wire or slatted floor or as deep litter for quite
extended periods, but may alternatively be cleaned out regularly and stored in a concrete pond. It is an excellent form of fertiliser. Processed poultry manure has
successfully been fed to cattle, sheep and fish as a portion of their total ration.

Egg Handling

Eggs are an excellent source of animal protein and are usually less expensive than meat. If properly handled under sanitary conditions they store well for short
periods and reach the consumer in good condition. However, eggs are perishable and possible carriers of salmonella, a serious food poison, thus the need for
clean conditions and refrigeration cannot be overemphasized. The following list includes several recommended practices and facilities:

1 Clean nest and floor litter will minimize the number of dirty eggs.
2 The egg handling and storage building should be screened, free of rodents and other vermin.
3 The water supply should be potable and ample.
 4 Lavatory and toilet facilities should be available.

Egg Cooling for large commercial laying operations requires approximately 0.25m³ of cool store per 1000 layers and day of storage. For smaller flocks the store
will need to be proportionately larger.

Figure 10.52 shows an Evaporative Charcoal Cooler for small farms. A store measuring, e.g. 100 x 100cm is covered by a water tray from which cloth strips or
"wicks" drip water down into side frames. The frames consist of a 5 cm layer of broken charcoal sandwiched between 1.25cm chiken wire mesh. A hinged and
latched door is constructed similarly to the sides. The action of water evaporating from the charcoal cools the interior of the box.

Other methods for short term storage of eggs at the small poultry unit include underground cellars, storage in lime water and storage after dipping in waterglass.

For longer periods of storage a refrigeration system and a well insulated room is required to maintain a storage temperature of 5 to 10°C. To allow storage for 6
to 7 months a temperature of -1.5 to 0°C will be required. The refrigeration capacity necessary is approximately 200W for 5000 layers, or 3400W for 10,000
layers. Other capacities would be proportionate. Custom designed systems with generous size evaporators should be installed. Room air conditioners do not
allow desirable humidity in a storage. The evaporator is too small and operates at a low temperature, thus removing too much moisture from the air.

Figure 10.52 Evaporative cooler for eggs, milk and other food stuffs. Where electricity is available a fan controlled air flow will make a more efficient
operation.

Duck Housing

Although ducks are kept for both meat and egg production, commercially there is much more demand for meat than eggs.

On the other hand egg production does provide a valuable contribution to the family income and diet for the small scale farmer. Ducks lay more and larger eggs
than indigenous chicken. Raising ducks is encouraged in African countries because they are hardy and easy to raise and manage.

They can feed to a large extent on grass, vegetables and grains produced on the farm. Housing is also quite simple and inexpensive. Small scale farmers would,
for these reasons, benefit from keeping ducks instead of hens, which are more prone to disease and malnutrition.

Brooding and Rearing

Brooding is similar to chickens and the same temperatures are used, 35°C for the first week and then reduced 3°C weekly until normal air temperature is
reached.

Ducklings grow very rapidly, and floor and trough space on deep litter should be provided according to Table 10. 16.

Table 10.16 Recommended Minimum Floor and Feed Space for Ducks

Floor Space Feed trough

space
 m²/bird birds/m² birds/m
1- 2 weeks 0.05 20 14
3-4 weeks 0.1 10 11
4 - 7 weeks 0.2 5 9
7 weeks to market 0.3 3-4 8
Mature birds 0.3 -0.4 2.5 - 3 7-8

Refers to deep litter; on wire mesh Door the stocking can be doubled.

Litter materials include straw, sawdust, shavings and sand. The large quantity of water that ducks drink produces wet manure that causes problems with almost
any form of litter. A wire mesh floor therefore is a desirable alternative. The 12.5mm mesh of 8 gauge wire is suitable.

Fresh air is important and ducklings can be let out in fine weather after a few days. They should, however, not be allowed to get wet before the feathering is
completed on their backs at about six weeks of age. Ducklings should also be shaded during hot weather to prevent sunstroke.

Housing

Housing for ducks can be very simple. See Figure 10.53. The house should be situated on a well drained, preferably elevated area.

The floor should be raised at least 15cm above the surrounding ground level to help keep it dry. Ducks tend to be dirty and plenty of clean litter must be used in
floor type housing.

Although a concrete floor can be installed for easy cleaning, it is not necessary. If part of the floor is of wire mesh and the ducks have to cross it on their way to
the nestboxes, their feet will be cleaned so they do not make the nests and eggs dirty.

Solid walls 60cm high are adequate. They may be made from any material as long as it keeps the ducks in and predators, like dogs, snakes, rats and wild birds
out. The space between the wall and the-roof is covered with wire netting not larger than 25mm mesh. Total wall heigh does not need to exceed 150-200cm.

Figure 10.53 Duck house for 25 ducks.

Roof made of thatch is a fully adequate and inexpensive roof covering for a duck house. Metal sheets can also be used, but insulation should be installed under
the sheets.

Nest boxes 30cm wide, 40cm deep, and 30cm high should be provided for each four ducks. The front should be l5cm high. The nestboxes are placed either on
the floor or 30 cm off the floor against a side or rear wall. Although nesting boxes off the floor release more floor space, the ducks may lay their eggs under the
boxes.
Run and Fencing should provide a minimum of 1 m² per bird, but 2 to 3m² or more, will keep the ducks cleaner and give more space for grazing. On open range
pasture the ducks should be allowed 20m²/bird.

Feed and Water Equipment

Duck feeders need to be somewhat wider than chicken feeders to allow for the "shovelling" eating habits. For the first two weeks the food is preferably given as
crumbs or wet mash. Later the food is best given as pellets. The required trough space is included in Table 10.16. Adult ducks normally consume about 0.2 kg
feed per day, but some ducks in full lay may require up to 0.3 kg per day.

Ducks of all ages drink large quantities of water. Waterers must be designed to allow easy access for the birds and easy cleaning for the caretaker.

Ducks like to swim so if possible they should have access to a stream or pond. Contrary to common belief there seems to be little benefit in providing for
swimming except that with water available the ducks are able to keep themselves cleaner and somewhat higher fertility of the eggs may result.

Geese Housing

Geese are foragers and can be allowed to graze on succulent grass as early as three weeks of age. Because of this there should be more encouragement for the
development of the meat production from geese in East and South-East Africa.

Unless there is a large number of geese, natural hatching will take place. A goose will sit on 10 to 1 5 eggs. The sitting goose should be allowed to use her
regular nesting place for incubating the eggs.

Rearing of goslings is relatively easy if proper care and attention is given. The goose should be confined to a clean coop for the first 10 days while the goslings
have access to a small run. Chick mash can be fed for the first 3 to 4 weeks along with succulent grass. After 3 weeks of age the goslings will graze, but
supplementary feed must be given if the value of the grazing is poor.

Geese are selective grazers and will quickly return to grass newly grown after recent grazing. If the geese are herded, a much wider range of grazing is possible.

Housing for geese is very simple, if any is required at all. In tropical areas geese appear to be quite content left outside at all times of the year. However, there is
often danger of theft and attack by predators, so the geese should be herded into a shelter at night for protection. The shelter can be simple and cheap as long as
it serves this purpose.

A wooden framework surrounded by wire mesh is quite adequate. Wooden rails or bamboo can also be used in place of the wire mesh. The same materials can
be used for the roof as a waterproof roof is not necessary. There is no need for a floor, but the ground should be elevated to avoid flooding.

Turkeys Housing

In recent years there has been a steady increase in turkey production. The main demand is still at Christmas and New Year, but the better hotels and restaurants
require supplies throughout the year. The demand is only for turkey meat. All the eggs produced are used for incubation by hatcheries.
The production of turkeys should be confined to commercial enterprises. Chickens carry diseases that affect turkeys so they should not be grown together by the
small farmer.

Brooding and rearing methods for turkey poults are similar to those for chickens, but the brooding temperature is higher. The recommended temperature for the
first week is 35° to 38°C, after which it can be reduced 4°C per week until ambient temperature is reached.

Adequate floor space in the brooder house is important as the turkey poults grow rapidly. Table 10.17 provides information on space requirements.

At about 10 weeks of age, turkeys are put out on range in a fenced enclosure. In the interest of disease control, it is essential to use clean land that has not
carried poultry, turkeys, sheep or pigs for at least two years. Approximately 20m² of pasture should be allowed for each bird.

A range shelter with 20m² of floor area is suitable for 100 poults up to marketing age. Dry, compact soil is adequate for a floor. The frame should be made of
light material covered with wire mesh so that the shelter can be moved to clean range each year. The roof, which should be watertight, can be made of thatch or
metal sheets. Perches, made from rails 5 x 5cm or round rails 5cm in diameter, should be installed 60cm from the ground and 60cm apart allowing 30 to 40cm
of length per bird.

The turkey breeder flock can be confined in a deep litter house similar to the one shown in Figure 10.40 for chickens. Recommended floor, feed and water space
for turkeys is given in Table 10.17. Approximately 23 kg of feed is required to produce a 6.4 kg turkey at 24 weeks of age. Adult birds require 0.12 to 0.3 kg per
day depending on the size of the breed.

Early mortality in turkey poults due to lack of drinking or feeding is a constant problem and can only be prevented by good management and reliable equipment.
Young poults must be coaxed to eat by making sure they have plenty of feeding places and can easily see the food. The same applies to water.

Table 10.17 Recommended Floor, Feed and Water Space for Turkeys

Brooding Growing Breeding

0 - 6 weeks 6 - 12 weeks
Floor Space 0.1 m² 0.4 - 0.6m² 0 7 - 0.9m²
Roosting Space 30 - 38cm 30 - 38cm
Nests - - 60 x 150cm
(for 20 - 25 hens)
Feeders 4 - 8cm 10cm 12cm
Water 2cm 3cm 4cm

It is important to keep turkeys from being frightened by people, animals or machines. When alarmed, turkeys have a tendency to stampede, pile up and smother.
Contents - Previous - Next
Pig Housing

Contents - Previous - Next

Pig farming is realtively unimportant in most regions of Africa, as in most tropical countries, except China and South-East Asia. However, pig production is
increasing in many tropical countries as processed pork finds an increasing market and pig production yields a relatively rapid rate of return on the capital
employed. Pigs are kept primarily for meat production, but the by-products, such as pigskin, bristles and manure are also of economic importance.

To some extent pigs compete with man for food, but they can also utilise by-products and wastes from human feeding.

Management Improvements

In many tropical countries pigs roam freely as scavengers or are raised in the back-yard where they depend on wastes for feed. Little attempt is made to obtain
maximum In many tropical countries pigs roam freely as scavengers or are raised in the back-yard where they depend on wastes for feed. Little attempt is made
to obtain maximum productivity. However, a few simple management practices can help to improve the productivity and health of these pigs. They include:

1 Fenced paddocks with shade and water where:

a Pigs are protected from direct sun, which will cause sunburn, and sometimes sunstroke particularly with whiteskinned pigs.
b Pigs can be fed supplementary feed secure from neighbouring pig.
c Some basic measures to control disease and parasites are possible to reduce the often very high mortality rate and to improve the poor reproductive and
growth performance and inferior quality of meat experienced in traditional pig production in the tropics. The paddock can be sub-divided into 4 to 6
smaller areas so that pigs can be moved from one enclosure to another at 2 week intervals.
d Sows can be bred to selected sires.

2 Simple semi-covered pens constructed of rough timber with a thatch roof and floor of concrete as shown in Figure 10.25. An earth floor can be used, but is
more difficult to keep clean and sanitary. Several pens can be arranged in a row as required. The main disadvantage with this type of accommodation is the
relatively high labour requirements for cleaning.

3 Wallows or sprinklers can be provided to alleviate heat stress. Being unable to sweat sufficiently pigs have a natural instinct to wallow to increase the
evaporative cooling from the skin.

Figure 10.25 Smallholder's pigsty for one sow with litter or 4 to 5 fattening pigs.

While such improvements have the advantage of low investment in buildings and less need for balanced feed rations, they should only be regarded as first steps
in raising the general level in present primitive systems.

The raising of pigs in confinement is gradually replacing the old methods because of lower production costs, improved feed efficiency and better control of
disease and parasites. Thus, the confinement system is usually advisable in circumstances where:
 good management is available;
high-quality pigs ate introduced;
farrowings occur at regular intervals throughout the year;
land is scarce or not accessible all the year;
balanced rations ate available;
labour is expensive;
parasite and disease control is necessary;
the target is commercial production;
herd size is reasonably large.

Some systems keep only part of the herd in confinement. The order of priority for confinement housing for the different classes of animals is usually as follows:

1 Growing/finishing pigs (25-90 kg or more liveweight) for higher control daily gain, better feed conversions dna pasite control.
2 Farrowing and lactating sows, to reduce pre-weaning mortality and for higher quality weaners.
3 Gestating sows, to allow individual feeding and better control of stock.

Management Systems in Intensive Commercial Pig Production

There is no standard type or system of housing for pigs. Instead, accommodation and equipment are chooser to suit the type of management system adopted.
However, there are certain similar principles and practices in most systems. These originate from the fact that most pig units will contain pigs of different ages
and classes as show in Figure 10.26.

Farrowing-Suckling Pens

In small and medium scale intensive pig production units a combined farrowing, suckling and rearing pen is normally used. The sow is brought to this pen one
week before farrowing and stays there together with her litter for 5 to 8 weeks when the piglets are weaned by removing the sow. The sow is often confined in a
farrowing crate a few days before, and up to a week after birth to reduce piglet mortality caused by overlaying or trampling. Systems 1 and II in Figure 10.27.

Early weaning after a suckling period of 5 to 6 weeks or even less can only be recommended where management and housing is of good standard.

The piglets remain in the farrowing pen after weaning and until they are 12 to 14 weeks of age or weigh 25 to 30 kg.

Group keeping of farrowing-suckling sows that have given birth within a 2 to 3 week interval is possible, but is unusual in intensive production. However, there
are few acceptance problems and the litters cross-suckle and mix freely. The pen should have at least 6m² deep litter bedding per sow, with an additional creep
area of 1m².

In a large scale unit, which has a separate farrowing house, sometimes either of the following two alternative systems ate practiced instead of the system
described above:

The first alternative (System III in Figure 10.27) is similar to the system already described, but the piglets are moved two weeks after weaning to a weaner pen
where they may remain either until they are 12 to 14 weeks of age (25 to 30 kg) or until 18 to 20 weeks of age (45 to 55 kg). Note that the piglets should always
remain in the farrowing/ suckling pen for a further 1 to 2 weeks after the sow has been removed so that they are not subjected to any new environmental or
disease stress at the same time as they are weaned. The weaning pens can contain one litter or up to 30 to 40 pigs. The pigs are often fed 'ad libitum'.

Figure 10.26 Flow Chart of the life cycle or pigs.

In the second alternative showing (System IV in Figure 10.27) the sow is placed in a farrowing crate in a small pen one week prior to birth. Two weeks after
farrowing the sow and the litter are moved to a larger suckling pen. The piglets may remain in this pen until 12 to 14 weeks of age or be transferred to weaner
accommodation two weeks after weaning.

Dry Sow Pens

After weaning a sow will normally come on heat within 5 to 7 days and then at 3 week intervals until successful mating. The average weaning to conception
interval can vary between 8-20 days depending on management. In the period until pregnancy has been ascertained the sow is best kept in a pen or stall in close
proximity to the boar pen.

Gestating sows are kept in yards or pens in groups of up to 10 to 12 sows, that will farrow within a 2 to 3 week interval. They can also be kept in individual pens
confined in stalls or tethered in stalls.

Weaner and Fattening Pens

The weaners, whether they come from a farrowing pen or a weaner pen, will at 12 to 14 weeks of age be sufficiently hardened to go to a growing/finishing pen.
Finishing can be accomplished either in one stage in a growing/ finishing pen from 25 kg to 90 kg - systems 1 and IV in Figure 10.27 or in two stages so that the
pigs are kept in a smaller growing pen until they weigh 50 to 60 kg and are then moved to a larger finishing pen where they remain until they reach marketable
weight. System II in Figure 10.27. In large scale production the pigs are arranged into groups of equal size and sex when moved into the growing/finishing pen.
Although finishing pigs are sometimes kept in groups of 30 or more, pigs in a group of 9 to 12, or even less, show better growth performance in intensive
systems. An alternative, where growing and finishing are carried out in the same facility, is to start about 12 pigs in the pen and later, during the finishing period,
reduce the number to 9 by taking out the biggest or smallest pigs from each pen.

Figure 10.27 Flow chart of four different management systems in the pig production.

Replacement Pens

In intensive systems a sow will, on average, produce 3 to 6 litters before she is culled because of infertility, low productivity or age. Young breeding stock
should be separated from the rest of the litter at about 3 months of age, since they should be less intensively fed than the fatterning pigs. Gilts are first covered
when they are 7 to 9 months of age or weight 105 to 120 kg. After mating they can either be kept in the same pen up to 1 week before farrowing, or kept in the
gestating sow accommodation, but in a separate group.

Boars in the tropics are usually quiet if run with other boars or with pregnant sows, but may develop vicious habits if shut up alone.

Determining the Number of Pens and Stalls Required in a Pig Unit

One objective in planning a pig unit is to balance the accommodation between the various ages and numbers of pigs. Ideally, each pen should be fully occupied
at all times, allowing only for a cleaning and sanitation period of about 7 days between successive groups.

In the following example the number of different pens required in a 14-sow herd, where 8 week weaning is practised, will be determined.

I Determine the farrowing interval and number of farrowings per year.

Average weaning to conception interval 20 days

Gestation 114 days
Suckling period (7 x 8 weeks) 56 days
Farrowing interval 190 days

Number of farrowings per sow and year 365 / 190 = 1.9

2 Determine the number of farrowing pens.

The piglets remain in the farrowing pen until 12 weeks of age.

Before farrowing 7 days

Suckling period 56 days
Rearing of weaners 28 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupation per cycle 98 days

Thus one farrowing pen can be used for: 365 / 98 = 3 7 farrowings per year.

A 14 sow herd with an average of 1.9 farrowings per sow and year requires (14 x 19) / 3.7 = 7 farrowing pens.

3 Determine the number of servicing/ gestating pens.

Average weaning to conception interval 20 days

Gestation period less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 134 days
Thus one place in the servicing/gestation accommodation can be used for: 365/ 134 = 2.7 farrowings per year.

With a total of 27 farrowings a year

27/2.7 = 10 places would be required.

4 Determine the number of places for replacement stock.

Presume the sows on average get 5 litters, then 20 percent of all litters will be from gilts.

Rearing of breeding stock (12 to 35 weeks) 168 days

Gestation less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 282 days

About 30% more animals are separated than the required number of gilts thus the required number of places in the 14 sow herd will be

(14 x l.9 x 0.2 x 1.3 x 282) / 365 = 6 places

5 Determine the number of places in the growing/finishing accommodation:

One stage finishing:

Fattening of pigs 12 to 27 weeks of age, (25-90 105 days
kg)
Extra period for last pig in the pen to reach 21 days
marketable weight
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 133 days

Assuming that 8 pigs per litter will survive to 12 weeks of age the number of places required in the finishing accommodation will be:

(14 x 1.9 x 8 x 133) / 365 = 78

That is 8 pens with 10 pigs in each or 10 pens if each litter should be kept together.

Two stage growing/finishing unit:

Growing pigs 12 to 20 weeks of age will occupy a growing pen for 63 days including 7 days for cleaning.

(14 x 1.9 x 8 x 63) / 365 = 37 places is required in the unit.

Finishing pigs 20 to 27 weeks of age will occupy a finishing pen for 70 days including 14 days emptying period and 7 days for cleaning. (The empyting period
will be shorter if the pigs are sorted for size while being transferred from the growing to the finishing pens.

(14 x 19 x 8 x 70) / 365 = 41 places is required in the unit

From the above example it will be appreciated that the number of pens of various kinds required in a pig unit is based on a number of factors. It is, therefore, not
possible to lay down hard and fast rules about the relative number of pens and stalls. However, a guide line to the requirement of pens in herds with average or
good management and performance in tropical conditions is given in Appendix VI.

Space Requirement

In intensive pig production systems all pigs should be raised on concrete floors to provide for a clean and sanitary environment. In semi-intensive systems a
concrete floor is only used in the pens for finishing pigs and perhaps in the farrowing pens, whereas an earth floor or deep litter bedding is used in other pens
and yards. Litter may or may not be used on a concrete floor, but its use is desirable, particularly in farrowing pens.

Because of the cost of a concrete floor there is a tendency to reduce the floor area allowed per animal. However, too high stocking densities will contribute to
retarding performance, increasing mortality, health and fertility problems and a high frequency of abnormal behaviour thus endangering the welfare of the
animals. Increasing the stocking density must be accompanied by an increased standard of management and efficiency of ventilation and cooling. In particular,
to aid in cooling, finishing pigs kept in a warm tropical climate should be allowed more space in their resting area than is normally recommended for pigs in
temperate climates. Table 10.9 lists the recommended space allowance per animal at various stocking densities. The figures listed for high stocking density
should only be used in design of pig units in cool areas and where the management level is expected to be above average.

The dimensions of a pen for fattening pigs are largely given by the minimum trough length required per pig at the end of their stay in the pen. See Table 10.10.
However, the width of a pen with low stocking density can be larger than the required trough length. This will reduce the depth to 2.0 to 2.4m, and thus the risk
of having the pigs create a manure are within the pen.

Furthermore, the flexibility in the use of the pen will increase and the extra trough space allow additional animals to be accommodated temporarily or when the
level of management improves.

Sometimes finishing pens are deliberately overstocked. The motive for this is that all pigs in the pen will not reach marketable weight at the same time and the
space left by those pigs sent for slaughter can be utilized by the remainder. Such over-stocking should only be practiced in very well managed finishing units.

General Requirements for Pig Housing

A good location for a pig unit meets the following requirements: easy access to a good all-weather road; welldrained ground; and sufficient distance from
residential areas to avoid creating a nuisance from odour and flies.
An east-west orientation is usually preferable to minimize exposure to the sun. Breezes across the building in summer weather are highly desirable. A prevailing
wind during hot weather can sometimes justify a slight deviation from the east-west orientation. Ground cover, such as bushes and grass, can reduce reflected
heat considerably, and the building should be located where it can most benefit from surrounding vegetation.

A fairly light well drained soil is preferable, and usually the highest part of the site should be selected for construction.

Pig houses should be simple, open sided structures as maximum ventilation is needed. A building for open confine merit is therefore essentially a roof carried on
poles. The roof supporting poles are placed in the corners of the pens where they will cause least inconvenience. A free span trussed roof design would be an
advantage but is more expensive.

In some circumstances it may be preferable to have solid gable ends and one tight side to give protection from wind or low temperatures, at least for part of the
year. If such walls are needed they can often be temporary and be removed during hot weather to allow maximum ventilation. Permanent walls must be
provided with large openings to ensure sufficient air circulation in hot weather. If there is not sufficient wind to create a draught in hot weather, ceiling fans can
considerably improve the environment.

The main purpose of the building is to provide shade, and therefore the radiant heat from the sun should be reduced as much as possible. In climates where a
clear sky predominates, a high building of 3m, or more, under the eaves gives more efficient shade than a low building. A wide roof overhang is necessary to
ensure shade and to protect the animals from rain. A shaded ventilation opening along the ridge will provide an escape for the hot air accumulating under the
roof. If made from a hard material the roof can be painted white to reduce the intensity of solar radiation. Some materials such as aluminium reflect heat well as
long as they are not too oxidized. A layer of thatch (5cm) attached by wire netting beneath a galvanised steel roof will improve the microclimate in the pens. A
roof of thatch is excellent in hot climates, particularly in non-confined systems, but cannot always be used because of fire hazard and because it is attractive to
birds and rodents. A pig house with two rows of pens and a central feeding alley would require a ridge height of 5 to 6 metres if covered with thatch.

Table 10.9 Dimensions and Area of Various Types of Pig Pens

Units Stocking density

Low Medium High
A. Farrowing/ suckling pen.
Resting area, if weaner
pens are not used m² 10.0 7.5 6.0
Resting area, if weaner pens are used m² 8.0 6.0 5.0
Manure alley width m 1.7 1.5 1.3
Farrowing pen (System IV) m: - 4.5 4.0
Farrowing crate, length excl. trough m 2.0 2.0 2.0
width depending on size of sow m 0.65 - 0.75 0.6 - 0.7 0.55 - 0.65
free space behind the crate m 0.4 0.35 0.3
Piglet creep (incl. in resting area) m² 2.0 1.5 1.0
B. Boar pen
1. Pen with yard
Resting are (shaded) m² 6 5 4.5
Yard area (paved) m² 12 10 08
2. Pen without yard m² 9 8 7
C. Gestating sow pens
1. Loose in groups of 5 - 10 sows
Resting area (shaded) m² 2.0 1.5 1.1
Yard area (paved) m² 3.5 3.0 2.5
Feeding stalls, depth x width m 2.0 x 0.6 1.8 x 0.55 1.7 x 0.5
2. Individual stalls with access to manure m 2.2 2.1 2.0
alley, length of stalls excl. trough
width of stalls m 0.65 - 0.75 0.60 - 0.70 0.55 - 0.65
width of manure alley m 1.5 1.4 1.3
3. Confined in individual stalls
length x width of stalls m 2.2 x 0.70 2.1 x 0.65 2.0 x 0.60
D. Weaner pen (to 25 kg or 12 wks)
Resting area excluding trough m²/pig 0.35 0.30 0.25
Manure alley width m 1.0 1.0 1.0
0E. Growing pen (to 40 kg or 17 wks)
Resting are excluding trough m²/pig 0.5 0.45 0.40
Manure alley width m 1.1 1.1 1.1
F. Finishing pen, resting area excl. trough
For porkers to 60 kg or 21 wks m²/pig 0.70 0.60 0.50
For beaconers to 90 kg or 27 wks m²/pig 0.90 0.75 0.60
For heavy hog to 120 kg or 33 wks m²/pig 1.0 0.85 0.70
Manure alley width m 1.2 - 1.4 1.2 - 1.3 1.2

The pen partitions and the 1 metre wall surrounding the building, which serves to reduce heat reflected from the surrounding ground, can be made of concrete
blocks or burnt clay bricks for durability or perhaps soil-cement blocks, plastered for ease of cleaning. Regular white washing may improve the sanitary
conditions in the pens.

Doors have to be tight fitting and any other openings in the lower part of the wall surrounding the building should be avoided to exclude rats. Apart from
stealing feed and spreading disease, large rats can kill piglets.

For all types of confinement housing a properly constructed easily cleaned concrete floor is required. Eighty to 100 mm of concrete on a consolidated gravel
base is sufficient to provide a good floor. A stiff mix of 1:2:4 or 1:3:5 concrete finished with a wood float will give a durable non-slip floor. The pen floors
should slope 2 to 3% toward the manure alley and the floor in the manure alley 3 to 5% towards the drains.

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Housing for a Small Scale Pig Unit

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For units with 2 to 15 sows, specialized buildings for the various stages of production may not be practical or desirable. For the smallest units of 2 to 6 sows a
kind of universal pen which is about 2.7m wide and 2.8-3.0m deep (including feed through) which can be used for:

I sow and her litter, or

2 litter of weaned piglets, or
3 to 4 gestating sows, or
9 growing/finishing pigs of up to 90 kg live weight, or
1 boar

This type of pen shown in Figure 10.28, provides a high degree of flexibility but usually does not allow as efficient a use of the building space as the more
specialized pens.

When used for farrowing, the pen should be adapted with guard rails 25cm above floor level and 25 from the wall to protect the piglets from being crushed as
shown in Figure 10.28b. However, confinement farrowing is one of the most efficient ways of reducing piglet losses. An arrangement with fixed or removable
rails, which divide the pen, as shown in Figure 10.28c, will offer some degree of confinement.

In some climates it may be desirable to give sows with litter access to exercise yards. However, for the relatively short suckling period (6 to 8 weeks), it is
usually considered best to keep the sows confined in pens with their litters.

A creep for the piglets is arranged in one corner of the pen. It is recommended that a temporary ceiling (e.g. wire netting covered with straw) 50 to 60cm above
the floor in the creep area be constructed to prevent draughts and to keep warmer temperatures for the piglets during their first weeks of life. Where electricity is
available, heating with an infra-red lamp may be used instead. Piglets are fed in the creep area out of reach of the sow.

Figure 10.29 shows a single row pig unit for 2 sows and fattening pigs, and Figure 10.30 a double row pig unit for 4 sows having a central feeding alley. The
semi-covered manure alleys are arranged along the outside walls separated from the resting area of the pen. This arrangement will allow rain water to help flush
away the waste to the drain channel and on to the manure store which has to have extra capacity for this water. However, in the 4 sow unit the furrowing pens
have fully covered manure alleys for increased protection of the piglets.

The roof may be equipped with gutters so that rain water can be drained away separately or be collected for use as drinking water for the pigs.

A single tubular steel or round timber rail 20cm above the outside, rear wall (1m high) is desirable to increase security without interfering with ventilation.

Both buildings shown in Figures 10.29 and 10.30 can be extended to accommodate 2 to 4 more sows by adding 2 pens for fattening pigs at one end every time a
farrowing pen is added at the other end.

Table 10. 10 Minimum Trough Length and Height of Partitions in Various Types of Pig Pens
 Minimum trough Minimum
length height of pen
partitions
m/pig m
Sow in farrowing pen 0.7 1.0
Loose dry sows in pens 0.5 1.0
Stall for dry sows 0.5 1.0
Boars 0.6 1.2
Piglets 10 kg 0.14 - 0.15 0.6
Piglets 15 kg 0.16 - 0.17 0.7
Pigs 25 kg 0.18- 0.20 0.8
Pigs 40 kg 0.22 - 0.24 0.9
Pigs 60 kg 0.25 - 0.27 0.9
Pigs 90 kg 0.30 - 0.32 0.9
Pigs 120 kg 0.35 - 0.37 1.0

Figure 10.28 Universal pen.

Figure 10.29 Single row pig unit for 2 sows and fatteners.

Figure 10.30 Double row pig unit for 4 sows and fatteners.

Housing for the Medium Scale Pig Unit

In pig units for more than six to eight sows it becomes feasible to construct specialised pens for the various production stages, but these can still be
accommodated under the same roof. A larger production volume can be accommodated by extending the unit shown in Figure 10.31 up to about 15 sows. A
further increase should then be accomplished by building an additional separate unit of this type with up to 15 sows, as too many animals in one building is a
potential health hazard.

Housing for the Large Scale Pig Unit

In large scale units special provisions must be made for efficient health control. This means: not too many animals in one building; animals of approximately the
same age housed together; using an all-in-all-out system with thorough cleaning and disinfection of every house between each batch of pigs; placing the
buildings 15 to 20m apart and surrounding the entire site with a secure fence.
Specialised pens in separate houses for the various stages in the production is normally feasible in units for more than 20 to 30 sows. Each type of pen can be
designed with dimensions for the most efficient use of the building space, as they don't have to fit in a layout with other types.

Farrowing House

The type of farrowing pen shown in Figure 10.32 offers a relatively high degree of confinement in that the sow is restrained in a farrowing crate during
farrowing. Five to ten days after farrowing the crate is removed or opened, to free the sow, as indicated in the figure. A slightly askew arrangement of the
farrowing crate will allow for a longer trough for the piglets in the front of the pen, but is more complicated to construct.

A reduction in space requirement can be accomplished by putting the sow in a farrowing pen, consisting merely of a farrowing crate with 0.5 and l.0m wide
creep areas on either side, one week prior to farrowing. Two weeks after farrowing the sow and piglets must be transferred to a suckling pen equipped like the
pen shown in Figure 10.28b but with the dimensions 2.3m wide, by 2.35m deep and with a 1.4m wide manure alley.

Figure 10.31 Pig unit for 10 sows and fatteners.

Figure 10.32 Farrowing pens with crates for confinement of the sow during birth.

Housing for Growing/Finishing Pigs

Growing/Finishing pens 2.8m wide by 1.9 to 2.2m deep and with a 1.2m manure alley can accommodate the following number of pigs, according to their
weight:

up to 40 kg - 12 pigs
40 - 90 kg - 9 pigs
over 90 kg - 7 pigs

Where it is very hot it is preferable to reduce the number of pigs per pen below the numbers given here. The manure alley must be well drained, preferably by a
covered drain, but an open drain will also serve provided that it is outside of the pen to prevent urine from flowing from one pen to another. Bedding in the pens
is preferable for the animals' comfort and to reduce stress, as the bedding will provide them with something to do. Controlled feeding is important to ensure the
best possible feed conversion.

Housing for Gestating Sows

Gestating sows are usually the last group in a pig herd to be considered for confinement housing. However, there are obvious advantages which could have a
great influence on the production efficiency when sows are confined and controlled during gestation.

As their litters are weaned, sows can be returned to the gestating sow structure and placed in one of the pens arranged on either side of the boar pens for easy
management of sows in heat. After mating and the three week control period, the sows should be re-grouped according to the actual farrowing dates.

The type of accommodation shown in Figure 10.33a will always have four sows per group as the gates in the manure alley are used to enclose the sows in their
stalls while cleaning the pen. The stalls, which are used for both feeding and resting, should be 0.60 to 0.75m wide, depending on size of the sows.
With the type shown in Figure 10.33b, the numbers in the groups can vary according to the size of the herd and farrowing pattern, but sows in one group should
be in about the same farrowing period (within about 10 to 15 days of each other).

The feeding stalls should be 50cm wide, and a bar should be installed which can be lowered after all the sows have entered the stalls. This arrangement will
prevent sows from backing out of their assigned stall, and biting and stealing feed from other sows. When all the sows have finished eating, the bar is lifted and
they can leave the feeding stalls.

Behind the feeding stalls there is a manure alley with gates across and which can close the opening of the resting area in order to confine the sow while cleaning
out the manure alley. The width of the manure alley can be increased from 1.5 to 2.5m if desired, so that cleaning out can be earned out by a tractor mounted
scraper.

In both types of pens, exercise yards when considered feasible, can be arranged behind the building.

Figure 10.33a Groups of four sows in resting and feeding stalls and with access to a manure alley.

Figure 10.33b Groups of five sows with access to feeding stalls and a headed resting area, where they are enclosed during cleaning.

Figure 10.34 Layout of a 50 sow unit.

Special Arrangements for Warm Climates

Many of the principles that have been discussed above apply equally well to both hot and temperate climates and are basic requirements for the housing of pigs.
The open type of confinement system has its limitations, but applied in many warm areas leads to a major improvement in production.

The complete control of the environment in animal houses is generally far too expensive to be feasible, in particular when considered in connection with
nonconfined systems. However, provisions for shade, proper roof colour and material and controlled air movements, which have already been discussed, can be
both practical and economic.

A spray or a wallow can considerably reduce heat stress in pigs. A wallow can be anything from a water filled hole in the earth to a concrete trough. While
wallows are effective and need not be expensive, they tend to become unsanitary if not regularly cleaned.

From a hygienic point of view sprinklers which spray water on to the pigs, are preferable, but water consumption can be up to four times as high as for a
wallow. Water consumption is about 20 litres per pig per day for 10 hours continuous spraying, compared with 5 litres per pig per day using a wallow. However,
a spray system can be operated intermittently by a timer which can limit use to about 2 litres per pig per day. The spray should be directed on to the pigs and not
into the air. The spray system can be effectively used with all categories of pigs, except very young piglets. A sprinkler in the manure alley of the farrowing pen,
operated from the time the litter is about two weeks old, may help the sow to maintain her feed intake. Hosing pigs once or twice a day is a great deal less
effective than a spraying system.

