Mechanics

Lectured in Spring 2015 at Imperial College by Dr. E. E. Keaveny.

Humbly typed by Karim Bacchus.

Caveat Lector: unofficial notes. Comments and corrections should be sent to

[email protected]. Other notes available at wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/∼kb514.

Syllabus
This introductory course on Applied Mathematics is centred on Newtonian
mechanics - the consequences of Newtons laws.

Kinematics of point particles: Vectors and vector algebra; position, velocity,

and acceleration in three dimensions; polar coordinates; intrinsic coordinates
and path curvature.

Newton’s Laws: Definition of mass, momentum, inertia, and force; Axioms,

or Laws of Motion.

Forces: Gravitation; forces that constrain motion: normal force and tension;
friction; forces that depend on velocity: drag forces; forces that depend on
position: spring forces.

Oscillators: Simple, damped, and forced oscillators; amplitude and phase

difference; resonance.

Energy: Kinetic and potential energies; conservative forces; stability of and

motion about fixed points; potential wells and escape; energy diagrams.

Angular Momentum: Central forces; orbital equation; effective potential. Sys-

tems of (interacting) particles: Two body systems; centre of mass; moment of
inertia; total momentum, angular momentum, and energy for systems; vari-
able mass systems; torque.

Rigid Body Motion: Rigid body kinematics; continuous mass distributions;

rigid body dynamics with rotation about a single axis

Appropriate books
D. Kleppner and R. J. Kolenkow, An Introduction to Mechanics.
G. R. Fowles and G. L. Cassiday, Analytical Mechanics.
R. Feynman, The Feynman Lectures.
T. W. B. Kibble and F. H. Berkshire, Classical Mechanics.
Contents
0 Introduction 3

1 Kinematics 4
1.1 Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Intrinsic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Kinetics and Newtons Laws 24

2.1 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Forces 26
3.1 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Contraint Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Drag Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 Oscillators 43
4.1 Spring Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Damped Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Forced, Damped Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5 Energy 53
5.1 Potential Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6 Angular Momentum 60
6.1 Central Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2 Orbital Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.3 Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.4 Effective Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7 Systems of Particles 68
7.1 Two Body Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

8 Rigid Body Motion 78

8.1 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2 * Parallel Axis Theorem * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
0 Introduction Mechanics

0 Introduction
Question: Why are we learning mechanics? Lecture 1

(i) Historical reasons: Much of the mathematics you have been learning
about was developed to address mechanical problems
(ii) Practical reasons: For those of you interested in pursuing applied math-
ematics, a solid background in mechanics is fundamental. It is also
necessary for many of the applied math(s!) courses (for example, those
in fluid mechanics) offered by our Department.
(iii) For those of you more interested in pure maths: Many current problems
in pure mathematics have mechanical origins. Take, for example the
Clay millennium prize for Navier-Stokes
(iv) For those of you more interested in probability and statistics: Mechanical
systems are a source of randomness - stay tuned!
(v) For those interested in financial mathematics: Newton eventually be-
came head of the Royal Mint!
(vi) This course gives you an opportunity to use the mathematics you have
been learning to describe the world around us. In this sense, M1A1 could
be viewed as in introduction to mathematical modelling. In this context,
it will be different (and richer) than learning mechanics in a physics or
engineering department.

Note - There is a break in the middle of lectures to help with attention during
lectures:

Attention

t
0 25 min 50 min

What we are after is an equation of motion to find the position of an object

for all times. Ingredients to an equation of motion:
1) Kinematics - Description of motion
2) Kinetics - Newton’s laws
3) Mathematically Describe Forces - Describe forces in terms of kinematic
quantities

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1 Kinematics
For a point particle there are three key kinematic quantities.
1. Positon: ~r(t)
2. Velocity: ~v (t)
3. Acceleration: ~a(t)
In general, ~r(t), ~v (t), ~a(t) ∈ R3 .

We can use different coordinate systems to describe our quantities:

(i) Cartesian
(ii) Polar
(iii) Intrinsic

1.1 Cartesian Coordinates

Consider the path of a particle through space:

~r(t)
ĵ

î y(t)
k̂
z(t) x
z x(t)

Definition. We write the position at time t as

~r(t) = x(t) î + y(t) ĵ + z(t) k̂

We can also write this as

 x(t)  h1i h0i h0i
[~r(t)] = y(t) so, î = 0 , ĵ = 1 , k̂ = 0
z(t) 0 0 1

Magnitude of ~r p
r = |~r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2
r is the distance from the origin.
Direction of ~r
x y z
r̂ = ~r/r = î + ĵ + k̂
r r r

So, we can write

~r = r(t) r̂(t)
This is the starting point for polar coordinates.

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1 Kinematics Mechanics

Last Time: Lecture 2

~v (t)

∆~
r
∆~r ∆t

~r(t) ~r(t + ∆t)

Position:
~r(t) = x(t) î + y(t) ĵ + zd(t) k̂
At ∆t later

~r(t + ∆t) = x(t + ∆t) î + y(t + ∆t) ĵ + z(t + ∆t) k̂

Definition. Define ∆~r = ~r(t + ∆t) − ~r(t)

Define the velocity of the particle at time t

∆~r d~r
~v (t) = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Since î, ĵ, k̂ are constant in time

d d
~v (t) = (~r(t)) = (x î + y ĵ + z k̂)
dt dt
dx dy dz
= î + ĵ + k̂
dt dt dt
df
Writing ≡ f˙,
dt

~v (t) = ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂ = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂

Definition.
v = |~v | = [vx2 + vy2 + vz2 ]1/2
is the magnitude of the velocity or speed of the particle.
Thus, the direction of motion is

v̂ = ~v /v, | v̂| = 1

v̂ is also the unit tangent to the path.

Define the acceleration
d~v d2~r
~a(t) = = 2 = ẍ î + ÿ ĵ + z̈ k̂
dt dt

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~a(t) tells us how the velocity is changing at time t.

Recall that we can write ~v = v(t) v̂(t), then

d dv d v̂
~a = (v v̂) = v̂ + v
dt |dt{z } dt}
| {z
Due to change Due to change
in speed in direction

Starting with ~a we can integrate to find ~v , then ~r.

Z t Z t
0 d~v 0
~adt = 0
dt = ~v (t) = ~v (t0 )
t0 t0 dt
Z t
=⇒ ~v (t) = ~v (t0 ) + ~a dt0
t0

We can integrate this component. For example

Z t
vx (t) = vx (t0 ) ax dt0
t0

To determine ~v (t) uniquely, we need to know ~v (t0 ) (constant vector).

Similarly Z t
~r(t) = ~r(t0 ) + ~v (t0 ) dt0
t0

Thus, starting with ~a(t), we need to know both ~r(t0 ) and ~v (t0 ) to find ~r(t)
uniquely!
What allows us to connect the mathematics to the physical world is that these
quantities are measurable.

Definition (SI Units).

• Time: Measured in seconds, s
• Distance: Measured in metres, m
• Velocity: “Metres per second”, m/s or ms−1
• Accelerations: “Metres per second squared””, m/s2 or ms−2

Example 1.1. Near the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity
is constant!
g = 9.8ms−2
Suppose: an object is dropped from rest at height h above the ground. Find
~r(t):

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ĵ
î
h

Ground

Align the coordinates such that ĵ points upwards. We know that ~a = −g ĵ.
No motion in other directions. Problem is 1D!
We know initially (t = 0) that y(0) = h =⇒ vy (0) = 0. Integrate twice:

1
y(t) = h − gt2
2

Recap: Lecture 3

Rt
~r(t0 ) + t0
~v dt0
~r(t)
~v (t)

Rt
d ~v (t0 ) + t0
~a dt0
dt
~v (t) ~a(t)
d
dt

Example 1.2 (Projectile).

ĵ y
î g
~v0
α
x
d

In this coordinate system ~a = −g ĵ. Choose that t = 0 when the object is

released. Based on this:

~r(0) = ~0, ~v (0) = ~v0 = v0 cos α î + v0 sin α ĵ

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Integrate our acceleration to find ~v (t)

Z t
~v (t) = ~v (0) + −g ĵ dt0 = ~v0 − gt ĵ
0

= v0 cos α î + (v0 sin α − gt) ĵ

Integrate our velocity to find the position

Z t Z t
~r(t) = ~r(0) + ~v (t) dt0 = ~0 + ~v0 − gt0 ĵ dt0
0 0

1 2
= ~v0 t − 2 t g ĵ = v0 t cos α î + [v0 t sin α − 12 t2 g] ĵ

Maximise the range using α as the control parameter. Finding the time tH
when the object hits the ground. y(tH ) = 0 where y = ~r · ĵ.

y = ~r · ĵ = v0 tH sin α − 12 t2H g = 0

Two values of tH :
2v0 sin α
tH = 0, tH =
g

To find the range:

v2
 
2v0 sin α
x(tH ) = v0 cos α = 0 sin 2α
g g

For 0 ≤ α ≤ π/2, the range is maximum for α = π/4.

Example 1.3 (Circular Motion).

~r(t) = R sin(Ωt) î + R cos(Ωt) ĵ (R, Ω > 0)

Distance from the origin

r = |~r| = [R2 sin2 Ωt + R2 cos2 Ωt]1/2 = R

Path is a circle of radius R, centred at the origin.

~r(0) = R ĵ
v̂(0) = î
R ~r(t)

θ
O v̂(t)

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Differentiate ~r(t) to find

~v (t) = RΩ cos Ωt î − RΩ sin Ωt ĵ

Find the speed: v = |~v | = RΩ, the speed is constant.

Clockwise or anticlockwise?
Direction of motion

v̂ = ~v /v = cos Ωt î − sin Ωt ĵ

At t = 0, v̂(0) = î, so it moves clockwise around the circle!

dθ
Interpretation of Ω: Introduce θ = −Ωt + π/2, dt − Ω.
The parameter Ω is angular speed. Differentiate our ~v (t) we find

~a(t) = −RΩ2 sin[Ωt] î − RΩ2 cos[Ωt] ĵ

= −Ω2~r

Acceleration is pointing in towards the circle.

Last time: Lecture 4

~r(t) = R sin Ωt î + R cos Ωt ĵ

~r(t)

θ θ = −Ωt + π
2
O

~r(t) = R cos[θ(t)] î + R sin[θ(t)] ĵ

Insert expression for θ

~r(t) = R cos[π/2 − Ωt] î + R sin[π/2 − Ωt] ĵ

:0 1
= R(
cosπ/2
 cos Ωt + 
sinπ/2
:sin
 Ωt) î
1 :0
+ R(
sinπ/2
:cos
 Ωt − 
cosπ/2
 sin Ωt) ĵ

= R sin Ωt î + R cos Ωt ĵ

Example 1.4 (Wheel rolling without slipping).

