CRIM 3 – HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

MIDTERM COVERAGE

What is Individual Psychology?

These are body of theories of the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler, who held that
the main motives of human thought and behavior are individual man’s striving for
superiority and power, partly in compensation for his feeling of inferiority. Adler
called his approach individual psychology because it expressed his belief that every
human personality is unique and indivisible.
Adler’s views of people become aware of their deepest impulses and fictional
finalism and, with conscious intent, create their own personalities and lifestyle to
achieve their highest goals. Adler did not propose stages of development; instead,
he emphasized the importance of family atmosphere and family constellation.

What is Family Constellation?

Family constellation refers to one’s position on the

family in terms of birth order among siblings and the
presence or absence of parents.
Three entrance gates to mental life

1. Birth order
- The first born – is the focus of attention until the next child is born,
at which time he/she is “dethroned”. The dislocation caused by the
birth of the new baby is deeply felt because the parents’ attention is
now divided.
- The second born – is extremely ambitious since he/she is constantly
attempting to catch up and surpass the older siblings. Adler
considered the second born the more fortunate.
- The youngest – is in the second worst position after the first born.
He/she is usually spoiled, easily loses courage to succeed by his/her
own effort and can never be independent. The youngest is always
ambitious but lazy.
- The only child – is never dethroned by another sibling, but
experiences shock upon learning that he/she cannot remain the
center of attention (eg school). He/she is very often sweet and
affectionate. An only child is not considered dangerous however, in
the absence of good educational methods, negative results may
occur which could be avoided if the child had brothers or sisters.
2. First memories – a research technique of asking a person to describe his/her
earliest recollections. These recollections are evidence of the origins of one’s
lifestyle.
3. Dream analysis – a method whereby a person’s dream is used to provide a
way of dealing with the person’s life problems. By analyzing how problems could
be confronted and future events planned through their dreams, a great deal could be
learned about the person’s lifestyle.
 Ego Psychology (Erik Homburger Erikson)
It is a school of psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud's structural id-ego-superego
model of the mind.
Erikson extended the study of the developing child beyond puberty, emphasizing
that the ego continues to acquire new characteristics as it meets new situations in
life. He selected the ego as the tool by which a person organizes outside information,
tests perception, selects memories, governs action adaptively and integrates the
capabilities of orientation and planning. This positive ego produces a sense of self
in a state of heightened well-being, when what one thinks and does is close to what
one wishes and feels ought to be.
Three Interrelated Aspects of the Ego
1. Body ego – refers to one’s experience with his/her own body. This refers to
the physical state such as being sickly, healthy, abused, battered, etc.
2. Ego ideal – represents the image we have of ourselves as compared with an
established ideal, such as role models or anyone that a person imitates. The standard
that a person sets for himself/herself is based on how well the ego ideal is doing.
3. Ego identity – is the image we have of ourselves in a variety of social roles.
For example, someone can be a mother and a daughter, but her actions would depend
on who she is dealing with.
Psychosocial Development of Personality
According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over
our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict,
or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task
results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Psychosocial
development of personality refers also to the development of personality includes
the acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy through maturity.
Psychosocial Development of Personality Stages by Erik Erikson