Feed Troughs and Feed Storage

Efficient pig production requires a reliable supply of water and feed for a balanced diet. A large range of feedstuffs, including by-products and crop surpluses,
may be used provided they are incorporated into a balanced diet. The requirements for feed change as the pigs grow and depend on the stage of production in
sows. Table 10.11 shows the requirement where the feeding is based on a mix of meal feeds and can be used to estimate the required storage capacity for supply
between deliveries.

Table 10.1 1 Feed and Water Requirement for Pigs

Animal Feed Intake (meal feed) Drinking Water

kg/pig Requirement
litre/day
Sow in farrowing pen 5-7 22 - 27
Gestating sow 2-3 12 - 17
Boar 2.5 - 3.50 10
Piglet 10 kg 0.60 1.0
Piglet 15 kg 0.75 1.5
Pigs 25 kg 1.10 2.5
Pigs 40 kg 1.70 4.0
Pigs 60 kg 2.30 5.5
Pigs 90 kg 2.90 7.0
Pigs 120 kg 3.10 7.0

A wide variety of feeding equipment is available for pig operations. The easiest to clean and sanitize are made from concrete, metal or glazed burnt clay.
Concrete troughs are commonly used and can be pre-fabricated using a metal mould. The trough is often placed in the front wall of the pen as shown in Figure
10.35d, e and f. Although such an arrangement makes for a more difficult construction than to have the trough inside the pen it is usually preferred due to easier
feeding and it also prevents the pigs from stepping into the trough.

The wall above the trough can be made either solid or open and can be either vertical or sloping inwards to the pen.

An open front improves ventilation in the pen but it is more expensive than a close-boarded wooden front as galvanised steel pipes have to be used for
durability. In particular a sow confined in a stall of a farrowing crate will feel more comfortable if she is able to see in front of her. A sloping front will more
effectively discourage pigs from stepping into the trough but it is more complicated and expensive to construct.

Two piglet feeders for use in the creep area are shown in Figure 10.36. The same types can be used for growing pigs up to 40 to 50 kg, but the dimensions will
need to be increased. Metal is preferred, although a feeder made of wood can be satisfactory if cleaned regularly and thoroughly.
Watering Equipment

The requirement of drinking water is shown in Table 10.11. It is preferable to mix mealfeed with 1.5 to 2.1 litres of water per kg feed. The rest of the water can
be given in the trough between feedings or in special drinkers. Clean water must be available to the pigs at all times, including the piglets in a farrowing pen.

Automatic drinkers are the most hygienic and can be used where piped water is available. There are two types, one which is placed above the feed trough and
sprays into the trough when pushed by the pigs and the other type, which is operated by the pigs biting around it. This latter type is often placed in the manure
alley or in the pen close to the manure alley to prevent the pigs from getting the resting area wet.

Manure Handling

The pig pens must be cleaned once or twice per day. Provided suffcient bedding is used and the urine is drained away separately to a urine storage tank the
solids may have a consistency, which allows it to be stacked on a concrete slab. Where little or no bedding is used or the urine is not separated, a manure storage
slab of the type shown in Figure 10.22 can be used. Table 10.12 shows the manure production.

Figure 10.35 Feeding equipment.

Figure 10.36 Piglet feeders.

Poultry Housing

Poultry, including chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese, offers one of the best sources of animal protein, both meat and eggs, at a cost most people can afford.
Chickens are the most widely raised and are suitable even for the small holder who keeps a few birds that largely forage for themselves and require minimum
protection at night. At the other extreme, commercial farms may have highly mechanized systems housing thousands of birds supplying eggs and meat to the
city market. In between are farm operations in a wide range of sizes with varying types of housing and management systems proportionate to the available level
of investment and supply of skilled labor.

No single system of housing is best for all circumstances nor even for one situation. Some compromise will invariably have to be made.

The needs of chickens and later other classes of poultry will be discussed and a number of housing systems will be described along with the principal
advantages and disadvantages of each.

General Housing Requirements for Chickens

Proper planning of housing facilities for a flock of laying hens requires knowledge of management and environmental needs in the various stages of the life of
the chicken. A typical life cycle is illustrated in Figure 10.37.

The laying period may be up to 16 months, but in flocks held for commercial egg production the hens are normally culled after a laying period of 11 to 12
months or when the production has dropped to a point where the number of eggs collected per day is about 65% of the number of hens in the flock. It is true that
the hens will come in to production again after a couple of month's moulting period, but the production is not as high and the egg quality is generally not quite
as good as in the first laying period. Where prices of poultry meat are reasonable, it is usually more economic to cull all the hens after one year's egg production.
Table 10.12 Manure Production for Pigs

Wet soild Urine Total Storage requirement for slurry

Manure
kg/day kg/day kg/day m³ per day of storage
Dry sow and boar 2.0 - 2.5 4-5 6.0 - 7.5 0.011 or 0.013 per sow in the herd
Sow with litter 2.5 - 3.0 8 - 10 10 -13 0.018
Farrowing pigs - 45 kg 0.8 - 1.0 2.5 3.3 - 3.5 0.004 or 0.006 per growing/finishing pig
Finishing pigs 45 - 90 kg 1.5 - 2.0 4-5 5.5 - 8.0 0.008

Figure 10.37 Typical life cycle of a laying hen.

Site Selection

The best site is one that is well-drained, elevated but fairly level, and has an adequate supply of drinking water nearby.

Regardless of the type or size of the housing system, the site for construction should be selected to provide adequate ventilation, but be protected from strong
winds. An area under cultivation, producing low growing crops, will be slightly cooler than an area of bare ground. High trees can provide shade while at the
same time actually increasing ground level breezes. Bushes planted at one windward corner and also at the diagonally opposite corner will induce air currents
within the building to make existing bmise the heat from direct solar radiation.

Since all buildings used for poultry housing tend to produce odours, they should be located well downwind from nearby dwellings. If there are several poultry
buildings in a group it is desirable to have them separated 10 to 15m in order to minimize the possibility of the spread of disease.

Brooding buildings should be isolated from other poultry buildings by 30 metres or more and be selfcontained in respect of feed supplies and storage of
equipment. If the same person cares for both layers and growing birds, a disinfectant foot bath at the entrance to the brooding area is an added precaution. All
buildings should be constructed on well-drained sites where drives and paths between buildings will not become muddy even during the rainy season.

Environmental Requirements

The effects of temperature and humidity on the birds make it apparent that in most areas of East and Southeast Africa the principal environmental concern is to
keep the flock as cool as possible. Shade, good ventilation with natural breezes, freedom from roof radiation and the indirect radiation from bare ground are all
important. Only in a few high altitude areas does protection from wind and low temperatures become a significant consideration.

Humidity seems important in only two respects. Very low humidity causes objectionably dusty conditions and high humidity combined with temperatures above
27°C seems to interfere with the physiological cooling mechanism and increases the possibility of death.
Day old chicks require a temperature of 33° to 35°. This temperature is maintained for a week and is then gradually lowered to the ambient temperature by the
end of 5 weeks.

In addition to providing a good environment, the housing should offer protection from predators and theft as well as the exclusion of rodents and birds. These
latter two not only carry disease, but they can consume enough feed to make a significant economic difference.

The effect of light on egg production has been discussed earlier. Additional hours of light can be achieved by installing one 40W electric light bulb per 15m²
floor space in a position about 2.2m above floor level.

More important than the hours of light, however, is the maintenance of the lighting schedule, since any sudden change in the length of the photo-period is likely
to result in a significant drop in production. Fourteen hours of light throughout the laying period is optimum.

A schedule with gradually decreasing hours of light may be used in windowless houses for maturing pullets. This postpones laying, but results in larger eggs
being produced from the start of laying.

In warm climates near the Equator, houses are open for natural ventilation, however, and the day length is close to 12 hours throughout the year. The result is
that pullets start to lay at 14 to 18 weeks of age and egg size, which is small at first, gradually increases during the first 3 months.

Broiler houses are often lighted 24 hours per day to encourage maximum feed consumption and rate of gain.

Proper design and management of the poultry house can effectively contribute to the prevention of disease in the flock. In general it is best if the litter is dry but
not too dusty. If no litter is used, the floor and wall surfaces should be designed so that they can be easily cleaned between flocks and stay reasonably clean
during use.

Construction Details

In most hot climates there will be many more days when a cooling breeze is needed rather than protection from a chilling wind. A wall construction consisting
of a solid base, which protects from indirect radiation from the ground, and an open space covered with mesh above it, is therefore preferred for all four walls in
most types of chicken houses. A hessian or reed curtain that can be dropped on the windward side will offer extra protection and, if installed on the east and
west, it may also protect from direct sunshine. An arrangement where the top end of the hessian is fixed to the wall plate and the bottom end attached to a gum
pole around which it can be rolled when not in use, will provide for smooth operation. In high altitude areas off-cuts may be used on the gable ends, but 15 to
20mm spaces should be left between them to improve the ventilation. The width of the building should not exceed 9m for efficient cross ventilation.

Lower Wall Design up to 1000mm of solid walls can be made of any available masonry units. Bag washing will give a smooth easily cleaned finish, but adobe
blocks will require the extra protection of plastering to prevent the birds from destroying the wall by pecking.

The Upper Wall Design to the total height of the wall, including the solid base should be about 2m. Gum poles treated with wood preservative and set 500mm
deep in concrete are a practical means of supporting the roof and upper wall structure. Eighteen millimetre wire mesh is small enough to keep out rodents and
birds. A tight fitting door is essential.
The floor in a poultry house may consist of gravel or well drained soil, but concrete is desirable because it is easily cleaned, durable and considerably more rat
proof. A concrete floor should be 80 to 100mm thick and be made of a stiff mix, 1:2:4 or 1:3:5 concrete, placed on a firm base at least 150mm above ground
level and given a smooth finish with a steel trowel.

Table 10.13 Recommended Minimum Floor, Feed and Water Space for Chickens

Floor Space Feeder Space Water

Space
Stocking density
Low High Trough Tube
birds/ m² birds/ m² birds/ m birds/ m birds/ m
Chicks and Pullets
1 - 4 weeks of age 15 - 20 25 - 30 40 40 150
5 - 10 weeks of age 8 - 11 12 - 15 15 - 20 25 75
11 - 15 weeks of age 5-6 7-8 9- 10 12 50
16 - weeks of age 3-4 5-7 7-8 10 40
Breeders 3-4 5-6 6-8 9 15
Layers 6-7 8 10 - 20
Semi-intensive
House-run
house 3 4-5
run 0.04 - 0.08 0.10 - 0.13
Straw-yard
house 3 4-5
yard 1.5 2.5
Fold system 2 2
Intensive
Deep litter floor 3-4 5-7
Wire floor 7-8 9 - 10
Combination floor 5 -6 7-8
Cages, incl. alleys 8 - 12 15 - 25 7 - 10

Roof structure with a free span is desirable to avoid any inconvenience caused by roof supporting poles inside the building. Corrugated steel sheets are the first
choice for roofing material because they are much easier to keep clean than thatch. Insulation under the metal roofing will improve the environment in the
house. However, a thatched roof may result in even better conditions and can be used on narrow buildings. The roof overhang should be 500mm, or more, in
order to give adequate protection from sun and rain. A ventilation opening along the ridge is usually supplied in layer houses, but not in brooding houses.

Housing Systems for Layers

The pullets are transferred from the rearing to the laying accommodation at 17 to 18 weeks of age and start laying when they are 20 to 24 weeks old. At the time
of transfer they should be grouped according to size and stage of maturity.

There are five major systems used in housing of layers: Semi-intensive; deep litter; slatted or wire floor; a combination of slatted floor and deep litter; and cage
or battery system.

Having considered the factors that affect the comfort, protection, efficiency and production of the birds, it is also important to design a system that is labor
efficient, reasonable in investment and easy to manage. How well each of the systems fills the needs of both the chickens and the people supervising the
operation should be the determining factor in the selection of an appropriate system for a specific situation.

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 Types of Pigs Housing Structures

Free Range Pigs (Pastured Pork Production): There is not a building structure, the hogs
utilize pasture as a feed source but they are not as efficient as ruminants. There are both
advantages and disadvantages associated with using pasture for hogs.

 Advantages
 Outdoor, pasture-oriented production systems open potential niche market
opportunities.
 Hogs can benefit from the activity and exercise associated with foraging.
 Disadvantages
 Excessive rooting behavior can result in soil erosion issues.
 Hogs can escape from pastures. Hogs escaping from farms has been identified
as one of the causes of the growing feral hog problem in many parts of the
United States.
 Internal parasite issues can be severe on poorly managed pasture systems.
 Light-skinned hogs can suffer sunburn while grazing.
 Managing pasture takes much time and commitment to make it successful.
 If you decide to use pasture on your farm, you need to be committed to managing the
pasture plants and grazing. Pastures can be made up of either perennial or annual
plants. A perennial pasture is a long-term investment. It is important to try to prevent
rooting damage to perennial pastures to maintain their long-term productivity. Annual
pastures will need to be replanted each year. Tillage used to establish annuals can also
be used to smooth out fields and reduce bacterial and parasite contamination.
Reestablishment adds considerable cost to the use of pasture.

Hoop Barns: Used to finish hogs to market weight, hoop barns are another option for
producers to use as a swine production facility. They are lower in cost compared to
traditional confinement barns. A hoop barn is a Quonset™-shaped structure with
sidewalls 4 to 6 feet high made of treated wood posts and wood sides or concrete.
Tubular steel arches fastened to the tops or sides of the posts form a hooped roof, which
is covered with UV-resistant, polyvinyl tarp. When used as swine housing, hoop barns
have concrete or earthen floors. Buildings with earthen floors have a concrete slab for a
feeding and watering area. The floor, except for the feeding and watering area, is deep
bedded and cleaned after each group of pigs is marketed.

 Advantages: Hoop barns appear to be most beneficial for producers who have one
or more of the following needs:
 Want facilities to match a rapidly changing swine industry.
 Need a short-term structure that can be removed after use or that can be
adapted for other uses.
 Want to keep fixed costs low.
 Have limited capital.
 Need facilities for groups of 150 to 200+ pigs, which could be impractical for
other housing types.
 Are not interested in accepting the financial risk associated with a large capital
investment.
 Prefer to handle solid manure and have the capability to do so.
 Have the equipment and land resources to harvest crop residue for bedding.
  Prefer a system of production that is less automated and requires different
husbandry skills than those needed in confinement buildings.
 Believe pigs should be reared in an environment with bedding.
 Can be built quickly.
 May qualify for some niche market requirements and premium prices.
 Disadvantages
 Observing animals in large groups is more difficult.
 Hoop-housed pigs may use feed less efficiently during cold periods.
 During inclement weather, the labor environment is less favorable in hoops
than in confinement buildings.
 Hoop-raised pigs may be slightly less lean than confinement-raised pigs.
 More labor may be needed for hoops than for confinement buildings.
 Hoops require large amounts of bedding, and labor needs for harvesting
bedding may conflict with the labor needs for harvesting grain.
 Raccoons and other animals that can foster farm-to-farm disease transmission
may use the bedding storage area for nests.
 Excluding birds and other pests that may carry diseases is difficult.

Confinement Building: The hogs are confined in a closed system called confinement
buildings. These buildings allow the producer to control many aspects of the building and the
environment in which the pigs are living in. They are built with biosecurity practices in mind
and work to keep disease out. They are also set up with the latest technology and have close
monitoring systems to help the producer monitor the health and feed rations of the hogs. The
primary advantages of closed herd systems are tighter control of hog supply and potential
reduction in the risk of disease introduction. They remove the risk of disease breaks from
each part in the production chain. Some of the disadvantages of confinement operations is
that they do require additional management to monitor and care for the hogs inside and with
all the advantages and use of biosecurity practices they are a lot more costly.

 Advantages
 Tighter control of hog supply
 Reduction in the risk of disease introduction
 Closer monitoring systems
 Disadvantages
 Require additional management to monitor and care for the hogs inside
 With all of the biosecurity protocols they can be a lot more costly

 Swine Housing Requirements

 Commercially, large-scale swine producers raise pigs indoors in very
large, climate-controlled buildings. While requiring a significant capital
investment, this type of system relies on quantity and maximum
efficiency to raise pigs as inexpensively as possible. As small-scale
producers, you probably won’t want to invest in state-of-the-art
facilities. However, pigs can be managed in lower-tech facilities. Our
forebears did it for many years!
 Facilities
 Pigs don’t grow very well when they are too hot or too cold. Comfortable pigs
will sleep on their sides with their legs outstretched.
  Flooring and Penning
 Over time, pigs can be very destructive. If you don’t have concrete flooring,
expect pigs to root up whatever they walk on.
 Breeding, Gestation and Boar Housing Needs
 Gilts, sows and boars can be housed in conditions similar to those used for
market hogs. As long as they have a warm or well-bedded dry place to lie down,
mature pigs can tolerate cold temperatures well.
 Farrowing Housing
 Penning during farrowing time is more critical. It is best to farrow sows in
farrowing crates, but farrowing pens will work acceptably well.
 Nursery Housing
 Large producers wean pigs at 3 weeks of age or less. Unless you have top quality
nursery facilities, you will be better to wait until pigs are at least 4 weeks old
before weaning. Older weaned pigs require a less ideal environment to prosper.
 Finishing Pig Housing
 It’s fairly simple to provide finishing pigs with housing.
 Temperature Regulation
 The comfort zone is the temperature at which the animal can maintain by
regulating blood flow to the skin, changing heart rate, respiratory rate or
changing body position to increase or decrease surface area exposed.
 Summary
 Swine facilities should be designed with the comfort of the animals in mind. For
small scale swine operations, simple facilities can work as well as high
technology facilities designed for large scale operations.

Swine housing and equipment

In Latin America and most of Africa, where pigs are raised by subsistence farmers,
the pigs are allowed to free-range and scavenge off of whatever feeds and garbage
they find. In Southeast Asia pigs are more commonly penned and fed rather than
being allowed to free-range. Neither of these two systems is inherently "better"
than the other. Both are systems that have developed over time as a response to
local culture and conditions. Most importantly, they are systems of husbandry that
work and are appropriate to the local conditions. Listed below are some of the
advantages and disadvantages of the free-ranging system of swine husbandry.

Advantages

1. Feed scraps and garbage available locally gets consumed and produces meat.

2. The feed is free and therefore production costs are nearly nonexistent.

3. People do not have to spend much time caring for the pigs.
4. There is no need for expensive housing and feeding equipment.

5. The pigs are not competing with humans for scarce cereal grains.

Disadvantages

1. The production of meat tends to be very low.

2. The pigs harbor diseases and parasites that are transmittable to humans and
generally lower the standards of public health.

3. They burn off a lot of energy looking for food that could be used to produce
meat or fat.

4. They are subject to greater predator losses than if they were penned. .

5. There is no control over breeding or genetics in a free-ranging environment.

For volunteers who are sent to work in sophisticated or "high-tech." production

environments as specialists in swine production, controlled environments and
housing will be a major concern. However, most volunteers who work on
improving swine production do so with subsistence farmers who have few
resources. For those few "specialist" volunteers, I suggest that they obtain
the Swine Science book by M.E. Ensminger as a resource. This particular writing
is geared for the generalist volunteer who will be involved in a less production
oriented system of animal husbandry.

For the generalist volunteer working with subsistence farmers who produce a
limited amount of cereal grains, it is my contention that housing of pigs is not a
major concern. Of the five components of livestock production (nutrition,
management, diseases and parasites, genetics, and housing), I consider housing to
be the least important in terms of increasing production. If the goal of the farmer
and the volunteer is to increase the production of meat from pigs, then an
investment of money and time should be given to the other 4 components before
housing, because they will yield better results. It is totally inappropriate to invest in
sophisticated housing and labor-saving devices for pigs when working with local
or creole breeds while not having solved all the problems relating to their feeds and
nutrition. Unless there is a real excess of cereal grains being produced in your area,
it is probably not appropriate to attempt to move farmers from their free-ranging
system of husbandry to one of raising pigs in confinement. When pigs are
confined, the farmer and the volunteer have committed themselves to a higher level
of production that involves feeding the pigs daily, worrying about production costs
and the scarcity of grains, marketing of pigs for profit, and improving the levels of
husbandry as well as attempting to improve the genetic strains or breeds of hogs
that you are working with. To go from a free-ranging or survival level of
production to a moderate level is a major step and not one that volunteers should
promote unless they are very sure that all the resources needed to do so are
available.

If the volunteer finds him/herself in a situation where it is indeed appropriate to

pen the pigs up and feed them, or it is a local custom that swine are raised in
confinement, then there are many points to consider in coming up with a design for
housing that is appropriate to local resources, culture, and climate. The incredibly
diverse possibilities that all of this world's villages hold in the way that local
resources, culture, and climate come together (coupled with my own limited
knowledge of the implications of such diverse conditions) make it impossible for
me to offer any single design for swine housing that would be appropriate in all
cases. It is the task of the volunteer and local farmers (who would know far better
than I do) to determine what is "appropriate" in a given situation. However, I offer
the following points to be considered in your decision concerning the type of
shelter you might provide to pigs.

1. Visit other farmers who already are raising pigs in confinement and see what
designs and materials they are using.

2. Use materials that are available locally (either free or at minimal cost) such as
bamboo.

3. Do not invest much money in housing for pigs.

4. Make sure that the pigs that are confined have protection (shade) from the sun.
This can be provided by a thatched roof or trees.

5. Provide a water source or a mud "wallow" for the pig to cool in as a protection
from the heat.

7. Design the pen in such a manner as to protect the pigs from predators.

8. The pen should be kept near the farmer and the source of feed. This creates the
possibility of increased access and (hopefully) better care for the pig.

9. Consider the following space requirements:

- Mature sows, gilts, and boars require 15-20 square feet of space each.

- Gilts with piglets and mature sows with piglets require at least 50 to 65 square
feet of space.

- Weaner pigs to pigs of 75 lbs. require 5-6 square feet.

- 75 to 125 lb. pigs need 6-7 square feet.

- 125 to 200 lbs. pigs need 8-10 square feet each.

Disinfecting

In regards to all swine housing and equipment (feeders, waterers, and farrowing
crates), it is true that they need to be disinfected from time to time. If you are
rotating pastures or pens, the pens and all equipment should be disinfected. If you
have a buildup in parasites or a disease outbreak you also need to disinfect.
Scrubbing with soap and water, followed by washing with a disinfectant (such as
chlorine or iodine), and then sundrying for 48 hours is effective in controlling most
diseases and parasites.

Farrowing crate

Equipment

The purpose of a far rowing crate is to provide an area where the sow can remain
while farrowing which affords protection to the piglets and allows the farmer to
tend to the sow during the farrowing. Newborn piglets are often not quick enough
to avoid being laid upon by a sow as she rolls. When this happens the piglet can be
squashed or may suffocate. Far rowing crates or guard rails along the wall of the
farrowing pen create a space where the piglet can lay down while nursing and still
be protected from the weight of the sow. Each farrowing crate may be from 4-1/2
to 5 feet wide and 8 feet long. These widths allow from 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 feet of space
on both sides of the 2-foot-wide sow stall for the piglets. The bottom guard rail
should be about 15-18 inches off the ground. The size of the far rowing crate also
depends on the size of the sow and local breeds.

The crate can be built out of a variety of materials such as thick bamboo, wood, or
pipe. The important thing to remember is that the crate be built out of as
inexpensive (yet functional) material as is available. The picture included is of a
crate built with plywood but the idea is applicable to any building material.
Illustration 2-6: Farrowing stall

Feeders

One of the best feeders is the trough. This type of feeder is good for either dry feed
or a wet mash. They can be built cheaply out of wood. They should be built so that
they form a V which causes the feed to fall to the bottom, prevents the pigs from
standing in it, and may reduce waste. The trough should also have slats spread
along the top of it to prevent the pigs from lying in the feeder. The trough should
be supported by wide end pieces that prevent it from being turned over and the
feed wasted. Refer to the 2 illustrations for possible design ideas. Creep feeders are
designed so that the piglets can be fed in an area where the sow cannot enter and
feed. Pigs that feed directly off the ground, rather than from a trough feeder, are
more subject to infection by parasites. One to two feet of linear space per pig on a
feeder is needed (depending on the size of the pig).
Creep-feeding is the practice of feeding concentrates to young pigs in a separate
enclosure away from their dams. (Drawing by R. F. Johnson)

Illustration 2-7: Waterers

Concrete trough or watering bowl for single hog.

Bucket weighted with sand 3" piece of pipe or hose to provide a drain

Illustration 2-7: Waterers

Wooden box from

Illustration 2-7: Waterers

After pouring 2" concrete in box, insert bucket and pipe and fill box with concrete.

Illustration 2-7: Waterers

Allow to set, then remove bucket.

Trough will slip out of greased from.

Put wooden plug in drain hole.

This is a good design for a practical, low-cost, and easy to construct waterer for
pigs. The advantages of this design is that it is easy to clean and heavy enough not
to be constantly tipped over by pigs. Also, pigs can not lay down in this waterer to
cool themselves, thereby contaminating their drinking water. Other ideas for
building waterers can be gained from local farmers and their creative uses of
bamboo and wood. One to two linear feet, depending on the size of the pig, is
needed for watering space.

s
 STORAGE STRUCTURES

To cope with the current and future demand of the increasing population for the food grains, it is emphasized to reduce the loss of seeds during and after harvest. seeds are stored for varying periods to ensure proper
and balanced public distribution through out the year. Post harvest losses in India are estimated to be around 10 per cent, of which the losses during storage alone are estimated to be 6.58 per cent. But, with the
advent of improved agricultural technology, the producer can afford to store the seeds for longer period with minimum loss.

For best storage performance,

1. The produce must be thoroughly cleaned and graded,
2. Dried to the safe storage moisture level of 10-12 % for cereals and 7-9% for oil seeds (on wet basis) for a safe storage period of 6-12 months.
3. Storage structures should to be properly repaired, cleaned and disinfected,
4. Structures should bear the load of seeds stored and do not permit contact/
exchange with outside humid air,
5. Structures should be constructed in the coolest part of the house/ farm.

An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following requirements

1. It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rain, insect
pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fore etc.,
2. It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading,
cleaning and reconditioning.
3. It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to both
insect and mould development,
4. It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation

Seeds can be stored in bulk or in bags.

(a) Bulk (open) storage

It is preferred over bag storage for the following reasons

Large quantities of food grain can be stored

No difficulty in loading and unloading of grain
No need to purchase storage containers like gunnies
Insect incidence is less than bag storage, even this can be eliminated by fumigation in situ
Avoids waste from leaking bags
Easy inspections- saves labour and time.
Bulk seed storage
(b) Bag storage

Commodities are mostly stored in gunnies. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent
structures and equipment. The storage in ags has the advantage of being short-term storage.
Bag storage can be done under a roof alvanized iron sheets, a plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Bags can
be easily handled for marketing purpose.
There is no sweating of bags as they are arranged in racks with proper interbag space, but, initial cost is high and they can easily pickup infestation
and retain even after treatment.

Storage structures used by the farmers are

Gunny bags of different capacities (35, 50, 75 and 100 kg) with or without inside plastic lining.
Mud bins having 100 – 1000 kg capacity

Baked earthen containers of 5- 100 kg capacity

In heaps on flat floor in the corner of houses (100- 1500 q).

Bamboo structures

Wooded bins
 Underground structures

CONVENTIONAL STORAGE STRUCTURES

Structures Make Stored Capacity Remarks

items
1. Bamboo Split bamboo woven in Paddy, 500 kg Life 4-5 years.
structures the form of a cylinder wheat and Weight loss due to insect
with wide base and sorghum attack is 5 % in paddy and
narrow mouth 15 % in sorghum.
2. Mud and Clay, straw and cow Paddy, wheat, 5 to 10 q Life 8- 10 years.
earthen dung- 3:3:1. Earthen sorghum,oil seeds During rainy season
structures structures are made, and pulses develop cracks and
sun dried and then moisture absorption
burnt in fire followed by insect and
mould
infestation.
3. Wooden Local wood is painted Paddy 10 q 15- 20 years. Neither
structures black. At the top, 30 cm airtight nor moisture
x 20 cm in let and proof.
at the bottom 30 cm
x15cm outlet is
provided
4. Brick Rectangular, Paddy, 25- 30 q 25- 30 years. High initial
structures structures built as part sorghum cost, not insect and
of the house, with brick and wheat moisture proof.
in cement or lime
mortar having a
wall thickness of 40 –
50 cm. At the top 50x
50 cm inlet and at
 bottom 15 x15cm
outlet is provided.
5.Underground Circular pits vary Cereals 100 –200 q Safe against insects but,
structures from 100– 400cm in loss of seed viability and
depth and 50 – 100 cm handling
dia at neck and 250 – difficulties made it out of
300 cm at the bottom. date.
For filling and emptying
there is
an opening at the top.
Before filling the sides
and bottom are packed
with straw
and husk. After filling
the pit is gain covered
with straw and stone,
the finally with mud.
6.Miscellaneous a. paddy straw is Paddy, 30–100q1-2 q2-5 kg Not insect and rat
plant materials wound in the form of other proofTemporaryOnly small
a. Paddy straw rope to varying cereals quantity of seed lots.
b. Stem of vitex diameter and pulses Paddy and
and pigeon pea b. stems wound like a other
stalks bin and both sides are cerealsPulses, gourd
c. Bottle gourd plastered with mud and seeds
shells cow dung
c. empty shells are
used
7. Metal Sheets of about 3 m Various Vary Vary Temporary
corrugated G.I. high are held types of
sheets vertically along one seeds
edge and edges of the
other sheets are
overlapped and bolted
to each other. Thus
the circle with 2-4 m
dia. is completed with
many such sheets.
They are covered on
the top with the plain
M.S. or G.I. sheets.
8. Hessian cloth
bags
9. Gunny bags

IMPROVED RURAL - LEVEL STORAGE STRUCTURES

1. Bitumen/ coal tar drum

An alternate model of metal bin, low cost with similar technical performance. These bins are of 520 mm dia and 900 mm height. They can store 1.5 q of wheat and 1.2 q of Bengal gram.
2. Hapur bin/ Kothis

Circular bins of 2, 5, 7.2 and 10 q capacities and have potential to meet requirements of even large farmers.

3. Udaipur bin

These bins are made out of used coaltar drums. These can stock 1.3 q of wheat and maize. These bins can be made to have more airtight lid if the drum outlet end is given small cut to unload the bitumen. These
bins are suitable for storing of food grains for short duration and can be adopted by small farmers.

4. Stone bin

Stone bin (Chittore bin) is made of locally available 40 mm thick stone slabs with dimensions of 680 mm x 1200 mm with square cross-section. The inlet and outlet are made of asbestos. This bin has a capacity of
3.8 q.

5. Bamboo bin

These bins are made of two walls of bamboo with polythene lining in between and have varying capacities. These bins are suitable for short – duration storage and can be adopted by small and marginal farmers.

6. Baked clay bin

Baked clay bin of 7q capacity (paddy) is made of 16 burnt rings jointed by mud plaster; cement mortar and cowdung coatings one after another. The ends of the rings are made in such a manner that they fit into each
other. These rings are kept on a polythene sheet covered and plastered platform of brick mansory and cement sand mortar. An outlet is provided for the discharge of the grain. The top is covered with a mild steel lid.
Because of the low cost and good performance these are particularly useful for small and marginal farmers who do not store their produce for longer duration.

7. PKV bin

Made from green bamboo splits into suitable sizes. The tunnel, outlet flap valve and complete stand can be fabricated in a workshop.
8. Pusa bin

It is a modification of the ordinary mud storage structure commonly used in villages. To provide moisture proof and airtight conditions, polyethylene film of 700 gauge thickness has been embedded at the top, bottom
and on all the sides of the mud bin. The embedding process provides mechanical support and safety to polyethylene film. The construction of outer walls with burnt bricks up to 45 cm height makes the structure rat
proof as well. The bin is constructed with unburnt bricks on burnt bricks or concrete floor to avoid rat burrowing. The grain and seed both remain safe in the bin for more than one year with proper precautions.

9. Pusa Cubicle

This is a room like structure ( 3.95 x 3.15 x 2.60 m), a modification of Pusa bin to provide large storage capacity of 24 tonnes on a platform of 3.73 m x 2.93 m x 0.07 m is made with unburnt bricks on a concrete floor
(except 22 cm of outer sides with burnt bricks). A polyethylene sheet is placed on this platform and another platform of similar dimension is made with unburnt bricks. The 22 cm thick inner walls are constructed upto
2.6 m height. A wooden frame of 1.89m x 1.06 m for door is fixed in the front side of 3.95 m wall. The roof can be made by wooden beam placed at 15 cm distance and covered with unburnt bricks.

10. Pusa Kothar

Presently storage is practiced in small compartments of a room (5.3 m x 2 m x 4 m) called kothar. The roof is constructed with the help of wooden poles and mud slabs, leaving near the front wall three filling holes
each of 0.5 m x 0.5 m size. Two out lets of G.I. sheets of 15 cm dia. and 30 cm length are fitted at the floor wall on the front side.

11. Metal bins

Bins made of steel, Aluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges
from 1 to 10 tonnes. Silos are huge bins made with steel/ aluminium or concrete. Usually steel and aluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500 to 4000 tonnes. A silo has facilities for
loading and unloading grains.

STACKING

Food grains have to be stored and preserved on scientific lines in godowns till they are issued to consumer. Te bags containing food grains cannot be just dumped inside the godown, for it will not facilitate proper
storage. Proper stacking ensures free access to the stocks in all parts of the godown for inspection and helps in effective disinfestations work. Generally, three methods of stacking are being followed: 1. Simple,
2.Cross and 3. Block method.

Steps necessary for good storage practice in respect of all food grains

Stored product pests can be managed either behaviouraly (traps viz., probe traps, light traps, pitfall traps etc.,) or with several preventive and curative measures (both chemical and non-chemical methods). Once a
facility is obtained, a number of steps are to be taken to ensure safe storage of grains. These steps comprise,

1. Before storage

- Checking for leakage of rain water and sufficiency of drainage facilities

- Cleanliness of the facility and environment
- Assessment of capacity of the facility
- Pesticidal treatment
- Security and firefighting arrangements and
- Repairs to available equipment

2. After receipt of seed

- Inspection for variety and soundness of quality

- Inspection carefully for infestation, it any, and when present, for type and extent
of infestation,
- Inspection whether grain has excess moisture, whether it had been heated up in
earlier storage and has any musty or rancid odour
- Any grain rendered wet or damaged to be segregated and salvaged with facilities
available and check the weight received

3. During storage

Maintenance of cleanliness
Ensuring aeration where necessary
 Checking for leakage after rains
Inspection for insects, rats and mites at fortnightly intervals
Watch for advancement in deterioration, if any,
Pesticidal treatments necessarily based on observations
Ensuring disposal where called for, and
Arrangement for segregation, salvage and processing, wherever, damage owing
to leakage of water and other causes might have taken place.

SEED PROTECTANTS

Chemicals that can be directly applied to grains are formulations of chemicals having residual toxic or repellent action or both. Those are applied directly to the grain to prevent damage by stored product pests. Eg.,
clay minerals (red earth, Kaolin) before 1950. Now their use is restricted only to seeds and grains meant for animal feed. These grain protectants can be applied in the form of spray/ dust on the uninfested grain.