Describe the position of a point on the surface of the wheel

~r(t) = ~rΩ (t) + ~rc (t)

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R ~rΩ (t)

~r(t) u
Ω
~rc (t)
x

~rΩ (t) = R cos θ(t) î + R sin θ(t) ĵ

~rc (t) = xc (t) î + R ĵ

Rolling at a constant angular speed: Ω.

We are translating to the right with constant velocity: u.
Suppose initially xc (0) = 0, θ(0) = π/2.
Then xc (y) = ut and θ = π/2 − Ωt.

~rΩ (t)f = R sin Ωt î + R cos Ωt ĵ

~rc (t) = ut~i + R~j

~r(t) = [ut + R sin(Ωt)] î + R[1 + cos Ωt] ĵ

Here, u, and Ω are still independent of one another. We use “rolling without
slipping” to connect them:

Rolling without slipping:

θ1 ∆t θ2

B A B
A

Rolling without slipping implies that the distance travelled equals the arc
length between A and B.

∆xc (θ2 − θ1 )
= −R
∆t ∆t

Taking the limit as ∆t → 0

ẋc = −Rθ̇

For our problem

ẋc = u, θ̇ = −Ω, u = RΩ

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with this expression

~r(t) = R[Ωt + R sin(Ωt)] î + R[1 + cos Ωt] ĵ

Differentiate w.r.t t

~v (t) = RΩ[1 + cos(Ωt)] î − RΩ sin(Ωt) ĵ

Differentiating again

~a(t) = −RΩ2 [sin(Ωt) î + cos(Ωt) ĵ]

= ~aΩ (t)

Sketch the path:

y=R

t
0 πR πR 3πR 2πR
2 2

At xc = πR =⇒ ut = πR
πR π
y= =
u Ω
~v (π/Ω) = RΩ[1 + cos[Ωπ/Ω]] î − RΩ sin[Ωπ/Ω] ĵ

= ~0

Another way of expressing the condition is that the point on the wheel
touching the ground has zero velocity relative to the ground!

1.2 Vector Operations

Already we have seen vector addition and subtraction are useful: Lecture 5

Addition: ~r = ~rc + ~rΩ

Subtraction: Velocities relative to a moving observer ~vA,O = ~vA − ~vO

Vector Products
Vector products are also useful and do arise in describing mechanical phenom-
ena:
(i) Scalar product (dot product)

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~
A

θ
~
B

~·B
A ~ = |A||
~ B|~ cos θ

~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
A
~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B
~·B
A ~ = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az B z

~ = (A
We can write |A| ~ · A)
~ 1/2

The dot product can be used to pick out the component of a vector in a
particular direction:
n̂, | n̂| = 1 (Direction)

~ in n̂-direction is
The component of A
~ · n̂
An = A

E.g. n̂ = î, then

~ · î = Ax ( î · î) + Ay ( ĵ 
A  · i) + Az · k̂)
( î


= Ax

Example 1.5. Acceleration tangent to the path of point on the surface of

a wheel:
Recall:
~v (t) = RΩ[1 + cos(Ωt)] î − RΩ sin(Ωt) ĵ

~a(t) = −RΩ2 [sin(Ωt) î + cos(Ωt) ĵ]

Direction tangent to the path:

~v
= v̂, | v̂| = 1
v

Find: speed

v 2 = |~v |2 = R2 Ω2 (1 + 2 cos Ωt + cos2 Ωt + sin2 Ωt)

p
v = RΩ 2(1 + cos Ωt)

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The component of the acceleration tangent to the path

~a · ~v
at =
v
~a · ~v = −R2 Ω3 (sin Ωt + sin Ωt cos Ωt − sin Ωt cos Ωt]

= −R2 Ω3 sin Ωt

RΩ2 sin Ωt
at = − p
2(1 + cos Ωt)

dv
Check that at = .
dt

(ii) Vector product (cross product)

î ĵ k̂
~×B
A ~ = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= î(Ay Bz − By Az ) + ĵ(Az Bx − Ax Bz ) + k̂(Ax By − Ay Bx )

~
A

~×B
A ~
θ
~
B

~×B
|A ~ = |A||
~ B|~ sin θ

The direction is given by the “right hand rule”:

~ = −Ω k̂, (Ω > 0)
Example 1.6. Introduce ω

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1 Kinematics Mechanics

~rΩ = R sin Ωt î + R cos Ωt ĵ

î ĵ k̂
~ × ~rΩ =
ω 0 0 −Ω
R sin Ωt R cos Ωt 0

= RΩ cos Ωt î − RΩ sin Ωt ĵ
d~rΩ
= = ~vΩ
dt
Ω: Angular speed
ω
~ : Angular velocity
− k̂ is the axis of rotation

What we have been doing really is thinking inside the box:

y
ĵ

ĵ
î î

ĵ
x
î

î: Points along lines of constant y in the direction of increasing x

ĵ: Points along lines of constant x in the direction of increasing y

1.3 Polar Coordinates

We consider for 2D Motion. Certain systems simplify in these coordinates Lecture 6

r
y

θ
x
x

We can relate x and y to r and θ:

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1 Kinematics Mechanics

x = r cos θ, r = [x2 + y 2 ]1/2

y = r sin θ, θ = arctan(y/x)

θ̂
r̂

r̂
θ̂ θ̂
r̂

r̂: Unit vector in the direction of increasing r along lines of constant θ.

θ̂: Points in the direction of increasing θ tangent to the curves of constant r.

Consider:
| r̂| = | θ̂| = 1
y
ĵ
θ̂ r̂ = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ
r̂
θ̂ = − sin θ î + cos θ ĵ
î
r • They depend on θ
θ
x
• r̂ · θ̂ = 0: orthonormal

Definition (Kinematic Quantities in Polar Coordinates).

Position:
~r = x î + y ĵ

= r cos θ î + r sin θ ĵ

= r[cos θ î + sin θ ĵ]

| {z }
r̂

~r = r(t) r̂(t)

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Velocity:
d
~v = (~r)
dt
d
= (r r̂)
dt
d r̂
= ṙ r̂ + r
dt

d d
r̂ = [cos θ(t) î + sin θ(t) ĵ]
dt dt
= − sin θθ̇ î + cos θθ̇ ĵ

= θ̇[− sin θ î + cos θ ĵ]

= θ̇ θ̂

~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂

Acceleration:
d
~a = (~v )
dt
d
= [ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂]
dt
d r̂ d θ̂
= r̈ r̂ + ṙ + ṙθ̇ θ̂ + rθ̈ θ̂ + rθ̇
dt dt

d θ̂ d
= [− sin θ î + cos θ ĵ]
dt dt
= − cos θθ̇ î − sin θθ̇ ĵ

= −θ̇ r̂
Thus
~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (ṙθ̇ + ṙθ̇ + rθ̈) θ̂

~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈) θ̂

Examples 1.7.
(i) Uniform Circular Motion:

~r(t) = R sin Ωt î + R cos Ωt ĵ

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The corresponding expression in polars:

π
r = R, θ(t) = − Ωt
2

~r = R r̂

~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂

~v = −RΩ θ̂

~a : r̈ = θ̈ = 0

~a = −RΩ2 r̂

(ii) Bead moves outwards with speed u as the wheel turns with angular
speed Ω:
Ω
u

(u, Ω > 0)

If at t = 0:
r(0) = 0 & θ(0) = 0
=⇒ r(t) = ut & θ(t) = Ωt

Then ṙ = u, r̈ = 0, θ̇ = Ω, θ̈ = 0

~r = ut r̂

~v = u r̂ + uΩt θ̂

~a = −uΩ2 t r̂ + 2uΩ θ̂

Polar coordinates really come in handy when the forces have certain symme-
tries, e.g. Central forces: F~ = F (r) r̂.

1.4 Intrinsic Coordinates

Coordinates that are intrinsic to the path of our particle. We know the path! Lecture 7

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1 Kinematics Mechanics

∆~r = ~r(t + ∆t) − ~r(t)

~r(t) ~r(t + ∆t)

Distance travelled between t and t + ∆t :

∆s = |∆~r|

= [x(t + ∆t) − x(t)] î + [y(t + ∆t) − y(t)] ĵ + [z(t + ∆t) − z(t)] k̂

For ∆t << 1:
dx
x(t + ∆t) = x(t) + ∆t + O(∆t2 )
dt
Doing the same for our other components:

dx dy dz
∆s = î + ĵ + k̂ ∆t + O(∆t2 )
dt dt dt
| {z }
~
v

Thus,
∆s
= v + O(∆t)
∆t
Taking lim ∆t → 0
ds
= v = ṡ
dt
Z t
=⇒ s(t) = v(t0 ) dt0
0

Both t and s are ways of parametrizing our curve (path). Instead of writing
~r(t), we can write ~r(s).

Definition. s is what we call the arc length.

Velocity:
d~r d~r ds
~v = =
dt ds dt
ds d~r
But = v. So, = v̂, the unit tangent at evert point s. Thus
dt ds

~v (s) = ṡ v̂

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Acceleration:
d~v
~a =
dt
 
d d~r
= ṡ
dt ds
 
d~r d d~r
= s̈ + ṡ
ds dt ds
d2~r ds
= s̈ v̂ + ṡ
ds2 dt

d2~r d2~r 1 d2~r

Writing = κ n̂, where κ = , n̂ = , we have:
ds2 ds2 κ ds2

~a(s) = s̈ v̂ + κṡ2 n̂

It turns out that κ is the curvature of the path. What about n̂?
Recall: | v̂| = 1. So
d
( v̂ · v̂ = 1)
ds
d v̂
=⇒ 2 v̂ · =0
ds
=⇒ 2κ( v̂ · n̂) = 0

So, if κ 6= 0, then v̂ · n̂ = 0. Thus n̂ is the unit normal to the path.

Tangential component of the acceleration at = ~a · v̂ = s̈

Normal component of the acceleration an = ~a · n̂ = κṡ2 , where κ ≈ 1/R

v̂
R
n̂

Key things to note: v̂, n̂, κ depend only on the path. Knowing ~r(s), we can
find these quantities.
ṡ and s̈ depend on how the particle is moving along the path.

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Example 1.8 (Circular Motion).

Cartesian:
~r(t) = R sin(ωt) î + R cos(ωt) ĵ
~v (t) = . . .
~a(t) = . . .