1. Basic trust versus basic mistrust (birth – 1 year old) – infants develop a
sense of trust and mistrust of the world around them. Crucial to this development is
their experience with the mother. If the mother is sensitive and responsive to her
child, the infant’s sense of security increases, and frustration due to hunger and
discomfort is tolerated. According to Erikson, development of a strong sense of basic
trust implies not only that one has learned to rely on the sameness and continuity of
outer providers, but also that one may trust oneself and the capacities of one’s own
organs to cope with urges.
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (2 – 3 years old) – this stage is
concerned with muscular maturation and the accompanying ability to hold on or to
let go. The child interacts with the world by grasping and dropping objects and
through toilet training. A sense of autonomy develops with the sense of free choice,
a feeling of being able to choose what to keep and what to reject. The infant’s basic
faith in existence is tested in sudden and stubborn wishes to choose. For example, to
grab demandingly or to eliminate inappropriately. Shame stems from a sense of self-
exposure, a feeling that one’s deficiencies are exposed to others. It is also associated
with the child’s first experience of standing upright and feeling small, wobbly and
powerless in the adult world. Doubt is closely related to the consciousness of having
a front and back. Our front is the acceptable face that we turn towards the world. The
back part of the body cannot be seen by the child. It is unknown and unexplored
territory and yet, at the stage of toilet training, one’s backside can be dominated by
the will of others.
3. Initiative versus guilt (4 – 5 years old) – at this stage, the child experiences
mobility and inquisitiveness, an expanding sense of mastery and responsibility. The
child is eager to learn and perform well. The sense of mastery is tempted by feelings
of guilt. The new freedom and assertion of power create anxiety. The child develops
conscience, a parental model that supports self-observation, self-guidance and also
self-punishment. At this stage the child can do more than before and must learn to
set limits.
4. Industry versus inferiority (6 – 11 years old) – this stage is the beginning
of life outside the family. School life begins here. This is a stage of systematic
instruction, a movement from play to a sense of work. The child needs to do well
and develops a sense of work completion and satisfaction in a job well done.
Otherwise, the child develops a sense of inferiority and inequality.
5. Identity versus identity confusion (12 – 20 years old) – as childhood ends,
adolescence begins. They question role models and identifications of the past and
try out new roles. A new sense of identity develops, including the ability to integrate
past identifications with present impulses and aptitudes while developing skills with
opportunities offered by society and culture. The adolescent is likely to suffer from
confused roles. Doubts about one’s sexual attractiveness and sexual identity are
common at this stage. The inability to develop a sense of identification with an
individual or cultural role model who gives direction to one’s life can lead to a period
of floundering and insecurity. Another reaction is over identification with youth-
culture heroes or clique leaders leading to a loss of identity.
6. Intimacy versus isolation (20 – 24 years old) – a critical commitment that
generally occurs at this stage is mutuality with a love partner. This level of intimacy
is significantly different from the earlier sexual exploration and intense search for
sexual identity. Without a sense of intimacy and commitment, one may become
isolated and unable to sustain an intimate relationship. If one’s sense of identity is
weak and threatened by intimacy, the individual may turn away from or attack the
possibility of a relationship.
7. Generativity versus stagnation (25 – 65 years old) – generativity includes
concern for children and the ideas and products that we have created. We are
teaching as well as learning human beings. Creations are important to ensure the
health and maintenance of our ideals and principles. Otherwise, we fall into a state
of boredom and stagnation.
8. Ego integrity versus despair (65 years to death) – the sense of ego identity
includes the acceptance of a unique life cycle with its triumph and failures. The sense
of ego integrity includes an awareness of the value of other lifestyles, including those
that are very different from one’s own. Those with a sense of integrity are ready to
defend the dignity of their lifestyle against criticisms and threats.
 What is Feminine Psychology?
Feminine Psychology (Karen Danielsen Horney)
Horney maintained that neurosis is caused by disturbed human relationship,
particularly that between parent and child. She described parental behavior that
undermines a child’s security as a basic evil. A child who is abused by the parent in
one or more ways develops basic hostility towards the parents. Caught between
dependence and hostility, the child is in no position to change the situation. He or
she must repress the hostile feelings in order to survive. Repression is motivated by
feelings of helplessness, fear, love or guilt.
Horney divided these needs according to how the neurotic adjusts to other
people. This is considered as Horney’s most significant contribution to personality
theory:
1. Moving towards people – “If I give in, I will not be hurt.” This category
includes neurotic needs for affection and approval, for a dominant partner to control
one’s life and to live within narrow limits. Horney calls it as the compliant type.
2. Moving against people – “if I have power, no one will hurt me.” This
category includes neurotic need for power, exploitation of others and personal
achievement. The individual is capable of acting polite and friendly, but this is just
a means to an end. Horney calls this as the hostile type.
3. Moving away from people – “If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me.” This
adjustment pattern includes the neurotic needs for self-sufficiency, independence,
perfection and unavailability. Horney called this as the detached type.

Real Self and Ideal Self

● Real self – things that are true about us at any particular time
● Ideal self – our concept of what we would like to become

For neurotic people, their impression of the real self is distorted. The ideal self
becomes more of an escape from the real self. The ideal self is a wish, not a reality;
it is an unrealistic, immutable dream. When life is directed to an unrealistic ideal
self-image, one becomes driven by what should be, rather than by what it is. Horney
called this the Tyranny of the Should – the ability to endure everything, understand
everything, to like everybody and to be always productive. Neurotics experience
failure because their ideals are incompatible with their real selves.
Social Psychological Theory (Erick Fromm)
Fromm believed that human beings are not genetically aggressive.
Destructiveness and cruelty cannot be explained in terms of heredity. The desire to
destroy emerges only when life forces are frustrated. Destructiveness aggression is
a propensity of character rather than an innate learned behavior. Necrophilous
character is similar to Freud’s Thanatos, while biophilous character, where one seeks
to further the growth of living things, is synonymous with productive orientation.