Advantages over fumigants

Used as a prophylactic treatment

Can be effective when the grains are stored in loose containers where fumigation is not possible
Less dangerous than fumigants
Don’t affect germination adversely
One application at harvest time is sufficient for one year

Example

1. Pyrethrum synergized with PBO: safest of the grain protectants available and approved for use. Available as powder 1 % PBO +0.8 % pyrethrum, 0.83 lb synergist+ 0.6 % pyrethrum also be applied in the form
of spray 3-5 gallons/ 1000 bushel, 0.6 lb synergist+0.066 lb pyrethrum.
2. Premium grade Malathion: Foul smell is removed. Can be directly applied over the grain as 1 % D or as a spray 57 EC. Other chemicals include: Carbaryl, Dichlorvos, Fenitrothion, Lindane, Malathion, PBO,
Pyrethroids (Deltamethrin, Fenvalerate).

Source: http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/M1080-FS.pdf .
 CHAPTER 17: STORAGE- GRAIN STORAGE – TYPES OF STORAGE STRUCTURES
Storage structures
Storage – to maintain the quality of grain after harvest for
 Maintaining the supply of grain
 Taking advantage of higher prices
Two methods of grain storage
 Bag storage
 Loose in bulk storage
The choice based on the local factors
 Type of grain
 Duration of storage
 Value of grain
 Climate
 Transport system
 Cost and availability of labour
 Cost and availability of bags
 Incidents of rodents and certain types of insects

Bag and bulk storages

Bag storage Bulk storage

Flexibility of storage Inflexible storage

Partly mechanical mechanical

slow handling Rapid handling

Considerable spillage Little spillage

Low capital cost High capital cost

High operating cost Low operating cost

High rodent loss potential Low rodent loss potential

Reinfestation occurs Little protection against reinfestation

Traditional storage structures- (Bulk type)
Bukkhari type

 Cylindrical in shape
 Made of mud or combination of mud and split bamboo
 Raised above the ground by wooden or masonry platform
 Floor
 Walls
 Roof
 Improved type – same structure
 Rat proofing cones
 Grains – wheat, gram, paddy, maize and sorghum
 Capacity – 3.5 – 18 t
Kothar type
 Store – paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat
 Capacity – 9-35 t
 Structure – box
 Improved Kothar – 5cm thick wooden planks and beams
 No gap between the planks
Morai type
 Grains – paddy, maize, sorghum
 Capacity – 3.5 – 18 t
 Shape- inverted truncated cone
 Improved bulk storage structures

Modern storage structures

 Bagged storage system
 Silo storage system
 Air tight storage system
 Aerated storage system
 Low temperature storage system
 Controlled atmosphere storage system
 Damp grain storage system with chemicals
Bagged storage system
 Storage capacity is from 25 tonnes
 Generally the length is about twice the width or greater
 The entire structure should be moisture proof
 Large size doors of 2.4 x 2.4 m and top ventilators
 Each door is provided with a light overhanging hood
 It should be provide with ventilators – having wire netting and shutter

Bag Storage structure

Damp proof floor
1) 15 cm thick layer of gravel and sand well rammed at the bottom
2) 12.5 cm thick layer of stone or brick ballast or double layer of brick
3) 10 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:4:8)
4) 1.25 cm thick bitumen mixed with sand
5) 4 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:2:4)
6) 2.5 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1: 1 1/2: 3)

The walls are made of bricks or stone laid either in lime mortar (1:2), cement mortar (1:6)
Thickness of the wall is either 37.5 or 45 cm
The height of the walls on which trusses are kept: 5.5 m
Roof
Either gabled or flat roof
Gabled roof is covered with corrugated sheet
Flat roof is more durable – either reinforced brick or concrete – 10 to 12.5 cm thick
The terracing on the roof is made of brick ballast, surkhi, and lime ( 3.5: 1:1)

1. Sealed door 2. Floor 3. Rat proof slab 4. Air proof roof

Modern Storage Godown
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Lession-34 Types of Grain storage structures
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Grain is generally stored either in bags or in bulk. A combined system of bag-cum-
Current course
bulk storage is also practiced in some parts of the country. In villages the bulk
DSE
storage system is more common than the storage in bags which is considered to be a
practicable method· of storing grain in the government godowns as well as in trade.
There main following three types of storage structures for storage of grains.
Traditional storage structures

Improved storage structures

Modern storage structures
Farm Silos

34.1 Traditional Storage Structures

In this types of storage structures the grain is generally stored in bulk. This types of
storage structures having generally capacities between 1 to 50 tonnes. The storage of
grain is generally done in one of the following storage structures in the different rural
and urban regions of India in bulk as well as in bag storage.
1. Morai type storage structures
2. Bukhari type storage structures
3. Kothar type storage structure
4. Mud Kothi type storage structure

5. Muda type storage structure

6. Kanaj type storage structure
Module 11.
Conditions for 7. Kuthla type storage structure
modified
atmospheric sto... 8. Metal/ Steel bin type storage structure
Module 12. Storage
of grains: 9. Bag type storage structure
destructive agents,
... 34.2 Improved Storage Structures
Lession-34
Types of Grain Improved storage structures are the storage structures for storage of food grains. In this
storage type of storage structures there are some improvements made in traditional storage
structures
structures. This type of storage structures having a higher storage capacity and long
Lesson-34 Q-1
term storage of food grains than traditional storage structures. Improved type of
Lesson-35 Types
of Traditional storage structures having capacities is generally 1.5 to 150 tonnes. The storage of grain
storage is generally done in one of the following storage structures in the different rural and
structures ... urban regions of India in bulk, bag as well as bag and bulk storage.
Lesson-35 Q-1
Lesson-36 Types 34.2.1 Pusa bin
of improved
 storage Pusa bin is like other traditional storage structures made of mud. To make the
structures
storage structure moisture proof a plastic film is used in all the inner sides of the
Lesson-36 Q-1
bin.
Lession–37
Types of Modern
Storage
34.2.2 Brick and cement bin
structures i.e....
These type of storage structures are very strong and effect of seasons on these is
Lesson-37 Quiz
minimum.
Lession–38
Design of Silos
34.2.3 Bunker Storage
Lesson-38 Quiz
Lession-39 These type of storage structure is used for long term storage and a larger volume
Design of of grains storage.
Warehouses
(Shed) and
Control...
34.2.4 'CAP' Storage structures
Lesson-39 Quiz
The word 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth, plinth from the bottom and cover
Module 13. Storage
of cereal grains and
from the top. This type of open storage is considered as transit storage and serves
their prod... the purpose of storage of food grains in bags for short period.
Module 14. Storage
condition for various 34.3 Modern Storage Structures
fruits an...
In India, for larger volume of food grains are to be stored in bulk is 'silo' and
Module 15.
Economics aspect conventional godowns (Shed) designed for bagged storage. The godowns side walls
of storage are of brick or stone masonry and sloped roofing in asbestos or Corrugated Galvanized
Courses Iron (CGI) sheets over steel trusses. Silos are constructed from steel or reinforced
concrete. There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large/ capacity
processing plant. The modern permanent storage system should be selected for the safe
keeping of stored grains and other products. The modern storage structures should be
selected on the basis of first on quality and then on cost considerations. There are
following types of modern storage structures.

34.3.1 Silo type of storage structures

Silos/bins are classified into two groups depending upon the relative dimensions
of the container. These are classified as, (1) deep bins and (2) shallow bins.
34.3.1.1 Shallow bins
Squat silos are comes under shallow bins. A squat silo has a wall height to
diameter ratio 0.5 or even less. Squat silo can compete with sheds for low-cost
quality storage.
34.3.1.2 Deep bins
Vertical Silos are comes under this type of storage structures. There are two
types of vertical silos a) Flat bottom vertical silo and b) Hopper bottom
vertical silo.
34.3.2 Shed
Generally, a horizontal sheds have been used to provide low- cost, large volume
storage. For storing grains and other products a very large volume sheds have also
been constructed by Central Warehousing Corporation.
34.4 Farm Silos
Farm silos is a farm structure used to store and protect the animal fodder so that it is
preserved in an ideal condition for farm animals. Animal fodder is cut and packed in
the air tight silo to allow a partial fermentation to occur. The storage fodder is known
as silage. There are two types of farm silos i) Tower silos and ii) Horizontal silos.
34.4.1 Tower silos
Cylindrical Shpe and made of masonary, wood or metal
Cost of construction is comparatively much higher than that of horizontal
type.
Loading of animal fodder is difficult.
Mechanical loader or a large capacity of blower is essential.
This type of storage structures are not recommended under Indian conditions.
34.4.2 Horizontal silos
In horizontal silos pit type, bunker type and trench or stake type of storage
structures used for storage of animal fodder.
There are surface as well as below ground (underground) types of storage
structures used on most of dairy farms as temporary and permanent
storage structures for silage.
The spoilage of silage and dry matter losses of these silos ranges between
20 to 30 percent.
34.4.2.1 Pit Silos

Permanent pit silo is a circular deep well which is lined all around the side,
and sealed from bottom, so that water may not rise in to it.
Made in areas where the soil is deep and the water table is very low.
Made of bricks, stones or concrete, and either cement or lime can be used
as a binding material.
A 22.5 cm thick wall will be used satisfactory up to 15 meter depth.
The entire surface which is coming in contact with the silage should be
plastered to make it smooth, air tight and water tight.
Simple roof is made over the silo to protect the silage from sun and rain.
Corrugated metal sheet dome or half pitch roof with ample overhang on all
the sides are most economical and provide more space for filling.
Stairs may be built along with wall for removing silage from the silo.
The diameter of a silo is usually limited to 6 m and its depth is kept 2 to 3
times that of diameter.
When the silo is opened for removing the silage, nobody should enter till
the gases are removed.
34.4.2.2 Trench Silos
 Fig. 34.1 Cross – section of trench silo showing wall lining
Unlined trench silo can be made easily without involving any investment
on building materials such as brick, cement and sand.
Unlined silos give more spoilage and are likely to have caved side walls
due to excessive rain and tend to become muddy at the bottom. So, lined
trench silos are therefore become popular.
The walls of the trench silos can be lined with brick, concrete or cement
plaster with reinforcing wire mesh.
If possible the silo should be roofed.
Drains should be made around trench to intercept surface water.
To facilitate drainage it is desirable to locate the trench silo on slopping
ground.
Capacity is depends on size of herd and number of day the silage is fed in
a year.
It is always economical to construct only one trench silo, even if it is quite
larger.
Sidewalls are given generally 33 per cent slope.
References:
1. A Text Book Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing by K.M Sahay and
K.K.Singh
2. Agriculture Engineering, Volume-I by A.M. Mickal and T.P.Oza
3. Sinha, R.N &Muir. Grain Storage: Part of a System. Avi Publisher.

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Lesson-35 Types of Traditional storage structures i.e., Bhukhari, Morai, Kothar
Home
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In this types of storage structures the grain is generally stored in bulk. This types of
Current course
storage structures having generally capacities between 1 to 50 tonnes. The storage of
DSE
grain is generally done in one of the following storage structures in the different
Participants
rural and urban regions of India in bulk as well as in bag storage.
General
Module 1. Moisture
content and its
determination.
35.1 Morai type storage structure
Module 2. EMC
Module 3. Drying Morai type of structure is used for the storage of paddy, maize and sorghum (jowar) in
Theory and the rural areas of eastern and southern regions of India. Its capacity varies from 3·5 to
Mechanism of
drying 18 tonnes. These structures are very similar to the shape of an inverted cone. They are
Module 4. Air placed on a raised platform supported on wooden or masonry pillars. The improved
pressure within the type of structure consists of a circular wooden plank floor supported on pillars by
grain bed, Shred...
means of timber joints. The planks are joined together with lap joints. All around the
Module 6. Study of
wooden floor a 22 gauge corrugated metal cylinder of 90 cm height is nailed to it. The
different types of
dryers- perf... edge of the cylinder is flushed with the bottom end of the floor. Inside the cylinder, 7·5
Module 5. Different cm diameter ropes made of paddy straw or similar material are placed, beginning from
methods of drying the floor level upto a height of 90 cm. Then bamboo splits are placed vertically along
including pu...
the inner surface without leaving any gap between them. The height of the bamboo
Module 7. Study of
drying and splits is equal to the total height of the structure. Keeping the bamboo splits in
dehydration of position, the grain is poured in up to the height of the metal cylinder. By then the
agric...
bamboo splits are held erect in position. Now the winding of the rope as well as the
Module 8. Types
and causes of
pouring in of grain are done simultaneously. This process continues tiIl the required
spoilage in storage. height is attained. The top most ring of the rope is secured in position by tying to the
Module 9. Storage lower four rings. To provide a smooth surface, about 1 cm thick layer of mud plaster is
of perishable applied over the rope. A conical roof is placed on the top of the structure having an
products, function...
ample overhang all around. (Fig. 35.1)
Module 10.
Calculation of
refrigeration load.
Module 11.
Conditions for
modified
atmospheric sto...
Module 12. Storage
of grains:
destructive agents,
...
Lession-34
Types of Grain
storage
structures
Lesson-34 Q-1
Lesson-35
Types of
Traditional
storage
structures ...
Lesson-35 Q-1
 Lesson-36 Types
of improved
storage
structures
Lesson-36 Q-1
Lession–37
Types of Modern
Storage
structures i.e....
Lesson-37 Quiz
Lession–38
Design of Silos
Lesson-38 Quiz
Lession-39
Design of
Warehouses
(Shed) and
Control...
Lesson-39 Quiz
Module 13. Storage
of cereal grains and
their prod...
Module 14. Storage
condition for various
fruits an...
Module 15.
Economics aspect
of storage
Courses

Fig.35.1 Morai type grain storage structure~vertical section

35.2 Bukhari type storage structure
Bukhari type storage structures are cylindrical in shape and are used for storage of
sorghum, wheat, padd)" Bengalgram, maize etc. Bukhari structures generally have
capacities between 3.5 to 18 tonnes, however, smaller capacity structures also exist.
This may be made by mud alone or by mud and bamboo. The cylindrical storage
structures are raised above the ground by wooden or masonry platform. The floor of
the bin is made either by timber planks or by bamboo splits, plastered over with mud
rilixed with dung and paddy straw. The walls of the structure are made of timber or
bamboo frame work and bamboo matting. Over the walls, mud-straw plaster is applied
on both sides. An overhanging cone type roof is provided on the cylindrical structure.
The roof is generally made of bamboo framework and straw.
In improved bukhari type structure, the basic shape remains the same but the material
and method of construction have been improved to make the structure more safe and
durable. The circular floor of structure is either made of wooden planks joined by lap
joints or by a double layer of bamboo splits closely set at right angles to each other.
Over the floor, about 5 cm thick mud plastering is provided. The walls of structure are
made of two sets of strong bamboo framework. The inter-space is filled with mud. The
walls on both sides are plastered with mud. The roof is conical and made of bamboo
frame-work and covered with paddy straw or similar other thatching material. The top
of the conical roof is covered with 4 to 5 cm thick mud layer to provide additional
protection from rains. The structure is raised on timber or masonry pillars to a height
 of about 1.5 m from ground level. Rat proofing cones are placed on all the four pillars
to avoid rats entering the storage structure. (Fig.35.2)

35.2 Bukhari type Grain Storage Structure - Vertical Section

35.3 Kothar type storage structure
These are used to store paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat etc. Their capacity varies
between 9 to 35 tonnes. The storage structure is box like made of wood and raised on
pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks whereas the thatched or
tiled roof is placed over it to protect the grains from the sun or rain. The improved
Kothar structure is generally made of 5 cm thick wooden planks and beams. The walls
and floor are made in such a way that no gap exists between the planks. The gabled
roof on the top may be made of planks or corrugated metal sheets and should be
sufficiently overhang on all sides. The storage structure is raised on timber post to a
height of about 1.5 m above the ground. Rat proofing cones are provided on all posts
to avoid entry of rats in the structure. (Fig.35.3)
 35.3 Kothar type Grain Storage Structure - Vertical Section

35.4 Mud Kothi (Mud bin)

These storage structures are quite common in rural areas for storage of grains and
other seeds. The capacity of such storage structures varies from 1 to 50 tonnes. These
are made from mud mixed with dung and straw. These Kothies are generally
rectangular in shape but cylindrical Kothi is also common in some region. There are
many sizes and dimensions of Kothi made for storing grains. (Fig.35.4)

35.5 Muda type of storage Structure

 These are in use for storing grains in the rural areas of Bihar. The capacity of muda
varies between 1 to 3 tonnes. It is being made of "Narai" ropes. The shape of muda is
cylindrical and being made in various sizes.
35.6 Kanaj type of Storage Structure
These storage structures are very common in the rural areas of Karnataka and
Maharashtra for storage of grains. The capacity of Kanaj varies between 1 to 20
tonnes. It is being made by bamboo splits. The shape of storage structure is cylindrical.
The walls of storage structure are sealed with mud plaster on both sides. The roof of
the structure is conical and thatched. The roof overhang on all sides.
35.7 Kuthla

These storage structures are very much common in rural areas of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. These structures are kept inside and made of burnt mud.
35.8 Bag Storage Structure
These structures are generally used for the storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain. The
length of the structure is about twice the width or greater than that. A typical floor
plan of such a structure large enough to store about 6000 bags (500 tonnes) of grain.
Bags of different capacities (35, 50, 75 and 100 kg) with or without inside plastic
lining are used. The standard size of a 100 kg bag is 100 cm x 60 cm x 30 cm i.e.
length of bag is 100 cm, width of bag is 60 cm and height of filled bag is 30 cm. This
bag can store 93 Kg of Wheat and 75 Kg of Paddy.

35.5 Different size of Bags for storage

35.9 Metal Bin
Bins made of steel, Aluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains inside and outside
the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and
produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 50 kg to 10 tonnes.
References:
1. A Text Book Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing by K.M Sahay and
K.K.Singh
2. Agriculture Engineering, Volume-I by A.M. Mickal and T.P.Oza
3. Sinha, R.N &Muir. Grain Storage: Part of a System. Avi Publisher.

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Lesson-36 Types of improved storage structures
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In improved type of storage structures, there are some improvements made in
Current course
traditional storage structures. These types of storage structures have a higher storage
DSE
capacity for long term storage of food grains than traditional storage structures.
Participants
Improved types of storage structures have capacities generally in the range of 1.5 to
General
150 tons. The storage of grain is generally done in one of the following storage
Module 1. Moisture
content and its structures in the different rural and urban regions of India.
determination.
Module 2. EMC
Module 3. Drying
Theory and
36.1 Pusa bin
Mechanism of
drying Pusa bin is just like other traditional storage structure and is made of mud. To make
Module 4. Air this storage structure moisture proof, a plastic film is used on inner side of the bin. A
pressure within the platform of mud bricks is made, first. On this platform, a sheet of 700 gauge plastic
grain bed, Shred...
is spread in such a way that it overlaps the platform on all sides by atleast 6 cm. On
Module 6. Study of
different types of
the plastic sheet, a layer of 7 cm thick kachcha bricks is then laid. Walls are made of
dryers- perf... kachcha bricks and these are sealed with mud plaster. Now the walls are raised to
Module 5. Different proper height and a wooden frame is placed on it. The upper roof of the structure is
methods of drying made of burnt bricks. For unloading of grains, an inclined wooden or steel pipe is
including pu...
fixed in such a way that grains may come out of structure by gravity. The mouth of
Module 7. Study of
drying and pipe is closed by a cover. The inside of all the four walls and roof are covered with a
dehydration of plastic sheet. On the top, an open space of about 50 cm x 50 cm is left for loading of
agric...
grains. Leaving this open space, the roof is sealed by mud. After the bin is filled
Module 8. Types
and causes of
with grains, the top open space is well covered by a plastic sheet so that air may not
spoilage in storage. enter the bin. A typical Pusa bin is shown in fig.36.1 below.
Module 9. Storage
of perishable
products, function...
Module 10.
Calculation of
refrigeration load.
Module 11.
Conditions for
modified
atmospheric sto...
Module 12. Storage
of grains:
destructive agents,
...
Lession-34
Types of Grain
storage
structures
Lesson-34 Q-1
Lesson-35 Types
of Traditional
storage
structures ...
Lesson-35 Q-1
Lesson-36
Types of
 improved
storage
structures
Lesson-36 Q-1
Lession–37
Types of Modern
Storage
structures i.e....
Lesson-37 Quiz
Lession–38
Design of Silos
Lesson-38 Quiz
Lession-39
Design of
Warehouses
(Shed) and
Control...
Lesson-39 Quiz
Module 13. Storage
of cereal grains and
their prod...
Module 14. Storage
condition for various
fruits an...
Module 15.
Economics aspect
of storage 36.2 Brick and cement bin
Courses
These storage structures are very strong and therefore, the effect of season on them
is negligible. The bin is made on a platform raised at 60 cm above the ground. A
ladder is provided on one side of the bin for loading of the grains. A hole of about
60 cm diameter is provided on the roof for the purpose of loading the material i.e.
grains. The walls of bin are about 23 cm thick with cement plastered on both the
sides. Roof is made of R.C.C. The base of bin is made inclined and an outlet is
provided for unloading of grains. The capacity of such bin is usually between 1.5 to
60 tonnes. For cleaning of bin and complete unloading, a provision of iron rings
steps is provided inside the bin for person can enter and exit the bin.

36.3 Bunker Storage

Bunker storage structure is used for long term storage of a larger volume of grains.
The structure is successful as a means of storing grains safely, securely and
economically. By controlling insects and the moisture, the losses in stored grains
can be reduced upto 0.5%. In this type of storage structure, the grain is stored on a
plastic sheet which is spread over ground and top covered with plastic sheet as is
shown in fig. 36.2. A drain is also provided for drainage of rain water.

36.4 'CAP' Storage structures

The 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth storage. The word plinth is means plinth
from the bottom and cover means cover from the top. This type of open storage is
considered as intermediate storage and serves the purpose of storage of food grains
 considered as intermediate storage and serves the purpose of storage of food grains
in bags for short period. This type of storage facility is cheaper as compared to
conventional bag storage godowns. The cover is rectangular in shape having five
sides and made from polyethylene film of 1000 gauge, leaving the bottom side open.
The cover is used for protecting stack of bags. Normally the stack is built over a
space of 9.11 x 6.1 m with a height of 18 bags which gives the storage capacity of
around 150 tonnes. The cover having a dimension of 9.4 m x 6.4 m x 5.5 m
normally weighs around 52 kg. Sometimes smaller covers are used for covering the
stacks in covered varandah of conventional godowns. Such covers are called
"Varandah covers". For storage of food grains under varandah covers, the stacks are
built to a height up to 7 bags having an average capacity of 24 tonnes.
The following steps are normally followed in the construction of a 'CAP' storage
(i) Select a high elevated ground and make it level.
(ii) Wooden sleepers are spread with one or two layers of bamboo mat cover on
the top as
dunnage.
(iii) The Gutters are provided all around the area to drain off rain water easily.
(iv) The stacking is done to the height upto 18 bags on the dunnage and is
covered with
polyethylene.
(v) The stacks arc covered with polyethylene covers and tied with ropes to
prevent from blowing
off with high velocity wind.
References:
1. A Text Book Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing by K.M Sahay and
K.K.Singh
2. Sinha, R.N & Muir. Grain Storage: Part of a System. Avi Publisher.

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Lession–37 Types of Modern Storage structures i.e. Silo and Shed (Warehouses)
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In India, for larger volume of food grains is to be stored in bulk is 'silo' and
Current course
conventional godowns (shed) designed for bagged storage. Side walls of a go-down
DSE
are made of brick or stone masonry and sloped roofing in asbestos or Corrugated
Participants
Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheets over steel trusses. Mostly, silos are constructed either
General
from steel or reinforced concrete. There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any
Module 1. Moisture
content and its modern large / capacity processing plant. The modern permanent storage system
determination. should be selected for the safe keeping of stored grains and other products. The
Module 2. EMC modern storage structures should be selected on the basis of first on quality and then
Module 3. Drying on cost considerations. There are following types of modern storage structures.
Theory and
Mechanism of
drying
Module 4. Air 37.1 Silo type of storage structures
pressure within the
grain bed, Shred...
The modern facilities for storing grains in bulk are 'silo'. Silos are constructed from
Module 6. Study of
steel or reinforced concrete. There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large
different types of
dryers- perf... capacity processing plant. These silos are generally circular with conical bottom. Bulk
Module 5. Different storage bins for storing grains can be made from reinforced concrete, plain or
methods of drying corrugated galvanised sheet, mild steel black sheet, aluminium sheet, fibre glass, brick,
including pu...
ferro cement, asbestos sheet etc. But in India mild steel bins and R.C.C. bins are quite
Module 7. Study of
drying and common. The advantages of modem storage bins are, (1) less expensive and easier
dehydration of handling and quality control, (2) lesser space requirement, (3) savings of cost of bags,
agric...
(4) provision of automation and mechanization for quicker handling and maintaining
Module 8. Types
quality of stored product, (5) protection from losses due to birds and rodents.
and causes of
spoilage in storage.
Silos/bins are classified into two groups depending upon the relative dimensions of the
Module 9. Storage
of perishable container. To what extent of relative dimensions of depth and diameter or width, the
products, function... structure behaves as a deep or shallow bin is decided from the concept of the plane of
Module 10. rupture.
Calculation of
refrigeration load. The following terminology is useful for design of storage structures
Module 11.
Conditions for Plane of rupture
modified
atmospheric sto... The plane of rupture is that surface down which a wedge of material bounded by
Module 12. Storage one wall face, the free surface, and the plane of rupture would start sliding if
of grains:
destructive agents, bounding wall were to move.
...
Lession-34 Angle of repose
Types of Grain
storage When a granular product is dumped through a circular opening on a level
structures horizontal surface, the product takes a shape of inverted cone (Fig. 37.1). The
Lesson-34 Q-1 angle between the horizontal and inclination of heap is called the natural angle of
Lesson-35 Types repose. The angle of repose is an indicator of the product's ability to flow.
of Traditional
storage
structures ...
Lesson-35 Q-1
Lesson-36 Types
of improved
 storage
structures
Lesson-36 Q-1
Lession–37
Types of
Modern Storage
structures i.e....
Lesson-37 Quiz
Lession–38
Design of Silos
Lesson-38 Quiz
Lession-39
Design of
Warehouses
(Shed) and
Control...
Lesson-39 Quiz
Module 13. Storage
of cereal grains and
their prod...
Module 14. Storage
condition for various
fruits an...
Module 15.
Economics aspect
of storage
Courses
Fig. 37.1 Angle of repose
Angle of rupture
If Φ is the angle of repose of material, then the angle of rupture may be taken

as with the horizontal.

The silo are classified as, (1) shallow bins and (2) deep bins.
37.1.1 Shallow bins
A bin whose relative dimensions are such that the plane of rupture meets the
grain surface before it strikes the opposite side as shown in Figure is called
'shallow bin' and is shown in Fig. 37.2.
L and h be the breadth and depth of the storage structure, then the structure

can be taken to be shallow if:

Plane of rupture
Fig. 37.2 Shallow bin
 A grain bin referred to as a shallow bin when the depth of grain is less or
equal to the equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four
times the hydraulic radius of the bin. Hd < 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.

A Squat silos are the example of shallow bin. A squat silo has a wall height to
diameter ratio 0.5 or even less that is shown in figure. Squat silo can compete
with sheds for low-cost quality storage. Squat silos are structurally efficient,
thus can be built from lighter materials and costs are generally lower for a
given storage volume. The . structural efficiency is achievable by the walls
carrying their loads principally in tension and by the conical roof carrying its
load in tension, compression and shear. Squat silos as large as having 48
metres diameter, 10.5 metres high walls and 25 metres high at roof apex are
being built.(Fig. 37.3)

Fig. 37.3 Squat silo

37.1.2 Deep bins
A bin in which plane of rupture meets the opposite side before it emerges
from the grain as shown in Figure is called 'deep bin' and is shown in Fig.
37.4.
L and h be the breadth and depth of the storage structure, then the structure

can be taken to be deep if:

 Plane of rupture
Fig. 37.4 Deep bin
A grain bin referred to as a deep bin when the depth of grain is greater than
the equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four times the
hydraulic radius of the bin. Hd >= 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.

A vertical silos is example of deep bin. Vertical silos can be circular,

hexagonal, or rectangular. They tend to be more expensive than sheds. In case
of space limitation vertical silos can be used because it requires lesser space.
There are two types of vertical silos used i.e. Flat bottom and Hopper bottom
vertical silos. Hopper bottom silo is quite common for storing grains.
Prefabricated galvanized metal silos are available in many sizes. Flat bottom
vertical silos are also common. These may be fabricated by metal sheets,
galvanized metal or reinforced. In hopper bottom concrete. The hopper bottom
is more expensive than flat bottom bin. Hopper slope angles of 60° - 70° are
necessary to achieve reliable mass flow.
 Fig. 37.5 Hopper bottom vertical silo
37.2 Shed (Warehouses)
A horizontal sheds have been used to provide low- cost, large volume storage. Very
large volume sheds have also been constructed by Food Corporation of India (FCI) for
storing grains and other products. Sheds are usually made of steel or corrugated sheet
construction with flat concrete floors.
Grain loads on the walls have to be supported by girts and heavy vertical
butteresses designed to resist their loads in bending.
Roofs have to be supported on a network of purlins and rafters.
A typical bulk warehouse would be 15 m Wide, 60 m long and 6 m high at the
edges. A building of this size would have a storage capacity of 2,840 tonnes.
The same size building for bag storage has only 1440 tonnes storage capacity.
A 5000 tonnes conventional godown will go up about 5750 tonnes capacity by
storing grains in bag and bulk combine. there is increase 17% over rated
capacity. (1500 tonnes in form of bag and 4250 tonnes in bulk)
Belt conveyors are often used in bulk sheds for loading and unloading grains.
For larger sheds having 50,000-60,000 tonnes capacity a suspended drag-chain
conveyor is used.
 1. Sealed doors 2. Floor 3. Rat proof slab 4. Air proof roof
Fig. 37.6 Modern Godowns (Shed)

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Lession–38 Design of Silos
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The agricultural granular product like cereals which are mostly stored in silo, For the
Current course
design of silos the knowledge of characteristics of grain like bulk density, internal
DSE
angle of friction, coefficient of friction on the walls is needed. The walls of the silos
Participants
have to design by considering self weight and loads of the grain during construction.
General
The silos walls are subjected to two main forces or thursts, (1) the horizontal thurst
Module 1. Moisture
content and its due to loading of material which tries to open up the silo and (2) the vertical
determination. pressure which is generated due to loading of material on the walls. The speed of
Module 2. EMC filling of granular material affects the stress development on silo. When the material
Module 3. Drying is filled very rapidly without any compaction other than the compaction produced in
Theory and
Mechanism of
the operation, the greatest forces are obtained for the lateral thurst while the apparent
drying density and the angle of internal friction of the material are at minimum values. On
Module 4. Air the contrary, when the grain is filled at such a slow rate which provides every
pressure within the possibility of compaction, the greatest forces are obtained for the vertical pressure.
grain bed, Shred...
In this case the bulk density and the angle of internal friction of material are at
Module 6. Study of
different types of maximum values.
dryers- perf...
Module 5. Different
methods of drying
including pu... The following terminology is useful for design of storage structures
Module 7. Study of
drying and Bulk density
dehydration of
agric... The bulk density of a granular product is the density measured without the
Module 8. Types influence of any compression on the product. The bulk density depends on particle
and causes of density, its shape and the manner in which the constituent particles are packed or
spoilage in storage.
positioned with respect to each other. Bulk density is also defined as weight of
Module 9. Storage
of perishable grains per unit bulk volume (including porosity / voids).
products, function...
Module 10.
Calculation of Bulk Density,
refrigeration load.
Module 11.
Where, W = weight of grains, Vv = void volume and Vg = grain volume
Conditions for
modified True density
atmospheric sto...
Module 12. Storage
The true density represents the actual density of particle. It is determined by, liquid
of grains: displacement method. The liquid generally used is toluene. Toluene is filled in, a
destructive agents, measuring cylinder and the volume is recorded. Then, 100 g grain is put in
...
Lession-34
cylinder. The rise in volume of toluene in cylinder is noted. True density is the
Types of Grain ratio of weight of grain and the difference in volume of toluene. True density is
storage weight of kernel per unit true volume (excluding porosity/voids).
structures
Lesson-34 Q-1
Lesson-35 Types True Density,
of Traditional
storage Where, W = weight of grains, and Vg = grain volume
structures ...
Lesson-35 Q-1 Apparent density
Lesson-36 Types
of improved
 storage For grains, the bulk density is increased when the grains are compressed. "During
structures
this process reorientation and settling of particles take place. As a result air
Lesson-36 Q-1
percolates out of the bulk mass and the volume decreases. This increases the bulk
Lession–37
Types of Modern density. The density of compressed mass or bulk is called the 'apparent density'.
Storage The value of apparent density is higher by 20% than the normal bulk density. In
structures i.e....
design of a silo, the apparent density of grain is taken into account, because of
Lesson-37 Quiz
compaction, the bottom layer or base layer of silo has maximum density whereas
Lession–38
Design of Silos
the top layer has minimum density.
Lesson-38 Quiz External friction
Lession-39
Design of External friction is friction between grain mass of kernels and the wall of bin or a
Warehouses
(Shed) and
surface.
Control...
Internal friction
Lesson-39 Quiz
Module 13. Storage Friction of the kernels or grains against each other is known as internal friction.
of cereal grains and
their prod... Angle of internal friction
Module 14. Storage
condition for various The sliding stress between the grain to grain gives the frictional resistance per unit
fruits an...
of surface area of the grain against the grain. This is called the angle of internal
Module 15.
Economics aspect friction. Coefficient of friction μ between granular materials is equal to tangent of
of storage the 'angle of internal friction' for that material. Higher values of angle of internal
Courses friction indicate that the material is cohesive. The lower values of angle of internal
friction are indicative of easy flowing products.
Coefficient of friction
If 'F' is the horizontal force or pull and N is the vertical force caused by the total

weight of grain, the coefficient of friction μ can be given by

The characteristics values of the granular material which cause greatest stresses
should be taken into account while determining the lateral.and vertical pressures of
storage silo. These values are function of the silo wall nature. For smooth walled
silo the greatest vertical and lateral pressure be estimated with maximum values of
bulk density and. angle of internal friction while the minimum value of angle of
friction of grains on the walls be taken. Whereas for silos with rough walls, the
lateral pressure should be calculated with values of minimum bulk density,
minimum angle of internal friction and the minimum angle of friction of the grains
on the walls. The greatest vertical pressure should be estimated with maximum
bulk density, maximum angle of internal friction, and the minimum angle of
friction of the grains on the walls.
38.1 Grain Pressure Theories
The grain pressure in bins were first calculated as being a semi liquid of same density
as the grains. The lateral pressure was first calculated using the hydrostatic formula.
Where,
Pl = wh ………………………………………………………(1)

Pl = lateral pressure exerted by the grain on the bin wall, kg/m2

w = density of grain, kg/m3

h = depth of grain from the top of the bin surface, m
This formula has serious deficiencies because many structures buckled under the
vertical load arising from the friction of the grain on the walls. The formula (1) was
modified to incorporate a factor 'K ' known as Rankine's earth pressure coefficient.
The Rinkine's formula is based on the following principle, the resistance to
displacement by sliding along a given plane in a loose granular mass is equal to the
normal pressure exerted between the parts of the mass on either side of the plane,
multiplied by the specific constant. The formula (1) when multiplied by the factor 'K '
is known as Rankine's earth pressure coefficient.
Pl = Kwh

Where,
K = Rankine's coefficient

Φ= angle of internal friction of the grain = natural angle of repose

Therefore,

....................................................... (2)

Fig.38.1 Pressures on an element of soil behind a vertical wall

The whole weight of the grain was assumed to be transferred to the bottom of the
beam. The Rankine theory with horizontal soil surface behind a vertical wall is shown
in Figure. Consider an element of soil at depth 'h'. The vertical pressure acting on this
element Pv and the horizontal pressure Pl is active pressure at failure.