π
Polars: r = R and θ = 2 ωt =⇒ ṙ = r̈ = 0 and θ̇ = −ω, θ̈ = 0. So

~r = R r̂

~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂ = −Rω θ̂

~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈) θ̂ = −Rω 2 r̂

Intrinsic: (s(0) = 0)
The speed is given by v = Rω = ṡ =⇒ s̈ = 0. Integrate to find s
s
s = Rωt =⇒ t =
Rω

Substitute this into our expression for ~r(t)

~r(s) = R sin(s/R) î + R cos(s/R) ĵ

Tangent:
d~r
v̂ = = cos(s/R) î − sin(s/R) ĵ
ds
Curvature and Normal:
d2~r 1
2
= − [sin(s/R) î + cos(s/R) ĵ
ds R

d2~r 1
κ= = , n̂ = − sin(s/R) î − cos(s/R) ĵ
ds2 R

Thus
~v (s) = Rω v̂

~a(s) = s̈ v̂ + κṡ2 n̂
1
= (Rω)2 n̂
R
= Rω 2 n̂

20
1 Kinematics Mechanics

Example 1.9 (Helical Path). Lecture 8

p
~r(s) = b cos(ks) î + b sin(ks) ĵ + s 1 − b2 k 2 k̂

Tangent:

d~r p
v̂ = = −bk sin(ks) î + bk cos(ks) ĵ + 1 − b2 k 2 k̂
ds

Curvature and Normal:

d2~r
= −bk 2 cos(ks) î − bk 2 sin(ks) ĵ
ds2

d2~r
κ= = bk 2 , n̂ = − cos(ks) î − sin(ks) ĵ
ds2

Take s = ct (c > 0) =⇒ ṡ = c, s̈ = 0. Thus

~v = c v̂, ~a = c2 bk 2 n̂

Take the case where our path lies in the xy−plane and we know y(x)

ds
dy
dx

dy
Then ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 . Since dy = dx
dx
 2 !
2 dy
ds = 1+ dx2
dx

ds p dy
=⇒ = 1 + y 02 y 0 =
dx dx
Z x
s(x) = (1 + y 02 )1/2 dx
x0

Highlights that s just depends on the path.

Position:
~r(x) = x î + y(x) ĵ

21
1 Kinematics Mechanics

Tangent to the path

 −1
d~r d~r dx d~r ds
v̂ = = =
ds dx ds dx dx

d~r
= î + y 0 ĵ
dx
 −1
ds
= [1 + y 02 ]−1/2
dx

=⇒ v̂ = [1 + y 02 ]−1/2 [ î + y 0 ĵ]

Curvature and Normal:

−1
d2~r
 
d d~r ds
2
=
ds dx ds dx
  !
d d~r dx
=
dx ds ds

 
d d~r d v̂
=
dx ds dx
1
= − [1 + y 02 ]−3/2 × (2y 0 y 00 ) × [ î + y 0 ĵ]
2
+ [1 + y 02 ]−1/2 y 00 ĵ

= [1 + y 02 ]−3/2 y 00 × (−y 0 î + (1 + y 02 − y 02 ) ĵ)

y 00
= (−y 0 î + ĵ)
[1 + y 02 ]3/2

!
d2~r y 00 y0 1
=⇒ = − î + ĵ
ds 2 [1 + y 02 ]3/2 [1 + y 02 ]1/2 [1 + y 02 ]1/2

d2~r |y 00 |
κ= =
ds2 [1 + y 2 ]3/2

1 d2~r y 00 1
n̂ = = 00
(−y 0 î + ĵ)
κ ds 2 |y | [1 + y 02 ]1/2

22
1 Kinematics Mechanics

n̂
v̂
q
1/ 1 + y 02
|y 0 |/
p
1 + y 02

q p
|y 0 |/ 1 + y 02 1/ 1 + y 02

Example 1.10. y = x2 , y 0 = 2x, y 00 = 2

ds
= [1 + y 02 ]1/2
dx
= [1 + 4x2 ]1/2

 −1
d~r ds
v̂ =
dx dx

= ( î + 2x ĵ)(1 + 4x2 )−1/2

n̂ = (1 + 4x2 )−1/2 (−2x î + ĵ)

2
κ=
[1 + 4x2 ]3/2

Now all we need is ṡ and s̈. If ṡ = c, s̈ = 0, then

~v = c v̂, ~a = c2 κ n̂.

23
2 Kinetics and Newtons Laws Mechanics

2 Kinetics and Newtons Laws

2.1 Newton’s Laws
Definition. Lecture 9

• Mass, m - “Quantity of Matter”, measured in kg (scalar)

• Momentum, p~ = m~v - “Quantity of Motion” (vector)
• Inertia - “Vis Insita” (innate force of matter). The resistance of an
object to change its state of motion.
• Force - An action that changes an objects state of motion

Theorem 2.1: Newton’s First Law

Every body has inertia!

y
~v = c v̂

~r ~s
Observer
~
R

~ + ~s, ~s = ~r − R
~r = R ~

d~s d~r dR~

= −
dt dt dt
d2~s d2 ~
~r d2 R
= −
dt2 dt2
 dt2

~
d2 R
If 6= 0, then the object will not be maintaining its state of motion.
dt2
d2 R~
Inertial frame 2
= 0.
dt

24
2 Kinetics and Newtons Laws Mechanics

Theorem 2.2: Newton’s Second Law

The net force on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum:

d~
p d(m~v )
F~ = =
dt dt

Alternatively Z t
p~(t) − p~(0) = F~ (t0 ) dt0
0

If the mass is constant we get the familiar F~ = m~a.

Theorem 2.3: Newton’s Third Law

If F~AB is the force on object A due to object B, then F~BA = −F~AB .

F~AB A B F~BA = −F~AB

Theorem 2.4: Conservation of Linear Momentum

Momentum is conserved in a closed system with no external forces.

Proof. Total momentum:

p~T = p~A + p~B

d~
pT d~
pA d~
pB
= +
dt dt dt

Assume F~AB is the only force on A =⇒ only force on B is −F~AB .

d~
pT
= F~AB − F~AB = ~0
dt
”

25
3 Forces Mechanics

3 Forces
Kinds of forces: Lecture 10

(i) Constraint Forces

(ii) Forces can also depend on our kinematic quantities
(iii) Forces can depend on velocity. “Drag Force”
(iv) Forces can also depend on position

3.1 Gravity

F~BA

~rBA

~rA
~rB

The force on mb due to mA is

GmA mb
F~BA = − 2 r̂BA
rBA

rBA = |~rBA |
~rBA
r̂BA =
rBA
• G is the gravitational constant

G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kgs2

• F~BA is attractive
2
• The magnitude of force decays like 1/rBA
• This is a central force - F~ = F (r) r̂
Recall that we said that the acceleration due to gravity is constant! =⇒
|F~g | = mg.
We can say this because the force due to gravity acts from the centre of the
earth, and the change in height of our object is small compared to the radius
of the earth.
And the change in height of our object be small compared to the radius of the
earth.

How small does the height need to be? How do we show this?

26
3 Forces Mechanics

m
y
ĵ î RE

ME

Using Newton’s Formula:

GmME
F~g = − ĵ
(y + RE )2

If y = 0, then
GmME
F~g = − 2 ĵ
RE

We write F~g = −mg ĵ, with g = GME

2
RE
= 9.8m/s2 . Rewrite F~g :

F~g = −mg[1 + y/RE ]−2 ĵ

We know that y/RE << 1. This allows us to use a taylor series about y/RE =
0 to approximate [1 + y/RE ]−2 . Taylor series about x = 0:

f (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)x + 21 f 00 (0)x2 + . . .

In our case x = y/RE

f (x) = [1 + x]−2 f (0) = 1

f 0 (x) = −2[1 + x]−3 f 0 (0) = −2

f 00 (x) = 6[1 + x]−4 f 00 (0) = 6

y
=⇒ F~g = mg(1 − 2 ) ĵ + O(y 2 /RE
2
)
RE

So taking F~g = −mg ĵ is equivalent to using the first term in the taylor series.

Example 3.1 (For Felix). y = 39 × 103 m RE = 6371 × 103 m.

Suppose we use the constant force

F~g = −mg ĵ

Using our linear approximation

F~g = −0.9878mg ĵ

Actual F~g = −0.9879mg ĵ.

27
3 Forces Mechanics

We are interested in using the force to predict where the object will be.
Using Newton’s II Law and the Newtonian Gravity
d2 y GmME
m =−
dt2 (RE + y)2

Constant approximation:
d2 y
m = −mg
dt2
1
=⇒ y(t) = y0 + v0 t + gt2
2

Linear approximation:
d2 y
m = −mg(1 − 2y/RE )
dt2

3.2 Contraint Forces

Force that arise only to satisfy or enforce a particular constraint on the motion Lecture 11
of a body. These forces arise when we have
(i) Surfaces
(ii) Wires
(iii) Strings and Bars

Example 3.2.

~
N

F~g

~ exists to keep the object from going through the surface.

N

~ is called the Normal or Reaction Force.

Definition. N

~vs
~ = N n̂
N

~vs

F~g

28
3 Forces Mechanics

~ acts in a direction normal (or perpendicular) to the surface.

N
~ only exists when the
If our surface has a velocity ~vs , then ~v · n̂ = ~vs · n̂. N
object is in contact with the surface =⇒ N ≥ 0. For wires, everything is
more or less the same, except that N ∈ R.
We can use different coordinate systems to find the normal force:

~ = N ĵ.
N
(i) ĵ Constraint: ẏ = 0 (~vs = 0)
î
φ

~ = −N r̂.
N
(ii)
R − r̂ Constraint: ṙ = 0.

1 d2 ~
r
(iii) (In 2D) n̂ = κ ds2 .

n̂ ~ = N n̂.
N
Constraint: ~v · n̂ = 0.

Example 3.3.
ĵ
~g m
î
~a
φ

~.
~a is constant. Find: ~am (acceleration of m) and N
Setting up the equations is important! [See: Kleppner & Kolenkow §2.4]
Force diagram:
ĵ
~
N
î

φ
F~g

29
3 Forces Mechanics

Constraints:
~vs · n̂ = ~v · n̂

n̂ = ĵ =⇒ ẏs = ẏm

=⇒ ÿs = ÿm

Express forces in the coordinate system:

~ = N ĵ
N

F~g = mg[sin φ î − cos φ ĵ]

~a = a[cos φ î + sin φ ĵ]

Use Newton’s Laws:

m~am = F~g + N
~

mamx = mg sin φ
mamy = −mg cos φ + N

From our constraint:

=⇒ a sin φ = amy

Substitute this into Newton’s Second Law:

ma sin φ = −mg cos φ + N

=⇒ N = m[a sin φ + g cos φ]

Our final unknown is given directly by Newton’s II: amx = g sin φ, so

~am = g sin φ î + a sin φ ĵ

The mass will not move relative to the surface if:

~am = ~a

=⇒ ~am · î = ~a · î
=⇒ g sin φ = a cos φ

a/g = tan φ

If g sin φ < a cos φ the block slides off the top.

If g sin φ > a cos φ the block slides down the ramp.