Fromm’s Five Character Types:

1. The receptive type – stems from a masochistic orientation wherein the
person believes the source of all things is outside him/herself. This trait shows
passivity, lack of character, submissiveness and cowardliness.
2. The exploitative type – has sadistic behavior patterns wherein the person
believes the source of all good things is outside of him/herself but does not expect
to receive it, so it must be taken forcibly. This trait is expressed through aggression,
conceit, and arrogance.
3. The hoarding type – has a tendency to hold on to what it has. Typical traits
are stinginess, possessiveness and stubbornness.
4. The marketing type – treat oneself as a commodity, obeying the laws of
supply and demand. Typical traits are lack of principle, aimlessness and
opportunism.
5. The productive type – values him/herself and others for what they are and
experiences security and inner peace. Typical traits are open-mindedness, loyalty
and flexibility. This is the ideal culmination of the character types of Fromm.

In real life, no individual represents only one character or orientation. Instead,

it is a combination of the various character types. Fromm himself admitted that no
one exhibits a pure orientation. However, a person may manifest one type
dominantly such that it subordinates the other types.
 What is Interpersonal Theory?
Interpersonal Theory (Harry Stack Sullivan)
People are socially created animals. Sullivan emphasized that society is the actual
creator of people’s personalities. The human being does not exist as a simple
personality; its personality can only exist in relation to others.

Dynamism is the smallest unit employed in the study of individuals. It is a

pattern of energy transformation which characterizes the organism in its duration as
a living organism. Dynamism is a pattern of behavior that endures and recurs, as
such it may be equated to a habit.

A. Self-system. The self-system, as a guardian of one’s security, tends to become

isolated from the rest of the personality. Sullivan believed that the self-system is a
product of irrational aspects of society. A young child is made to feel anxious for
reasons that would not exist in a more rational society; it is forced to adopt unnatural
and unrealistic ways of dealing with anxiety.
B. Personification. An image that one has of him/herself or of another person.
Sullivan wrote that we see ourselves in three basic ways:
➢ The bad-me. It represents those aspects of the self that are considered negative
and are therefore hidden from others and possibly even from the self.
➢ The good-me. It represents the part we share with others and that we often
choose to focus on because it produces no anxiety.
➢ The not-me. It represents all those things that are so anxiety-provoking that
we cannot even consider them as part of us.
C. The Cognitive. Sullivan’s unique contribution regarding the place of
cognition in personality is his threefold classification of experience such as:
➢ Prototaxic – experiences found in its purest form during the early months of
life. It is the necessary precondition for the appearance of the other two modes.
➢ Parataxic – experiences is seeing a causal relationship between events that
occur at about the same time but which are not logically related.
➢ Syntactic – the highest mode of experience which is consensually validated
symbol activity, especially of verbal nature. The syntactic mode produces
logical order among experiences and enables people to communicate with one
another.
 Sullivan listed six stages in personality development prior to final stage of
maturity:
1. The period of infancy – from birth to the appearance of article speech. It is
the period in which the oral zone is the primary zone of interaction between the baby
and its environment.
2. Infancy to childhood – starts with the learning of language and the
organization of experiences in the syntactic mode. The growth of symbolic ability
enables the child to play being a grown-up.
3. The juvenile stage – extends through most of the grammar school years. This
is the period of becoming social, becoming competitive and cooperative.
4. The pre-adolescence – is marked by the need for an intimate relationship
with a peer of the same sex, a friend of whom one can confide and with whom one
can collaborate to meet the tasks and solve the problems of life.
5. The late adolescence – extends from patterning of preferred genital activity
through unnumbered educative steps to the establishment of a fully human and
mature repertory of interpersonal relations.

What is Personology?
Personology (Henry Murray)
He focused on the importance of genetic and maturational factors in the
development of personality such as (1) childhood, adolescence and young
adulthood; (2) middle years and (3) senescence (final era).