OR

Pl = K Pv …………………………………………..(3)

K = Rankine coefficient = Coefficient of earth pressure

 The above Rankine formula (3) is used for determination of pressure induced by
granular materials against retaining wall in shallow bins.
The scientist Airy developed a theory for pressure induced by granular materials
against retaining wall or in shallow bins. The lateral pressure exerted by grains in a
shallow bin can be given by following Airy's equation

Where,
w = grain bulk density
h = depth of grain to point under consideration
μ = coefficient of friction of grain on grain
= tan Φ, Φ is angle of internal friction
μ' = tan Φ', Φ' is the angle of wall friction.
The scientist Janssen took into account the friction between the grain and bin wall
and, proposed the following formula for 'deep bins'.

Where,
Pl = lateral pressure

R = hydraulic radius
w = grain bulk density (unit weight of grain)
µ = coefficient of friction of the grain on the wall
= tan Φ

h = depth of grain
38.2 Problems of Silo Design
38.2.1 Wheat weighing 900 kg/m3 is loaded in a circular concrete silo of 3 m internal
diameter and a clear height of 8 m. The angle of internal friction for wheat is 25° and
that for wheat and concrete is 24°. Applying Airy theory, calculate the maximum
lateral pressure at the bottom of bin section.
Solution
Lateral pressure against a shallow bin wall is

Where,
Pl = lateral pressure
 w = bulk density of grain = 900 kg/m3
h = depth of bin (point) under consideration = 8 m
μ = coefficient of friction of grain to grain

= tan Φ, Φ is the angle of internal friction = 250

= tan 250 = 0.466

μ' = coefficient of friction of grain to wall

= tan Φ' , Φ' is the angle of external (wall) friction = 240

= tan 240 = 0.445

So,

Pl= 2338.5 kg/m2

38.2.2 A RC.C cylindrical grain storage bin has internal diameter of 5 m and is 20 m
deep. It is completely filled with paddy weighing 600 kg/m3. The angle of internal
friction for paddy can be taken as 350, while the angle of friction between paddy and
bin wall is 30°. The ratio of horizontal and vertical pressure intensity k, is 0.4.
Calculate the lateral pressure intensity at 4.0 m and 18 m depth using Janssen theory.
Solution
Lateral pressure against a deep bin wall as par Janssen theory is

Where,
Pl = lateral pressure

w = grain bulk density (unit weight of grain) = 600 kg/m3

R = hydraulic radius =D/4 = 5/4 =1.25 m
µ = coefficient of friction of the grain on the wall

= tan Φ= tan 300 = 0.577

K= Pl/PV = 0.4

h = depth of grain = 4.0 m and 18 m

Substituting the values of 4.0 m and 18.0 m depths in above equation, we get
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Drying and Storage Engineering 4(3+1)
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Lession-39 Design of Warehouses (Shed) and Control of Environment
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Very large volume sheds have also been constructed by Central Warehousing
Current course
Corporation for storing grains and other products. Sheds are usually made of steel or
DSE
corrugated sheet construction with flat concrete or bitumen floors. In our India, food
Participants
grain are stored in conventional godowns designed for bagged storage.
General
Module 1. Moisture
content and its
determination.
39.1 Design of Warehouses (Shed)
Module 2. EMC
Module 3. Drying The following important points to be considered during design of godowns.
Theory and
Mechanism of The godowns side walls are of brick or stone masonry and sloped roofing in
drying
asbestos or Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheets over steel trusses.
Module 4. Air
pressure within the Generally a godown has a capacity of 5000 tonnes and consists of 3
grain bed, Shred...
compartments, each having a span of not less than 21·7 m with a clear height
Module 6. Study of
different types of of 5·4 m.
dryers- perf...
Module 5. Different
Air circulation is maintained through steel ventilators and air inlets of rolled
methods of drying steel sections.
including pu...
Module 7. Study of Requirement of steel and cement is about 50 and 300 MT respectively.
drying and
dehydration of Bagged food grains are arranged in stacks with a base of 6 m x 9 m with a
agric... stack height varying from 4 to 5 m, leaving 27 per cent free space of the floor
Module 8. Types area for alleyways generally.
and causes of
spoilage in storage.
It should be leave a free space of 2 m between the stacks and 0.8 to 1.0 m
Module 9. Storage
of perishable
between wall to stack for easily moving of person for observation.
products, function...
There should be 2.4 x 2.4 m size two large doors of opposite direction and top
Module 10.
Calculation of ventilators are used.
refrigeration load.
Module 11.
Each door is provided with a light overhanging hood of 3.6 m long and 2.4 m
Conditions for wide.
modified
atmospheric sto... A ground ventilator having an opening of 30 x 30 cm is provided below each
Module 12. Storage corresponding top ventilator. The top of ventilator is kept at height of 60 cm
of grains:
destructive agents,
above the floor level. It is also provided with iron rods, wire netting and
... shutter.
Lession-34
Types of Grain The thickness of wall is kept minimum of 37.5 cm and maximum of 45 cm.
storage
structures The height of wall on which trusses are placed is generally kept about 5.5 m.
Lesson-34 Q-1
Lesson-35 Types
The roof is either gabled or flat. The gable roof is covered with corrugated
of Traditional metal sheet with maximum precautions taken to make it leak proof. However,
storage flat roof is more durable as it is made of either reinforced brick or reinforced
structures ...
concrete of about 10 to 12.5 cm thickness.
Lesson-35 Q-1
Lesson-36 Types
of improved
 storage Wheat can be held in bags under dry climatic conditions for a period up to 2
structures
years. (This period is shortened to 8 to 12 months in humid conditions).
Lesson-36 Q-1
Lession–37 Wheat can be kept in bulk any where up to 5 years.
Types of Modern
Storage 39.1.1 A Problem regarding Design of Storage Structure
structures i.e....
Lesson-37 Quiz Design a bag storage structures for storing 250 tonnes of Paddy. Assume
Lession–38 reasonable data where ever necessary.
Design of Silos
Lesson-38 Quiz Solution.
Lession-39
Design of Design capacity of the storage structure = 250 T = 250,000 kg
Warehouses
(Shed) and Capacity of a bag of 100 x 60 x 30 cm = 75 kg of Paddy
Control...
Lesson-39 Quiz Hence, number of bags required for storage of 250 T paddy i.e,250,000 kg of
Module 13. Storage paddy
of cereal grains and
their prod...
Module 14. Storage
condition for various =
fruits an...
Module 15.
= 3340 bags required for storage of 250 T paddy.
Economics aspect
of storage Bags are arranged in number of Stacks.
Courses
Let there be 10 bags in length and 10 bags in width in one stack.
So, No of bags/layer = 10 x 10 = 100
If there are 12 layers in a stack, total number of bags/stack
= 100 x 12 = 1200
Hence, the number of stacks required

= 2.78 ≈ 3 Stacks required for storage of 250 T of paddy

Space required by each stack
Length of stack l = 10 x 1.0 = 10.0 m
Width of stack w = 10 x 0.6 = 6.0 m
Height of stack h = 12 x 0.3 = 3.6 m
The clear distance between the walls and the end of stack = 0.8 m
The clear distance between the stacks i.e. between two stack = 2.0 m
Hence, the length of floor L is
L = (3 x 6.0) + (2 x 2.0) + (2 x 0.8)
= 23.6 m ≈ 24.0 m
The width of floor W is
W = (10 x 1.0) + (2 x 0.8)
= 11.6 m ≈ 12.0 m
Therefore, the overall dimensions of the godown may be taken
 as 24.0 m length, 12.0 m width and the height of the walls may be kept as 5.0 m
above the floor level.
The floor plan of the godown is shown in following Figure

Fig. 39.1 Floor plan of the godown

39.2 Control of Environment

The control of environment involves maintain of atmospheric gases present in a
storage structures. There are modified and controlled atmosphere storage techniques
are available. In controlled atmosphere we will lower down the Oxygen level (2-5%)
and increase the level of carbon dioxide. Due to this respiration rate of the grains is
reduced. Increase in the level of carbon dioxide results that it kills insects.
Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS) relies on the continuous measurement of the
composition of the storage atmosphere and injection of the appropriate gases into it, if
and when needed. Hence the system requires sophisticated instruments to monitor the
gas levels. The CAS systems are equipped with refrigeration units, N2 generators and
O2 and ethylene evacuators. The N2 generator extracts gaseous N2 from atmosphere
and pumps it into the storage chamber. A pressure relief valve, so as to maintain the
pressure within the container, lets out part of the air. This procedure is repeated till the
O2 content within the container is lowered to the desired level. Respiration of the
commodity also helps to reduce the O2 level. Periodic injection of air or N2may be
necessary depending on the O2 level in the chamber. The CO2 level is continuously
monitored and when it exceeds the desired level, part of the storage gas in the hold is
passed through hydrated lime scrubbers, which removes CO2. The storage air is also
passed through an ethylene absorber, which removes the ethylene. Humidity within the
storage chamber is also monitored and maintained. CAS does not prevent deterioration
but lengthens the storage life from a few days to as much as several months in fruits,
depending upon the produce involved. Three techniques are generally recognized for
providing CA conditions in a storage room; conventional, liquid N2 and N2 generator
systems. Conventional CA depends on the respiration of the commodity to generate
CO2. The CO2 concentration is controlled by the use of wet scrubbers, hydrated lime
or by an inert adsorbent. This storage requires that the room be essentially gas tight
because leakage can cause the concentration of O2 to increase beyond allowable limits.

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 1

Lecture No.1

Greenhouse is the most practical method of achieving the objectives of protected

agriculture, where the natural environment is modified by using sound engineering principles to
achieve optimum plant growth and yields.

Green House:
A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.

The growing of off - season cucumbers under transparent stone for Emperor Tiberius in
the 1st century, is the earliest
reported protected agriculture. The
technology was rarely employed
during the next 1500 years. In the
16th century, glass lanterns, bell jars
and hot beds covered with glass were
used to protect horticultural crops
against cold. In the 17 th century, low

portable wooden frames covered with

an oiled translucent paper were used
to warm the plant environment.

In Japan, primitive methods using oil -paper and straw mats to protect crops from the
severe natural environment were used as long ago the early 1960s. Greenhouses in France and
England during the same century were heated by manure and covered with glass panes. The first
greenhouse in the 1700s used glass on one side only as a sloping roof. Later in the century, glass
was used on both sides. Glasshouses were used for fruit crops such as melons, grapes, peaches
and strawberries, and rarely for vegetable production.
Protected agriculture was fully established with the introduction of polyethylene after the
World war II. The first use of polyethylene as a greenhouse cover was in 1948, when professor
Emery Myers Emmert, at the University of Kentucky, used the less expensive material in place
of more expensive glass.
The total area of glasshouses in the world (1987) was estimated to be 30,000 ha and most
of these were found in North- Western Europe. In contrast to glasshouses, more than half of the
world area of plastic green houses is in Asia, in which China has the largest area. According to
1999 estimates, an area of 6, 82,050 ha were under plastic greenhouses (Table 1.1). In most of
the countries, green houses are made of plastic and glass; the majority is plastic.
Glasshouses and rigid plastic houses are longer-life structures, and therefore are most
located in cold regions where these structures can be used throughout the year. In Japan, year-
 2

round use of greenhouses is becoming predominant, but in moderate and warm climate regions,
they are still provisional and are only used in winter.
In India, the cultivation in the plastic greenhouses is of recent origin. As per 1994-95
estimates, approximately 100 ha of India are under greenhouse cultivation.

Since 1960, the greenhouse has evolved into more than a plant protector. It is now better
understood as a system of controlled environment agriculture (CEA), with precise control of air
and root temperature, water, humidity, plant nutrition, carbon dioxide and light. The greenhouses
of today can be considered as plant or vegetable factories. Almost every aspect of the production
system is automated, with the artificial environment and growing system under nearly total
computer control.

Greenhouse Effect
In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035% (345 ppm). But, due to
the emission of pollutants and exhaust gases into the atmosphere, the percentage of carbon
dioxide increases which forms a blanket in the outer atmosphere. This causes the entrapping of
the reflected solar radiation from the earth surface. Due to this, the atmospheric temperature
increases, causing global warming, melting of
ice caps and rise in the ocean levels which
result in the submergence of coastal lines. This
phenomenon of increase in the ambient
temperature, due to the formation of the blanket
of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse
effect.
The greenhouse covering material acts in a
similar way, as it is transparent to shorter
wave radiation and opaque to long wave radiation.
During the daytime, the shorter wave radiation enters into the greenhouse and gets
reflected from the ground surface. This reflected radiation becomes long wave radiation and is
entrapped inside the greenhouse by the covering material. This causes the increase in the
greenhouse temperature. It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth in the cold
regions.

Advantages of Greenhouses
The following are the different advantages of using the green house for growing crops under
controlled environment:

1. Throughout the year four to five crops can be grown in a green house due to availability of
required plant environmental conditions.
2. The productivity of the crop is increased considerably.
3. Superior quality produce can be obtained as they are grown under suitably controlled
environment.
4. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilizers, seeds and plant
protection chemicals can be well maintained in a green house.
5. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as the growing area is enclosed.
 3
6. Percentage of germination of seeds is high in greenhouses.
7. The acclimatization of plantlets of tissue culture technique can be carried out in a green
house.
8. Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules can be planned to take
advantage of the market needs.
9. Different types of growing medium like peat mass, vermiculate, rice hulls and compost that
are used in intensive agriculture can be effectively utilized in the greenhouse.
10. Export quality produce of international standards can be produced in a green house.
11. When the crops are not grown, drying and related operations of the harvested produce can
be taken up utilizing the entrapped heat.
12. Greenhouses are suitable for automation of irrigation, application of other inputs and
environmental controls by using computers and artificial intelligence techniques.
13. Self-employment for educated youth
 1

Lecture No.2
Greenhouse structures of various types are used successfully for crop production. Although there
are advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no single type
greenhouse, which can be considered as the best. Different types of greenhouses are designed to
meet the specific needs.

2.1 Greenhouse type based on shape

Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of
classification, the uniqueness of the cross section of the greenhouses can be considered as a
factor. As the longitudinal section tend to be approximately the same for all types, the
longitudinal section of the greenhouse cannot be used for classification. The cross sections depict
the width and height of the structure and the length is perpendicular to the plane of cross section.
Also, the cross section provides information on the overall shape of the structural members, such
as truss or hoop, which will be repeated on every day.
The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even span,
uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset.

2.1.1 Lean-to type greenhouse

A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing
building. It is built against a building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides
(Fig.1). It is usually attached to a house, but may be attached to other buildings. The roof of the
building is extended with appropriate greenhouse covering
material and the area is properly enclosed. It is typically
facing south side. The lean-to type greenhouse is limited to
single or double-row plant benches with a total width of 7
to 12 feet. It can be as long as the building it is attached to.
It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure.
The advantage of the lean-to type greenhouse is
that, it usually is close to available electricity, water, and
heat. It is a least expensive structure. This design makes
the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of
roof supports. It has the following disadvantages: limited
space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature
control. The height of the supporting wall limits the potential size of the design. Temperature
control is more difficult because the wall that the greenhouse is built on, may collect the sun's
heat while the translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat rapidly. It is a half greenhouse,
split along the peak of the roof.
 2

2.1.2 Even span type greenhouse

The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the two roof slopes are of equal pitch
and width (Fig.1). This design is used for the greenhouse of small size, and it is constructed on
level ground. It is attached to a house at one gable end. It can accommodate 2 or 3 rows of plant
benches. The cost of an even-span greenhouse is more than the cost of a lean-to type, but it has
greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of its size and greater amount
of exposed glass area, the even-span will cost more to heat. The design has a better shape than a
lean-to type for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures during the winter heating
season. A separate heating system is necessary unless the structure is very close to a heated
building. It will house 2 side benches, 2 walks, and a wide center bench. Several single and
multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India. For single span type the
span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is around 24 m. The height varies from
2.5 to 4.3 m.

2.1.3 Uneven span type greenhouse

This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain. The roofs are of unequal width; make the
structure adaptable to the side slopes of hill (Fig. 2). This type of greenhouses is seldom used
now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.

2.1.4 Ridge and furrow type greenhouse

Designs of this type use two or more A-frame greenhouses connected to one another along the
length of the eave (Fig. 2). The eave serves as furrow or gutter to
carry rain and melted snow away. The side wall is eliminated
between the greenhouses, which results in a structure with a
single large interior, Consolidation of interior space
reduces labour, lowers the cost of automation, improves
personal management and reduces fuel consumption as there is
less exposed wall area through which heat escapes. The snow
loads must be taken into the frame
specifications of these greenhouses since the snow cannot slide
off the roofs as in case of individual free standing greenhouses,
but melts away. In spite of snow loads, ridge and furrow greenhouses are effectively used in
northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well
suited to the Indian conditions.

2.1.5 Saw tooth type Greenhouse

These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses except
that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type. Specific
natural ventilation flow path (Fig. 3) develops in a
saw- tooth type greenhouse.
 3
2.1.6 Quonset greenhouse
This is a greenhouse, where the pipe arches or trusses are supported by pipe purling
running along the length of the greenhouse (Fig 3). In general, the covering material used for this
type of greenhouses is polyethylene. Such greenhouses are typically less expensive than the
gutter connected greenhouses and are useful when a small isolated cultural area is required.
These houses are connected either in free, standing style or arranged in an interlocking ridge and
furrow.
In the interlocking type, truss members overlap sufficiently to allow a bed of plants to
grow between the overlapping portions of adjacent houses. A single large cultural space thus
exists for a set of houses in this type, an arrangement that is better adapted to the automation and
movement of labour.

2.2 Greenhouse type based on utility

Classification of greenhouses can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Of the
different utilities, artificial cooling and heating of the greenhouse are more expensive and
elaborate. Hence based on the artificial cooling and heating, greenhouses are classified as green
houses for active heating and active cooling system.

2.2.1 Greenhouses for active heating

During the night time, air temperature inside greenhouse decreases. To avoid the cold
bite to plants due to freezing, some amount of heat has to be supplied. The requirements for
heating greenhouse depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to the outside environment.
Various methods are adopted to reduce the heat losses, viz., using double layer polyethylene,
thermo pane glasses (Two layers of factory sealed glass with dead air space) or to use heating
systems, such as unit heaters, central heat, radiant heat and solar heating system.
2.2.2 Greenhouses for active cooling
During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the ambient
temperatures, for effective crop growth. Hence suitable modifications are made in the green
house so that large volumes of cooled air is drawn into greenhouse, This type of greenhouse
either consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This greenhouse is designed in
such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases nearly 100%.

2.3 Greenhouse type based on construction

The type of construction is predominantly influenced by the structural material, though the
covering material also influences the type. Span of the house inurn dictates the selection of
structural members and their construction. Higher the span, stronger should be the material and
more structural members are used to make sturdy truss type frames. For smaller spans, simpler
designs like hoops can be followed. Therefore based on construction, greenhouses can be
broadly classified as wooden framed, pipe framed and truss framed structures.

2.3.1 Wooden framed structures

In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only wooden framed structures
are used. Side posts and columns are constructed of wood without the use of a truss. Pine wood
 4

is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses the required strength. Timber locally
available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be used for the construction.

2.3.2 Pipe framed structures

Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear span is around 12m (Fig. 4). In
general, the side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins are constructed using pipes. In this type,
the trusses are not used.

2.3.3 Truss framed structures

If the greenhouse span is greater than or equal to 15m, truss frames are used. Flat steel, tubular
steel or angular iron is welded together to form a truss encompassing
rafters, chords and struts (Fig. 4). Struts are support members under
compression and chords are support members under tension. Angle iron
purlins running throughout the length of greenhouse are bolted to each
truss. Columns are used only in very wide truss frame houses of 21.3 m
or more. Most of the glass houses are of truss frame type, as these frames
are best suited for pre-fabrication.

2.4 Greenhouse type based on covering materials

Covering materials are the major and important component of the greenhouse structure.
Covering materials have direct influence on the greenhouse effect inside the structure and they
alter the air temperature inside the house. The types of frames and method of fixing also varies
with the covering material. Based on the type of covering materials, the greenhouses are
classified as glass, plastic film and rigid panel greenhouses.

2. 4.1 Glass greenhouses

Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed prior to 1950. Glass
as covering material has the advantage of greater interior light intensity. These greenhouses
have higher air infiltration rate which leads to lower interior humidity and better disease
prevention. Lean-to type, even span, ridge and furrow type of designs are used for construction
of glass greenhouse.
2.4.2 Plastic film greenhouses
Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and polyvinyl chloride are used as
covering material in this type of greenhouses. Plastics as covering material for greenhouses have
become popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less when compared to glass
greenhouses. The main disadvantage with plastic films is its short life. For example, the best
quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only. Quonset design as well as
gutter-connected design is suitable for using this covering material.
2.4.3 Rigid panel greenhouses
Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic, acrylic and polycarbonate
rigid panels are employed as the covering material in the quonset type frames or ridge and
furrow type frame. This material is more resistant to breakage and the light intensity is uniform
throughout the greenhouse when compared to glass or plastic. High grade panels have long life
even up to 20 years. The main disadvantage is that these panels tend to collect dust as well as to
 5
harbor algae, which results in darkening of the panels and subsequent reduction in the light
transmission. There is significant danger of fire hazard.

2.5 Shading nets

There are a great number of types and varieties of plants that grow naturally in the most
diverse climate conditions that have been transferred by modern agriculture from their natural
habitats to controlled crop conditions. Therefore, conditions similar to the natural ones must be
created for each type and variety of plant. Each type of cultivated plant must be given the
specific type of shade required for the diverse phases of its development. The shading nets fulfill
the task of giving appropriate micro-climate conditions to the plants.

Shade nettings are designed to protect the crops and plants from UV radiation, but they
also provide protection from climate conditions, such as temperature variation, intensive rain and
winds. Better growth conditions can be achieved for the crop due to the controlled micro-climate
conditions “created” in the covered area, with shade netting, which results in higher crop yields.
All nettings are UV stabilized to fulfill expected lifetime at the area of exposure. They are
characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick installation with a 30-90%
shade value range. A wide range of shading nets are available in the market which are defined on
the basis of the percentage of shade they deliver to the plant growing under them.
 1

Lecture No.3
Plant response to greenhouse environments - light, temperature, relative humidity, ventilation
and carbon dioxide and environmental requirement of agriculture and horticulture crops inside
green houses.

The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by the microclimate
around it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature, air compositions and the
nature of the root medium. In open fields, only manipulation of nature of the root medium by
tillage, irrigation and fertilizer application is possible. The closed boundaries in greenhouse
permit control of any one or more of the components of the micro climate.

3.1 Light
The visible light of the solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy, carbon
dioxide (Co2) and water all enter in to the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of chlorophyll, using light energy is responsible for plant growth and reproduction. The
rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water, carbon dioxide, light
and temperature.
The photosynthesis reaction can be represented as follows
Chlorophyll

Co2 + water+ light energy ------------ carbohydrates + oxygen

Plant nutrients
Considerable energy is required to reduce the carbon that is combined with oxygen in CO2 gas to
the state in which it exists in the carbohydrate. The light energy thus utilized is trapped in the
carbohydrate. If the light intensity is diminished, photosynthesis slows down and hence the
growth. If higher than optimal light intensities are provided, growth again slows down because of
the injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by the international unit known as Lux. It is direct
illumination on the surrounding surface that is one meter from a uniform point source of 1
international candle. Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux
on clear summer days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. For most crops, neither condition is
ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in other words, photosynthesis does not increase at
light intensities higher than 32.2klux. Rose and carnation plants will grow well under summer
light intensities. In general, for most other crops foliage is deeper green if the greenhouse is
shaded to the extent of about 40% from mid spring (May) to mid fall (August and September).
Thus, it is apparent that light intensity requirements of photosynthesis are vary considerably from
crop to crop.
Light is classified according to its wave length in nanometers (nm). Not all light useful in
photosynthesis process. UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than
400nm. Large of quantities of it is harmful to the plants. Glass screens are opaque to the most
UV light and light below the range of 325nm. Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to
700nm.Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis. Infrared rays
 2

of longer wavelengths are not involved in the plant process. It is primarily, the visible spectrum
of light that is used in photosynthesis. In the blue and red bands, the photosynthesis activity is
higher, when the blue light (shorter wavelength) alone is supplied to plants, the growth is
retarded, and the plant becomes hard and dark in colour. When the plants are grown under red
light (longer wavelength), growth is soft and internodes are long, resulting in tall plants. Visible
light of all wavelengths is readily utilized in photosynthesis.

3.2 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of level of the heat present. All crops have temperature range in which
they can grow well. Below this range, the plant life process stop due to ice formation within the
tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At the upper extreme, enzymes become
inactive, and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are biological reaction catalyst and
are heat sensitive. All biochemical reactions in the plant are controlled by the enzymes. The rate
of reactions controlled by the enzyme often double or triple for each rise of temperature by 10 0C,
until optimum temperature is reached. Further, increase in temperature begins to suppress the
reaction and finally stop it.
As a general rule, green house crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to 60C
higher than the night temperature on cloudy days and 80C higher on clear days. The night
temperature of green house crops is generally in the range of 7 to 210C. Primula, mathiola incana
and calceolaria grow best at 70C, carnation and cineraria at 100C, rose at 160C, chrysanthemum
and poinsettia at 17 to 180C and African violet at 21 to 220C.

3.3 Relative humidity

As the green house is a closed space, the relative humidity of the green house air will be more
when compared to the ambient air, due to the moisture added by the evapo-transpiration process.
Some of this moisture is taken away by the air leaving from the green house due to ventilation.
Sensible heat inputs also lower the relative humidity of the air to some extent. In order to
maintain the desirable relative humidity levels in the green houses, processes like humidification
or dehumidification are carried out. For most crops, the acceptable range of relative humidity is
between 50 to 80%. However for plant propagation work, relative humidity up to 90% may be
desirable.
In summer, due to sensible heat addition in the daytime, and in winters for increasing the
night time temperatures of the green house air, more sensible heat is added causing a reduction in
the relative humidity of the air. For this purpose, evaporative cooling pads and fogging system of
humidification are employed. When the relative humidity is on the higher side, ventilators,
chemical dehumidifiers and cooling coils are used for de- humidification.

3.4 Ventilation
A green house is ventilated for either reducing the temperature of the green house air or for
replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating the relative humidity of the air. Air
temperatures above 350C are generally not suited for the crops in green house. It is quite possible
 3

to bring the green house air temperature below this upper limit during spring and autumn seasons
simply by providing adequate ventilation to the green house. The ventilation in a green house can
either be natural or forced. In case of small green houses (less than 6m wide) natural ventilation
can be quite effective during spring and autumn seasons. However, fan ventilation is essential to
have precise control over the air temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide levels.
3.5 Carbon dioxide
Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in the plant in greater quantity than any other
nutrient. About 40% of the dry matter of the plant is composed of carbon. Under normal
conditions, carbon dioxide (CO2) exits as a gas in the atmosphere slightly above 0.03% or
345ppm. During the day, when photosynthesis occurs under natural light, the plants in a green
house draw down the level of Co2 to below 200ppm. Under these circumstances, infiltration or
ventilation increases carbon dioxide levels, when the outside air is brought in, to maintain the
ambient levels of CO2. If the level of CO2 is less than ambient levels, CO2 may retard the plant
growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of CO2 by providing ventilation may be un-
economical, due to the necessity of heating the incoming air in order to maintain proper growing
temperatures. In such regions, enrichment of the green house with CO2 is followed. The exact
CO2 level needed for a given crop will vary, since it must be correlated with other variables in
greenhouse production such as light, temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar and degree of maturity.
Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
 1

Lecture No.4
Equipment required for controlling green house environment – summer cooling and winter
cooling, natural ventilation, forced ventilation and computers.

Precise control of various parameters of green house environment is necessary to optimize

energy inputs and thereby maximize the economic returns. Basically, the objective of
environmental control is to maximize the plant growth. The control of green house environment
means the control of temperature, light, air composition and nature of the root medium. A green
house is essentially meant to permit at least partial control of microclimate within it. Obviously
green houses with partial environmental control are more common and economical. From the
origin of greenhouse to the present there has been a steady evolution of controls. Five stages in
this evolution include manual controls, thermostats, step-controllers, dedicated micro processors
and computers. This chain of evolution has brought about a reduction in control labour and an
improvement in the conformity of green house environments to their set points. The benefits
achieved from green house environmental uniformity are better timing and good quality of crops,
disease control and conservation of energy.

4.1 Active summer cooling systems

Active summer cooling is achieved by evaporative cooling process .The evaporative cooling
systems developed are to reduce the problem of excess heat in green house. In this process
cooling takes place when the heat required for moisture evaporation is derived from the
surrounding environment causing a depression in its temperature. The two active summer
cooling systems in use presently are fan-and pad and fog systems. In the evaporative cooling
process the cooling is possible only up to the wet bulb temperature of the incoming air.

4.1.1 Fan-and Pad cooling system

The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been available since 1954 and is still the most
common summer cooling system in green houses (Fig.5). Along one wall of the green house,
water is passed through a pad that is usually placed vertically in the wall. Traditionally, the pad
was composed of excelsior (wood shreds), but today it is commonly made of a cross-fluted-
cellulose material some what similar in appearance to corrugated card board. Exhaust fans are
placed on the opposite wall. Warm outside air is drawn in through the pad. The supplied water
in the pad, through the process of evaporation, absorbs heat from the air passing through the pad
as well as from surroundings of the pad and frame, thus causing the cooling effect. Khus-khus
grass mats can also be used as cooling pads.

4.1.2 Fog cooling system

The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in 1980, operates on the same
cooling principle as the fan and pad cooling system but uses quite different arrangement (Fig.5).
A high pressure pumping apparatus generates fog containing water droplets with a mean size of
less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles. These droplets are sufficiently small to stay
 2

suspended in air while they are evaporating. Fog is dispersed throughout the green house,
cooling the air everywhere. As this system does not
wet the foliage, there is less scope for disease and
pest attack. The plants stay dry throughout the process.
This system is equally useful for seed germination and
propagation since it eliminates the need for a mist
system.
Both types of summer evaporative cooling
system can reduce the greenhouse air temperature. The
fan-and pad system can lower the temperature of
incoming air by about 80% of the difference between
the dry and wet bulb temperatures while the fog
cooling system can lower the temperature by nearly
100% difference. This is, due to the fact that complete
evaporation of the water is not taking place because of bigger droplet size in fad and pad,
whereas in the fog cooling system, there will be complete evaporation because of the minute
size of the water
droplets. Thus lesser the dryness of the air, greater evaporative cooling is possible.

4.2 Active winter cooling systems

Excess heat can be a problem during the winter. In the winter, the ambient temperature will be
below the desired temperature inside the green house. Owing to the green house effect the
entrapment of solar heat can rise the temperature to an injurious level if the green house is not
ventilated. The actual process in winter cooling is tempering the excessively cold ambient air
before it reaches the plant zone. Otherwise, hot and cold spots in the green house will lead to
uneven crop timing and quality .This mixing of low temperature ambient air with the warm
inside air cools the green house in the winter. Two active winter cooling systems commonly
employed are convection tube cooling and horizontal air flow (HAF) fan cooling systems.

4.2.1 Convection tube cooling

The general components of convection tube are the louvered air inlet, a polyethylene convection
tube with air distribution holes, a pressurizing fan to direct air in to the tube under pressure, and
an exhaust fan to create vacuum. When the air temperature inside the green house exceeds the
set point, the exhaust fan starts functioning thus creating vacuum inside the green house. The
louver of the inlet in the gable is then opened through which cold air enters due to the vacuum.
The pressurizing fan at the end of the clear polyethylene convection tube, operates to pick up the
cool air entering the louver. A proper gap is available for the air entry, as the end of the
convection tube is separated from the louvered inlet by 0.3 to 0.6m and the other end of the tube
is sealed. Round holes of 5 to 8 cm in diameter are provided in pairs at opposite sides of the tube
spaced at 0.5 to 1m along the length of the tube.
Cold air under pressure in the convection tube shoots out of holes on either side of the
tube in turbulent jets. In this system, the cold air mixes with the warm greenhouse air well above
the plant height. The cool mixed air, being heavier gently flows down to the floor level, effects
the complete cooling of the plant area. The pressurizing fan forcing the incoming cold air in to
 3
the convection tube must be capable of moving at least the same volume of air as that of the
exhaust fan, thereby avoiding the development of cold spots in the house. When cooling is not
required, the inlet louver closes and the pressurizing fan continues to circulate the air within the
greenhouse. The process minimizes the temperature gradient at difference levels. The circulation
of air using convection tube consumes more power than a circulation system.

4.2.2 Horizontal air flow cooling

HAF cooling system uses small horizontal fans for moving the air mass and is considered to be
an alternative to convection tube for the air distribution. In this method the green house may be
visualized as a large box containing air and the fans located strategically moves the air in a
circular pattern. This system should move air at 0.6 to 0.9 m3/min/m2 of the green house floor
area. Fractional horse power of fans is 31 to 62 W (1/30 to 1/15hp) with a blade diameter of
41cm are sufficient for operation. The fans should be arranged in such a way that air flows are
directed along the length of the greenhouse and parallel to the ground. The fans are placed at 0.6
to 0.9m above plant height and at intervals of 15m.They are arranged such that the air flow is
directed by one row of the fans along the length of the greenhouse down one side to the opposite
end and then back along the other side by another row of fans (Fig. 6). Greenhouses of larger
widths may require more number of rows of fans along its length.
Temperatures at plant height are more uniform with HAF system than with convection
tube system. The HAF system makes use of the same exhaust fans, inlet louvers and controls as
the convection tube system. The only difference is the use of HAF fans in the place of
convection tubes for the air distribution. Cold air entering through the louvers located at the
higher level in the gables of the green house is drawn by the air circulation created by the net
work of HAF fans and to complete the cycle, proper quantity of air is let out through the exhaust
fans. The combined action of louvered inlet, HAF fans and the exhaust fans distribute the cold
air throughout the greenhouse.
Similarly to the convection tubes, the HAF fans can be used to distribute heat in the
green house When neither cooling
nor heating is required, the HAF
fans or convection tube can be used
to bring warm air down from the
upper level of the gable and to
provide uniform temperature in the
plant zone. It is possible to integrate
summer and winter cooling systems
with heating arrangements inside a green house for the complete temperature control
requirements for
certain days of the season.

4.3 Green house ventilation

Ventilation is the process of allowing the fresh air to enter in to the enclosed area by driving out
the air with undesirable properties. In the green house context, ventilation is essential for
reducing temperature, replenishing COo2 and controlling relative humidity. Ventilation
requirements for green houses vary greatly, depending on the crop grown and the season of
production. The ventilation system can be either a passive system (natural Ventilation) or an
active system (forced ventilation) using fans. Usually green houses that are used seasonally
 4
employ natural ventilation only. The plant response to specific environment factor is related to
the physiological processes and hence the latter affects the yield and quality. Hence, controlling
of environment is of great importance to realize the complete benefit of CEA. Manual
maintenance of uniform environmental condition inside the green house is very difficult and
cumbersome. A poor maintenance results in less crop production, low quality and low income.
For effective control of automatic control systems like micro processor and computer are used
presently to maintain the environment.