30
3 Forces Mechanics

Example 3.4 (OK Go Video). Lecture 12

T~ = −T r̂ î
R θ ĵ
~g

We know that the distance between m and a point in space remains con-
stant. We can use polar coordinates to solve the problem because we have
information about r, (ṙ, r̈) or θ, θ̇, θ̈. In this case we know r = R (constant)
=⇒ ṙ = r̈ = 0. This will be enforced by T~ , the tension. In our coordinate
system:
T~ = −T r̂

Find: T and also ~v at θ = π.

Force diagram:

T~ = −T r̂

F~g = −mg î

( r̂ = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ) × cos θ

+( θ̂ = − sin θ î + cos ĵ) × − sin θ

cos θ r̂ − sin θ θ̂ = î
=⇒ F~g = −mg[cos θ r̂ − sin θ θ̂]

Newton’s Laws:

m~a = T~ + F~g

=⇒ m[(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) θ̂] = −T r̂ − mg cos θ r̂ + mg sin θ θ̂

r̂ component:
m(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) = −T − mg cos θ (i)

θ̂ component:
m(rr̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = mg sin θ (ii)

31
3 Forces Mechanics

Use the constraint in Newton’s II Law: r = R, ṙ = r̈ = 0.

(i) =⇒ −mRθ̇2 = −T − mg cos θ

(ii) =⇒ mRθ̈ = mg sin θ

Take (ii) ×θ̇ =⇒ mRθ̈θ̇ = mg sin θθ̇.

Notice
1 d 2
θ̈θ̇ = (θ̇ )
2 dt
d
sin θθ̇ = (− cos θ)
dt
d 1 2 g
( θ̇ + cos θ) = 0
dt 2 R
1 2 g
=⇒ θ̇ + cos θ = K (constant!)
2 R

Take t = 0, θ = θ0 , θ̇ = 0

g
=⇒ K = cos θ0
R
2g
=⇒ θ̇2 = [cos θ0 − cos θ]
R
In polar coordinates:
~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂

~v = Rθ̇ θ̂

At the bottom when the hammer hits the TV, θ = π

2g
=⇒ θ̇2 = [cos θ0 + 1]
R
r
2g
~v = R [cos θ0 + 1] θ̂
R

At θ = π, θ̂ = − ĵ. We can find the tension from (i):

−mRθ̇2 = −T − mg cos θ

Using our expression for θ̇2

2g
+mR[ [cos θ0 − cos θ]] = +T + mg cos θ
R
=⇒ T = 2mg cos θ0 − 3mg cos θ

32
3 Forces Mechanics

Example 3.5 (Strings). Lecture 13

a

y2
y1
m2
~g
H
m1 ĵ
î

l is the length of the string. This is fixed =⇒ l˙ = 0 =⇒ ¨l = 0.

l = (H − y1 ) + (H − y2 ) + πa

l˙ = 0, so if Ḣ = 0 (fixed pulley height),

0 = l˙ = −ẏ1 − ẏ2
=⇒ ẏ1 = −ẏ2
=⇒ ÿ1 = ÿ2

Force diagram:
T~ = T ĵ T~

m1 m2

F~g1 = −m1 g ĵ F~g2 = −m2 g ĵ

Newton’s Second Law:

1D Problem in the ĵ direction:

m1 ÿ1 = −m1 g + T (i)

ms ÿ2 = −m2 g + T (ii)

Using the constraint

(i) =⇒ −m1 y¨2 = −m1 g + T

Subtract (ii)
−(m1 + m2 )y¨2 = (m2 − m1 )g

m1 − m2
=⇒ y¨2 = g
m1 + m2

33
3 Forces Mechanics

We can also find T : (i) ×m2 + (ii) ×m1 =⇒

0 = −2m1 m2 g + T (m1 + m2 )

2m1 m2
T = g
(m1 + m2 )

Use of Intrinsic Coordinates

We know ~r(s) or ~r = x î + y(x) ĵ
d~
r
(i) v̂ = ds

d2 ~
r d2 ~
r 1 d2 ~
r
(ii) ds2 = κ n̂, κ = ds2 , n̂ = κ ds2

Describe acceleration:
~a = s̈ v̂ + κṡ2 n̂

~ = N n̂
N

v̂
F~

From Newton’s Second Law:

ms̈ = F~ · v̂

mκṡ2 = F~ · n̂ + N

Example 3.6.

ĵ y
~v = ~v0 v̂
î ~g

At t = 0, v = ṡ = v0 > 0 and x = 0.
For what values of v0 does the object leave the surface before reaching x =
π/2?
=⇒ we need to see if the normal force goes to zero.

34
3 Forces Mechanics

y 0 (x) = cos x, y 00 (x) = − sin x

v̂ = [1 + y 02 ]−1/2 ( î + y 0 ĵ)

= [1 + cos2 x]−1/2 ( î + cos x ĵ)

|y 00 | sin x
κ= 02 3/2
=
[1 + y ] [1 + cos2 x]3/2

y 00
n̂ = [1 + y 02 ]−1/2 [−y 0 î + ĵ]
|y 00 |

= −[1 + cos2 x]−1/2 [− cos x î + ĵ]

Force diagram:

~ = N n̂
N

F~g = −mg ĵ

Newton’s Laws:

ms̈ = F~g · v̂

= −mg cos x[1 + cos2 x]−1/2 (i)

mκṡ2 = F~g · n̂ + N

= mg[1 + cos2 x]−1/2 + N (ii)

Multiply (i) ×ṡ:

ms̈ṡ = −mg[1 + cos2 x]−1/2 cos xṡ

!
d ṡ2
s̈ṡ =
dt 2

ds
ṡ = ẋ = [1 + cos2 x]1/2 ẋ
dx

35
3 Forces Mechanics

Substitute these in:

!
d ṡ2
m = −mg cos xẋ
dt 2

d
=− (g sin x)
dt
!
d ṡ2
=⇒ + g sin x =0
dt 2

ṡ2
=⇒ + g sin x = K
2

Initial conditions: t = 0, ṡ = v0 , x = 0
=⇒ K = v02 /2, =⇒ ṡ2 = v02 − 2g sin x
Substitute this into (ii)

sin x
m× (v 2 − 2g sin x) = mg[1 + cos2 x]−1/2 + N
[1 + cos2 x]3/2 0
m
N= (v 2 sin x − 2g sin2 x − g(1 + cos2 x))
[1 + cos2 x]3/2 0
m
N= [v 2 sin x − g(2 + sin2 x)]
[1 + cos2 x]3/2 0

Set N = 0
=⇒ v02 sin x − g(2 + sin2 x) = 0

g(2 + sin2 x)
v02 =
sin x

We can show that this has a minimum at x = π/2 =⇒ v02 = 3g =⇒ v0 =

√
3g .
√
If v0 > 3g it will leave the surface before reaching x = π/2.

3.3 Friction
Friction arises when one object is in contact with another: Lecture 14

F~
~F

~F is the force due to friction. |~F| < Fmax , friction acts like a constraint force.

36
3 Forces Mechanics

If |F~ | < Fmax =⇒ ~F = −F~ .

Fmax depends on:
(a) The materials of the objects.
(b) The normal force.
It is independent of the area of contact and velocity.
~ | (µ > 0)
Fmax = µ|N

Definition. µ is the coefficient of friction.

Typically 0 < µ ≤ 1.

Once |F~ | > Fmax :

• The object moves.
• |~F = µ|N
~ | = Fmax

• Friction opposes the motion of the object.

Before reaching Fmax the direction opposes the “would be” motion. Graphi-
cally:
|~F|

Fmax

|F~ |
Fmax

More generally, 0 ≤ |~F| ≤ µ|N

~ |.

~ = N n̂
N

v̂
F~

There is no relative motion then

~v = ~vs (i)

Friction works to satisfy (i).

37
3 Forces Mechanics

If there is relative motion, ~v 6= ~vs and |~F| = µ|N

~ | acts to restore (i).

This is an example of a “mathematical model” - we can describe the phenom-

ena using mathematics, then use this description to predict other phenomena.

Example 3.7.

ĵ
~g m
î
~a
φ

At what value of φ does the block begin to slide? =⇒ Friction acting like
a constraint.
Force diagram:
~
N

φ
F~g

Since there is no relative motion ~v = ~vs = 0, ẏ = ÿ = ẋ = ẍ = 0

No acceleration, we have static equilibrium. Newton’s Second Law;

mẍ = 0 = mg sin φ − F (i)

mÿ = 0 = −mg cos φ + N (ii)

=⇒ N = mg cos φ
F = mg sin φ

We also know
F ≤ µN = µmg cos φ
Also have
F = mg sin φ ≤ µmg cos φ
or
µ ≥ tan φ
Thanks Euler!
So when F = Fmax
=⇒ µ = tan φ
For µ < tan φ the object is moving in the î direction and ẍ 6= 0.

38
3 Forces Mechanics

Newton’s Second Law

mẍ = mg sin φ − Fmax

= mg sin φ − µmg cos φ

=⇒ ẍ = g[sin φ − µ cos φ]

3.4 Drag Force

Example of a force that depends on the velocity of an object. Lecture 15

Motion of bodies through fluid.

~v = v v̂

Fluid has: ρ: density and η: viscosity

To move through the fluid, the body exerts a force on the fluid: F~F B
By Newton’s III Law
F~BF = −F~F B
The drag force
F~D = (F~BF · v̂) v̂

In general to find F~D is a challenging problem! To find ~u we need to solve

the Navier-Stokes Equations. From ~u we can obtain F~D . Fortunately this
calculation can be done for two limiting cases; at low and at high speeds:

Low Speeds
At low speeds |~v | << 1, then
F~D = −CD ~v
Where CD is the drag co-efficient
• This depends linearly on ~v .
• Always opposite the direction of motion
• For a sphere CD = 6πRη
• CD depends on (i) the size of the object, (ii) the viscosity of the fluid
If ~u 6= 0 meaning there is a background flow:
F~D = −CD (~v − ~u)
only a drag force if there’s relative motion to the fluid.

39
3 Forces Mechanics

High Speeds
F~D = −CD |~v |~v
• Opposes the motion
• Depends quadratically on the speed
• Changes CD = 12 ρR2 K

• Drag Force is not all of F~BF

F~L : Lift

F~D ~v

Example 3.8.

