Module 61CSE218: Operating System

Introduction

 Vietnamese-German University
 Ngoc Tran, Ph.D.
 [email protected]

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 Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems

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 Objectives

Providing:
 A basic organization of computer systems
 An overview about major components of OS.
 An overview of the many types of computing environments
 Open-source operating systems

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Source: Internet
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 What Operating Systems Do

1. User view
 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization

 Shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer.

 Dedicate systems such as workstations which have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles

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 Source: Internet

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 What Operating Systems Do
2. System view
 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

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 Operating System Definition

 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is
the kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating system), or
 an application program.

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 Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM (read-only memory) or EPROM
(electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), generally
known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 The system can start providing services to the system and its users.
 Some services are provided outside of the kernel, by system
programs that are loaded into memory at boot time to become
system processes.

 Once this phase is complete, the system is fully booted, and the system
waits for some event to occur.

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 Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

Local Local Local

Local buffer buffer buffer Local buffer
buffer

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 Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts

 Interrupts are an important part of a computer architecture.

 The occurrence of an event is usually signaled by an interrupt from either the
hardware or the software.
1. Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the
CPU, usually by way of the system bus.
2. Software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special operation called a
system call (also called a monitor call).

 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through

the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request
 An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Interrupt Timeline

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 I/O Structure
1. After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O
processing
2. After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O
completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion

 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type,
address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify
table entry to include interrupt

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 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-
bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes
many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured
and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

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 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular

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 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Speed, cost

capacity

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 Caching

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

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 Direct Memory Access Structure

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close

to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly
to main memory without CPU intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte

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 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

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 Computer-System Architecture

 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, multicore systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems

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 What is the difference between multi-
processors and multi-core

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 Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Batch System

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

Applications

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode

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 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.
Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter (PC) specifying
location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread

 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating

systems running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and
by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Computing Environments – Client-Server

 Client-Server Computing
 Terminals are supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (e.g., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files

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 Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer

 Another model of distributed system

 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
 Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
 Examples Voice over IP (VoIP) such as
Skype

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

 Vast and growing industry
 Emulation used when source CPU type different from target
type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86, Bluestacks from Android to
Windows)
 Generally slowest method
 When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
 Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
 VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)

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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,

plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
 Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
 Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

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 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code format rather

than just binary closed-source
 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has
“copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of
Mac OS X), and many more
 Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox
(open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com)
 Use to run guest operating systems for exploration

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