4.3.1 Natural ventilation

In the tropics, the sides of greenhouse structures are often left open for natural ventilation.
Tropical greenhouse is primarily a rain shelter, a cover of polyethylene over the crop to prevent
rainfall from entering the growing area. This mitigates the problem of foliage diseases.
Ventilators were located on both roof slopes adjacent to the ridge and also on both side walls of
the greenhouse. The ventilators on
the roof as well as those on the
side wall accounts, each about
10% of the total roof area. During
winter cooling phase, the south
roof ventilator was opened in
stages to meet cooling needs.
When greater cooling was
required, the north ventilator was opened in addition to the south ventilator. In summer cooling
phase, the south ventilator was opened first, followed by the north ventilator. As the incoming air
moved across the greenhouse, it was warmed by sunlight and by mixing with the warmer
greenhouse air. With the increase in temperature, the incoming air becomes lighter and rises up
and flows out through the roof ventilators. This sets up a chimney effect (Fig. 7), which in turn
draws in more air from the side ventilators creating a continuous cycle. This system did not
adequately cool the greenhouse. On
hot days, the interior walls and floor were frequently injected with water to help cooling.

4.3.1.1 Roll up side passive ventilation in poly houses

In roll up method of ventilation, allowing the air to flow across the plants. The amount of
ventilation on one side, or both sides, may be easily adjusted in response to temperature,
prevailing wind and rain
(Fig.8). During the periods
of excessive heat, it may
be necessary to roll the
sides up almost to the top.
Passive ventilation can
also be accomplished by
manually raising or parting the polyethylene sheet. The open vent areas must be covered with
screens to prevent virus diseases. The holes must be large enough to permit free flow of air.
Screens with small holes blocks air movement and cause a build up of dust. Rollup side
passive ventilation on plastic greenhouses is only effective on free standing greenhouses and not
on gutter connected greenhouses.
 5
4.3.2 Forced Ventilation
In forced or active ventilation, mechanical devices such as fans are used to expel the air. This
type of ventilation can achieve uniform cooling. These include summer fan-and-pad and fog
cooling systems and the winter convection tube and horizontal airflow systems. For mechanical
ventilation, low pressure, medium volume propeller blade fans, both directly connected and belt
driven are used for greenhouse ventilation. They are placed at the end of the green house
opposite to the air intake, which is normally covered by gravity or motorized louvers. The fans
vents, or louvers, should be motorized, with their action controlled by fan operation. Motorized
louvers prevent the wind from opening the louvers, especially when heat is being supplied to the
green house. Wall vents should be placed continuously across the end of the greenhouse to avoid
hot areas in the crop zone.
Evaporative cooling in combination with the fans is called as fan-and-pad cooling
system. The fans and pads are usually arranged on opposite walls of the greenhouse (Fig.8). The
common types of cooling pads are made of excelsior (wood fiber), aluminum fiber, glass fiber,
plastic fiber and cross-fluted cellulose material. Evaporative cooling systems are especially
efficient in low humidity environments. There is growing interest in building greenhouses
combining both passive (natural) and active (forced) systems of ventilation. Passive ventilation is
utilized as the first stage of cooling, and the fan-pad evaporative cooling takes over when the
passive system is not providing the needed cooling. At this stage, the vents for natural ventilation
are closed. When both options for cooling are designed in greenhouse construction, initial costs
of installation will be more. But the operational costs are minimized in the long run, since natural
ventilation will, most often meet the needed ventilation requirements.
Fogging systems is an alternative to evaporative pad cooling. They depend on
absolutely clean water, Free of any soluble salts, in order to prevent plugging of the mist nozzles.
Such cooling systems are not as common as evaporative cooling pads, but when they become
more cost competitive, they will be adopted widely. Fogging systems are the second stage of
cooling when passive systems are inadequate.

4.3.3 Microprocessors
Dedicated microprocessors can be considered as simple computers. A typical microprocessor
will have a keypad and a two or three line liquid crystal display of, sometimes, 80-character
length for programming. They generally do not have a floppy disk drive. They have more output
connections and can control up to 20 devices. With this number of devices, it is cheaper to use a
microprocessor. They can receive signals of several types, such as, temperature, light intensity,
rain and wind speed. They permit integration of the diverse range of devices, which is not
possible with thermostats. The accuracy of the microprocessor for temperature control is quite
good. Unlike a thermostat, which is limited to a bimetallic strip or metallic tube for temperature
sensing and its mechanical displacement for activation, the microprocessor often uses a
thermistor. The bimetallic strip sensor has less reproducibility and a greater range between the
ON and OFF steps. Microprocessors can be made to operate various devices, for instance, a
microprocessor can operate the ventilators based on the information from the sensor for the wind
direction and speed. Similarly a rain sensor can also activate the ventilators to prevent the
moisture sensitive crop from getting wet. A microprocessor can be set to activate the CO2
generator when the light intensity exceeds a given set point, a minimum level for
photosynthesis.
 6
4.3.4 Computers
Now-a-days, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation throughout
Europe, Japan and the United States. Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of
temperature, humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any
size growing facility. Precise control over a growing operation enables growers to realize saving
of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide applications. Computer controls normally
help to achieve greater plant consistency, on-schedule production, higher overall plant quality
and environmental purity.
A computer can control hundreds of devices within a green house (vents, heaters, fans, hot
water mixing valves, irrigation valves, curtains and lights) by utilizing dozens of input
parameters, such as outside and inside temperatures, humidity, outside wind direction and
velocity, CO2 levels and even the time of the day or night. Computer systems receive signals
from all sensors, evaluate all conditions and send appropriate commands every minute to each
piece of equipment in the greenhouse range thus maintaining ideal conditions in each of the
various independent greenhouse zones defined by the grower (Fig.9). Computers collect and
record data provided by greenhouse production managers. Such a data acquisition system will
enable the grower to gain a comprehensive knowledge of all factors affecting the quality and
timeliness of the product. A computer produces graphs of past and current environmental
conditions both inside and outside the greenhouse complex. Using a data printout option,
growers can produce reports and summaries of environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity and the CO2 status for the given day, or over a longer period of time for current or later
use.
As more environmental factor in the greenhouse is controlled, there comes a stage when
individual controls cannot be coordinated to prevent system overlap. An example is the
greenhouse thermostat calling for heating while the exhaust fans are still running. With proper
software program, which uses the environmental parameters as input from different sensors, can
effectively coordinate all the equipment without overlap and precisely control all parameters
affecting plant development as desired. Despite the attraction of the computer systems, it should
be remembered that the success of any production system is totally dependent on the grower‟s
knowledge of the system and the crop management. Computers can only assist by adding
precision to the overall greenhouse production practice, and they are only as effective as the
software it runs and the effectively of the operator. The advantages and disadvantages of
computerized control system are as follows:

Advantages
1. The computer always knows what all systems are doing and, if programmed properly, can
coordinate these systems without overlap to provide the optimum environment.
2. The computer can record the environmental data, which can be displayed to show current
conditions or stored and processed ones to provide a history of the cropping period, and if
desired it may also be displayed in table or graph form.
3. A high-speed computer with networking facility can control several remotely located
greenhouses, by placing the computer in a central area and the results can be monitored
frequently by the management.
4. With proper programming and sensing systems, the computer can anticipate weather changes
and make adjustments in heating and ventilation systems, thus saving the energy.
 7
5. The computer can be programmed to sound an alarm if conditions become unacceptable to and
to detect sensor and equipment failure.

Disadvantages

1. High initial cost investment.

2. Requires qualified operators.
3. High maintenance, care and precautions are required.
4. Not economical for small scale and seasonal production.
 1

Lecture No.5
Planning of green house facility - site selection and orientation, structural design and
covering materials.

A greenhouse, is basically the purpose of providing and maintaining a growing environment that
will result in optimum production at maximum yield. The agriculture in the controlled
environment is possible in all the regions irrespective of climate and weather.
It is an enclosing structure for growing plants, greenhouse must admit the visible light
portion of solar radiation for the plant photosynthesis and, there fore, must be transparent. At the
same time, to protect the plants, a greenhouse must be ventilated or cooled during the day
because of the heat load from the radiation. The structure must also be heated or insulated during
cold nights. A greenhouse acts as a barrier between the plant production areas and the external or
the general environment.

5.1 Site selection and orientation

A greenhouse is designed to withstand local wind, snow and crop loads for a specific cropping
activity. In this way, the structure becomes location and crop specific. The building site should
be as level as possible to reduce the cost of grading, and the site should be well aerated and
should receive good solar radiation. Provision of a drainage system is always possible. It is also
advisable to select a site with a natural windbreak. In regions where snow is expected, trees
should be 30.5 m away in order to keep drifts back from the greenhouses. To prevent shadows on
the crop, trees located on the east, south, or west sides should be at a distance of 2.5 times their
height.

5.2 Structural design

The most important function of the greenhouse structure and its covering is the protection of the
crop against hostile weather conditions (low and high temperatures, snow, hail, rain and wind ),
diseases and pests. It is important to develop greenhouses with a maximum intensity of natural
light inside. The structural parts that can cast shadows in the greenhouse should be minimized.
The different structural designs of
greenhouse based on the types of frames are
available. A straight side wall and an arched
roof is possibly the most common shape for a
greenhouse, but the gable roof is also widely
used. Both structures can be free standing or
gutter connected with the arch roof
greenhouse. The arch roof and hoop style
greenhouses are most often constructed of
galvanized iron pipe. If tall growing crops are
to be grown in a greenhouse or when benches
are used, it is best to use a straight side wall
structure rather than a hoop style house, this
ensures the best operational use of the greenhouse. A hoop type greenhouse is suitable for low
growing crops, such as lettuce, or for nursery stock which are housed throughout the
 2
winter in greenhouses located in extremely cold regions. A gothic arch frame structure can be
designed to provide adequate side wall height without loss of strength to the structure (Fig.10).
Loads in designing the greenhouse structures include the weight of the structure itself
and, if supported by the structure, loads of the equipment for the heating and ventilation and
water lines. Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind velocity. The
actual load depends on wind angle, greenhouse shape and size, and the presence or absence of
openings and wind breaks.

The ultimate design of a greenhouse depends on the following aspects:

(i) The overall structural design and the properties of the individual structural components.
(ii) The specific mechanical and physical properties which determine the structural behaviour of
the covering materials.
(iii) The specific sensitivity of the crop to light and temperature to be grown in the greenhouse.
(iv) The specific requirements relevant to the physical properties of the covering material.
(v) The agronomic requirements of the crop.

5.3 Covering materials

The following factors are to be considered while selecting the greenhouse covering material i.e.,
light, transmission, weight, resistant to impact, and durability to outdoor weathering and thermal
stability over wide range of temperatures. Before selecting the covering material, two important
points should be taken into consideration: the purpose for which greenhouse facility is intended
and service life of material. In temperate regions where high temperatures are required, the
covering material with high light transmission and far IR absorption must be selected. Also the
loss of heat by conduction should be minimum.
Covering material Life span
1. Glass and acrylic sheet 20 years
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass-reinforced polyester sheet 5-12 years
3. Polyethylene 2-6 months
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years

The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have the following properties:
(i) It should transmit the visible light portion of the solar radiation which is utilized by plants for
photosynthesis.
(ii) It should absorb the small amount of UV in the radiation and convert a portion of it to
fluoresce into visible light, useful for plants.
(iii) It should reflect or absorb IR radiation which are not useful to plants and which causes
greenhouse interiors to overheat.
(iv) Should be of minimum cost.
(v) Should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.
 1

Lecture No.6
Materials for construction of green houses - wood, galvanized iron, glass, polyethylene film,
poly vinyl chloride film, Tefzel T2 film, fiberglass reinforced plastic rigid panel and acrylic
and polycarbonate rigid panel.

The following materials commonly used to build frames for greenhouse are (i) Wood, (ii)
Bamboo, (iii) Steel, (iv) Galvanized iron pipe, (v) Aluminum and (vi) Reinforced concrete
(RCC). The selection of above materials was based on their Specific physical properties,
requirements of design strength, life expectancy and cost of construction materials.

6.1 Wood
Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost polyhouses. In low cost polyhouses, the wood
is used for making frames consisting of side posts and columns, over which the polythene sheet
is fixed. The commonly used woods are pine and casuarina, which are strong and less expensive.
In pipe-framed polyhouses, wooden battens can be used as end frames for fixing the covering
material. In tropical areas, bamboo is often used to form the gable roof of a greenhouse structure.
Wood must be painted with white colour paint to improve light conditions within the
greenhouse. Care should be taken to select a paint that will prevent the growth of mold. Wood
must be treated for protection against decay. Chromated copper arsenate and ammonical copper
arsenate are water based preservatives that are applied to the wood that may come into contact
with the soil. Red wood or cypress (natural decay resistance woods) can be used in desert or
tropical regions, but they are expensive.

6.2 Galvanised iron (GI), aluminum, steel and reinforced cement concrete
GI pipes, tubular steel and angle iron are generally used for side posts, columns and purlins in
greenhouse structure, as wood is becoming scarce and more expensive. In galvanising operation,
the surface of iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it against corrosion. The
commonly followed processes to protect against corrosion are:
(i) Hot dip galvanising (hot process) process: The cleaned member is dipped in molten zinc,
which produces a skin of zinc alloy to the steel.
(ii) Electro-galvanising (cold process) process: The cleaned member is zinc plated similar to
other forms of electro-plating
The galvanising process makes the iron rust proof, to eliminate the problem of rusting of
structural members. Aluminum and hot dipped GI are comparatively maintenance free. In
tropical areas, double dipping of steel is required, as single dip galvanising process does not give
a complete cover of even thickness to the steel. Aluminum and steel must be protected by
painting with bitumen tar, to protect these materials from corrosion, while these materials contact
with the ground. Now-a-days, the greenhouse construction is of metal type, which is more
permanent. RCC is generally limited to foundations and low walls. In permanent bigger
greenhouses, floors and benches for growing the crops are made of concrete.
 2

6.3 Glass
Glass has been traditional glazing material all over the world. Widely used glass for greenhouse
are: (i) Single drawn or float glass and (ii) Hammered and tempered glass. Single drawn or float
glass has the uniform thickness of 3 to 4 mm. Hammered and tempered glass has a thickness of
4 mm. Single drawn glass is made in the traditional way by simply pulling the molten glass
either by hand or by mechanical equipment. Float glass is made in modern way by allowing the
molten glass to float on the molten tin. Coating with metal oxide with a low emissivity is used
for saving of energy with adequate light transmittance. Hammered glass is a cast glass with one
face (exterior) smooth and the other one (interior) rough. It is designed to enhance light
diffusion. This glass is not transparent, but translucent. Tempered glass is the glass, which is
quickly cooled after manufacture, adopting a procedure similar to that used for steel. This kind of
processing gives higher impact resistance to the glass, which is generally caused by hail. Glass
used as a covering material of greenhouses, is expected to be subjected to rather severe wind
loading, snow and hail loading conditions. The strength mainly depends on the length/width
ratio of the panel and on the thickness of the panel, but the most widely used thickness is 4 mm.

6.4 Polyethylene film

Polyethylene is principally used today for two reasons- (i) Plastic film greenhouses with
permanent metal frames cost less than glass greenhouses and (ii) Plastic film greenhouses are
popular because the cost of heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer
glass or fiberglass-reinforced plastic greenhouses. The disadvantages are : these covering
materials are short lived compared to glass and plastic panels. UV light from the sun causes the
plastic to darken, thereby lowering transmission of light, also making it brittle, which leads to its
breakage due to wind. A thermal screen is installed inside a glass greenhouse that will lower the
heat requirement to approximately that of a double-layer plastic film greenhouse, but this
increases the cost of the glass greenhouse. Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in
England and spread around the middle of this century. Commonly used plastic for greenhouse
coverings are thermoplastics. Basic characteristics of thermoplastics are: (i) thermoplastics
consists of long chain molecules, soften with heating and harden with cooling and this process is
reversible and (ii) thermoplastics constitute a group of material that are attractive to the designer
for two main reasons: (a) Thermoplastics have the following specific physical properties-
stiffness, robustness and resilience to resist loads and deformations imposed during normal use
and (b) It can readily be processed using efficient mass production techniques, result in low
labour charge.
The main reason to use polyethylene year round for greenhouse covering is due to presence
of UV-inhibitor in it. Otherwise it lasts for only one heating season. UV-inhibited plastic cover
may last for a period of 4 to 5 years. UV-grade polyethylene is available in widths up to 15.2 m
in flat sheets and up to 7.6 m in tubes. Standard lengths include 30.5, 33.5, 45.7, 61 and 67 m.
Some companies provide custom lengths upto a max. of 91.5 m. Condensation on ploythene film
is a big problem. Condensation causes disease development, development of water logged
condition and oxygen deficient inside the greenhouse. Condensation reduces light intensity
 3

within the greenhouse. To avoid this problem, anti-fog surfactant, which discourages
condensation, is built into the film or panel. Warm objects, such as plants, the greenhouse frame
and soil radiate IR energy to colder bodies at night, which result in loss of heat in greenhouse.
Since polyethylene is a poor barrier to radiant heat, it is formulated with IR-blocking chemicals
into it during manufacture, will stop about half of the radiant heat loss. On cold and clear nights,
as much as 25% of the total heat loss of a greenhouse can be prevented in this way and on cloudy
nights only 15% is prevented. UV-stabilised polyethylene, on an average, transmits about 87% of
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into the greenhouse. IR absorbing polyethylene,
reduces radiant heat loss, transmits about 82% of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into
the greenhouse. The amount of light passing through two layers of a greenhouse covering is
approximately the square of the decimal fraction of the amount passing through one layer. Eg.
When 87% passes through one layer of UV-inhibited polyethylene, only 76% (0.87 x 0.87)
passes through two layers. Similarlly, when 82% passes through one layer of IR-absorbing
polyethylene, only 67% (0.82 x 0.82) passes through two layers.

6.5 Polyvinyl chloride film (PVC films)

PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and are guaranteed for 4 to 5 years
respectively. The cost of 0.3 mm vinyl film is three times that of 0.15 mm polyethylene. Vinyl
film is produced in rolls upto 1.27 m wide. Vinyl films tend to hold a static electrical charge,
which attracts and holds dust. This in turn reduces light transmittance unless the dust is washed
off. Vinyl films are seldom used in the United States. In Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered
with plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.

6.6 Tefzel T2 film

The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T2 film (ethylene
tetrafluoroethylene). Earlier, this film was used as covering on solar collectors. Anticipated life
expectancy is 20 years. The light transmission is 95% and is greater than that of any other
greenhouse covering material. A double layer has a light transmission of 90% (0.95 x 0.95).
Tefzel T2 film is more transparent to IR radiation than other film plastics. Hence, less heat is
trapped inside the greenhouse during hot weather. As a result, less cooling energy is required.
Disadvantage is that, the film is available only in 1.27 m wide rolls. This requires clamping rails
on the greenhouse for every 1.2 m. If reasonable width strips become available, the price is not a
problem, because a double layer covering will still cost less than a polycarbonate panel covering
with its aluminum extrusions, and will last longer, and will have much higher light intensity
inside the greenhouse.

6.7 Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel

Initially, PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive covering material (almost
40% of cost of long lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the life of 5 years. After
commercial application, these panels indicated that the life expectancy was much shorter, less
than 2 years. This is undesirable factor, because the cost of PVC panels was 4 to 5 times that of
 4

polyethylene film and they required much more time to install. Now-a-days, PVC rigid panels
are not in use.

6.8 Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel

FRP was more popular as a greenhouse covering material in the recent past. Advantage of FRP is
that it is more resistant to breakage by factors, such as hail or vandals. Sunlight passing through
FRP is scattered by the fibers in the panels, as a result the light intensity is rather uniform
throughout the greenhouse in comparison with a glass covering. Disadvantages with these are the
panels subjected to etching and pitting by dust abrasion and chemical pollution. Based on the
grade, the usable life period of FRP panel varies. Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better
grades can last up to 20 years. FRP panels are flexible enough to conform to the shape of quonset
greenhouses, which make FRP a very versatile covering material. FRP can be applied to the
inexpensive frames of plastic film greenhouses or to the more elaborate frames of glass type
greenhouses. The price of FRP greenhouse lies between that of a plastic film greenhouse and that
of a glass greenhouse. But the cost is compensated by the elimination of the need for
replacement of film plastic in every year or alternate years. Corrugated panels were used because
of their greater strength. Flat panels are used occasionally for the end and side walls, where the
load is not great. It is available in 1.3 m width, length up to 7.3 m and in a variety of colours. The
total quantity of light transmitted through clear FRP is approximately equivalent to that
transmitted through glass, but diminishes in relation its colour. For greenhouse crops in general,
only clear FRP permits a satisfactory level of light transmission (88 to 90%). Coloured FRP has
found a limited use in greenhouses intended for growing houseplants that require low light
intensity and in display greenhouses for holding plants during the sales period. FRP has
advantage over glass is that, it cools easily. FRP greenhouses require fewer structural members
since sash bars are not needed.

6.9 Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel

These panels have been available for about 15 years for greenhouse use. The panels have been
used for glazing the side and end walls of plastic film greenhouses and retrofitting old glass
greenhouse. Acrylic panels are highly inflammable, where as polycarbonate panels are non-
flammable. Acrylic panels are popular due to their higher light transmission and longer life.
Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm, and have 83% of PAR light
transmission. Acrylic panels cannot be bent, but the thinner panels can be bent to fit curved-
proof greenhouses. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation drip.
Polycarbonate panels are preferred for commercial greenhouses due to lower price, flame
resistance and greater resistance to hail damage. Polycarbonate panels are available in thickness
of 4,6, 8, 10 and 16 mm. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation
drip and also with an acrylic coating for extra protection from UV light.
 1

Lecture No.7
Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses - construction of pipe framed
greenhouses, material requirement, preparation of materials and procedure of erection.

The term greenhouse refers to a structure covered with a transparent material for the purpose of
admitting natural light for plant growth. Two or more greenhouses in one location are referred to
as a greenhouse range. A building associated with the greenhouses that is used for storage or for
operations in support of growing of plants, is referred to as a service building or head house.

7.1 Design criteria of construction

For locating the greenhouse, a piece of land larger than the grower‟s immediate need should be
acquired. The ultimate size of the greenhouse range should be estimated. Area should then be
added to this estimated figure to accommodate service buildings, storage, access drives and a
parking lot. The floor area of service buildings required for small firms is about 13% of the
greenhouse floor area, and it decreases with the increase in size of the firm. On an average,
service buildings occupy 10% of the growing area. The service building is centrally located in a
nearly square design of the firm, which minimizes distance of movement of plants and materials.
Doors between the service buildings and the greenhouse should be wide enough to facilitate full
use of the corridor width. Doors at least 3.1 m wide and 2.7 m high are common. It is good to
have the greenhouse gutter at least 3.7 m above the floor to accommodate automation and
thermal blanket and still leave the room for future innovations.

7.2 Construction of glass greenhouses

Glass greenhouses have an advantage of greater interior light intensity over plastic panel and
film plastic covered greenhouses. Glass greenhouses tend to have a higher air infiltration rate,
which leads to lower interior humidity, which is advantageous for disease prevention. On the
other hand, glass greenhouses have a higher initial cost than double-layer film plastic
greenhouses. While comparing the price of a glass greenhouse to a film plastic greenhouse, one
needs to take into account the initial purchase price of each as well as the cost of re-covering the
film plastic greenhouse every three to four years.
Several types of glass greenhouses are designed to meet specific needs. A lean-to-type
design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. This design
makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirements for roof supports. It is found
mostly in the retail industry. An even-span greenhouse is one in which the two roof slopes are of
equal pitch and width. By comparison, a un-even-span greenhouse has roofs of unequal width,
which makes the structure adaptable to the side of a hill. This style is seldom used today because
such greenhouses are not adaptable to automation. Finally, a ridge-and-furrow design uses, two
or more A- frame greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave. The
sidewall is eliminated between greenhouses, which results in a structure with a single large
interior. Basically, three frame types are used in glass greenhouses, which are wood frames ( 6.1
m in width), pipe frames ( 12.2 m in width) and truss frames (15.2 m in width). Latest glass
 2

greenhouses are primarily of the truss frame type. Truss frame greenhouses are best suited for
prefabrication.
All-metal greenhouses proved cheaper to maintain since they required no painting. At
present, virtually all glass greenhouse construction is of the metal type. The structural members
of the glass greenhouse cast shadows that reduce plant growth during the dark months of the
year. Aluminum sash bars are stronger than wooden ones; hence wider panels of glass can be
used with aluminum bars. The reduction in materials and the reflectance of aluminum have given
these metal greenhouses a great advantage over wooden greenhouses in terms of higher interior
light intensity.
Glass greenhouse construction of today can be categorized as high profile or low profile.
The low profile greenhouse is most popular in the Netherlands and is known as the Venlo
greenhouse. The low profile greenhouses uses single panels of glass extend from eave to ridge.
The low profile greenhouse slightly reduces exposed surface area, thereby reducing the heating
cost, but more expensive to cool. The high profile greenhouses require more than single panel to
cover the eave to ridge. A problem with this design is the unsealed junction between pieces of
glass in the inner layer. Moisture and dust may enter between the layers and reduce light
transmission.

7.3 Construction of pipe framed greenhouses

The choice of construction of pipe framed greenhouses often favours low initial investment and
relatively long life. Galvanized mild steel pipe as a structural member in association with wide
width UV- stabilized low density polyethylene (LDPE) film is a common option of greenhouse
designers.

7.3.1 Material requirement

The structural members of greenhouse are
(a) hoops
(b) foundation
(c) lateral supports
(d) polygrip assembly
(e) end frame

The following materials are required for a greenhouse having 4m 20 m floor area:
(i) GI pipe class A ( 25 mm diameter, 85 cm long, 30 m total length)
(ii) GI pipe class B ( 15 mm diameter, 6.0 m long, 21 No.s)
(iii) GI sheet ( 20 gauge, size 90 24 cm, 4 sheets)
(iv) MS flat ( 25 3 mm size, 4 m length)
(v) Lateral support to end frames (10 mm diameter rod, 10 m length)
(vi) Cement concrete ( 1: 3: 6 mix, 1.0 m3)
(vii) UV- stabilized LDPE film (single layer 800 gauge, 5.4 m2/kg, 154 m2)
 3

(viii) Polygrip ( channel 2000 3.5 4 cm, 2 No.s; Angle 2000 2 2 cm, 2 No.s; both made from
the procured 20 gauge GI sheet, key 6 mm diameter, 56 mm length)
(ix) Wooden end frames (5 5 cm wood, 0.15 m3)
(x) Nuts and bolts 9 6 mm diameter, 35 mm long, 70 sets)
(xi) Miscellaneous items like nails, hinges and latches as per requirement

7.3.2 Procedure of erection

(1) A 4m by 20m rectangular area is marked on the site, preferably orienting the longer
dimension in east-west direction. This rectangle will act as the floor plan of the greenhouse
(Fig.11).
(2). Mark four points on the four corners of the rectangle.
(3) Start from one corner point and move along the length of marked rectangle, marking a point
every 1.25 m distance until reaching the other corner (16 bays; 17 points). The same procedure is
repeated on the other side of the rectangle.
(4). Dig 10 cm diameter holes upto 70 cm depth on all marked points with the help of bucket
auger (or) a crowbar. This way a total of 34 holes on both the parallel sides of the greenhouse
floor is obtained.
(5) Polygrip sections formed according to the drawing into two 20m length.
(6). Fix the prefabricated polygrip channels to the foundation pipes on 1.25 m spacing with the
help of 6 mm diameter bolts.
(7). Set these assemblies on temporary supports between the holes with the foundation pipes
hanging vertically in the holes.

(8). Pour cement concrete mix of 1: 3 : 6 around foundation pipes in such a way that the lower
15 cm to 20 cm ends are covered in concrete. The concrete is compacted around the foundation
pipes with the help of the crowbar and is allowed to cure for 2-3 days.

(9) After curing, fill the soil around the foundation pipes to the ground level and compact it well.
(10). Position end frames on the two ends. Mark the position of legs and dug holes for fixing of
legs. Now install both the end frames.
(11). Put the ringside of lateral support members on adjacent foundation pipe to the corner, and
other side is hooked to the end frame.

(12). Put all the hoops in the foundation pipes in such away that straight portion of hoop is
inserted into the foundation and rests on the bolt used for fixing of polygrip channel .

(13). Take a 20 m long ridge line by spacing 15 mm diameter pipes together. Put the 20m long
pipe at the ridge line of the hoops.
(14) Use cross connectors on the ridge line pipe, in such a way that one half of it remains on the
one side of the hoop and the other half on the other side.
(15) Put two bolts of 6 mm diameter in the holes provided in the ends of cross-connector. Tie a
few of them with the help of nuts.
(16) Repeat the same procedure for joining all the hoops with ridge line pipe.
 4

(17) While forming cross-connectors, the

distance between the cross-connectors or hoops
should be maintained 1.25 m center to center.
This poly grip mechanism will provide a firm
grip of the ridge line pipe and hoops at right
angles without allowing for slippage.
(18) Spread polyethylene film over the structure
from one end to the other end without wrinkles
and keeping the edges together.

(19) Place polyethylene film between the

polygrip channel and right angle strip and secure them under pressure with the help of iron
rods. The film is stretched gently and fixed on the other parallel side by polygrip. This way the
polyethylene is secured on both the longer sides.
(20) On the other two remaining ends, polyethylene is nailed to the end frames using wooden
battens and nails.
(21) The remaining portion of the end frames is covered with polyethylene film, which is secured
with wooden battens and nails.
(22) Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling equipment is installed on the frames as per the
crop requirement.
 1

Lecture No.8
Greenhouse heating and distribution systems. Greenhouse utilization - off-season drying of
agricultural produce. Economic analysis of greenhouse production - capital requirement,
economics of production and conditions influencing returns.

The northern parts of our country experience cold winters, where heating system need to
be employed in the greenhouses along with cooling systems for summer. Whereas the southern
region greenhouses need only cooling systems since the winter cold effect is not that severe.
Greenhouse heating is required in cold weather conditions, if the entrapped heat is not sufficient
during the nights. The heat is always lost from the greenhouse when the surroundings are
relatively cooler. Heat must be supplied to a greenhouse at the same rate with which it is lost in
order to maintain a desired temperature: Heat losses can occur in three different modes of heat
transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. Maintenance of desired higher
temperature, compared with the surroundings needs heating systems and heat distribution
systems. For the purpose of greenhouse heating, apart from conventional systems, solar energy
can also be used and the heat can be stored using water and rock storage. Different heat
conservation practices are available to effectively utilize the heat energy.

8.1 Modes of heat loss

The heating systems, in a continuous process, should supply the heat just enough to compensate
which is lost. Most heat is lost by conduction through the covering materials of the greenhouse.
Different materials, such as aluminum sash bars, glass polyethylene, and cement partition walls,
vary in conduction according to the rate at which each conducts heat from the warm interior to
the colder exterior. A good conductor of heat looses more heat in a shorter time than a bad
conductor and vice versa. There are only limited ways of insulating the covering material
without blocking the light transmission. A dead air space between two coverings appears to be
the best system. A saving of 40% of the heat requirement can be achieved when a second
covering in applied. For example greenhouse covered with one layer of polyethylene loses, 6.8
W of heat through each square meter of covering every hour when the outside temperature is 1 oC
lower than the inside. When second layer of polyethylene is added, only 3.97 W/m2 is lost (40%
reduction).
A second mode of heat loss is that of convection (air infiltration). Spaces between panes
of glass or FRP and ventilators and doors permit the passage of warm air outward and cold air
inward. A general assumption holds that the volume of air held in a greenhouse can be lost as
often as once very 60 minutes in a double layer film plastic or polycarbonate panel greenhouse,
every 40 minutes in a FROP or a new glass greenhouse every 30 minutes in an old well
maintained glass greenhouse, and every 15 minutes in an old poorly maintained glass
greenhouse. About 10% of total heat loss from a structurally tight glass greenhouse occurs
through infiltration loss.
A third mode of heat loss from a greenhouse is that of radiation. Warm objects emit
radiant energy, which passes through air to colder objects without warming the air significantly.
The colder objects become warmer. Glass, vinyl plastic, FRP, and water are relatively opaque to
 2

radiant energy, whereas polyethylene is not. Polyethylene, greenhouses can lose considerable
amounts of heat through radiation to colder objects outside, unless a film of moisture forms on
the polyethylene to provide a barrier.

8.2 Heating systems

The heating system must provide heat to the greenhouse at the same rate at which it is lost by
co0nductin, infiltration, and radiation. There are three popular types of heating systems for
greenhouses. The most common and least expensive is the unit heater system. In this system,
warm air is blown from unit heaters that have self contained fireboxes. These heaters consist of
three functional parts. Fuel is combusted in a firebox to provide heat. The heat is initially
contained in the exhaust, which rises through the inside of a set of thin walled metal tubes on it
way to the exhaust stack. The warm exhaust transfers heat to the cooler metal walls of the tubes.
Much of the heat is removed from the exhaust by the time it reaches the stack through which it
leaves the greenhouse. A fan in the back of the unit heater draws in greenhouse air, passing it
over the exterior side of the tubes and then out from the heater to the greenhouse environment
again. The cool air passing over hot metal tubes is warmed and the air is circulated.
A second type of system is central heating system, which consists of a central boiler than
produces steam or hot water, plus a radiating mechanism in the greenhouse to dissipate the heat.
A central heating system can be more efficient than unit heaters, especially in large greenhouse
ranges. In this system, two or more large boilers are in a single location. Heat is transported in
the form of hot water or steam through pipe mains to be growing area, and several arrangements
of heating pipes in greenhouse is possible (Fig. 12.1). The heat is exchanged from the hot water
in a pipe coil located across the greenhouse or an in-bed pipe coil located in the plant zone.
Some greenhouses have a third pipe coil embedded in a concrete floor. A set of unit heaters can
be used in the place of the overhead pipe coil, obtaining heat from hot water or steam from the
central boiler.
The third type of system is radiation heating system. In this system, gas is burned within
pipes suspended overhead in the greenhouse. The warm pipes supply heat to the plants. Low
intensity infrared radiant heaters can save 30% or more, of fuel compared to conventional
heaters. Several of these heaters are installed in tandem in the greenhouse. Lower air
temperatures are possible since only the plants and root substrate are heated directly by this
mode of heating.
The fourth possible type of system is the solar heating system, but it is still too expensive
to be a viable option. Solar heating systems are found in hobby greenhouses and small
commercial firms. Both water and rock energy storage systems are used in combination with
solar energy. The high cost of solar heating systems discourages any significant use by the
greenhouse industries.

8.2.1 Heat distribution systems

Heat is distributed from the unit heaters by one of two common methods. In the convection tube
method, warm air from unit heaters are distributed through a transparent polyethylene tube
 3

running through the length of the greenhouse. Heat escapes from the tube through holes on
either side of the tube in small jet streams, which rapidly mix with the surrounding air and set up
a circulation pattern to minimize temperature gradients.
The second method of heat distribution is horizontal airflow. In this system, the
greenhouse may be visualized as a large box containing air, and it uses small horizontal fans for
moving the air mass. The fans are located above plant height and are spaced about 15 m (50 ft)
apart in two rows. Their arrangement is tha, the heat originating at one corner of the greenhouse
is directed from one side of the greenhouse to the opposite end and then back along the other side
of the greenhouse. Proper arrangement of fans is necessary for effective distribution in
horizontal airflow system for various greenhouse sizes. Both of these distribution systems can
also be used for general circulation of air and for introducing cold outside air during winter
cooling.