~v ĵ

î
~g

F~D = −CD ~v
Force Diagram:

F~D = −CD ~v F~g = −mg ĵ

Newton’s Second Law:

d~v
m = F~D + F~g = −CD ~v − mg ĵ
dt

d~v
First, seek the solution, ~v∞ , where = 0, the steady state solution
dt

=⇒ 0 = −CD ~v − mg
mg
=⇒ ~v∞ = − ĵ
CD

Using linearity of the equation

~v = ~v∞ + w
~

40
3 Forces Mechanics

Substitute this into Newton’s Second Law:

d ~ ) − mg ĵ
m ~ = −CD (~v∞ + W
(~v∞ + w)
dt
dw
~
m = mg ĵ − CD w
~ − mg ĵ
dt
dw
~ CD
=⇒ =− w
~
dt m
=⇒ w ~ 0 e−CD t/m
~ =w

Thus
mg
~v = − ~ 0 e−CD t/m
ĵ + w
CD
mg
Initial condition: t = 0, ~v = ~v0 =⇒ w
~ 0 = ~v0 + CD ĵ. So
mg
~v = ~v0 e−CD t/m − ĵ[1 − e−CD t/m ]
CD

mg
As t → ∞, ~v → − C D
ĵ = ~v∞ as expected.
The ratio CD /m controls how quickly this limit is reached.
Taking ~v0 = 0
mg
~v = − ĵ[1 − e−CD t/m ]
CD

vy

mg/CD

Integrating our general expression to find the position:

mgt m mg
~r(t) = ~r0 − ĵ + [~v0 + ĵ] × (1 − e−CD t/m )
CD CD CD

Projectiles: ~r0 = 0, ~v0 = v0 cos α î + v0 sin α ĵ

41
3 Forces Mechanics

42
4 Oscillators Mechanics

4 Oscillators
1660: Ceiiinosssttuv Lecture 16

1678: “Ut tensio sic vis”, “As is the extension, so the force” - Robert Hooke

4.1 Spring Force

• Example of a force that depends on position
• Spring forces are related to the deformations of solids

x=0 x = lE : Equilibrium Length

∆x

m
F~

∆x ∆x

m
2F~

There is a linear relationship between |F~ | and ∆x:

|F~ |

k
|F~ | = k∆x
1

∆x

Definition. k is the spring constant.

k depends on:
(i) Material
(ii) Geometry of the spring
The spring acts in a way to restore its equilibrium length.

43
4 Oscillators Mechanics

F~s in î direction

lE x
|F~s | = k(x − lE )

m F~s in î
x
lE |F~s | = k(lE − x)

The spring force

F~s = −k(x − lE ) î

If lE = 0
F~s = −kx î

In 3D:
F~s = −k(~r − ~rE )

If ~rE = 0
F~s = −k~r

F~s

m
Frictionless

x=0 x0

We only need to worry about the spring force (other forces balance). Newton’s
Second Law
mẍ = −kx (∗)
We seek a solution of the form x = Ceαt , ẋ = Cαeαt , ẍ = Cα2 eαt . Substitut-
ing this into (∗)
m[Cα2 eαt ] = −kCeαt

Ceαt [mα2 + k] = 0
k
=⇒ α2 = −
m
r
k
α = ±i
m
The general solution is
√ √
x(t) = C1 ei k/mt
+ C2 e−i k/mt

44
4 Oscillators Mechanics

x is real but C1 and C2 are complex. The equivalent general solution is

p p
x(t) = C3 cos k/mt + C4 sin k/mt
p p p p
ẋ(t) = −C3 k/m sin k/mt + C4 k/m cos k/mt

Initial conditions:
t = 0, ẋ = 0 =⇒ C4 = 0
t = 0, x − x0 =⇒ C3 = x0

So the solution is r
k
x(t) = x0 cos t
m
x(t)
x0

−x0
T0 /4 T0 /2 3T0 /4 T0

x(t) has:
• Amplitude of oscillation A = x0
• Period T0 = 2π m
p
k
q
k 2π
• Frequency: ω0 = m =⇒ ω0 = T0

Amplitude just depends on the initial conditions. The frequency depends

solely on k & m. This system is an example of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Similar equations arises with a pendulum:

` î

ĵ
Mg

Newton’s Second Law:

m(r̈ − rθ̇) = mg cos θ − T

m(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = −mg sin θ

45
4 Oscillators Mechanics

Since r = l, ṙ = r̈ = 0:

=⇒ −mlθ̇2 = mg cos θ − T

mlθ̈ = −mg sin θ

If the angle θ remains small, θ << 1, sin θ ≈ θ. When we do this

mlθ̈ = −mgθ
g
=⇒ θ̈ + θ = 0
l

This is the same as our equation for the spring with

x −→ θ
k g
−→
m l
pg
For a pendulum ω0 = l.

4.2 Damped Harmonic Oscillator

F~s

k
m
F~D
~v
x=0 Lecture 17

Take: F~D = −CD ~v . Motion is still 1D!

Newton’s Second Law:
mẍ = −kx − CD ẋ
CD k
ẍ + ẋ + x = 0
m m

k CD
Recall: ω02 = m, µ= 2m

ẍ + 2µẋ + ω02 x = 0 (∗)

Look for a solution of the form x = Ceαt . Plug this into (∗):

Ceαt [α2 + 2µα + ω02 ] = 0

Solving our quadratic equation for α

p
−2µ ± 4µ2 − 4ω02
α=
2

46
4 Oscillators Mechanics

Two solutions: q
α1 = −µ + µ2 − ω02
q
α2 = −µ − µ2 − ω02

The general solution is

x(t) = C1 eα1 t + C2 eα2 t

We know that both µ, ω0 > 0, but there are three cases to consider:
(i) µ > ω0 : Over damped
(ii) µ < ω0 : Under damped
(iii) µ = ω0 : Critically damped

Case (i):
µ2 − ω02 > 0
p
=⇒ α1 and α2 are real. We also know µ > µ2 − ω02 =⇒ both α1 , α2 < 0.
Our solutions decay exponentially to zero.

Case (ii):
µ < ω0 =⇒ µ2 − ω02 < 0
q
=⇒ α1 = −µ + i ω02 − µ2
q
α2 = −µ − i ω02 − µ2
=⇒ α1 and α2 are complex and in fact complex conjugates of one another.
General solution:
x(t) = C1 e−µ+iωD )t + C2 e−µ−iωD )t
q
ωD = ω02 − µ2

x(t) = e−µt [C1 eiωD t + C2 e−ωD t ]

• Drag force modifies the frequency: ωD < ω0
• Amplitude decays with time.
• x(t) still goes to zero at t → ∞.

Case (iii):
µ = ω0 =⇒ α1 = α2 = −µ

Rethink the general solution:

x(t) = C1 e−µt + C2 te−µt

47
4 Oscillators Mechanics

• No oscillations
• x → 0 as t → ∞. This happens more rapidly than any solution in case
(i).

Example 4.1.
ẋ = 0, x(0) = L. µ < ω0 =⇒ under damped.
The general solution:

x(t) = e−µt [K1 cos ωD t + K2 sin ωD t]

ẋ(t) = µe−µt [K1 cos ωD t + K2 sin ωD t] + ωD e−µt [−K1 sin ωD t + K2 cos ωD t]

Apply the initial conditions:

x(0) = L = K1
ẋ(0) = 0
=⇒ − µL + ωD K2 = 0
µL
=⇒ K2 =
ωD

Solution:  
−µt µ
x(t) = Le cos ωD t + [sin ωD t
ωD

We can also express the general solution using an amplitude and a phase:
x(t) = A(t) cos(ωD t − φ)
|{z} |{z}
Amplitude Phase

x(t) = A(t)[cos ωD t cos φ + sin ωD t sin φ]

= [A(t) cos φ] cos ωD t + [A(t) sin φ] sin ωD t

By comparing with our previous expression for the general solution:

A(t) cos φ = K1 e−µt

A(t) sin φ = K2 e−µt

=⇒ tan φ = K2 /K1

A = e−µt [K12 + K22 ]1/2

µL
For our example K1 = L, K2 = ωD

tan φ = µ/ωD
" #1/2
µ2 L2
A = e−µt L2 + 2
ωD

48
4 Oscillators Mechanics

As t → ∞, A → 0.
We see in this case without any external forcing that the amplitude and phase
depend on the initial conditions.

4.3 Forced, Damped Oscillator

CD
k
m F~ (t)
Lecture 18

F (t) = F0 cos ωt

In general ω 6= ω0 6= ωD .
Newton’s Laws
mẍ = −kx − CD ẋ + F0 cos ωt

Using µ = CD /2m, ω 2 = k/m

F0
ẍ + 2µẋ + ω02 x = cos ωt (*)
m

Inhomogeneous equation

x(t) = xCF (t) + xP I (t)

We know xCF from looking at the damped harmonic oscillator. To find xP I (t)
let’s look for solutions of the form
xP I (t) = K3 cos ωt + K4 sin ωt
ẋP I = −K3 ω sin ωt + K4 ω cos ωt

ẍP I = −K3 ω 2 cos ωt − K4 ω 2 sin ωt

Plus this all into (∗)

F0
[−K3 ω 2 + 2µωK4 + K3 ω02 − ] cos ωt
m
+[−K4 ω 2 − 2µωK4 + K4 ω02 ] sin ωt = 0

Only possible if everything in the brackets is zero!

F0
=⇒ 2µωK4 = K3 (ω 2 − ω02 ) +
m
2µωK3 = −K4 (ω 2 − ω02 )

Solving for K3 & K4

49
4 Oscillators Mechanics

F0 ω 2 − ω02
K3 = −
m 4µ2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω02 )2
F0 2µω
K4 =
m 4µ ω + (ω 2 − ω02 )2
2 2

The complete general solution:

x(t) = K1 eα1 t + K2 eα2 t + K3 cos ωt + K4 sin ωt

As t → ∞, xCF (t) → 0, but xP I (t) does not.

x(t) → K3 cos ωt + K4 sin ωt

Write the steady state solution as

x(t) → A cos[ωt − φ]

We know from yesterday

A = [K32 + K42 ]1/2 , tan φ = K4 /K3

A = [K32 + K42 ]1/2

tan φ = K4 /K3
F0 1
A=
m [4µ ω + (ω 2 − ω02 )2 ]1/2
2 2

2µω
tan φ = −
ω2− ω02

Since this is the steady state, for this case A & φ are independent of the initial
conditions.

Amplitude:
• ω=0
F0 1
=⇒ A(ω = 0) = = A0
m ω02
• ω → ∞.
A decays like ω −2 =⇒ A → 0
dA
What happens in between? Look at
dω

dA F0 8µ2 ω + 4(ω 2 − ω02 )ω

=−
dω m [4µ2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω02 )2 ]3/2

dA
Find where =0
dω

50
4 Oscillators Mechanics

dA
• → 0 as ω → ∞
dω
• Consider the numerator:
4ω[2µ2 + (ω 2 − ω02 )] = 0

=⇒ ω = 0 & ω 2 = ω02 − 2µ2 ≡ ωR

2

A(ωR )

A0

ω
ωR ω0

Definition. Resonance: When the system responds dramatically when

forced at a particular frequency.