This theory presumed that all individuals have complexes of varying severity
and only in extreme cases do these imply abnormality. Murray described a complex
as “an enduring integral (derived from one of the above-mentioned enjoyed
conditions) that determines the course of later development.

The five complexes of a person:

1. Claustral complexes represent residuals of the uterine or pre-natal experience
of the individual. Under this heading, he suggested three specific types of
complexes:
➢ Simple claustral complex – the wish to reinstate the conditions similar to those
prevailing before birth.
➢ Fear of in support complex – anxiety due to helplessness.
➢ Aggression complex – anxiety directed against suffocation and confinement.
2. Oral complexes represent derivatives of early feeding experiences. He again
proposed three categories:
➢ Oral succorance complex – involves oral activity in combination with passive
and dependent tendencies
➢ Oral aggression complex – combines oral activity with aggression; manifested
in oral automatism such as biting; cathexis for solid objects; strong aggressive
needs; need for harm avoidance and phobia for biting objects and stuttering
➢ Oral rejection complex – involves spitting and disgust over oral activities and
objects
3. Anal complexes are derived from events associated with the act of defecating
and bowel training:
➢ Anal rejection complex – includes diarrhea and cathexis for feces; anal
theory of birth, need for autonomy and sexuality
➢ Anal retention complex – involves an underlying cathexis for feces but is
concealed behind an apparent disgust and negative reaction to defecation.
4. Urethral complex is associated with excessive ambition and distorted sense of
self-esteem.
5. Genital or castration complex is when fear grows out of masturbation and
parental punishment.
 What is Operational Reinforcement?
Operant Reinforcement Learning Paradigm (Burrhus Frederic Skinner)
A key concept in Skinner’s theory is the process of operant conditioning,
simply stated as: “If the occurrence of the operant is followed by the presentation of
reinforcing stimulus, the strength is increased.” In other words, if a response is
followed by a reward, the response will be strengthened. A reinforce, positive or
negative, always increases the operant response rate. Punishment does the reverse
and has many undesirable consequences. Skinner distinguishes punishment from
forgetting and extinction. Skinner believed that personality is but a collection of
behavior patterns; hence, development of personality is nothing but the development
of these behavior patterns.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the
behavior increases.
1. Positive reinforcement- are favorable events or outcomes that are presented
after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is
strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcement - involve the removal of an unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease
in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases,
the behavior decreases.
1. Positive punishment - sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment - also known as punishment by removal, occurs when
a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
Social Learning Theory/Imitation (Albert Bandura)
Observational learning is the process where a person’s behavior changes as a
result of being exposed to the behavior of another person, the model. Specific
components of model’s behavior are called modelling cues. These can be live or
symbolic.

➢ Live modelling refers to observing models in the flesh (actually present)

➢ Symbolic modelling involves being exposed to models indirectly (like
watching movies, books, oral description)

Three effects of observation and imitation

1. Modelling effect – an observer attends to and imitates a new model, but the
behavior must be those they are capable of doing.
2. Disinhibitory effect – modelling can release a whole class of behavior that is
usually inhibited.
3. Eliciting effect – the observer can match the model’s behavior with responses
already in their repertoire or learned earlier.
 What is Anxiety?
Anxiety often produces tension, worry, and physiological reactivity. Anxiety is
frequently an anticipatory emotion, a sense of unease about a dreaded event or
situation that has not yet occurred. From an evolutionary perspective, anxiety may
be adaptive, producing bodily reactions that prepare us for “fight or flight.”
Anxiety can also be defined as a response to external and internal stimuli that can
have behavioral, emotional, cognitive and physical symptoms.
Fear on the other hand, is a more intense emotion experienced in response to a
threatening situation.
Unfounded fear or anxiety that interferes with day-to-day functioning and produces
clinically significant distress or life impairment is a sign of an anxiety disorder

Anxiety Disorder
A group of conditions that share a key feature of excessive anxiety with
ensuing behavioral, emotional, cognitive and physiologic responses.

Generally, there are two types of anxiety:

1. Free-floating anxiety
2. Signal Anxiety

Multipath Model of Anxiety Disorders

The dimensions interact with one another and combine in different ways to result in
a specific anxiety disorder. The importance and influence of each dimension vary
from individual to individual.

Level of Anxiety
1. Mild
2. Moderate
3. Severe
4. Panic
 Types of Anxiety Disorder

What is Separation Anxiety Disorder?

Separation Anxiety Disorder: It is a severe distress about leaving home, being

alone, or being separated from a parent.