8.2.2 Solar heating system

Solar heating is often used as a partial or total alternative to fossil fuel heating systems. Few
solar heating systems exist in greenhouses today. The general components of solar heating
system (Fig. 12) are collector, heat storage facility, exchange to transfer the solar derived heat to
the greenhouse air, backup heater to take over when solar heating does not suffice and set of
controls.
Various solar heat collectors are in existence, but the flat plate collector has received
greatest attention. This consists of a flat black plate (rigid plastic, film plastic, sheet metal, or
board) for absorbing solar energy. The plate is covered on the sun side by two or more
transparent glass or plastic layers and on the backside by insulation. The enclosing layers serve
to hold the collected heat within the collector. Water or air is passed through the copper tubes
placed over the black plate and absorb the entrapped heat and carry it to the storage facility. A
greenhouse itself can be considered as a solar collector. Some of its collected heat is stored in
the soil, plants, greenhouse frame, floor, and so on. The remaining heat is excessive for plant
growth and is therefore vented to the outside. The excess vented heat could just as well be
directed to a rock bed for storage and subsequent use during a period of heating. Collection of
heat by flat-plate collection is most efficient when the collector is positioned perpendicular to the
sun at solar noon. Based on the locations, the heat derived can provide 20 to 50% of the heat
requirement.

8.3 Water and rock storage

Water and rocks are the two most common materials for the storage of heat in the greenhouse.
One kg of water can hold 4.23 kJ of heat for each 1oC rise in temperature. Rocks can store about
0.83 kJ for each 1oC. To store equivalent amounts of heat, a rock bed would have to be three
times as large as a water tank. A water storage system is well adapted to a water collector and a
greenhouse heating system which consists of a pipe coil or a unit heater which contains a water
coil. Heated water from the collector is pumped to the storage tank during the day. As and when
heat is required, warm water is pumped form the storage tank to a hot water or steam boiler or
 4

into the hot water coil within a unit heater. Although the solar heated water will be cooler than
the thermostat setting on the boiler, heat can be saved, since the temperature of this water need
be raised as high as to reach the output temperature of water or steam from the boiler. A
temperature rise of 17oC above the ambient
condition is expected during the daytime in
solar storage units. Each kilogram of water can
supply 71.1 kJ of heat, and each kilogram of rock
cansupply14.2 kJ of heat, as it cools by 17oC.
A rock storage bed can be used with an air-
collector and forced air heating system. In this
case, heated air form the collector, along with
air excessively heated inside the greenhouse
during the day, is forced through a bed of rocks
(Fig. 12). The rocks absorb much of the heat.
The rock bed may be located beneath the floor of
the greenhouse or outside the greenhouse, and it
should be well insulated against heat loss. During
the night, when heat is required in the greenhouse, cool air from inside the greenhouse is forced
through the rocks, where it is warmed and the passed back into the greenhouse. A clear
polyethylene tube with holes along either side serves well to distribute the warm air
uniformly along the length of the greenhouse. Conventional convection tubes can be used
for distributing solar heated air. The water or rock storage unit occupies a large amount of
space and a considerable amount of insulation is provided if the unit is placed outside.
Placing it inside the greenhouse offers an advantage in that escaping heat is beneficial during
heating periods, but it is detrimental when heating is not required. Rock beds can pose a problem
in that they must remain relatively dry. Water evaporating from these beds will remove
considerable heat.

8.4 Economics of greenhouse production

Regardless of the type, protected agricultural systems are extremely expensive. The equipment
and production cost may be more than compensated by the significantly higher productivity of
protected agricultural systems as compared with open field agriculture. The cost and returns of
protected agriculture vary greatly, depending on the system used, the location and the crop
grown. By design, all protected agricultural systems of cropping are intensive in use of land,
labour, and capital. Greenhouse agriculture is the most intensive system of all. The intensity of
land use is greatly dependent upon the system of protected agriculture. Year-round greenhouse
crop production is therefore much more intensive than seasonal use of mulches and row covers.
Coinciding with intensity are yields, which are normally far greater per ha from year round than
from seasonal systems. The normal benefit of higher yields of CEA over the open field
agriculture depends on the system used and the region of production.

8.5 Capital requirements

The capital requirements differ greatly among the various systems of protected agriculture.
Mulching is least expensive while greenhouses require the most capital per unit of land. Total
 5
cost involved in the production is the sum of fixed cost and operating cost (Fig.13). The fixed
capital costs include land, fixed and mobile equipment, and structures like grading, packing and
office. Fixed costs also include taxes and maintenance. The fixed capital costs for greenhouses
clearly exceed those of other systems of protected agriculture, but vary in expense according to
type of structure, and environmental control and growing systems. Operating costs include
labour, fuel, utilities, farm chemicals and packaging materials. The operating or variable costs
and fixed costs are annual expenditures and these can be substantial. Annual costs may correlate
to some extent with capital investment. The flow diagram of capital requirements of production
is shown in figure.
In estimating the capital requirements, the farmer must include the cost of the entire
system as well as the mulch. While greenhouse production systems may be far more expensive
than open field systems of equal land area, open field systems of protected agriculture are
normally more expensive in field area than in greenhouse production. Greenhouses are
expensive, especially if the environment is controlled by the use of heaters, fan and pad cooling
systems and computer controls.

8.6 Economics of production

Production economics considers the various components of fixed and variable costs, compares
them with the income and evaluates the net return, on unit area basis. On an average basis, wages
account for approximately 85% of the total variable cost. Wages are the greatest expenditure in
greenhouse production, followed by amortization costs and then energy costs, and energy
expenditure, when heating is necessary. About two-fifths of the expenses are fixed costs and
about three-fifths are variable costs. Depreciation and interest on investment accounts for most of
the fixed costs.

8.6.1 Conditions Influencing Returns

A number of variables which may not show up in the yearly financial balance sheet influence the
returns to green house operators, such as economics of scale, physical facilities, cropping

patterns and government incentives. The size of any system of protected agriculture will depend
on the market objectives of the farmer. Most protected agricultural endeavors are family
operated. Often the products are retailed directly to the consumer through a road side market at
the farm site. In the developed world, greenhouse operations tend to be a size that can be
operated by one family (0.4 to 0.8 ha).A unit of 0.4 ha can be operated by two to three labourers,
with additional help at periods of peak activity. The labour wages can usually be provided by the
owner and his family. Moreover, the owner will pay close attention to management, which is the
most important factor. Labour costs may rise significantly if it is necessary to recruit labour from
outside the family. Green house owners who hire a highly qualified manager may have to
operatea larger greenhouse than family size greenhouses in order to offset the additional salary
paid.
 6

The green house system economy can be improved with increased size when:
1. There is a unique opportunity to mechanize certain operations.
2. Labour can be more efficiently utilized.
3. Low cost capital is available.
4. There are economics in the purchase of packaging materials and in marketing.
5. Some special management skills are available.
The physical facilities and location of the green house influence the economics. Another variable
that influence the profits from the green house is intensity of production, which is determined by
the structures with complete environmental control system facilities year round production and
early harvest, thus enabling the grower to realize higher profits. Year –round production offers
year round employment to the laborers. It is found that the environmentally controlled green
house produced only one- third more revenue than high tunnel structure. With the improved
transportation facilities, the new areas of production in combination with the following factors
contribute to the lower costs.
1. High sun light intensity undiminished by air pollution.
2. Mild winter temperatures.
3. Infrequent violent weather conditions.
4. Low humidity during the summer for cooling.
5. Availability of water with low salinity levels.

Cropping pattern will have bearing on the green house structure. A high –tunnel structure or any
structure not fitted with environmental controlled equipment for heating and cooling will be used
only on a seasonal basis. It is common to switch over from green house vegetable production to
flower production, especially in structures with more elaborate environmental control systems.
 7
Growers through out the world are currently experimenting with alternative crops, such as herbs.
As eating habits change, with times and as the consumers are becoming increasingly conscious
of diet and the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables, growers must continually look for
alternative to existing cropping patterns. Government policies also influence the financial returns
from the crops. Government may provide grants or low interest loans, subsidies towards
construction costs, fuels, and use of plastics, such as drip irrigation systems, mulches, row covers
and covering materials. Such incentives from the Government encourage the growers and
stimulate the green house industry.

8.7 Greenhouse utilization in off-season

Drying is traditional method for preserving the food. It also helps in easy transport since the
dried food becomes lighter because of moisture evaporation. Drying of seed prevents
germination and growth of fungi and bacteria. The traditional practice of drying agricultural
produce in the developing countries is sun drying, which is seasonal, intermittent, slow, and
unhygienic. To overcome the problems of sun drying, mechanical drying is introduced with the
following advantages: (i) fast drying, (ii) large volumes of produce can be handled (iii) drying
parameters can be controlled and quality of the produce can be maintained. The energy demand
of conventional mechanical dryers is met by electricity, fossil fuels, and firewood are becoming
scarce. Solar energy can be an alternative source for drying of food and solar dryers are
employed for the purpose. The use of the greenhouse as a dryer is the latest development. The
drying capabilities of the greenhouse can be utilized for curing tobacco leaves, while guarding
the harvest from rain damage.

8.7.1 Drying of agricultural produce

In an efficiently managed greenhouse CEA, there will not be any time gap between crops.
However, for some other management reasons, if crops are not grown in a particular period, the
greenhouse can be utilized as a solar dryer. A small amount of 15 to 30% of the incoming solar
radiation is reflected back from the surface of the greenhouse, with the remainder is transmitted
into the interior. Most of this transmitted radiation is absorbed by plants, soil and other internal
surfaces, the rest being reflected. The usage of greenhouse for the purpose of the drying is of
recent origin. Papadikas et al., (1981) investigated the usage of greenhouse type solar dryer for
drying grapes. Khollieve et al., (1982) developed a greenhouse type fruit dryer cum hot house
used as dryer in summer and as a hot house in winter. They were successful in advocating the
year round utilization of the greenhouse facility and thus reducing the operation cost per unit
output. In general, the produce is spread as thin layers in trays covering the greenhouse area.
The trays can be fabricated with sheet metal and wire mesh. Trays should be arranged
horizontally on existing growing benches or frames. For better operation, proper ventilation
should be provided by either forced or natural ventilation, to remove the moisture liberating from
the produce and to control the air temperature inside the greenhouse. The natural ventilation can
be enhanced by using a black LDPE chimney connected to the greenhouse.

8.7.2 Curing of tobacco

Tobacco is an important foreign exchange earning commercial crop of India, which provides
employment opportunities to lakhs of people. Curing of tobacco is a delicate and vital process in
producing good quality leaves. Tobacco curing essentially refers to drying of the harvested fresh
 8
tobacco leaves under controlled temperature, humidity and ventilation in order to initiate the
essential bio-chemical processes. The success of curing also depends on the condition of the
harvested leaves and their degree of maturity. The usual curing methods are flue, air, pit, fire and
sun curing. The open field sun curing is the cheapest method of curing. The drying capabilities of
greenhouse can be successfully utilized for curing the tobacco. Different stages of tobacco curing
require specific environmental conditions for the best product, which can be maintained easily in
a greenhouse. The harvested tobacco leaves are made into bunches of few leaves by knots and
arranged serially to form a string with free ends left for fixing it. Scaffoldings should be erected
inside the greenhouse and the string of leaves is tied to them, for the tobacco curing process. To
increase the capacity, the strings are tied with judicious gap between them and also put in tiers.
As curing progresses, the leaves loose moisture and the string will become lighter and the initial
sag in the strings can be corrected. For maintaining uniform product quality, the strings can be
cycled among the tiers in a specified sequence. Humidity and temperature control by proper
ventilation and frequent inspection is important in tobacco curing operations.
 1

Lecture No.9
Irrigation system used in greenhouses-rules of watering, hand watering, perimeter watering,
overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation.

A well-designed irrigation system will supply the precise amount of water needed each day
throughout the year. The quantity of water needed would depend on the growing area, the crop,
weather conditions, the time of year and whether the heating or ventilation system is operating.
Water needs are also dependent on the type of soil or soil mix and the size and type of the
container or bed. Watering in the green house most frequently accounts for loss in crop quality.
Though the operation appears to be the simple, proper decision should be taken on how, when
and what quantity to be given to the plants after continuous inspection and assessment .Since
under watering (less frequent) and over watering (more frequent) will be injurious to the crops,
the rules of watering should be strictly adhered to. Several irrigation water application systems,
such as hand writing, perimeter watering, overhead sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation,
over sprinklers, boom watering and drip irrigation which are currently in use.

9.1 Rules of Watering

The following are the important rules of application of irrigation.
Rule 1: Use a well drained substrate with good structure
If the root substrate is not well drained and aerated, proper watering can not be achieved. Hence
substrates with ample moisture retention along with good aeration are indispensable for proper
growth of the plants. The desired combination of coarse texture and highly stable structure can
be obtained from the formulated substrates and not from field soil alone.
Rule 2: Water thoroughly each time
Partial watering of the substrates should be avoided; the supplied water should flow from the
bottom in case of containers, and the root zone is wetted thoroughly in case of beds. As a rule, 10
to 15% excess of water is supplied. In general, the water requirement for soil based substrates is
at a rate of 20 l/m2 of bench, 0.3 to 0.35 litres per 16.5 cm diameter pot.
Rule 3: Water just before initial moisture stress occurs
Since over watering reduces the aeration and root development, water should be applied just
before the plant enters the early symptoms of water stress. The foliar symptoms, such as texture,
colour and turbidity can be used to determine the moisture stress, but vary with crops. For crops
that do not show any symptoms, colour, feel and weight of the substrates are used for
assessment.

9.2 Hand watering

The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present days is uneconomical.
Growers can afford hand watering only where a crop is still at a high density, such as in seed
beds, or when they are watered at a few selected pots or areas that have dried sooner than others.
In all cases, the labour saved will pay for the automatic system in less than one year. It soon will
become apparent that this cost is too high. In addition to this deterrent to hand watering, there is
 2

great risk of applying too little water or of waiting too long between waterings. Hand watering
requires considerable time and is very boring. It is usually performed by inexperienced
employees, who may be tempted to speed up the job or put it off to another time. Automatic
watering is rapid and easy and is performed by the grower it self. Where hand watering is
practiced, a water breaker should be used on the end of the hose. Such a device breaks the force
of the water, permitting a higher flow rate without washing the root substrate out of the bench or
pot. It also lessens the risk of disrupting the structure of the substrate surface.

9.3 Perimeter watering

Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds. A typical system
consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench
with nozzles that spray water over the substrate surface
below the foliage (Fig.14).
Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used. While
PVC pipe has the advantage of being very stationery,
polythene pipe tends to roll if it is not anchored firmly to
the side of the bench. This causes nozzles to rise or fall from
proper orientation to the substrate surface. Nozzles are made
of nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a
spray are of 180°, 90° or 45°. Regardless of the types of
nozzles used, they are staggered across the benches so
that each nozzle projects out between two other nozzles on the opposite side. Perimeter
watering systems
with 180° nozzles require one water valve for benches up to 30.5 m in length.

9.4 Overhead sprinklers

While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control purposes, a few
crops do tolerate wet foliage. These few crops can most easily and cheaply be irrigated from
overhead. Bedding plants, azalea liners, and some green plants are crops commonly watered
from overhead. A pipe is installed along the middle of a bed. Riser pipes are installed
periodically to a height well above the final height of the crop (Fig.14). A total height of 0.6 m is
sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers. A nozzle is installed at the top of
each riser. Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate
around a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would
otherwise fall on the ground between pots and wasted. Each tray is square and meets the adjacent
tray. In this way nearly all water is intercepted. Each tray has a depression to accommodate the
pot and is then angled upward from the pot toward the tray perimeter. The trays also have drain
holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain quantity, which is subsequently
absorbed by the substrate.

9.5 Boom watering

Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system, and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays. Plug trays are plastic trays that have width and
length dimensions of approximately 30 × 61 cm, a depth of 13 to 38 mm, and contain about 100
 3
to 800 cells. Each seedling grown in its own individual cell. Precision of watering is extremely
important during the 2 to 8 week production time of plug seedlings.
A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that extends from one
side of a greenhouse bay to the other. The pipe is fitted with nozzles that can spray either water
or fertilizer solution down onto the crop. The boom is attached at its center point to a carriage
that rides along rails, often suspended above the centre walk of the greenhouse bay. In this way,
the boom can pass from one end of the bay to the other. The boom is propelled by an electric
motor. The quantity of water delivered per unit area of plants is adjusted by the speed at which
the boom travels.

9.6 Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation, consists of laying plastic tubes of small
diameter on the surface or subsurface of the field or greenhouse beside or beneath the plants.
Water is delivered to the plants at frequent intervals through small holes or emitters located
along the tube. Drip irrigation systems are commonly used in combination with protected
agriculture, as an integral and
essential part of the comprehensive
design. When using plastic mulches,
row covers, or greenhouses, drip
irrigation is the only means of
applying uniform water and
fertilizer to the plants. Drip
irrigation provides maximum
control over environment
variability; it assures optimum
production with minimal use of
water, while conserving soil and
fertilizer nutrients; and controls
water, fertilizer, labour and machinery costs. Drip irrigation is the best means of water
conservation. In general, the application efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70%
and furrow irrigation at 60 to 80%, depending on soil type, level of field and how water is
applied to the furrows. Drip irrigation is not only recommended for protected agriculture but also
for open field crop production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. One of the
disadvantages of drip irrigation is the initial cost of equipment per acre, which may be higher
than other systems of irrigation. However, these costs must be evaluated through comparison
with the expense of land preparation and maintenance often
required by surface irrigation. Basic equipment for irrigation consists of a pump, a main line,
delivery pipes, manifold, and drip tape laterals or emitters as shown in figure 15:

The head, between the pump and the pipeline network, usually consists of control valves,
couplings, filters, time clocks, fertilizer injectors, pressure regulators, flow meters, and gauges.
Since the water passes through very small outlets in emitters, it is an absolute necessity that it
should be screened, filtered, or both, before it is distributed in the pipe system. The initial field
positioning and layout of a drip system is influenced by the topography of the land and the cost
of various system configurations.
 1 Estimation and Costing
Chapter
INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT
INDEX 1
S.No. Topic Page No.
1.1 DEFINITION OF ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Estimating is the technique of calculating or Computing the various
01. Introduction to the subject 1 - 3 quantities and the expected Expenditure to be incurred on a particular work or
project.
In case the funds avilable are less than the estimated cost the work is
02. Measurement of Materials & Works 4 - 12 done in part or by reducing it or specifications are altered, the following require-
ment are necessary for preparing an estimate.
a ) Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important points.
03. Types of Estimates 13 - 21 b) Detailed specifications about workmenship & properties of materials etc.
c) Standard schedule of rates of the current year.
1.2 NEED FOR ESTIMATION AND COSTING
04. Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 22 - 55
1. Estimate give an idea of the cost of the work and hence its feasibility can
be determined i..e whether the project could be taken up with in the funds
05. Analysis of Rates 56 - 73 available or not.
2. Estimate gives an idea of time required for the completion of the work.
3. Estimate is required to invite the tenders and Quotations and to arange
06. Estimation of Quantities of Steel & contract.
4. Estimate is also required to control the expenditure during the execution
RCC Elements 74 - 80 of work.
5. Estimate decides whether the proposed plan matches the funds available
or not.
07. Earth Work Calculations 81 - 95
1.3 PROCEDURE OF ESTIMATING OR METHOD OF ESTIMATING.
Estimating involves the following operations
08. Detailed Estimates 96 - 108 1. Preparing detailed Estimate.
2. Calculating the rate of each unit of work
3. Preparing abstract of estimate
09. Appendex 109 - 115 1.4 DATA REQUIRED TO PREPARE AN ESTIMATE
1. Drawings i.e.plans, elevations, sections etc.
2. Specifications.
3. Rates.
Introduction to the Subject 2 3 Estimation and Costing
1.4.1 DRAWINGS 1.6 LUMPSUM:
If the drawings are not clear and without complete dimensions the prepa-
While preparing an estimate, it is not possible to workout in detail in case
ration of estimation become very difficult. So, It is very essential before prepar-
ing an estimate. of petty items. Items other than civil engineering such items are called lumpsum
1.4.2. SPECIFICATIONS items or simply L.S.Items.
a) General Specifications: This gives the nature, quality, class and work and The following are some of L.S. Items in the estimate.
materials in general terms to be used in various parts of wok. It helps no
1. Water supply and sanitary arrangements.
form a general idea of building.
b) Detailed Specifications: These gives the detailed description of the vari- 2. Electrical installations like meter, motor, etc.,
ous items of work laying down the Quantities and qualities of materials,
3. Architectural features.
their proportions, the method of preparation workmanship and execution
of work. 4. Contingencies and unforeseen items.
1.4.3. RATES: Ingeneral, certain percentage on the cost of estimation is alloted for the
For preparing the estimate the unit rates of each item of work are re- above L.S.Items
quired.
1. For arriving at the unit rates of each item. Even if subestimates prepared or at the end of execution of work, the
actual cost should not exceed the L.S.amounts provided in the main estimate.
2. The rates of various materials to be used in the construction.
3. The cost of transport materials. 1.7 WORK CHARGED ESTABLISHMENT:
4. The wages of labour, skilled or unskilled of masons, carpenters, Mazdoor, During the construction of a project considerable number of skilled su-
etc., pervisors, work assistance, watch men etc., are employed on temporary basis.
1.5 COMPLETE ESTIMATE: The salaries of these persons are drawn from the L.S. amount alloted towards
Most of people think that the estimate of a structure includes cost of land, the work charged establishment. that is, establishment which is charged directly
cost of materials and labour, But many other direct and indirect costs included to work. an L.S.amount of 1½ to 2% of the estimated cost is provided towards
and is shown below. The Complete Estimate
the work charged establishment.

Cost of land P.s.and Legal expenses Cost of Structure

contingencies between owner EXERCISE
at 5% and contractor
Short Answer Questions
Actual Cost of Cost of Brochorage Cost of Permit fees for
cost of Surveying Verification if any labour constrution water, 1. State the requirements of an estimate?
land of deeds and electricity from
execution of concerned autorities 2. Briefly Explain need for estimation?
deeds
cost of Consulting 3. What is work charged establishment?
materials Engineers
fees

cost for Cost of

preparation supervision
of plan,
estimate and
design
 4 5 Estimation and Costing
Chapter 6. Cement concrete bed cum per cum

MEASUREMENT OF MA TERIALS
MATERIALS
7. R.C. Sunshade (Specified cum 1rm
2 Width & Hight
AND WORKS III Damp ProofCource (D.P.C)
(Thickness should be men- sqm persqm
tioned)
2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS: IV Brick work:
The units of measurements are mainly categorised for their nature, shape 1. Brickwork in foundation cum percum
2. Brick work in plinth cum percum
and size and for making payments to the contractor and also. The principle of
3. Brick work in super struc- cum percum
units of measurements normally consists the following:
a) Single units work like doors, windows, trusses etc., are expressed
in numbers. ww ture
4. Thin partition walls
5. Brick work in arches
sqm
cum
percum
percum
b) Works consists linear measurements involve length like cornice,
fencing, hand rail, bands of specified width etc., are expressed in
w.E
6. Reinforced brick work
(R.B.Work)
cum percum

c)
running metres (RM)
Works consists areal surface measurements involve area like
V

VI
asy
Stone Work:
Stone masonry
Wood work:
cum percum

plastering, white washing, partitions of specified thickness etc., are

expressed in square meters (m2) En
1. Door sand windows frames cum percum

d) Works consists cubical contents which involve volume like earth

work, cement concrete, Masonry etc are expressed in Cubic metres.
beams gi
or chowkhats, rafters

2. Shutters of doors and win-

dows (thickness specified) nee
sqm persqm

Sl.
[BASED ON IS 1200 REVISED]
Particulas of item Units of Units of
3. Doors and windows fittings
(like hinges, tower bolts, rin
Number per number

No.
I Earth work:
Measurement payment
VII
sliding bolts, handles)
Steel work g .ne
1. Earth work in Excavation
2. Earthwork in fillingin founda-
tion trenches
3. Earth work in filling in plinth
cum
cum

cum
Per%cum
Per%cum

Per%cum
1. Steel reinforcement bars
etc in R.C.C. and
R.B.work. quintal
2. Bending, binding of steel
Quintal

Quintal
per quintal

per quintal
t
II Concrete: Reinforcement
1. Lime concretre in foundation cum percum 3. Rivets, bolts, & nuts, An- Quintal per quintal
2. Cement concrete in Lintels cum percum chor bolts, Lewis bolts,
3. R.C.C.in slab cum percum Holding down bolts.
4. C.C. or R.C.C. Chujja, Sun- cum percum 4. Iron hold fasts Quintal per quintal
shade 5. Iron railing (height and Quintal per quintal
5. L.C. in roof terracing sqm persqm types specified)
(thickness specified) 6. Iron grills sqm per sqm
Measurement of Materials and Works 6 7 Estimation and Costing
VIII Roofing 2.2 RULES FOR MEASUREMENT :
1. R.C.C. and R.B.Slab roof The rules for measurement of each item are invaribly described in IS-
(excluding steel) cum per cum 1200. However some of the general rules are listed below.
2. L.C. roof over and inclusive 1. Measurement shall be made for finished item of work and description of
of tiles or brick or stone slab sqm per sqm each item shall include materials, transport, labour, fabrication tools and
etc (thickness specified) plant and all types of overheads for finishing the work in required shape,
3. Centering and shuttering sqm per sqm size and specification.
form work
2. In booking, the order shall be in sequence of length, breadth and height or
4. A.C.Sheet roofing sqm per sqm
thickness.
IX Plastering, points&finishing
1. Plastering-Cement or Lime sqm per sqm 3. All works shall be measured subject to the following tolerances.
Mortar (thickness and pro- i) Linear measurement shall be measured to the nearest 0.01m.
portion specified) ii) Areas shall be measured to the nearest 0.01 sq.m
2. Pointing sqm per sqm
3. White washing, colour sqm per sqm iii) Cubic contents shall be worked-out to the nearest 0.01 cum
washing, cement wash 4. Same type of work under different conditions and nature shall be measured
(number of coats specified) separately under separate items.
4. Distempering (number of sqm per sqm 5. The bill of quantities shall fully describe the materials, proportions,
coats specified) workmanships and accurately represent the work to be executed.
5. Painting, varnishing (number sqm per sqm
6. In case of masonary (stone or brick) or structural concrete, the categories
of coats specified)
shall be measured separately and the heights shall be described:
X Flooring
1. 25mm cement concrete sqm per sqm a) from foundation to plinth level
over 75mm lime concrete b) from plinth level to First floor level
floor (including L.C.)
c) from Fist floor to Second floor level and so on.
2. 25mm or 40mm C.C. floor sqm per sqm
3. Doors and window sills sqm per sqm 2.3 METHODS OF TAKING OUT QUANTITIES:
(C.C. or cement mortar The quantities like earth work, foundation concrete, brickwork in plinth
plain) and super structure etc., canbe workout by any of following two methods:
XI Rain water pipe /Plain pipe 1RM per RM
a) Long wall - short wall method
XII Steel wooden trusses 1No per 1No
XIII Glass pannels(supply) sqm per sqm b) Centre line method.
XIV Fixing of glass panels or No per no. c) Partly centre line and short wall method.
cleaning a) Long wall-short wall method:
In this method, the wall along the length of room is considered to be long
wall while the wall perpendicular to long wall is said to be short wall. To get the
Measurement of Materials and Works 8 9 Estimation and Costing
length of long wall or short wall, calculate first the centre line lengths of individual P.B.-1: From the Drawing given below determine (a) Earth work exca-
walls. Then the length of long wall, (out to out) may be calculated after adding vation (b) CC (1:5:10) Bed (c) R.R.Masonry in C.M. (1:6) (d)
half breadth at each end to its centre line length. Thus the length of short wall Brick Work in C.M.(1:6).
measured into in and may be found by deducting half breadth from its centre line
length at each end. The length of long wall usually decreases from earth work to
Single Roomed Building (Load Bearing type structure)
brick work in super structure while the short wall increases. These lengths are
multiplied by breadth and depth to get quantities.
b) Centre line method:
This method is suitable for walls of similar cross sections. Here the total
centre line length is multiplied by breadth and depth of respective item to get the
total quantity at a time. When cross walls or partitions or verandah walls join
with mainall, the centre line length gets reduced by half of breadth for each
junction. such junction or joints are studied caefully while calculating total centre
line length.The estimates prepared by this method are most accurate and quick.
c) Partly centre line and partly cross wall method:
This method is adopted when external (i.e., alround the building) wall is
of one thickness and the internal walls having different thicknesses. In such cases,
centre line method is applied to external walls and long wall-short wall method is
used to internal walls. This method suits for different thicknesses walls and diffeent
level of foundations. Because of this reason, all Engineering departments are
practicing this method. Note: All Dimensions are in 'M'
Measurement of Materials and Works 10 11 Estimation and Costing
Long wall - Short wall Method Centre Line Method

S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation

S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation
1. Earth Work excavation
1. Earth Work excavation for foundation 1 19.2 0.9 1.4 24.192 m
3

for foundation 5.3 L=2(5.3+4.3)=19.2

a) Long walls 2 6.2 0.9 1.4 15.264 L=5.3+.45+.45 =6.2 4.3
D= 0.3+0.5+0.6 = 1.4
b) Short walls 2 3.4 0.9 1.4 8.568 L= 4.3-0.45-0.45= 3.4 2. C.C.(1:4:8) bed for 1 19.2 0.9 0.3 5.184 m 3
Total 24.192 m
3
foundation

2. C.C.(1:4:8) bed for 3. R.R.Masonry in CM

foundation (1:6) for
a) Long walls 2 6.2 0.9 0.3 3.348 a) Footings 1 19.2 0.6 0.5 5.76
b) Short walls 2 3.4 0.9 0.3 1.836 b) Basement 1 19.2 0.45 0.6 5.184
Total 5.184 m
3
Total 10.944 m 3
3. R.R.Masonry in CM
(1:6) for 4. Brick masany with
a) Footings CM (1:6) for super structure 1 19.2 0.3 0.3 17.28 m 3
i) Long walls 2 5.9 0.6 0.5 3.54 L= 5.3+0.3+0.3=5.9
ii) Short walls 2 3.7 0.6 0.5 2.22 L=4.3-0.3-0.3 = 3.7
Total 5.76 m 3
b) Basement
i) Long walls 2 5.75 0.45 0.6 3.105 L= 5.3+0.225+0.225= 5.75
ii) Short walls 2 3.85 0.45 0.6 2.079 L= 4.3-0.225-0.225 =3.85
Total 5.184 m
3

Total R.R. Masonry for footings and Basement

= 5.76+5.184 = 10.94 m3
4. Brick masonary with CM
(1:6) for super structure
a) Long Wall 2 5.6 0.30 3.00 10.08 L=5.3+0.15+0.15=5.6
b) Short walls 2 4.0 0.30 3.00 7.20 L=4.3-0.15-0.15=4.0
m3
Total 17.28
Measurement of Materials and Works 12 13 Estimation and Costing
EXERCISE Chapter
3
I. Short Answer Questions
1. List the difference between centre line method and long wall-short wall
method of taking out measurements. TYPES OF ESTIMATES
2. What are the rules to be followed while taking the mesurements?
3.1 DETAILED ESTIMATE:
3. Mension the units for the following items.
The preparation of detailed estimate consists of working out quantities of
a) flooring b) R.R.Masonry c) Plastering for pointing d) Damp proof various items of work and then determine the cost of each item. This is prepared
course e) R.C. sunshade (Sepcified width and thickness) in two stages.
II. Essay type questions i) Details of measurements and calculation of quantities:
1. From the Drawing given below determine (a) Earth work excavation (b)
The complete work is divided into various items of work such as earth
CC (1:5:10) Bed (c) R.R.Masonry in C.M. (1:6) (d) Brick Work in
work concreting, brick work, R.C.C. Plastering etc., The details of measure-
C.M.(1:6). by
ments are taken from drawings and entered in respective columns of prescribed
(a) longwall - short wall method
proforma. the quantities are calculated by multiplying the values that are in num-
(b) Centre line Method
bers column to Depth column as shown below:
Details of measurements form
Description Length Breadth Depth/ Explanatory
S.No. No (L) (B) Height Quantity
of Item m m (D/H)m Notes

ii) Abstract of Estimated Cost :

The cost of each item of work is worked out from the quantities that
already computed in the detals measurement form at workable rate. But the
total cost is worked out in the prescribed form is known as abstract of estimated
form. 4%of estimated Cost is allowed for Petty Supervision, contingencies and
Unforeseen items.
Types of Estimates 14 15 Estimation and Costing
ABSTRACT OF ESTIMATE FORM 3.2.1 Fixing of Rate per Unit of an Item:

Item No. Description/ Quantity Unit Rate Per Amount The rate per unit of an item includes the following:
Particulars (Unit) 1) Quantity of materials & cost: The requirement of mateials are taken
strictly in accordance with standard data book(S.D.B). The cost of these
includes first cost, freight, insurance and transportation charges.
ii) Cost of labour: The exact number of labourers required for unit of work
and the multiplied by the wages/ day to get of labour for unit item work.
iii) Cost of equipment (T&P): Some works need special type of equip-
ment, tools and plant. In such case, an amount of 1 to 2% of estimated
cost is provided.
iv) Overhead charges: To meet expenses of office rent, depreciation of
equipment salaries of staff postage, lighting an amount of 4% of estimate
The detailed estimate should accompained with
cost is allocated.
i) Report
3.3 METHODS OF PREPARATION OF APPROXIMATE ESTIMATE:
ii) Specification
Preliminary or approximate estimate is required for studies of various as-
iii) Drawings (plans, elevation, sections)
pects of work of project and for its administrative approval. It can decide, in
iv) Design charts and calculations
case of commercial projects, whether the net income earned justifies the amount
v) Standard schedule of rates. invested or not. The approximate estimate is prepared from the practical knowl-
3.1.1.Factors to be consisdered While Preparing Detailed Esti- edge and cost of similar works. The estimate is accompanied by a report duely
mate: explaining necessity and utility of the project and with a site or layout plan. A
percentage 5 to 10% is allowed for contingencies. The following are the meth-
i) Quantity and transportation of materials: For bigger project, the re-
ods used for preparation of approximate estimates.
quirement of materials is more. such bulk volume of mateials will be pur-
chased and transported definitely at cheaper rate. a) Plinth area method
ii) Location of site: The site of work is selected, such that it should reduce b) Cubical contents methods
damage or in transit during loading, unloading, stocking of mateirals. c) Unit base method.
iii) Local labour charges: The skill, suitability and wages of local laboures a) Plinth area method: The cost of construction is determined by multiplying
are consideed while preparing the detailed estimate. plinth area with plinth area rate. The area is obtained by multiplying length and
3.2 DATA: breadth (outer dimensions of building). In fixing the plinth area rate, carefull
observation and necessary enquiries are made in respect of quality and quantity
The process of working out the cost or rate per unit of each item is called
aspect of materials and labour, type of foundation, hight of building, roof, wood
as Data. In preparation of Data, the rates of materials and labour are obtained
work, fixtures, number of storeys etc.,
from current standard scheduled of rates and while the quantities of materials
and labour required for one unit of item are taken from Standard Data Book As per IS 3861-1966, the following areas include while calculating the
(S.D.B) plinth area of building.
Types of Estimates 16 17 Estimation and Costing
a) Area of walls at floor level. Problems on Plinth Area Method
b) Internal shafts of sanitary installations not exceeding 2.0m2, lifts, Example 3.1: Prepare an approximate estimate of building project with total
airconditionsing ducts etc., plinth area of all building is 800 sqm. and from following data.