Phase: (0 ≤ φ < π)

2µω
tan φ = −
ω2 − ω02

For ω = 0 =⇒ tan φ = 0 =⇒ φ = 0.

d tan φ 2µ
=− 2 + 2µω(ω 2 − ω02 )−2 2ω
dω ω − ω02
2µ(ω 2 + ω02 )
=
(ω 2 − ω02 )2

> 0 For 0 ≤ ω < ω0

=⇒ tan φ is increasing.

As ω → ω0 , tan φ → ∞ =⇒ φ → π/2.
As ω → ∞, tan φ → 0 =⇒ φ → π.

51
4 Oscillators Mechanics

k
|F~ | = k∆x
1

52
5 Energy Mechanics

5 Energy
Energy gives us another viewpoint on mechanical systems. Lecture 19

1D: From Newton’s 2nd Law

mẍ = F (x, ẋ, t)
=⇒ mẍẋ = F ẋ
d 1 2


Since ẍẋ = dt 2 ẋ
 
d 1
=⇒ mẋ2 = F ẋ (5.1)
dt 2

Call T = 21 mẋ2 and integrate (5.1) with respect to time

Z t2 Z t2
d
T dt = F ẋ dt
t1 dt t1
Z x(t2 )
=⇒ T (t2 ) − T (t1 ) = F dx
x(t1 )

Definition.
• T = 21 mẋ2 is the kinetic energy.
• F ẋ is the rate of work.
Z x(t2 )
• W12 = F dx is the work done on m by F .
x(t1 )
Z
• V (x) = − F dx + C is the potential energy.

• T + V = E is the total energy.

• A force that can be written in terms of a potential (F~ = −∇V
~ ) is
conservative.

Theorem 5.2: Conservation of Energy

Under conservative forces, the total energy of a system is constant.

Proof. Suppose that F = F (x) is a conservative force.

R dV
Then V (x) = − F dx + C or F = − . Integrating:
dx
Z x(t2 ) Z x(t2 )
dV
F dx = − dx
x(t1 ) x(t1 ) dx

=⇒ T (t2 ) + V (t2 ) = T (t1 ) + V (t1 ) = E

”

53
5 Energy Mechanics

Proof 2. We also have from (5.1)

 
d 1 2 ˙ =0
mẋ − F (x)
dt 2

˙ = dV dx dV
Since F (x) =
dx dt dt
 
d 1
mẋ2 − V =0
dt 2

=⇒ T + V = E, a constant ”

Not all forces are conservative!

Example 5.3. FD = −CD ẋ is not conservative.

Suppose that

F~D = −CD ẋ
dV
F~CON = −
dx

Newton’s Second Law:

mẍ = FCON + FD
dV
=⇒ mẍ + = −CD ẋ
dx
Multiplying by ẋ and rearranging the terms:
d
(T + V ) = −CD ẋ2 ≤ 0
dt | {z }
E

dE
=⇒ ≤0
dt
=⇒ Energy decreases with time

Examples of Conservative Forces:

• Gravity: F = −mg =⇒ V = mgx + C
• Spring Force: F = −kx =⇒ V = 12 kx2 + C
We can choose C for our convenience.

Recall that forces that are related to a potential are called conservative forces. Lecture 20
Another way to think about conservative forces is through the work done:
Z x(t2 )
W12 = F dx
x(t1 )

54
5 Energy Mechanics

dV
If the forces is conservative F = − =⇒ W12 = −V (x2 ) + V (x1 ).
dx
Hence the work done just depends on the initial and final position. It is path
independent! We also saw that as a result:

T (t1 ) + V (t1 ) = T (t2 ) + V (t2 ) = E, the total energy

5.1 Potential Wells

A

A(ωR )

A0

ω
ωR ω0

Suppose we know ẋ and x at t = 0. With this, we can find

1
E= mẋ2 (0) + V (x(0))
2
And we know this for all times.

Definition. The points x0 , x1 and x2 are where V = E. These points are

called turning points.

Oscillations between Turning Points

At the turning points, for example V (x1 ) = E, we know that T (x1 ) = 0 =⇒
x˙1 = 0.
We know that if the particle is between x0 and x1 , it will oscillate between
these points forever! We say that this particle is trapped !
Period of oscillation between x0 and x1 :
1
E= mẋ2 + V (x)
2
Solve for ẋ  1/2
dx 2
= ẋ = ± (E − V (x)) (5.4)
dt m

55
5 Energy Mechanics

We need to choose the correct root based on ẋ at a particular point in time.

Suppose we know going from x0 to x1 , ẋ > 0.
We need to integrate (5.5) to find the time it takes to go from x0 to x1
Z x1 Z t1
dx
2 1/2 = dt
x0
m (E − V (x)) t0

= Tosc /2

Thus Z x1
dx
Tosc = 2 2 1/2 (5.5)
x0
m (E − V (x))

Example 5.6 (Spring).

Spring: V = 12 kx2

k
|F~ | = k∆x
1

Initially x(0) = L, ẋ(0) = 0

1 1
E= mẋ(0) + V (L) = kL2
2 2
Then
Z L
dx
Tosc = 2 2 1
−L [m ( 2 kL2 − 12 kx2 )]1/2
r Z L
m dx
=2
k −L [L − x2 ]1/2
2

r Z L
m dx
=2
k −L L[1 − (x/L)2 ]1/2

Let u = x/L, then we have

r Z 1
m du
Tosc =2
k −1 [1 − u2 ]1/2
r 1 r
m m
=2 arcsin u = 2π
k −1 k

56
5 Energy Mechanics

r r
m k
So Tosc = 2π , ω0 =
k m

Escape
Suppose the particle is at xA . What speed does is need to not be trapped, i.e. Lecture 21
x → ∞ as t → ∞?
Initial speed: u
1
E= mu2 + V (xA )
2

We want E > E ∗ to allow our particle to escape. E∗ = V (X1 ). We require

then
1
V (X1 ) < mu2 + V (xA )
2
r
2
=⇒ u > (V (X1 ) − V (xA ))
m

x
−2 −1 O 1 2

5.2 Stability
dV
Definition. Equilibrium Points are where = 0 =⇒ F = 0 =⇒
dx
mẍ = 0
We say that an equilibrium point is
d2 V
• stable if > 0 (Minimum) e.g. X0
dx2
d2 V
• unstable if < 0 (Maximum) e.g. X1
dx2

Oscillations near Equilibrium Point

Suppose we are near and very close to a stable equilibrium point, X0 , so
|x − X0 | << 1.

57
5 Energy Mechanics

Taylor expansion of V (x) about X0 :

1
V (x) = V (X0 ) + V 0 (X0 )(X − X0 ) + V 00 (X0 )(X − X0 )2 + . . . (5.7)
2
Since X0 is an equilibrium point, we know V 0 (X0 ) = 0
1
V (x) = V (X0 ) + V 00 (X0 )(X − X0 )2
2
Since X0 is a stable equilibrium point V 00 (X0 ) > 0

−dV
F = = −(x − X0 )V 00 (X0 )
dx
From Newton’s 2nd Law

mẍ = −(x − X0 )V 00 (X0 )

Taking X = x − X0
mẌ + V 00 (X0 )X = 0
This looks like the simple harmonic oscillator with k = V 00 (X0 ).
r r
k V 00 (X0 )
Since ω0 = , the frequency of small oscillation is ω0 =
m m
r
2π m
=⇒ Tosc = = 2π 00
ω0 V (X0 )

Example 5.8 (Lennard-Jones Potential).

Used to model interactions between neutral atoms or molecules and Molec-
ular dynamics simulations.
" 12  6 #
r0 r0
V (x) =  ) −2
x x

 > 0, r0 > 0 (x > 0)

| {z }
constants

As x → 0, V → ∞. As x → ∞, V → 0.

dV
= [−12r012 x−13 + 12r06 x−7
dx
dV
Set = 0:
dx
=⇒ 0 = 1 − r06 x−6

Equilibrium point as x = r0 .
Stability:

58
5 Energy Mechanics

d2 V
= [156r012 x−14 − 84r06 x−8 ]
dx2
V 00 (r0 ) = 72r0−2 > 0
=⇒ stable.
In fact V (r0 ) = −:

Veff

r∗
r

Emin

What occurs for different values of E = T + V ?

If E > 0 =⇒ single turning point at x = x0 =⇒ x ≥ x0 . Our particle
won’t be trapped by the potential.
If − < E < 0 the particle is trapped.
Suppose that
|x − r0 | << 1

We can find the period of small oscillations:

r
m
TOSC = 2π 00 (r )
V 0
r
πr0 m
=
3 2

What about energy when the motion is not restricted to a line? Lecture 22

d~v
m = F~
dt

Take the dot product with ~v :

d~v
m · ~v = F~ · ~v
dt

Since v 2 = ~v · ~v
dv d~v
2v = 2~v ·
dt dt

59
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

6 Angular Momentum
6.1 Central Forces
We will consider forces of the form Lecture 23

F~ = F (r) r̂

Magnitude depends on the distance from the origin.

Direction r̂ is repulsive; away from the origin. − r̂ : attractive; towards the
origin.

Example 6.1 (Gravity).

GM m
F~ = − r̂
r2

+y
+x
N T

fR α
Mg

Suppose that

+y
+x
N T

fR α
Mg

Polar coordinates are perfect for these problems

Newton’s Second Law:
m(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) = F (6.2)
m(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = 0 (6.3)

Multiply (6.3) by r
m(r2 θ̈ + 2ṙrθ̇) = 0
d
(mr2 θ̇) = 0 =⇒ mr2 θ̇ = mh = constant
dt

60
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

Definition. h = r2 θ̇ - angular momentum per unit mass

Angular momentum, J~ = ~r × p~ = ~r × m~v

Theorem 6.4: Conservation of Angular Momentum

Under a central force (no torque), the total angular momentum is con-
served.