The hallmark of Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is centered on fears related to

being apart from home or attachment figure(s) that are beyond what would be
expected given a child’s developmental level. The cluster of SAD symptoms (which
include distress prior to and during times of separation, anxiety about being
separated from attachment figures, school refusal, clinging to attachment figures,
difficulty sleeping alone, nightmares, and somatic complaints) must be present for a
minimum of 4 weeks, according to DSM-IV. Although the symptoms often develop
in childhood, they can be expressed throughout adulthood as well.

Characteristics of Separation Anxiety Disorder

A. Extreme and age-inappropriate anxiety in relation to various separation

situations.
1. Extreme and consistent distress in situations in which separation from home
or caretaker or to significant others is eminent.
2. Excessive and consistent worry that harm will befall parents or loved one.
3. Extreme and consistent worry of situations that involve separation from
caretaker (e.g. getting lost or kidnapped).
4. Consistent refusal to engage in situations that involve separation.
5. Steady fear of being alone at home and in other situations.
6. Frequent refusal to go to sleep without a parent or loved one or to sleep over
at friends' homes.
7. Numerous disturbing dreams of separation.
8. Several reports of having somatic complaints (e.g.• stomachaches, headaches)
in separation situations.
At least 3 of 8 above symptoms must be present in the child.
B. The disturbance should be experienced for at least 4 weeks.
C. The onset is experienced before the age of 18.
D. The disturbance should cause clinically significant impairment or distress in
social, academic, or other important areas of functioning.
E. The disturbance does not occur during the course of Pervasive Developmental
Disorder, Schizophrenia, or other Psychotic Disorder. In adolescents, not better
accounted for by Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia.
What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by persistent, high levels of

anxiety and excessive and difficult-to-control worry over life circumstances; these
feelings are accompanied by physical symptoms such as feeling restless or tense.
For a DSM-5 diagnosis of GAD, the symptoms must be present on the majority of
days for at least 6 months and cause significant distress or impairment in life
activities.

The core feature of Generalized Anxiety Disorder is excessive worry.

Characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder
A. Extreme anxieties or worries occurring more days than not for at least 6
months.
B. Extreme anxieties and worries are uncontrollable.
C. Anxieties and worries are related to at least 3 of the following 6 symptoms for
at least the past 6 months:
1. restlessness
2. tires easily
3. concentration difficulties
4. irritability
5. muscle tension
6. sleep disturbance
D. Anxieties or worries are not due to an Axis I disorder.
E. The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms should cause clinically significant
impairment or distress in social, academic, or other important areas of functioning.
F. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or
a general medical condition and does not occur only during a Mood, Psychotic, or
Pervasive Developmental Disorder.
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): a condition characterized by intrusive,

repetitive anxiety-producing thoughts or a strong need to perform acts or dwell on
thoughts to reduce anxiety.
Obsession: an intrusive, repetitive thought or image that produces anxiety
compulsion the need to perform acts or mental tasks to reduce anxiety.
Compulsions: involve repetitive actions, in contrast to the recurring thoughts or
distressing images associated with obsessions. Compulsions often entail observable
behaviors such as hand washing, checking, or ordering objects. They can also
involve mental acts such as praying, counting, or repeating words silently. Distress
or anxiety occurs if the behavior is not performed or if it is not done “correctly.”

People who experience the intrusive and often irrational thoughts or images
associated with obsessions find it difficult to control their thinking. Although they
may try to ignore the obsession or push it from their minds, the thoughts persist
(Leisure, 2013). Common themes associated with obsessions include:
A. Contamination, including concern about dirt, germs, body wastes, or
secretions and fear of being polluted by contact with items, places, or people
considered to be unclean or harmful (Cisler, Adams, et al., 2011);
B. Errors or uncertainty, including obsessing over decisions or anxiety regarding
daily behaviors such as locking the door or turning off appliances;
C. Unwanted impulses, such as thoughts of sexual acts or harming oneself or
others; and
D. Orderliness, including striving for perfect order or symmetry (Yadin & Foa,
2009).

Associated Disorder with OCD

1. Trichotillomania: recurrent and compulsive hair pulling that results in hair
loss and causes significant distress
2. Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder: a distressing and recurrent compulsive
picking of the skin resulting in skin lesions
Hoarding Disorder: difficulty discarding items because of perceived need,resulting
in cluttered and unsafe living areas