c) Area of barsati at terrace level: i) Plinth area rate Rs. 4500 per sqm
ii) Cost of water supply @7½%of cost of building.
Barsati means any covered space open on one side constructed on one iii) Cost of Sanitary andElectrical installations each @ 7½% of cost of
side constructed on terraced roof which is used as shelter during rainy building.
season. iv) Cost of architectural features @1% of building cost.
d) Porches of non cantilever type. v) Cost of roads and lawns @5% of building cost.
vi) Cost of P.S. and contingencies @4% of building cost.
Areas which are not to include
Determine the total cost of building project.
a) Area of lofts.
Solution :
b) Unenclosed balconies. Data given:
c) Architectural bands, cornices etc., Plinth area = 800m2.
d) Domes, towers projecting above terrace level. Plinth area rate = Rs. 4500 per Sqm.
e) Box louvers and vertical sunbreakers. ∴ Cost of building = 800 x 4500 = Rs. 36,00,000=00
Add the cost of the water supply charges @7½%
b) Cubical Contents Method: This method is generally used for multistoreyed
36,00,000 × 7.5
buildings. It is more accurate that the other two methods viz., plinth area method = = 2,70,000 = 00
100
and unit base method. The cost of a structure is calculated approximately as the
Add the Cost of Sanitary and electrical installation @ 15%
total cubical contents (Volume of buildings) multiplied by Local Cubic Rate. The
volume of building is obtained by Length x breadth x depth or height. The length 36,00,000 × 15
= = 5, 40,000 = 00
and breadth are measured out to out of walls excluding the plinth off set. 100
Add the cost of archetectural features @1%
The cost of string course, cornice, carbelling etc., is neglected.
36,00,000 × 1
The cost of building= volume of buildings x rate/ unit volume. = = 36,000 = 00
100
c) Unit Base Method: According to this method the cost of structure is deter- 36,00,000 × 5
mined by multiplying the total number of units with unit rate of each item. In case Add the cost of Roads Lawns @ 5% = = 1,80,000 = 00
100
schools and colleges, the unit considered to be as 'one student' and in case of Add the Cost of P.S. and contingencies @ 4%
hospital, the unit is 'one bed'. the unit rate is calculated by dividing the actual
36,00,000 × 4
expenditure incured or cost of similar building in the nearby locality by the num- = = 1,44,000 = 00
100
ber of units.
Total Rs. 47,70,000=00
Assume Add supervision charges 8% on overall cost
8
= 47,70,000 × = 3,81,600 = 00
100
Grand Total Rs. 51,51,600=00
Types of Estimates 18 19 Estimation and Costing
Example 3.2 : The plinth area of an appartment is 500 sqm. Detemine the total Example 3.3: The plinth area and plinth area rate of a residential building are
cost of building from the following data: 100 sqm and Rs. 5000/- respectively. Determine the total cost of building as-
suming suitable provisions.

a) Rate of construction = Rs.1230/--per m3. Solution :

b) The height of appartment = 16.25 m Cost of building = 100 x 5000 = Rs.5,00,000

c) Water Supply, Sanitary and Electrical installations each at 6% of Cost of water supply and
building cost. 5,00,000×15
sanitary fittings @15% = = Rs. 75,000
d) Architectural appearance @ 1% of building cost. 100
e) Unforeseen item @2% of Building cost. 5,00,000 × 7.5
Cost of Electrification @7½% = = Rs. 37,500
f) P.S. and contingencies @4% of building. 100
Solution : 5,00,000 × 5
Cost of Roads & Lawns @5%= = Rs. 25,000
a) The Cost of building = cubic content x cubic rate 100

= 500 ×16.25 ×1230 = Rs. 99,93,750/- 5,00,000 × 4

Cost of P.S.& contingencies@4%= = Rs. 20,000
b) Provision for water supply, sanitary and 100

Electrical installations water supply and sanitation each @ 6% Total Cost Rs. 6,57,500/-
99,93,750×18
= = Rs.17,98,875/ −
100 Example 3.4 : Prepare an approximate Extimate of a proposed building from
the follwoing?
i.e total percent = 3×6 = 18% building cost
Plinth area of the building = 226 sqm.
99,93,750 × 1
c) Architectural appearance @1%= = Rs. 99,937/- Cost of the structure = 2500 per sqm.
100
Water supply and sanitary arangements = 12½%
Electrification =7%
d) Unforeseen items @2% = Rs. 1,99,875/-
Fluctuation of rates = 5%

e) P.S. and contingenies @4% = Rs. 3,99,750/- petty supervision charges = 3%

sol: Cost of Building = 226x 2500 = Rs.5,65,000
Total = Rs.1,24,92,187/-
Water supply & Sanitory arrangements @ 12½ %
Sundries 7,813/-
Total cost of the building project = Grand Total = Rs.1,25,00,000/- 5,65,000 × 12.5
= = Rs. 70,000
100

5,65,000 × 7
Electrification @7% = = Rs. 39,550
100
Types of Estimates 20 21 Estimation and Costing
5,65,000 × 5 Problems on Unit Base Method:
Fluctuation of rates 5% = = Rs. 28,250
100 Example 3.6: Prepare an approximate estimate or rough cost estimate of a
hospital building for 50 beds. The cost of construction altogether for each bed is
Rs. 60,000/-. Determine the total cost of hospital building.
5,65,000 × 3
Pettysupervision charges 3%= = Rs.16,950 Solution:
100
Total Cost Rs. = 7,19,750.00 No. of beds = 50

Problem on Cubical content Method: Cost of construction = Rs. 60,000/-

Example 3.5 : Prepare the rough estimate for a proposed commertial comples Total Cost of Hospital building = 50x 60,000= Rs. 30,00,000/-
for a municipal corporation for the following data. Example 3.7: To prepare the rough cost estimate of a hostel building which
Plinth Area = 500m2/floor accommodate 150 students. The cost of construction including all provisions is
Ht of each storey = 3.5m Rs. 15,000/- per student. Determine total cost of building.
No.of storeys = G+2 Solution :
Cubical content rate = Rs. 1000/m3 No.of students= 150
Provided for a following as a pecentage of structured cost
Cost of construction including all L.S. provisions = Rs. 15,000/-
a) water supply & Sanitary arrangement -8%
Total Cost of hostel building =150 x 15000 = Rs. 22,50,000/-
b) Electrification -6%
(Rupees twenty two lakhs, fifty thousands only)
c) Fluctuation of rates - 5%
d) Contractors profit - 10% EXERCISE
e) Petty supervision & contingencies - 3% I. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:
Sol : Cubical content = No.of storeys (Plinth Area x height of each storey) 1. List the factors to be consider while preparing detailed estimate and
= 3(500x3.5) = 5250m3 explain breifly?
Structural cost = Cubical content x cubical content rate 2. What are the differences between plinth area method and Unit base method?
= 5250 x 1000 = 52.5 Lakhs 3. List the requirements of data preparation.
other provisons:- II ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS :
a) Water supply and sanitation = 52.5x8/100 = Rs.4.2 Lakhs
1. Prepare the approximate cost of building project (group HOuseing)
b) Electrification = 52.5 x 6/100 = Rs.3.15 lakhs i) No.of houses = 150
c) fluctuation of rates = 52.5 x 5/100 = Rs.2.625 ii) Plinth area of each dwelling = 600m2
Total = Rs. 9.975 Lakhs iii) Plinth area rate = Rs. 5,000/-per m2
Structural cost = Rs. 52.500 Lakhs iv) Cost of water supply & sanitary arrangements @12½%
Total = Rs.62.475 Lakhs v) Electrification at 7½% of cost of builing.
vi Cost of roads & Lawns @5%
d) P.S./& contingencies = 62.475 x 3/100 = Rs.1.874 Lakhs vii) Cost of P.S.& contingencies @4%
e) Contractors Profit = 62.475 x 10/100 = Rs.6.247 Lakhs 2. Prepare a rough cost estimate of a cinema theatre which accommodate 1700
seats. The cost of construction including all provisions is Rs.6000/- per seat.
Total Cost = Rs.70.596 Lakhs
3. What are the methods of preparation of approximate estimates and explain
briefly.
 22 23 Estimation and Costing
Chapter a) Long wall - Short Method

4 DET AIL & ABSTRA

DETAIL CT ESTIMA
ABSTRACT ESTIMATES
TES S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation

UILDINGS
OF BBUILDINGS 1. Earth Work excavation
for foundation
a) Long walls 2 6.2 0.9 1.4 15.264 L=5.3+.45+.45 =6.2
Example 1: From the given figure below calculate the detailed and
D= 0.3+0.5+0.6 = 1.4
abstract estimate for the single roomed building (Load
b) Short walls 2 3.4 0.9 1.4 8.568 L= 4.3-0.45-0.45= 3.4
bearing type structure) by
Total 24.192 m 3
a) long wall & short wall method (b) Centre Line Method

2. C.C.(1:4:8) bed for

foundation
a) Long walls 2 6.2 0.9 0.3 3.348
b) Short walls 2 3.4 0.9 0.3 1.836
Total 5.184 m
3

3. R.R.Masonry in CM
(1:6) for
a) Footings
i) Long walls 2 5.9 0.6 0.5 3.54 L= 5.3+0.3+0.3=5.9
ii) Short walls 2 3.7 0.6 0.5 2.22 L=4.3-0.3-0.3 = 3.7
Total 5.76 m 3
b) Basement
i) Long walls 2 5.75 0.45 0.6 3.105 L= 5.3+0.225+0.225= 5.75
ii) Short walls 2 3.85 0.45 0.6 2.079 L= 4.3-0.225-0.225 =3.85
Total 5.184 m
Note: All Dimensions are in 'M' 3

Total R.R. Masonry for footings and Basement

= 5.76+5.184 = 10.94 m3
4. Brick masonary with CM
(1:6) for super structure
a) Long Walls 2 5.6 0.30 3.00 10.08 L=5.3+0.15+0.15=5.6
b) Short walls 2 4.0 0.30 3.00 7.20 L=4.3-0.15-0.15=4.0
c) for parapetwall
5.6

4.6
0.2
a) Long Walls 2 5.6 0.2 0.75 1.68
Single Roomed Building b) Short walls 2 4.4 0.2 0.75 1.32
Total 20.28 m 3
(Load Bearing type structure)
Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 24 25 Estimation and Costing
S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation

Deductions for openings 10 Plastering for Ceiling

a)Doors 1 1.0 0.3 2.1 0.63 withCM(1:5) 1 5.0 4.0 -- 20.0 m 2
b) Windows 3 1.5 0.3 1.2 1.62 11 White Washing with two
Total (-)2.25 m 3 coats with Janatha cement

Net Brick Masonry = 20.28 - 2.25 = 18.03m3 Same as quantity of

5. R.C.C. (1:2:4) for plastering for walls and 151.18 (= 131.18+20= 151.18)
a) Roof slab 1 5.6 4.6 0.12 3.090 ceiling
b) Lintels over
i) Doors 1 1.2 0.3 0.15 0.054 12. Colour washing with two
ii) Windows 3 1.5 0.3 0.15 0.202 coats
c) Beams
i) Long beams 2 5.6 0.3 0.3 1.008 Same as quantity of
ii) short beams 2 4.0 0.3 0.3 0.720 plastering for walls and 151.18 (=131.18+20)151.18)
Total 5.074 m
3
ceiling
6. Sandfilling for
basement 1 4.85 3.85 0.48 8.96 L=5.0-0.075-0.075=4.85 13 Supply & Fixing of best
7 C.C.(1:4:8) for 1 4.85 3.85 0.1 1.86 B= 4.0-0.075-0.075=3.85 country wood for
flooring a) Doors 1 1 No.
8 Flooring with Mosaic 1 5.0 4.0 -- 20.0 m 2 b) Windows 3 3No.
tiles
9 Plastering with CM 14 Painting with ready mixed
(1:6)for super structure synthetic enamil paits with
Inside two coats over primary coat
For walls 1 18.0 - - 3.0 54.0 L= 2(5.0+4.0) = 18 .0 for new wood for
Out side a) Doors 2¼x1 1.0 --- 2.1 4.725
For walls 1 20.4 - - 3.87 61.2 L=2(5.6+4.6)=20.4 b) Windows 2¼x3 1.5 --- 1.2 12.15
Basement outside 1 21.6 - - 0.6 12.96 H=3.0+0.12+0.75=3.87 Total 16.875 m 2
Parapet wall (upto parapet wall)
a) Inside 1 18.8 - - 0.75 14.1 15 Petty supervision and
b) top 1 19.6 0.2 --- 3.92 contingencies at 4% and
Deductions for opeinings Total 146.18 m 2 rounding off.
Doors 1x2 1.0 - - 2.1 4.2
Windows 3x2 1.5 - - 1.2 10.8
15.0 m 2
Net Plastering = 146.18 - 15.0 = 131.18 m 2
Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 26 27 Estimation and Costing
b) Centre Line Method
8. flooring with Mosaic 1 5.0 4.0 -- 20.0
S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation tiles
1. Earth Work exevation 9 Plastering with CM
for foundation 1 19.2 0.9 1.4 24.192 m 3 (1:6)for super structure
5.3 L=2(5.3+4.3)=19.2 Inside
For walls 1 18.0 - - 3.0 54.0
4.3
Out side
1 19.2 0.9 0.3 5.184 m3 For walls 1 20.4 - - 3.87 61.2
2. C.C.(1:4:8) bed for
foundation Basement outside 1 21.6 - - 0.6 12.96
Parapet wall
a) Inside 1 18.8 - - 0.75 14.1
3. R.R.Masonry in CM
(1:6) for b) top 1 19.6 0.2 --- 3.92
a) Footings 1 19.2 0.6 0.5 5.76 Deductions for opeinings Total 146.18 m2
Doors 1x2 1.0 - - 2.1 4.2 L=5.0-0.075-0.075=4.85
b) Basement 1 19.2 0.45 0.6 5.184
Total 10.944 Windows 3x2 1.5 - - 1.2 10.8 B= 4.0-0.075-0.075=3.85
15.0 m2
Net Plastering = 146.18-15 = 131.18 m2
4. Brick masonry with
CM (1:6) for super structure 1 19.2 0.3 3.0 17.28 m3 10 Plastering for Ceiling 1 5.0 4.0 -- 20.0 m 2
For parapet wall 1 20.0 0.2 0.75 3.00 withCM(1:5)
Deductions for openings 11 White Washing with two
a)Doors 1 1.0 0.3 2.1 0.63 coats with Janatha cement
b) Windows 3 1.5 0.3 1.2 1.62
Total (-)2.25 m 3 Same as quantity of 151.18 m 2
plastering for walls and (131.18+20=151.18)
Net Brick Masony = 17.28 +3.0-2.25 = 18.03 m 3
ceiling
5. R.C.C. (1:2:4) for
a) roof slab 1 5.6 4.6 0.12 3.090 12. Colour washing with two
b) Lintels over coats
i) Doors 1 1.2 0.3 0.15 0.054
ii) Windows 3 1.5 0.3 0.15 0.202 Same as quantity of
c) beams 1 19.2 1.3 0.3 1.728 plastering for walls and 151.18 m 2
Total 5.074 m 3 ceiling
6. Sandfilling for
basement 1 4.85 3.85 0.48 8.96 L=5.0-0.075-0.075=4.85 13 Supply & Fixing of best
7 C.C.(1:4:8) for 1 4.85 3.85 0.1 1.86 B= 4.0-0.075-0.075=3.85 country wood for
flooring a) Doors 1 1 No.
b) Windows 3 3No.
Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 28 29 Estimation and Costing
Abstract estimate of single roomed building (load bearing structure)
S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation

14 Painting with ready mixed S.No. Description of item Quantity Unit Rate Per Amount
synthetic enamil paints with 1. Earth work excaation 24.192 m3
465 10m 1125.00
3

two coats over primary coat 2. Cement concrete(1:4:8) 5.184 m3 4545 1m3 8009.30
for new wood for 3. RR.masonry in C.M.(1:5) 10.94 m3 1391 m3 15217.50
a) Doors 2¼x1 1.0 --- 2.1 4.725 4. Sand filling in basement 8.96 m3 195.20 10m3 175.00
b) Windows 2¼x3 1.5 --- 1.2 12.15 5. Brick masonry in country 18.03 m3 2291 m3 41306.73
Total 16.875 m 2 bricks of standard size in
CM(1:8)
6. R.C.C. (1:2:4) for lintels, 1.984 m3 6030 m3 11963.52
15 Petty supervision and beams etc.
contingencies at 4% and 7. R.C.C.(1:2:4) for slabs, 3.09 m3 6030 m3 18633.00
rounding off. 8. Cement concrete (1:5:10) 1.86 m3 1452 m3 2700.72
for flooring
9. Supplying and fixing of 2.1 m2 1650 m2 3465.00
country wood for doors.
10. Supplying and fixing of 5.4 m2 2300 m2 12420.00
country wood for windows
and ventilators.
11 Plastering to all exposed 151.18 m2 582 10m2 8798.70
surfaces of brick work and
basement with C.M (1:5)
12 White washing with best 151.18 m2 116 10m2 1753.68
shell lime
13 Flooring with spartek tiles 20 m2 4230 10m2 8460.00
set in C.M (1:3)
14 Painting with ready mixed 16.875 m2 335 10m2 565.31
enamel paint Total 134593.46
15 Povision for water supply 16824.18
and sanitary arangements
@12.5%
16 Provision for electrification 10094.50
@7.5%
17 Povision for architectural 2691.86
appearance @2%
18 Provision for unforeseen 2691.86
items 2%
19 Provision for P.s.and 5383.73
contingencies @4%
Grand Total Rs. 172279.65
45 Estimation and Costing Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 46
Example 6: - Estimate the Quantities of the pictured roof shown in figure Example- 7: - Calculate the quantities of items of the stair case of the
a) Size of common rafter = 80x40mm figure shown in below.
b) Size of ridege piece = 120x 200mm
c) Size of eaves board = 20 x 300mm

230mm thick brick wall

Common rafters at 450mm c/c

Rise = 1/3Span

5.46
500

2 2 2
 length   Span   5.46 
 +  = 2.73 + 
2
a) Length of Common rafter =  
 2   3   3 
= 3.28m
b) Length of ridge piece = 7.0+0.23x2 +0.5x2 = 8.46 m
c) Length of Eaves board = 2( 8.46+5.46) = 27.84m
S.No Description No L B H Qty Remarks

1 Ridge piece 1 8.46 0.12 0.20 0.20

2 Eaves Board 1 27.84 — 0.30 8.35 Unit of eaves
Board in m2
3 Common rafters 40 3.28 0.08 0.04 0.42
47 Estimation and Costing Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 48
R.C.C. Stair Case Example 8:- From the given figure below calculate the details esti-
mate for the Compound Wall
S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation
1 R.C.C. (1:2:4) excluding
steel and its fabrication
but including centering Plot
and shultering and 15x 12
binding wire.
a) Toe wall 0.3 0.4 0.38 m 3
1x1 3.15 0.3
L= (1.2+0.15+1.2+2x0.3)
b) Waist slab for 1 and II 1x2 3.21 1.2 0.17 1.31
flights L= 2.752 + 1.65 2 = 3.21m
c) Landing Middle and 1x2 2.85 1.65 0.17 1.60 L= (1.2+0.15+1.2+2x0.15) 150
first floor Total 3.29 m 3
2. Ist class brick work in 2x11 1.2 ½x( 0.25+1.5) 0.495
1800
C.M. (1:4) for steps
3. 20mm. thick cement
plastering (1:5) for steps
finished neat 300
a) Treads & Rises 2x11 1.2 x (0.25 +0.15) 10.56 G 230 L
b) ends of steps 2x11 ½x( 0.25+1.5) 0.41
Total 10.97 m
2

450
4. 2.5cm No sing in steps 2x12 1.2 - - - - 28.8RM
5. 2.5cm. C.C. flooring 500
finished neat cement
floating in middle and 230
first floor landing. 1x2 2.55 1.2 - - 6.12 m 2 800
6. Supplying and fixing of
best teak wood hand rail Cross Section of the compound wall
finished smooth 1x1 6.67 - - - - 6.67RM
7. supply and fixing of best
Note: 1) Brick Pillers of size 230x 230 size are built every 3 meters
teak wood newel posts &
2) The expansion joints are provided for every 6m length
1x2 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.02 m
3
finished smooth
8. Cap of Newel post 1x2 --- - - --- 2Nos.
49 Estimation and Costing Detail & Abstract Estimates of Buildings 50
S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation Example 9:- Estimation of basement steps (one way)

1 Earth work excavation 1 54.6 0.80 0.68 29.7 m 3

for foundation
0.3
15.15 0.15
0.6
0.6
0.15
12.15 0.5
0.15
1.5
0.9 0.9

Total Centerline length =

0.5
0.15
2(15.15+12.15)= 54.6
150mm offset allround
2. C.C.(1:4:8) for founda- 1 54.6 0.80 0.23 10.04 m 3 1.2
tion
3. First class brick work in
CM (1:6) in foundation
Note: All dimensions are in metres
a) footing 1 54.6 0.5 0.45 12.28 1.5
b) Basement 1 54.6 0.23 0.3 3.76 S.No. Particulars of Items No. L B H Q Explanation
Total 16.04 m 3
1.8 1.35 0.15 0.360 m
3
1 Earth work excavation for 1
4. D.P.C.with C.C.(1:1½:3) 1 54.6 0.23 --- 12.56 m 2 foundation
25mmth
2. C.C.(1:4:8) bed for 1 1.8 1.35 0.15 0.360 m 3
5. a) First Class B.M. in 1 54.6 0.15 1.8 14.74 foundation
CM(1:6) for wall in 3. Ist class BM in CM (1:4)
super structure a) 1st step 1 1.5 1.20 0.15 0.27
b) Brick piller @3cm c/c 14 0.23 0.23 1.8 1.33 b) 2nd Step 1 1.5 0.90 0.15 0.27
Deduction 150mm th 14 0.15 0.23 1.8 -0.87 c) 3rd Step 1 1.5 0.60 0.15 0.13
d) 4th step 1 1.5 0.30 0.15 0.06
wall Total 15.2 m 3
Total 0.73 m 3
6. Plastering with CM(1:5) 4. Plastering with CM(1:3)
a) Outer surface & 1x2 54.6 --- 2.14 233.69 a) Threads 4 1.5 --- --- 1.8
inner surface b) Risers 4 1.5 --- 0.15 0.9
(0.3+0.04+1.8) c) ends
b) Top of wall 1x1 54.6 0.15 - - 8.19 a) Ist step
c) Piller Projection from 14x2 0.04 --- 1.8 2.016 b) 2nd Step 2 1.2 --- 0.15 0.36
c) 3rd Step 2 0.9 --- 0.15 0.27
the face of the wall
d) 4th Step 2 0.6 --- 0.15 0.18
Total 243.89 m
2
2 0.3 --- 0.15 0.09
7. White washing/colour 243.89 m 2 5. white washing /colour Total 3.60 m
2

same as item(6) washing = Same as item (4) 3.60 m 2

51 Estimation and Costing 56
EXERCISE Chapter
Short Answer Questions 5 AN ALYSIS OF RA
ALY
ANAL TES
RATES
1. The internal dimensions of a single roomed building are 5.75x3.75m.
Find the Centre line length of room and parapet. If the wall thickness of
room and parapet are 300mm and 250mm respectively. Definition : In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors
affecting the rate of that item are studied carefully and then finally a rate is de-
2. The internal dimensions of a room are 6.25 x 4.25m. find the quantity of
cided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an item is termed as
sand filling in basemet. the height and thickness of basement are 750mm
analysis of rates or rate analysis.
and 450mm respectively the wall thickness of room is 230mm.
The rates of particular item of work depends on the following.
1. Specifications of works and material about their quality, proportion and con-
structional operation method.
Essay Type Questions: 2. Quantity of materials and their costs.
1. The plan and section of one roomed building 3. Cost of labours and their wages.
4. Location of site of work and the distances from source and conveyance
charges.
5. Overhead and establishment charges
6. Profit
Cost of materials at source and at site of construction.
The costs of materials are taken as delivered at site inclusive of the
transport local taxes and other charges.
Purpose of Analysis of rates:
1. To work out the actual cost of per unit of the items.
2. To work out the economical use of materials and processes in completing
the particulars item.
3. To work out the cost of extra items which are not provided in the contract
bond, but are to be done as per the directions of the department.
4. To revise the schedule of rates due to increase in the cost of material and
labour or due to change in technique.
Cost of labour -types of labour, standard schedule of rates
Calculate the following quantities by a) central line method b) Long wall The labour can be classified in to
& shortwall method. 1) Skilled 1st class
i) Earth work excavation . 2) Skilled IInd Class
ii) Cement Concrete for foundation. 3) un skilled
iii) Brick in CM 1:6 for footing. The labour charges can be obtained from the standard schedule of rates
iv) Brick in CM 1:6 for walls excluding openings 30% of the skilled labour provided in the data may be taken as Ist class, remain-
ing 70% as II class. The rates of materials for Government works are fixed by
57 Estimation and Costing Analysis of Rates 58
the superintendent Engineer for his circle every year and approved by the Board Example 2:- Calculate the quantity of materials for the following items.
of Chief Engineers. These rates are incorporated in the standard schedule of a) C.M. (1:4) for 1m3 of work
rates. b) CM (1:6) for 1m3 of work
Hint: Cement will go to fill up the volds in sand. So total volume was be 4
Lead statement: The distance between the source of availability of material
instead of 1+4=5
and construction site is known as "Lead " and is expected in Km. The cost of
convenayce of material depends on lead. 1 1440
a) Quantity of Cement required = ×1 = 0.25m3=0.25x =7.2 bags
This statement will give the total cost of materials per unit item. It in- 4 50
cludes first cost, convenayce loading, unloading stacking, charges etc. 4
The rate shown in the lead statement are for mettalled road and include Quantity of Sand required = ×1=1m3
4
loading and staking charges . The environment lead on the metalled roads are 1 1440
arrived by multiplying by a factor b) Quantity of cement required = ×1=0.16m3=0.16 x =4.8bags
6 50
a) for metal tracks - lead x 1.0
b) For cartze tracks - Lead x 1.1 6
Quantity of sand required = ×1 =1m3
c) For Sandy tracks - lead x 1.4 6
Note: For 1m3 wet concrete = 1.52m3 dry concrete approximately Example 3:-Calculate the Quantity of Cement required in bags for the follow-
ing items.
SP.Wt of concrete= 1440 kg/m3 (or) 1.44 t/m3
a) B.M. in CM(1:3) for 15 cum of work using 0.2m3 of CM required for
1 bag of cement = 50 Kg
1m3 of Brick work

Example 1:- Calculate the Quantity of material for the following items. b) RCC (1:2:4) for 20m3 of work
a) R.C.C. (1:2:4) for 20m3 of work
b) R.C.C. (1:3:6) for 15m3 of work Sol : a) 1m3 of Brick work - 0.2m3 of CM(1:3)
1
15 m3 of Brick work = 15×0.2=3m3
1440
a) Quantity of cement required = x 1.52 ×20 = 4.14m3 x 1 1440
(1 + 2 + 4) 50 Quantity of cement required in bags = ×3 × =28.8bags
=119.26 bags 3 50

2 1 1440
Quantity of Sand required = ×1.52x20=8.28m3 b) Quantity of Cement required in bags= x 1.52×20× =125 bags
(1 + 2 + 4) 7 50
Example 4:-Calculate the quantity of Cement required in bags for the following
4 items of
Quantity of cource aggreate = x1.52x20 = 16.56m3
7 work.
a) C.C. (1:4:8) usy 40mm HBG metals for 30m3of work
1 1440 Bags b) RR masanry in CM(1:5) very 0.34m3 of CM for 1m3 of masanry for
b) Quantity of cement required = ×1.52 x 1.5 = 2.28m3 x =65.66 20m of work
10 50
1 1440
3 sol : a) Quantity of Cement required =×1.52×30× =101bags
Quantity of sand required = x 1.52x 15 = 6.84m3 13 50
10
b) 1m3 of RR masanry = 0.34m3 of CM (1:5)
6 20 m3 of RR masanry required = ? 20x 0.34=6.8m3
Quantity of CA required = ×1.52x15= 13.68m3
10 1 1440
Quantity of cement required = ×6.8× =39.2bags
5 50
 59
Example 5:- Prepare the lead statement for the following materials
Material Rate at Source Lead in KM
S.No. Conveyance Charge per km
MT CT ST
1. 40mm HBG Metal Rs.120/m3 --- 5 7 Rs.5.00/m3
2. River Sand Rs.15/m3 3 2 6 Rs.3.50/m3
3. Cement Rs. 135/bags 2 --- 4 Rs. 4.00 per 4km/bag

S.No. Rate of Lead in KM Equalant Conveyance Total convey-

Mateial Total cost
Source MT CT ST lead in km Charge ance Charge

1. 40mm HBG Metal Rs.120/m3 -- 5 7 5×1.1+7×1.4=15.3 5.00/m3 15.3x5=76.5 120+76.5=196.5/m3

2. River Sand Rs.15/m3 3 2 6 3x1+2x1.1+6x1.4 3.50/m3 13.6x3.5=47.6 15+47.6=62.6/m3
=13.6
3. Cement Rs. 135/bags 2 --- 4 2x1+4x1.4=7.6 4.00per4km/bag 7.6 135+7.6=142.6/bag
x 4.0=7.6
4. 0
Cost of cement at site = 142.6/bag
1 bag of cement = 50kg
sp.wt of cement = 1440 kg/m3 = 1.44t/m3
1440
Cost of Cement = 142.6x = 4106.88/m3
Estimation and Costing

50

Example 6:- Prepare the lead statement for the following materials
Material Rate of Source Lead in KM Conveyance Charge Seinarage Cess
S.No.
ST CT MT per km Charges Charges
1. Cement Rs.2100/10 KN (tonn) 5 2 3 Rs.1.5/m3 --- ---
Analysis of Rates

2. Bricks Rs.850/100nos 5 -- 3 Rs.30/1000Nos/Km 35 13

3. Sand Rs. 15/m3 4 2 5 Rs.9.00 / km/cum 30 12
4. 40mm HBG Metal Rs. 250/m3 3 2 2 Rs.6.50/Km/m3 35 15

S.No. Rate of Lead in KM Conve- Total Seinerage Cess

Material Equalant Total cost
Source lead in km yance conveyance Charge Charge
ST CT MT Rs.
Charge Charge Rs. Rs.
Rs. Rs.

1. Cement Rs.2100/10KN 5 2 3 5x1.4+2x1.1+3x1=11.2 1.50 16.80 -- -- 2116.8/10KN

2. Bricks Rs.850/1000nos 5 -- 3 5x1.4+3x1=10 30 300.00 35 13 1198/1000nos
3. Sand Rs. 15m3 1 2 2 1x1.4+2x1.1+2x1=5.6 9.00/m3 50.40 30 12 107.4/m3
4. 40mmHBG Rs. 250/m3 3 2 2 3x1.4+2x1.1+2x1=8.4 6.5/m3 54.6 35 15 354.6/m3
Metal
60
73 Estimation and Costing 81 Estimation and Costing
EXERCISE Chapter
Short Answer Questions
EARTH WORK
1. Calculate the Cement contents for the following 7
a) C.C.(1:510) using 40mm H.B.G.Metal for 25m3 work
b) Brick work in CM (1:6) using country Bricks for 15m3 of work if
CAL CULATIONS
CULATIONS
CALCULA
0.38 m3 of CM(1:6) is required for 1m3 of Brick work.
2. Calculate the Rates of following materials by using the lead statement 7.1 Introduction:-
given below. Generally all the Civil Engineering projects like roads, railways, earth dams,
Lead in KM Conveyance canal bunds, buildings etc. involves the earth work.This earth work may be
No. Material Rate of Source
ST CT MT Charge per either earth excavation or earth filling or Some times both will get according to
1. Cement the desired shape and level. Basically the volume of earthwork is computed
Rs.2100/10 KN (tonn) 3 2 3 Rs.2.5/m3
2. Bricks Rs.850/100nos 1 5 Rs.40/1000Nos/Km from length, breadth, and depth of excavation or filling.
1
3. Sand Rs. 15/m3 4 3 5 Rs.12.00 / km/cum In this chapter the various methods of calculating the earth work quantities
4. 40mm HBG Rs. 250/m3 2 1 2 Rs.7.50/Km/m3 shall be discussed.
Metal
7.2 Lead and Lift:
Essay type Questions
Lead:
1 Prepare a data sheet and calculate the cost of the items given below:
a) Brick masonry in C.M. (1:6) with country bricks-unit Icum. It is the average horizontal distance between the centre of excavation to the
600Nos. country bricks. centre of deposition. The unit of lead is 50m.
0.38m3 C.M.(1:6)
1.40Nos. Masons Lift :
0.7 Nos. Man Mazdoor
2.1 Nos. Woman Mazdoor It is the average height through which the earth has to be lifted from source
L.S. Sundries. to the place of spreading or heaping. The unit of lift is 2.00m for first lift and one
b) C.C.(1:5:10) using 40mm HBG metal unit 1cum. extra lift for every 1.0m. for example when earth is to be lifted for 4.5m, Four
0.92m3....... 40mm size HBG metal lifts are to be paid to the contractor.

}
0.46m3....... Sand Labour charges:
i.e. Upto2.0 - 1 lift
0.092m3..... Cement i) Mason- Rs. 90 per day.
0.2 Nos ...... Mason 1.0 - 1 Lift
ii)Man Mazdoor - Rs. 70 per day
1.8 Nos ...... Man Mazdoor 1.0 - 1 lift Total 04 lifts
iii)Woman Mazdoor - Rs. 70 per day.
1.4 Nos. ...... Woman Mazdoor 0.5 - 1 lift
L.S. ............ Sundries. iv)Mixing Charges of C.M. Rs. 20=00
Lead Statement of materials: per m3. 7.3 Calculation of earth work for Roads:
S.No. Material Cost at Source Per Lead in Conveyance
7.3.1 case 1) volume of earth work in banking or in cutting having "no longitudi-
Rs. Ps. Km Charges per Km
nal slope".
1 40mmHBG metal 210=00 m3 16 Rs.6=00/m3
2 Sand 16=00 m 3
18 Rs.3=00/m3
3 Bricks country 780=00 1000Nos at site --
4 Cement 2600=00 10KN or at site --
1tonne
Earth work Calculations 82 83 Estimation and Costing
d1 + d 2
Mid ordinate (or) Average depth (dm) =
2
Area of mid section (Am) = (bd m + nd 2m )
volume of earth work (v) = Am x L = (bd m + nd 2m ) × L

ii) Trepezoidal formula: (for two sections)

In this method also called mean sectional area method
Let A1 &A2 be two areas at two ends.
A= (bd1 + nd12 ) , A2 = (bd 2 + nd 22 )
A1 + A 2
Am =
2
Volume of earth work (v) = Am ×L

iii) Trepezoidal formula for a series of c/s areas at equal intervals.