Proof. In polars, ~r = r r̂, ~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂

J~ = ~r × m~v = (r r̂) × m(ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂) = mrṙ( r̂ × r̂) + mr2 θ̇( r̂ × θ̂)

=⇒ J~ = mr2 θ̇ k̂ = mh k̂ = constant ”

Energy
For a force to be conservative F~ = −∇V
~ . In 2D

∂V ∂V
F~ = − î − ĵ (6.5)
∂x ∂y
Since F~ = F~ (r) r̂ we need V = V (r)

∂V dV ∂r
=
∂x dr ∂x
∂r
Since r = (x2 + y 2 )1/2 , = 21 [x2 + y 2 ]1/2 × (2x) = x/r = cos(θ). Thus
∂x
∂V dV
= cos θ
∂x dr

Similarly
∂V dV ∂r dV
= = sin θ
∂y dr ∂y dr

Thus the force, by (6.5), is

dV dV
F~ = − cos θ î − sin θ ĵ
dx dy
dV
=− r̂
dr

So for a central force to be conservative

dV
F~ (r) = −
dr

61
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

From the Conservation of Energy

1
mv 2 + V (r) = E
2
Since ~v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂

1
E= m[ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 ] + V (r) (6.6)
2

6.2 Orbital Equation

Find the trajectories or shapes or orbits as a function of θ. It’s solution is
u(θ) = 1/r(θ).
We know h = r2 θ̇ = θ̇u−2 =⇒ θ̇ = hu2 . Thus
d −1
ṙ = (u )
dt
du dθ du
= −u−2 = −h
dθ dt dθ

 
d du
r̈ = −h
dt dθ
d2 u 2
2 2d u
= −h θ̇ = h u
dθ2 dθ2

Also
rθ̇2 = u−1 (hu2 )2 = h2 u3

Write F (r) = F (u−1 ) and substitute into (6.2) from Newton’s 2nd Law:
!
2
2 2d u
m h u −h u2 3
= F (u−1 )
dθ2

Giving our orbital equation:

d2 u 1
+u=− F (u−1 ) (6.7)
dθ2 mh2 u2

Example 6.8. r(θ) = cθ2 (c > 0). Find F (r):

u = c−1 θ−2
du
= −2c−1 θ−3
dθ
d2 u
= 6c−1 θ−4 = 6u2
dθ2

62
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

From the Orbital Equation (6.7)

F (u−1 ) = −mh2 u2 (u + 6cu2 )

= −mh2 (u3 + 6cu4 )

=⇒ F (r) = −mh2 (r−3 + 6cr−4 )

6.3 Kepler’s Laws

Lecture 24
Theorem 6.9: Kepler’s Laws

I Orbits of Planets are Ellipses

II Law of Equal Areas: If ∆t1 = ∆t2 then A1 = A2

A2 planet

a
A1
sun

III The time period of orbit, T ∝ a3

Proof of Kepler’s First Law. Inverse square law:

F (r) = −k/r2 =⇒ F (u−1 ) = −ku2

Substituting into our orbital equation (6.6)

d2 u k
2
+u= (∗)
dθ mh2 u2

This resembles
d2 x
m + kx = F0
dt2
k
The general solution to (∗) is u = A cos(θ − θ0 ) + ; wlog take θ0 = 0 so
mh2
k
u(θ) = A cos(θ) +
mh2

(mh2 /k)
=⇒ r(θ) = 2 (6.10)
1 + Amh
k cos θ

This is the form of an ellipse in polar coordinates (see Problem 10, P.S. 1)
l
r(θ) =
1 + e cos θ

63
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

mh2 Amh2
Where l = ,e= . e = [1 − b2 /a2 ]1/2 , l = a(1 − e2 ) ”
k k

b l
O
a ae

We see that E is related to A.

We can get the family of orbits by considering the energy; equation (6.5) gives
1
E= m[ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 ] + V (r)
2

dV
F (r) = −kr−2 = − , so V (r) = −kr−1 =⇒ V (u−1 ) = −ku.
dr
du
Also ṙ = −h , and r2 θ̇2 = h2 r−2 = h2 u2 . So the energy is
dθ
"  #
2
1 2 du 2
E = mh + u − ku
2 dθ

k du
Using the fact u(θ) = A cos(θ) + , = −A sin θ and simplifying the trig
mh2 dθ
we get
1 1 k2
E = mh2 A2 −
2 2 mh2
s
2E k2
=⇒ A = 2
+
mh (mh2 )2

From (6.9), the eccentricity of the orbit, e = (1 − b2 /a2 )1/2 , is

Amh2
e=
k
s
mh2 2E k2
= 2
+
k mh (mh2 )2
r
2Emh2
= 1+
k2

This parameter e actually allows our solution r(θ) to describe a whole family
of orbits.

64
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

Examples 6.11.
(i) Bounded Trajectories
• E = −k 2 /2mh2 =⇒ e = 0 [Circle]
• E < 0 =⇒ 0 < e < 1 [Ellipse]
(ii) Unbounded Trajectories
• E = 0 =⇒ e = 1 [Parabola]
• E > 0 =⇒ e > 1 [Hyperbola]

6.4 Effective Potential

Consider the energy Lecture 25

1 2 1 2 2
E= mṙ + mr θ̇ + V (r)
2 2

Since h = r2 θ̇, h2 = r4 θ̇2 =⇒ r2 θ̇2 = h2 /r2

1 2 1 mh2
E= mṙ + + V (r)
2 2 r2

1 mh2
Definition. The Effective Potential, VEF F = + V (r)
2 r2

1 2
=⇒ E = mṙ + VEF F
2
What we’ve done is written our energy in such a way that it looks like what
we had with 1D motion!
x −→ r

V (x) −→ VEF F (r)

Definition. Turning points occur when VEF F = E. This tells us where

1 2
2 mṙ = 0 =⇒ ṙ = 0. This tells us about the boundedness of our orbit.

Equilibria
In 1D: V 0 (x0 ) = 0 =⇒ F (x0 ) = 0, where x0 is the equilibrium point
If ẋ = 0 and x = x0 at t = 0, then mẍ = 0 and x = x0 ∀t

1 mh2
VEF F = + V (r)
2 r2
dVEF F
=⇒ = −mh2 r−3 + V 0 (r)
dr | {z }
−F (r)

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6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

Newton’s 2nd Law’s r̂ component (equation (6.2))

m(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) = F (r)
mh2 dVEF F
=⇒ mr̈ = F (r) + =
r3 dr
0
Suppose that VEF F (r0 ) = 0. If r = r0 and ṙ = 0 at t = 0, then mr̈ = 0 =⇒
r = r0 ∀t. So we have a constant r =⇒ Circular Trajectory

Stability
R = r − r0 , |R| << 1, then the Taylor expansion about r0 :
0 1 2 00
VEF F (r) = VEF F (r0 ) + RVEF F (r0 ) + R VEF F (r0 ) + . . . (6.12)
2
0
Since at r0 , VEF F (r0 ) = 0
1 00
VEF F (r) = VEF F (r0 ) + R2 VEF F (r0 )
2
Differentiating
0 00
VEF F (r) = RVEF F (r)

Using this in Newton’s Second Law:

00
mr̈ = −RVEF F (r0 )

or
00
mR̈ + RVEF F (r0 ) = 0
00
• If VEF F (r0 ) > 0 =⇒ a minimum, so the circular orbit is stable.
00
• If VEF F (r0 ) < 0 =⇒ a maximum, so the circular orbit is unstable.

Example 6.13. F (r) = −kr−2 (k > 0) =⇒ V (r) = −kr−1

1
=⇒ VEF F (r) = −kr−1 + mh2 r−2
2
0 −2
=⇒ VEF F (r) = kr − mh2 r−3

Setting this equal to zero

r−3 (kr − mh2 ) = 0

This is satisfied as r → ∞ or at r0 = mh2 /k

00 −3
VEF F (r) = −2kr + 3mh2 r−4

So at the equilibria point

 4  4
00 2 k 2 2 k
VEF F (mh /k) = (3mh − 2k(mh /k)) = (mh2 ) > 0
mh2 mh2

66
6 Angular Momentum Mechanics

This is a stable circular trajectory.

Veff

r∗
r

Emin

!
mh2 k2 k2
 
0 k 1
VEF F( ) = −k + mh2 =−
k mh2 2 (mh2 )2 2mh2

Thus
k2
EM IN = − .
2mh2
We reach the same family of orbits as Example 6.10 by differing values of
E:
(i) Bounded Trajectories
mh2
• E = EM IN = −k 2 /2mh2 =⇒ r = k =⇒ Circular Orbit
• EM IN < E < 0 =⇒ two turning points =⇒ Bounded Orbit
[Ellipse]
(ii) Unbounded Trajectories when E ≥ 0 since we have only a single turn-
ing point. In particular
• E = 0 =⇒ Parabola
• E > 0 =⇒ Hyperbola

67
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

7 Systems of Particles
Definition. Lecture 26

• N: Total number of particles

• ~ri : Position of particle i
• ~vi : Velocity of particle i
• F~i : Force on particle i
• mi : Mass of particle i

Consider the average motion of the system:

Definition. Centre of Mass, ~rcm :
PN PN
i=1 mi~
ri i=1 mi~ri
~rcm = PN =
i=1 mi
M
PN
Where M = i=1 mi is the total mass.

Momentum
The total momentum p~ is
X X X d~ri
p~ = p~i = mi~vi = mi
i i i
dt

d X
= ( mi~ri )
dt i

d
= (M~rcm )
dt
d~rcm
=M = M~vcm
dt

Where ~vcm is the velocity of the centre of mass.

N
X
F~i = F~iEXT + F~ij
j=1

where F~iEXT is the external forces on particle i, F~ij is the force on i due to j

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7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

Example 7.1.

Here F~gi (Force due to gravity on i) is the only external force on i =⇒

F~ EXT = F~gi
i

Note that
(i) F~ii = ~0
(ii) F~ij = −F~ji By Newton’s Third Law

Theorem 7.2: Newton’s Second Law for a System

The external force is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the

centre of mass
d~vcm
M = F~ EXT
dt
Where the total external force on the system F~ EXT =
P ~ EXT
F . i i

Proof. For particle i,

N
d~
pi X
= F~i = F~iEXT + F~ij
dt j=1

X d~
pi X X XX
=⇒ = F~i = F~iEXT + F~ij
i
dt i i i j
P P ~
Due to Newton’s Third Law ~
i j Fij = 0. We are then left with

X d~
pi X
= F~iEXT
i
dt i

d X
=⇒ ( p~i ) = F~ EXT
dt i

d~vcm
=⇒ M = F~ EXT ”
dt
(i) If there is no external forces then

d~vcm d~
p
M =0=
dt dt
(The conservation of momentum)
(ii) If there are external forces then the centre of mass moves as though it
were a point particle of mass m subject to force F~ EXT

69
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

7.1 Two Body Problems

r1
R
r
r2

F~1 = m1 g î + F~12
F~2 = m2 g î + F~21
The total external force:

F~ EXT = m1 g î + m2 g î = M g î (M = m1 + m + 2)

Thus
d~vcm d~vcm
M = M g î =⇒ = g î
dt dt
For two body problems this is half of the information.

d2~r1
m1 = F~1EXT + F~12 (7.3)
dt2

d2~r2
m2 = F~2EXT + F~21 (7.4)
dt2
m1~r1 + m2~r2
Calling , and adding the equations
m1 + m2
d2~r1 d2~r2
m1 + m2 = F~1EXT + F~2EXT
dt2 dt2
 
d m1~v1 + m2~v2
M = F~1EXT + F~2EXT
dt M

d~vcm
M = F~1EXT + F~2EXT
dt
Lecture 27
Consider: m2 × (7.4) − m1 × (7.3)

d2
m1 m2 (~r1 − ~r2 ) = m2 F~1EXT + m1 F~2EXT + m2 F~12 − m1 F~21
dt2
Call ~r12 = (~r1 − ~r2 ). Since F~12 = −F~21

d2~r12
m1 m2 = m2 F~1EXT + m1 F~2EXT + (m1 + m2 )F~12
dt2
Divide through by M

m1 m2 d2~r12 m2 F~1EXT + m1 F~2EXT

= + F~12
M dt2 M

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7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

m1 m2
Definition. Introduce µ = , the reduced mass.
M

Then for our two body system we have:

d~vcm
M = F~1EXT + F~2EXT (7.5)
dt

d2~r12 m2 F~1EXT + m1 F~2EXT

µ = + F~12 (7.6)
dt2 M

If F~1EXT = F~2EXT = 0, then:

d~vcm d2~r12
M = 0, and µ 2 = F~12
dt dt

If F~1EXT = −m1 g ĵ and F~2EXT = −m2 g ĵ, then:

d~vcm d2~r12
M = −M g ĵ, and µ 2 = F~12
dt dt

Example 7.7 (Spring).