Volume = Crosectional area x length Let A1,A2,A3.......An are the cross sectional areas along L.S of Road 'L" is
V = (bd+2x1/2x ndx d)L the distance between two cross sections
V = (bd+nd2)L The volume of earth work

Case 2:  A1 + A n  
V= L  + (A 2 + A 3 + ..... + A n −1 ) (or)
 2  
When the ground is in longitudinal slope or the formation has uniform gradi-
L
ent for a length the earth work may be calculated by the following methods. = [(A1 + A n ) + 2(A 2 + A 3 + ..... + A n −1 )]
2
1. By Mid Section or Mid ordinate method.
length
= [ (sum of first and last areas ) + 2(remaing Areas) ]
2

iv) Prismoidal formula for a series of cross sectional areas at equal intervals.
Note : This method is adopted when there is odd number of cross sections.
Volume of earth work

V=
L
3
[
(A1 + A n ) + 4(A 2 + A 4 + A 6 + ..... + A n −1 ) + 2(A 3 + A 5 + ...... + A n − 2 ) ]
length
= (Sum of first and last areas)+4(even areas)+2(odd Areas)]
3
Where d1, d2 = depth of banks at two ends
Earth work Calculations 84 85 Estimation and Costing
Example 7.1 : Find the volume of earth work in embankment of length 12m.
Chainage Depths Mean Area of Length b/w Quantity (m3)
Top width is 5.5m and depth is 2.5m the side slopes ara 1½:1 depth (dm) (bdm+ndm2) Chainages Am×L
Sol : Top width b=5.5m

}
5.5 0 1.25
Depth d= 2.5m
1½:1 1.175 14.51 50 725.56
side slopes =1½:1 i.e. n=1.5 2.5
50 1.10
length L=12m 1.125 13.78 50 689.06
Volume of earth work V = (bd+nd2)L 100 1.15
= (5.5 ×2.5+1.5×2.52)12 1.175 14.51 50 725.56
= 77.5m3 150 1.20
Example 7.2 : The depths at two ends of an embankment of road of length 1.10 13.4 50 671.00
70m are 2m and 2.5m. The formation width and side slopes are 8m and 2:1 200 1.00
1.02 12.70 50 635.25
respectively. Estimate the Quantity of earth work by
250 1.10
a) Mid Sectional Area (ii)Mean sectional Area method. 1.125 13.78 50 689.06
Sol: a) b=8m, d1=2m, d2=2.5m, l=70m, n=2 300 1.15
d1 + d 2 2 + 2.5 Total 4135.49m3
Mean depth dm = = =2.25m
2 2
Mid sectional Area = Am = bdm+ndm2 = (8x2.25+2x2.252)2=28.125m2 b) Trepezoidal rule
Volume of earth work (V)= AmxL = 28.125x70=1968.75m . 3
A= bd +nd2
b) Area of c/s at one end A1 = bd1 +nd12 = 8x2+2x22=24m2 A1 = bd1+nd12= 10x 1.25+2x 1.252= 15.625 m2
Area of C/s at other end A2=bd2+nd22 =8×2.5+2×2.52 =32.5m2 A2 = bd2+nd22= 10x 1.10+2x 1.102=13.42m2
A3 = 10x 1.15+2.1.152= 14.145m2
A1 + A 2 24 + 32.5
Mean Sectional Area (Am) = = =28.25m2 A4 = 10x 1.2+2x1.22=14.88m2
2 2
A5=10x 1.0+2x12=12.0m2,
Volume of earth work (V)= AmxL=28.25x70=1977.5m3.
A6 = 10 x 1.1 +2x1.12 = 13.42m2
A7 = 10x1.15+2x1.152= 14.145 m2
Example 7.3
Volume of earth work by Trepezoidal rule
The following width of road embank ment is 10m. The side slopes are 2:1
The depth along the centre line road at 50m intervals are 1.25, 1.10, 1.50, 1.20,  A1 + A n  
v = L   + (A 2 + A 3 + ....A n −1 )
1.0,1.10, 1.15m calculate the Quantity of earth work by  2  
a) Mid sectional rule  15.625 + 14.145  
= 50   + (13.42 + 14.145 + 14.818 + 12.0 + 13.42)
b) Trepezoidal rule  2  
c) Prismoidal rule = 4137.50 m3
a) Mid Sectional rule : b=10m, n=2.
Earth work Calculations 86 87 Estimation and Costing
c) By Prismoidal rule Sol : -
L
v = [(A1 + A n ) + 4(even Areas) + 2(Odd Areas)]
b=12m n=5
3
Chainage Distance Reduced Formation Depth(d) of Area of
L Embank- Cutting
= [(A1 + A 7 ) + 4(A 2 + A 4 + A 6 ) + 2(A 3 + A 5 ) ] Level Embank-
level Cutting
3 ment ment2
bd+nd
50 0 0 7.50 8.0 0.50 6.375
= [(15.625 + 14.145) + 4(13.42 + 14.88 + 13.42) + 2(14.145 + 12)] 1 20 7.70 7.8
3 0.10 1.275
= 4149 m3 2 40 7.50 7.6 0.10 1.215
3 60 7.25 7.4 0.15 1.839
Example 7.4:- Estimate the Quantity of earth work for a portion of road from 4 80 6.85 7.2 0.35 4.38
the following data 5 100 6.95 7.0 0.05 0.63
6 120 6.70 6.8 0.10 1.215
7 140 6.45 6.6 015 1.837
Chainage 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8 160 6.30 6.4 0.10 1.215
RL 7.50 7.70 7.50 7.25 6.85 6.95 6.70 6.45 6.30 5.95 9 180 5.95 6.2 0.25 3.09

The formation level at Chainage 0 is 8.0 and having falling gradient of 1 in Trepezoidal formula :
100. The top width is 12m and side slopes 1½ horizontal to 1 vertical assuming
 A + A n  
the transverse direction is in level calculate the quantity of earth work Take V= L  1  + (A 2 + A 3 + .... + A n −1 )
1 chain = 20m by using trepezoidol & Prismoidol formula.  2  

 6.375 + 3.09  
C/S.OF ROAD LEVEL's = 20   + (1.215 + 1.215 + 1.837 + 4.38 + 0.63 + 1.215 + 1.837 + 1.215
 2  
8.5 = 365.53m3
8.0 8 Prismoidal formula :
7.8
7.7
7.5 7.5 7.6
7.4
F.L&R.L's

7.25 7.2 L
7.0
7.2
6.85 7
6.95 6.8 G.L's V= [( A1 + An ) + 4(even areas ) + 2(Odd areas) ]
6.5
6.7 6.6 F.L's 3
6.45 6.4
6.3 6.2
6.0 L
5.95
= [(A1 + A10 ) + 4(A 2 + A 4 + A 6 + A8 ) + 2(A 3 + A5 + A 7 + A9 ) ]
5.5 3
5.0
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 = [ (6.375+3.09+4( 1.215+1.837+0.63+1.837) +
3
Distance
2(1.215+4.38+1.815+1.215)]
= 317.27 m3
109 Estimation and Costing Appendex 110
APPENDEX Task or out-turn work:
Quantities of Materials and their Costs: This is the quantity of work which can be done by an atisan for trade
The includes the quantities of various materials for unit quantity of an working of 8 hours. Although the task is different from person to person ac-
item followed by the specification and costs of various materilas. the cost in- cording to their physical and mental abilities, the average task or out turn work
cludes first cost, freight, transportation and insurance charges. is taken into consideration for preparing rate per unit item. Task does not mean
Labour and Cost: that the quantity of work done by one oner labour. But other laboureso helpers
This includes the number and wages of different categeries of labourers. also be engaged to complete the given task.
Skilled, unskilled etc., For example a manson can prepare 2.0m3 of cement concrete per day
Cost of Equipment: provided he is helped by two mazdoors to carry and mix the ingredients.
For big projects it is necessary to use special type of tools and plants The following may be taken as approximate quantity of work out-turn
like special type of mixed concrete transport vehicle called triping wagons, cranes work or task for an average artisan per day.
etc. in order to purchase such tools and plants and amount of 2 to 3% of esti- Sundries:
mated cost is provided in the estimate. A lumpsum amount is generally provided in the analysis of rates, to-
Over head Charges: wards purchase of certain tools and other pretty items which cannot be ac-
This includes office rent, depreciation of equipments, salaies of office counted in detail. an amount of 2½ to 3% of labour cost is provided for this
staff, postage, lighting travelling allowances, telephone bills. the contractor may purpose.
provide small tooks like ladders, trowels, ropes etc., fo his workmen.Here an TABLE
Quantity of work per
amount of 5% of estimated cost is provided towards overhead charges. No. Description of work day (8 hours of day)
Profit : 1. Earth work excavation in foundation, trenches 2.75 m3/Mazd
Generally 105 of estimated cost is considered for contractor's profit
in ordinary soils, lead 50m and lift up to 1.5m
after allowing the charges of equipments and establishments. For small job s 2. Earth work in excavation in foundation trenches 2.10m3/ Mazd
15% and large works 8% profit is considered.
in hard soils, lead 50m and lift upto 1.5m
Standard Data Book: 3. Earth work in soft or decomposed rock by
This book gives the quantities of materials and labour required for unit
blasting lead up to 50m and lift upto 1.5m 0.55m3/ MaZd
item of work. 4. Sand filling in plinth, consolidation and dressend 4.0m3/ Mazd
Standard scheduled of rates: 5. Single layer brick flat soling including ramming, 9.0Sqm/ Mazd
The rates of materials and wages of laboures are fixed by superintend-
dresing etc.
ing Engineer for this cicle for evey year.And these rates ae approved by board 6. Lime concrete in foundation 10m3/Mason
of enginees. The S.S.R. for 2002-2003 is presented in the last pages. 7. C.C. 4.0m3/ Mason
Water Charges: 8. R.C.C. (1:2:4) 3.25m3/ Mason
For drinking and for work,s the arrangement of water is done either by 9. Brick work in foundation and plinth 1.40m3/Mason
sinking tube well or by giving connection to the work site from corporation by 10 Brick work in super structure (G.F) 1.25m3/Mason
a pipe line. Centrally 1% of estimated. 11 Half brick work in partition wall 7.00Sqm/ Mason
111 Estimation and Costing 112
12 Bricks in plain arches 1.0m3/ Mason PREAMBLE
13 Reinforced brick work in slabs 1.00m3/ Mason 1. AREA ALLOWANCES:
A. MUNICIPALITIES
14 2.5 cm C.c.D. P.C. 12.5 m2/Mason
i) Allow 15% extra over basic rates on labour components works (upto
15 2.0cm D.P.C. with C.M. 20Sqm/ Mason
a belt of 12k.m from the Municipal limits in all District Head Quarters
16 R.R.Masonry foundation & Plinth 1.00cm/Mason for all special class, first class and the remaining Municipalities.
17 R.R.Masonry in superstructure 0.9m3/ Mason ii) For works at Tirumala Hills 30% extra over the S.S.Rates and 30%
18 Ashlar masonry in superstructure 0.40m2 extra for Hoarsely Hills over the S.S.Rates of (R&B) circle,
19 C.R.S. Masonry in superstructure 0.67m2 CHITTOOR is allowed on labour component works.
20 Brick on 1st floor with C.M. 1.0 Sqm/ Mason iii) For works located inside Tirumala Temple allow 20% extra over the
21 7.5 cm floor with (1:4:8) 10.0Sqm/mason rate for Tirumala Hills.
Note: For Items (i) above works within a belt of 12 Kilometers from all the
22 Teraced flooring -7.5cm TH 20Sqn/mason
Municipal limits shall be taken into account for purpose of allowing
23 2.5cm THC.C. flooring 12.50 Sqm/mason
the extra percentage.
24 Terrazzo flooring 6mm TH mosaic work ove 2cm 5.0 Sqm/m2 B. INDUSTRIAL AREA
thick C.C.(1:2:4) 10% extra over the basic rates on Labour component shall be al-
25 Pre cast Terrazzo tiles 2mm TH, laying on bed of 5.0 Sq/m2 lowed (upto a belt of 10km from the Municipal limits).
25mm thick L.M. C. RURAL AREA
26 Ranigang Tile roofing 6.7 Sqm Allow 15% extra on skilled and semi skilled workmen in rural areas
27 Mangaloe tile roofing including wooden battens, tiles 20 m2 where no other allowances including importation of labour and ameni-
ties are admissible
set in C.M.
D. AGENCY/TRIBAL AREA
28 Corrugated G.I. sheet roofing 10Sqm
Not applicable to this circle.
29 12mmTH current plaster on new brick work 10Sqm E. GHAT ROADS
30 Rule pointing on brick work 10Sqm For the Ghat roads steeper than 1 in 20 gradient, the length of the
31 Single coat white washing over old white washing 133 Sqm road may be taken as 1.50 times of the existing length of the road for
32 White washing over one coat printing 33.70 sqm the purpose of leads only for the conveyance of materials based on
33 Lime pinning over interior surfaces(Plaster) 5.00sqm the certificate for the Ghat Road given by the Superintending Engineer
34 Water proofing cement paint to new cement plaster 20.m3/Paints concerned.
NOTE : Under the compelling circumstances the concerned Chief Engineer
35 Snow cem washing on plaster surface two coats 20 m3/sqm
can adopt the equivalent length of the road at 2.5 times of the actual
36 Priming coat with ready mined primer on wood or 40m3
length.
steel F.JAIL COMPOUNDS
37 Painting two coats with ready mined paint for wood 18m2 15% extra is allowed over labour rates for the works in the Jails
work compounds, only equivalent number of men mazdoors shall be
38 Breaking of over burnt brick to ballast 40mm down 0.75m3/Mazd provided for works in jail Premises as no women and Children are
39 Breaking of over burnt brick to ballast 25mm 0.55m3 allowed inside.
113 Estimation and Costing Preamble 114
NOTE: If more than one area allowance such as those for (a) Municipalities III. WATER LEAD
(b) Industrial area (c) Ghat Roads are applicable for a particular The following labour is allowed for conveyance of water for every
situation only the maximum out of the allowable percentage is to be half kilometer lead or part there over the initial lead or part there of
allowed. over the initial lead of half Kilometer.
a) Cement Concrete 1.50 Woman Mazdoor / cum.
II. IMPORTATION OF LABOUR AND LABOUR AMENITIES: b) Masonry 1.60 Woman Mazdoor /cum.
Maximum of 13% towards labour importation and amenities to labour c) Plastering 0.50 Woman Mazdoor / 10sqm.
butting etc., of the total labour component is allowed only in case of IV. EXCAVATION OF TRIAL TRENCHES, TRIAL PITS AND EXCA-
works where the labour component (i.e., ) excluding the cost of ma- VATION IN RESTRICTED PLACES.
terials such as cement and steel works out to more than Rs. 1.00 a) Trial trenches not more than 2 Metres in width and depth not less than
lakhs vide G.O. Ms. No. 270 T R&B(c-I0 Department dated: 20-5- twice the Width -20% extra.
1978 onthe basis of certificate of the Executive Engineer that the local b) 1. Trial pits upto 2 M depth 125% extra
labour available is not adequate and that labour has to be imported 2. Over 2M depth and upto 4M depth 200% extra
for executing the work subject to the approval of the Chief Engineer 3. Over 4M depth and upto 6M depth 300% extra
Concerned. 4. Over 6M depth and upto 8M depth 400% extra
5. Over 8M depth and upto 9M depth 400% extra
NOTE: 6. Over 9M depth 550% extra
1. Extra percentage towards Labour importation and labour amenities c) Excavation in Restricted places:
where ever necessary is admissible in addition to other percentages i) Foundation of building, excavation of road boundary drains,
allowable. model sections for canals, excavation of field channels excava-
2. The above percentages may be allowed where ever necessary on the tion of narrow trenches of similar nature not more than 2M in
following item. width and depth not less than twice the width.
1. Labour Rates. 50% Extra
2. Materials like Sand, Metal Kankar, Quarry rubbish and clay for ii) For pipe lines where the depth is less than 1.5times 75% Extra
foundation or filling etc., bricks and tiles. the width
3. Jungle Clearance. iii) For pipe lines where the depth is 1.5 times or more
4. Dismantling than the width 150%Extra
5. Earth work including leads and lifts. iv) Silt removal in restricted area such as channels of
6. Purely labour involving items like grinding, mixing, binding, steel under tunnels, culverts and syphons. 150% Extra
and feeding ingredients into mixer etc., NOTE :
7. Blasting, Drilling holes etc., i) The extra percentage allowed is over S.s., 301 rates for the cor-
8. Stacking metal, Sand, Gravel, Stone, Picking, metalled, grav- responding soil, it includes the charges of alllifts and initial lead
elled surface spreading metal etc., but do not include dewatering charges if any in respect of all the
9. Loading and unloading materials excluding that parts of work in items under (a) & (b) above.
conveyance of materials by carts and lories. ii) The above extra percentage in respect of excavation in restricted
10. Labour components to be included in the data for items like places are not to be allowed in respect of items involving blasting
masonry, mortar etc., component which is to be taken as 1/3 of the cost.
115 Estimation and Costing
V. PROVISIONS OF 1st CLASS AND 2nd CLASS WORK
MEN UNDER SKILLED LABOUR
30% of the skilled labour provided in the data may be taken as 1st
Class and emaining 70% as 2nd class.
Where the nature of work is same no distinction need be made in case
or men and women workers.
VI. CEMENT CONCRETE PROPORTION AND REQUIREMENTS TO
COARSE AGGREGATES ETC.,(UNIT=1cum)OF FINISHED WORK
i) For Cement Concrete proportions (1:4:8) (1:5:10) etc. 0.92 cum of
coarse aggregate shall be adopted and the quantity of mortar required
calculated proportionately in each case.
ii) For Cement concrete proportions (1:5:8) (1:6:10) etc., 0.90 cum of
coarse aggregate shall be adopted and the quantity of mortar required
calculated proportionately in each case.
VII. REQUIREMENTS OF CEMENT MORTAR FOR STONE MASONRY
Per unit (1cum) of finished work:
a) CR. Masonry first sort - 0.28 cum of Cement mortar
b) CR.Masonry second sort - 0.32 cum of Cement mortar
c) R.R.Masonry - 0.34 cum of Cement mortar
NOTE: In massive walls above 3M thick, 0.40cum of cement mortar shall be allowed.
VIII. REVETMENT AND APRON WORKS
i) The size of stone for the volume range 0.0515 to 0.030 cum shall not
be less than 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.15M to 0.30x 0.225 x 0.225M.
ii) The rate of labour components as per the standard Data book is to be
adopted for revetment work only. However for apron work Rs. 2.50
per cum should be deducted.
iii) Labour charges for rock to be adopt two thirds of the labour charges
of revetment item.
IX. SEIGNIORAGE CHARGES
i) The seigniorage charges as existing actually may be added in the Data
rates in the estimates subject to the conditions that the concerned
Executive Engineer who prepare the estimates should certify in writ-
ing the rates of seigniorage charges in all cases where the seigniorage
charges are actually payable.
ii) The revised seigniorage charges as fixed by Government in G.O.M.S.
No.154 (Industries and commerce(M-I) Department Dt. 23-07-96
may be adopted as follows.
 2073 Magh

1. Briefly explain the qualities of cement and sand as a construction material

2. What are the desired qualities of formwork? Under normal conditions using ordinary cement,
write the period of removal of formwork, for the following elements of a building.
a) Column b) slab over 4.5m span c) cantilever d) sides of beam and slab
3. Why are horizontal bands provided in masonry buildings? Enlist various horizontal bands with a
typical sketch of their cross-section.
4. Briefly explain the features of a trench silo. Design a trench silo to store silage for a herd of 400
cows for 200 days. Assume suitable data wherever necessary.
5. Draw a typical swine house plan and sectional elevation.
6. Calculate the quantities of materials required to construct an RCC slab of 25 m x 10 m x 0.13m
in M15 concrete with 1% steel bars.
7. Define surveying. Explain the fundamental principles of surveying.
8. The following observations were taken with compass, where local attractions were suspected.
Calculate the corrected bearings of the-line.
Line Fore Bearing Back bearing
AB 191 45’
o
13o0’
BC 39 30’
o
222o30’
CD 22 15’
o
200o30’
DE 242o45’ 62o45’
EA 330 15’
o
147o45’

9. A man standing on the bank of a river sees a tree on the other side of the river in a direction
N30oW. He then walks 100 m towards west and finds that the direction of the tree is N30°E.
The river flows east west. Find out the width of the river.
10. The following consecutive readings were taken with a level machine and 4 m leveling staff on
a continuously slopping ground at 20 m interval; 1.58, 1.90, 2.65, 2.90, 1.80, 1.95, 2.30. The
RL of the first point was 200 m. Enter the above readings in a level field book and work out the
RL of all the points. Apply check. Also calculate the slope of the line joining the first and the last
point.
11. Define contour interval. Write 3 characteristics of contour.

2074 Kartik
1. What is the difference between detailed estimate and approximate estimate? Enlist 3 essential
requirements to prepare detailed estimate the quantities of required for preparing 10m 3 of PCC
in 1:2:4. (1 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4)
2. Give reason for the following statement (1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4)
i. Large quantity of water makes concrete weak,
ii. Curing is essential in concrete works.
iii. Timber is seasoned before it is used.
iv. Steel bars are embedded in concrete works.
3. What do you understand by "Box Action E^ ** in a building? Explain how we can create box
action in a load bearing building. (1+3=4)
4. A farmer produces 5 tons of same variety of grain in his farm. Design and draw a suitable type
of storage structure to store it. Assume crop type and reasonable data wherever it is
necessary. (0.5 + 2 + 1.5 = 4)
5. What is farmstead planning? Give an account of site selection criteria in farmstead planning.
(1+3-4)
6. What is the fundamental difference between plane and geodetic survey? The area of an old
survey map drawn to a scales of 1:1000 now measures 90.5cm 2 as found by a plannimeter.
The plan is found to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.5cm only.
Find the true area of the field. (1+3-4)
7. Describe reciprocal ranging in brief. The sides of a triangle were found to be 52m, 75m and
123m while conducting chain surveying. Is this triangle well-conditioned? Explain why is well
conditioned triangle preferred? (1.5 + 2 + 0.5 = 4)
8. Derive the relationship between Back Bearing and fore Bearing. A survey line crosses a river
and stations A and B are established on opposite banks. A perpendicular AC, 60 m long is set
out at A. The bearing of AC and CB are 50 degrees and 290 degrees respectively. The
Chainage of A is 1810 m. Find the chainage of B. (1+3=4)
9. What is local attraction? The following observations were taken with compass, where the local
attractions were suspected. Calculate the corrected bearings of the line. (1+3=4)

Line Fore Bearing Back bearing

AB 191o45’ 13o0’
BC 39o30’ 222o30’
CD 22o15’ 200o30’
DE 242o45’ 62o45’
EA 330o15’ 147o45’

10. Define Bench-Mark and Turning point. The following consecutive readings were taken with an
instrument in leveling work. 3.32, 3.53, 3.62, 4.78, 4.91, 4.3
the first two readings were taken from the first setting of the instrument and the remaining
readings from the second setting. Enter the above readings in a level field book and calculate
the RL of all the points. Assume the RL of the first point as 100 m, as BM. (1+3=4)
11. Define contour interval and horizontal equivalent. Draw contour to represent the following
i) Ridge (ii) Vertical cliff (iii) Hill top

2075 Kartik
1. What do you understand by the term 'Grade of Cement'? Briefly describe its setting and
hardening process (2+2=4)
2. Describe the importance of the following in RCC works (i) Curing, (ii) Water Cement ratio
(2+2=4)
3. Enlist 4 features of appropriate layout of a load bearing building. Give 2 examples of good
shaped and inappropriate shaped buildings. How would you convert inappropriate shaped
building into appropriate shape? Make it clear with the help of sketch (2+2=4)
4.Briefly describe the functional requirement of poultry house. (4)
5.There are 60 cows in a farm with shallow water table. They are to be fed for 160 days. Design a
suitable silo to storage silage. Assume the suitable data wherever necessary.
6. Analyze rate to prepare 1:3:6 PCC works. (Skilled and unskilled labor needed to prepare 1 cum
of PCC works is 1 and 5. Assume suitable rate) (4)
7. Describe briefly how chain survey differs from compass surveying? A plan represents an area
of 187500m2 and measures 12cmx12.5cm. Find the scale of the plot (2+2=4)
8. How would you overcome the problem of prolong and measuring length of a line when a
building stands on the line? The sides of a triangle were found to be 100, 150m and 245 m
while conducting chain surveying. Is this triangle well-conditioned? Explain why is well
conditioned triangle preferred? (1.5+2+0.5=4)
9. Derive the relationship between fore bearing and back bearing. A traverse is done by 3 station
A, B and C in clockwise order in the form of an equilateral triangle. If the bearing of AB is
30o30', find the bearing of the other sides (1+3=4)
10. Define turning point and height of Instrument. The following consecutive reading were taken
with an instrument in levelling works. 2.32, 2.53, 3.78, 3.91, 3.56, 3.05, 2.7, 4 the instrument
having been shifted after third and sixth reading. Enter the above reading in a level field book
and calculate the RL of all the points. Assume the RL of the first point 100m, as BM. (1+3=4)
11. Write the characteristics of contour with sketch (4).

2076 Mangsir
1. a) Explain the principle of chain survey in brief
b) Derive the relation between fore Bearing and Back Bearing
2. A Survey line AB is obstructed by a high building. To prolong the beyond the building, a
perpendicular BC 120m long is set out at B. From C, 2 lines CD and CE are set out at 30o and
45o respectively with CB respectively. Determine the distances CD and CE such that D and E
are in the same prolongations of AB. If chainage of B is 275m find the chainage D. (2+2=4)
3. Following Station is a page of Level Field Book. Fill up the missing reading and apply the usual
check. (4)
Stations BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks
1 3.125 ? BM
2 ? ? 1.325 125.505 TP
3 2.320 0.055
4 125.850
5 ? 2.655
4. The following bearings were taken while conducting a close traverse with a compass (2+2=4).
Line Fore Bearing Back bearing
AB 80 45’
o
260o0’
BC 130 30’
o
311o35’
CD 240 15’
o
60o15’
DA 290o30’ 110o10’
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected Bearings and true bearings of
each line if magnetic bearing was 5ºE.
5. a) What is graphical scale? Explain its importance in map (2+2-4).
b) Distinguish between the functions of mortar.
6. What is mortar? Explain the functions of mortar. (4)
7. Explain appropriate layout of Load Bearing Building and non-loan bearing buildings. (4)
8. Explain the properties of good quality brick. (4)
9. Determine the quantity of materials required to plaster 90m long 4m high wall on both side in
1:5 cement sand mortar 12.5mm thick. (4)
10. Design a trench silo for a small herd of 50 cows weighing 400kg each. Silage is fed for 160
days. Make rational assumptions.
11. Write short notes on any two:(2+2=4)
a. Batching of concreate
b. Manger
c. Contour interval and horizontal equivalent.

2078 Bhadra
1. a) Distinguish between Plain and Geodetic Surveying.
b) Explain hypotenusal allowance
2. Survey line AB is obstructed by a high building. To prolong the line beyond the building
perpendicular BC 120m long is set out at B. From C, 2 lines CD and CE are set out at 30
degrees and 45 degrees respectively with CB. Determine the distances CD and CE such that D
and E are in the same prolongations of AB. If chainage of B is 275m, find the chainage D. (4)
3. In running a fly level from a Bench Mark of 200.5m the following readings were observed.
(2+2=4)
Back sight: 2.5 (BM), 2.1, 1.9, 2.7
Foresight: 1.6, 1.4, 0.9, 1.8
Prepare a level field book and compute reduced levels with necessary checks.
4. The following bearings were taken while conducting a close traverse with a compass
Line Fore Bearing Back bearing
AB 66o15’ 244o0’
BC 129 45’
o
313o0’
CD 218o30’ 37o30’
DA 306 45’
o
126o45’
Find the corrected Bearings and true bearings of each line if magnetic bearing was 8oW.
5. a) What is graphical scale? Explain its importance in map. (2+2-4)
b) Distinguish between chain surveying and compass surveying.
6. What is water cement ratio? Explain its role in preparation of concrete (4)
7. Enlist tips for appropriate layout of Load Bearing Building and non-load bearing buildings. (4)
8. Explain the properties of a first class brick.
9. What is estimating and costing? Why is it important? Determine the quantity of materials
required to construct RCC slab of 20m * 15m * 0.12m with M20 concrete. (4)
10. It is required to store silage for a small herd of 50 cows weighing 400kg each for a period of
180 days in an area with shallow water table. Design suitable silo. Make rational assumptions.
(4)
11. Write short notes on (any two):(2+2-4)
i. Underlying Principles of Ventilation
ii. Grade of cement
iii. Contour interval and horizontal equivalent
 Internal assessment exam -2078
1 . Tie line in a chain survey is taken
(a) to locate interior details
(b) to fix survey station
(c) to fix the direction of all the other lines
(d) all the above.
2 . Bearing should be taken in chain surveying:
(a) to locate a reference point
(b) to take offset
(c) to calculate distance of survey line
(d) to identify the orientation of map
3. Chain surveying is recommended in
(a) City area
(b) forest area
(c) fairly open area
(d) all the above
4. A staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be determined on a
change point is called
(a) Fore sight
(b) back sight
(c) intermediate sight
(d) none of the above
5. A layer of dry bricks put below the foundation concrete is called
(a) DPC
(b) plinth
(c) soling
(d) footing
6. Pick up the most accurate statement
(a) Survey lines should be as many as possible
(b) Main chain lines should form well-conditioned triangle
(c) Oblique offsets are mostly used in chain surveying
(d) offsets should be as long as possible
7. Which of the following is the largest scale?
(a) 1 cm per km
(b) 1:1000
(c) 1cm =100m
(d) 11 cm=10m
8. Which of the following is not essential for detailed estimating?
(a) a fully dimension drawing
(b) specification
(c) schedule of rates
(d) orientation of the building
9. The main function of lintel band in a load bearing building is
(a) to create a box action in the building
(b) to take up the vertical load
(c) to make the building visually appealing
(d) to reduce the cost
10. .Volume of one bag of cement weighing 50 kg is
(a) 0.05 m3
(b) 0.034 m3
(c) 0.024 m3
(d) 0.04 m3
11. Appropriate width of manure alley in a tail-to-tail cattle house is
(a) 1 m
(b) 2 m
(c) 3 m
(d) 4 m
12. The biggest disadvantage of brick flooring in cattle house is that
(a) It is very expensive
(b) it is slippery
(c ) it is water absorbent
(d) all the above

13 . Fill in the Blanks . (2.5)

(i) Steel bars embedded in concrete is to resist -------------------force
ii) If dry volume of 1:3:4 concrete is 7 m3 then quantity of cement is ----------
bags
iii) Gypsum is added in cement to control-----------------------time
iv) The purpose of curing concrete is to ----------------------between cement and
water
v) Rankine’s formula to design cylindrical bin is-----------------------
14. Study the following contour map and answer the following questions
(i) What type of land do the above contour lines represent?
(ii) Distance of B from A is 2.cm in map, find the slope of the line AB in %
(iii) What is the contour interval of this map?
 Practical exam-2078
1.Which of the angle can be set out with French Cross-staff?
(a.)90° only (b) 45° only (c) either 90° or 45° (d) any angle
2. In contrast to HI methods, Rise and fall methods the advantage of checking error in
(a) Backsight (b) Foresight (c) intermediate sight (d) Turning Point
3. If the RL of BM is 200, BS is 1.5 and FS is 2.5, what would be the RL of the forward station
(a) 201 (b) 199 (c) 199.5 (d) 201.5
4. Which of the following statement is correct for contour interval?
(a)inversely proportional to the scale of the map
(b)directly proportional to the scale of the map
(c) directly proportional to the flatness of the ground
(d) larger if time available is more
5. Closed contours with lower values inside represent
(a) depressed land (b) flat land (c) ridges (d) hillock
6. Levelling deals with measurement in
(a) vertical plane (b) inclined plane (c) horizontal plane (d) both horizontal & vertical plane
7. Which of the following instruments can be used to measure area of map
(a) plannimeter (b) barometer (c) thermometer (d) hydrometer
8. Which of the following is not a method of measuring linear distance directly?
a pacing (b) passometer (c) odometer (e) theodolite
9. Which instrument used to measure distance is operated by the motion of our body?
(a) odometer (b) speedometer (c) plannimeter (d) passometer
10. Which dimension cannot be seen in a map?
(a) length (b) breadth (c) height (d) all can be seen
11. Width of the central alley for a cattle house is approximately
(a) 1.8m (b) 1.0m (c) 2.5m (d) 3.2m
12. Total Space for a confined cattle house is
(a) 4.5 sqm (b) 6.5 sqm (c) 5.5 sqm (d)7.5 sqm
13. Center to center length of a long wall of a building is 5.5 m. Width of the foundation is 1.4m. What is
the quantity of earth excavated in that wall if depth of foundation is 1.5m?
(a) 14.5cum (b) 11.5cum (c) 12.75cum (d) 10.5cum
14. Dry volume of 1:2:4 concrete is 20 m3. How many bags of cement does this concrete contain?
(a) 130 (b) 140 (c) 86 (d) 120
15.Actual cost of a building with its plinth area of 1000 sqft is Rs 2000000. In the same locality If
some one wants to build similar type of building with 1500sqft plinth area, how much does it
cost.
(a) Rs 2400000 (b) Rs 2600000 (c) Rs 2800000 (d) Rs 3000000
16.ln mortar binding material is
(a) sand (b) cement (c) gravel (d) surkhi
Short Questions:
1. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an interval
of 10 m: 1.5, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 1 m. Compute the area between the chain line, the
irregular boundary line and the end of offsets. [2.5]
2. Determine the quantity of materials required to plaster 2000sqm area in 1:4 cement sand
mortar of 12.5mm thick [1.5]
 Practical Exam2078 - Puranchaur
FM:12 PM: 8 Time:30min
1. No angle is greater than ……. In a well-conditioned triangle.
(a.) 90° (b) 120° (c) 30° (d) 45°
2. Rise and fall methods gives a check to
(a) Backsight (b) Foresight (c) intermediate sight (d) all of the above
3. If the RL of BM is 500, BS is 2.5 and FS is 3.5, what would be the RL of the forward station
(a) 501 (b) 499 (c) 499.5 (d) 501.5
4. Which of the following statement is correct for contour interval?
(a)inversely proportional to the scale of the map
(b)directly proportional to the scale of the map
(e) directly proportional to the flatness of the ground
(f) larger if time available is more
5. Closed contours with higher values inside represent
(a) depressed land (b) flat land (c) ridges (d) hillock
6. Levelling deals with measurement in
(a) vertical plane (b) inclined plane (c) horizontal plane (d) both horizontal & vertical plane
7. Which of the following instruments can be used to measure elevation?
(a) plannimeter (b) barometer (c) thermometer (d) hydrometer
10. Which of the following is not a method of measuring linear distance directly?
a pacing (b) passometer (c) odometer (e) theodolite
11. Which instrument used to measure distance is operated by the motion of our
body?
(a) odometer (b) speedometer (c) plannimeter (d) passometer
10. Which dimension cannot be seen in a map?
(a) length (b) breadth (c) height (d) all can be seen
11. Width of the central alley for a cattle house is approximately
(a) 1.8m (b) 1.0m (c) 2.5m (d) 3.2m
12. Total Space (open and close) required for a matured swine is
(a) 4.5 sqm (b) 6.5 sqm (c) 8.5 sqm (d)10.5 sqm
13. Center to center length of a long wall of a building is 4.5 m. Width of the foundation is 1.4m. What
is the quantity of earth excavated in that wall if depth of foundation is 1.5m?
(a) 12.4cum (b) 9.5cum (c) 7.5cum (d) 10 cum
14. Dry volume of 1:2:4 concrete is 27 m3. How many bags of cement does this concrete contain?
(a) 130 (b) 140 (c) 110 (d) 120
15.Actual cost of a building with its plinth area of 1200 sqft is Rs 2400000. In the same locality If
some one wants to build similar type of building with 1500sqft plinth area, how much does it
cost.
(a) Rs 2400000 (b) Rs 2600000 (c) Rs 2800000 (d) Rs 3000000
16.ln mortar binding material is
(a) sand (b) cement (c) gravel (d) surkhi

Short Questions:
1. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an interval of
10 m: 0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0 m. Compute the area between the chain line, the irregular
boundary line and the end of offsets [2.5]
2. Determine the quantity of materials required to plaster 1500sqm area in 1.4 cement sand mortar
12mm thick. [1.5]