Spring has a spring constant k and equilibrium length l.

F~12 = −k(x1 − x2 − l) î

Initially x1 (0) = k, ẋ1 = v0 . x2 (0) = ẋ2 (0) = 0.

F~12 is the only force in the î direction. No external forces in the î direction.

=⇒ M ẍcm = 0 =⇒ ẋcm = C

We can find C using the conservation of momentum

p~ = mẋ1 + mẋ2 = M ẋcm

At t = 0, ẋ1 = v0 and ẋ2 = 0. Then p = mv0 . Since M = 2m:

ẋcm = v0 /2

For x12 = x1 − x2
m1 m2 m2 m
µ= = =
m1 + m2 2m 2
F~12 = −k(x1 − x2 − l) = −k(x12 − l)

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7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

Using the equation for ~r12

µẍ12 = F~12
m
ẍ12 = −k(x12 − l)
2
2k 2kl
ẍ12 + x12 =
m m

The general solution is

x12 = A cos ωt + B sin ωt + l

2k
where ω 2 = m.

From our initial conditions x12 (0) = x1 (0) − x2 (0) = l and ẋ12 = v0 .

=⇒ A = 0, B = v0 /ω

Thus
v0
x12 = sin ωt + l
ω
ẋ12 = v0 cos ωt

We can show that (in general)

~r1 = ~rcm + m
~ 2 M~r12

~r2 = ~rcm + m
~ 1 M~r12

Thus
1
x1 = xcm + x12
2
1 v0 1 v0
ẋ1 = ẋcm + ẋ12 = + v0 cos ωt = (1 + cos ωt)
2 2 2 2
Similarly
v0
ẋ2 = (1 − cos ωt)
2
This is a push-me-pull-you system.

What about more than two particles?

Definition (Centre of Mass Coordinates).

~ i = ~ri − ~rcm
R

This is the position of particle i relative to the position of the centre of

mass

72
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

X X X
~i =
mi R mi~ri −~rcm mi = 0
i i i
| {z } | {z }
M~
rcm M

Kinetic Energy
X1
T = mi vi2
i
2

dR~i dR~i
We can write ~vi = ~vcm + , ~ui = , so ~vi = ~vcm + ~ui Lecture 28
dt dt
X1
T = mi (~vcm + ~ui ) · (~vcm + ~ui )
i
2

X1
2
= [vcm + 2~ui · ~vcm + u2i
i
2

1 2 X X 1X
= vcm mi + ~vcm · mi ~ui + mi u2i
2 i i
2 i

1 2 1X X
= M vcm + mi u2i + ~vcm · mi ~ui
2 2 i i

dR~i d P
Consider
P
mi ~ui =
P
mi ~ i ) = 0. Then
= ( i mi R
i i
dt dt
1 2
X1
T = M vcm + mi u2i (7.8)
2 i
2

7.2 Angular Momentum

J~ = ~r × p~ = ~r × m~v
For central forces where the motion was restricted to a plane J~ = mh k̂ =
constant vector.
What causes J~ to change?

dJ~ d~r d~v

= × m~v + ~r ×
dt dt dt
0
= m ×
[~v  ] + ~r × F~ = ~τ
~v
:

Definition. ~τ = ~r × F~ is the Torque or the Moment.

73
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

• ~τ is in the direction out of the screen

• |~τ | = |F~ ||~r| sin φ

For central forces

Since φ = 0 =⇒ ~τ = 0.
For a system, the total angular momentum
X X
J~ = J~i = ~ri × mi~vi
i i

dJ~ X dJ~i X
=⇒ ~τ = = = ~ri × F~i
dt i
dt i

Write F~i = F~iEXT + j F~ij . Then we have

P

dJ~ X XX
~τ = ~ri × F~iEXT + ~ri × F~ij (7.9)
dt i i j

Theorem 7.10: Conservation of Angular Momentum (System)

If there is no net torque, the angular momentum is conserved.

Proof (for two body system). Suppose we have two particles. Then the double
sum is
~r1 × F~12 + ~r2 × F~21

By Newton’s Third Law F~12 = −F~21 . Thus

~r1 × F~12 + ~r2 × F~21 = (~r1 − ~r2 ) × F~12

If F~12 is parallel to ~r1 − ~r2 , then (~r1 − ~r2 ) × F~12 = 0.

This is the case if F~12 is a central force, i.e. no torque.
Thus if F~ij is a central force for all i and j. Then
XX
~ri × F~ij = ~0
i j

Then
dJ~ X
= ~ri × F~iEXT = ~τ EXT
dt i

where ~τ EXT is the total external torque on the system.

dJ~ ~
So if ~τ EXT = ~0 then = 0, hence the angular momentum is conserved. ”
dt

74
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

Example 7.11.

~ ×~ri , with ω
Each particle has mass m. Each mass has velocity ~vi = ω ~ = ω k̂
The angular momentum of particle i is:

J~i = ~ri × mi~vi = m[~ri × (~

ω × ~ri )]

~ × (B
Recall that A ~ × C)
~ = (A
~ · C)
~ B~ − (A
~ · B)
~ C~

0
~ri × (~
ω × ~ri ) = (~ri · ~ri )~
ω −
(~ri· 
ω
~
:)~ri = r2 ω k̂

Thus
J~i = mr2 ω k̂
X
=⇒ J~ = J~i = 4mr2 ω k̂ = 2ml2 ω k̂
i

Suppose that

~ × ~ri . What’s Ω?
~ × ~ri −→ ~vi = Ω
~vi = ω ~

dJ~
Single the configuration changed to to internal, central forces, =0
dt
For our new configuration
2
~ × ~ri )] = 2mri2 Ω k̂ = ml Ω k̂
J~i = 2m[~ri × (Ω
2
The total angular momentum

J~ = 2J~i = ml2 Ω k̂

dJ~
Since = 0 =⇒ J~bef ore = J~af ter
dt

=⇒ 2ml2 ω k̂ = ml2 Ω k̂
=⇒ Ω = 2ω

The angular speed doubles as a result of the change.

75
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

Centre of Mass Coordinates

Lecture 29
~i
~ri = ~rcm + R
!
dR~i
~vi = ~vcm + ~ui , ~ui =
dt
Thus
X
J~ = ~ i ) × mi (~vcm + ~ui )
(~rcm + R
i
X X X X
= ~rcm × mi~vcm + ~rcm × mi ~ui + ~ i × mi~vcm +
R ~ i × mi ~ui
R
i i i i
X X X X
= ~rcm × ~vcm ( mi ) + ~rcm × ( mi ~ui ) + ( mi Ri ) × ~vcm + Ri × mi ~ui
i i i i

We know that
P
mi = M ,
P ~ i = P mi ~ui = 0. Thus
mi R
i i i
X
J~ = ~rcm × M~vcm + ~ i × mi ~ui
R
i

Call J~cm = i R
P ~
i × mi ~
ui
Recall that
dJ~ X
= ~ri × F~iEXT (= ~τ EXT )
dt i

~i
Since ~ri = ~rcm + R

dJ~ X
== ~rcm × F~iEXT
dt i
X
= ~rcm × F~ EXT + ~ i × F~iEXT
R
i

We can show (P.S. 4 Problem 9)

dJ~cm X
~ i × F~ EXT
= R i
dt i

Call X
EXT
~τcm = ~ i × F~iEXT
R
i

Complete Picture
(i) Momentum:
p~ = M~vcm
d~
p d~vcm
=M = F~ EXT
dt dt

76
7 Systems of Particles Mechanics

(ii) Angular Momentum:

J~ = ~rcm × M~vcm + J~cm

X
J~cm = R~ i × mi ~ui
i

dJ~
= ~rcm × F~ EXT + ~τcm
EXT
dt

77
8 Rigid Body Motion Mechanics

8 Rigid Body Motion

Definition. Rigid Body Motion occurs when

d|~r−~rj |
= 0, ∀i, j
dt
For such a system
~ ×R
~vi = ~vcm + ω ~
| {z }i
~
ui

Where ω
~ is the angular velocity of the rigid body.
We can also write
~ +ω
~vi = V ~ × ~ri
~ = ~vcm − ω
where V ~ × ~rcm

To determine the motion of the system we’ll need to find ~vcm and ω
~ . For ~vcm
we already have this!
d~vcm
M = F~ EXT (8.1)
dt
What about ω
~? X
J~cm = ~ i × mi ~ui
R
i

~ ×R
For a rigid body ~ui = ω ~i
X X
J~cm = ~ i × mi (~
R ~
ω × R)i) = ~ i × (~
m i (R ~ i ))
ω×R
i i

From the identity for the triple vector product, we have

X
J~cm = mi [Ri2 ω
~ − (~ ~ i )R
ω·R ~ i]
i

Consider only planar motion: we have ω ~ i = Xi î + Yi ĵ. Thus

~ = ω k̂, and R
~ i = 0, ∀i
~ ·R
ω

As a result: X
J~cm = ( mi Ri2 ) ω
~ (8.2)
i
| {z }
Icm

Definition. Icm is the moment of inertia about the centre of mass.

d|Ri |
For this Rigid Body Motion = 0. This means that Icm is constant.
dt
Consider
dJ~cm d~
ω EXT
X
~ i × F~ EXT
= Icm = ~τcm = R i
dt dt i

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8 Rigid Body Motion Mechanics

For a rigid body undergoing planar motion:

d~vcm
M = F~ EXT (8.3)
dt

dω EXT
Icm = τcm (8.4)
dt
(Scalar Equation since all in k̂)

8.1 Kinetic Energy

1 2 1X
T = M~vcm + mi ~u2i
2 2 i

~ i , u2 = (~
~ ×R
~ui = ω ~ i ) · (~
ω×R ~ i)
ω×R
i

For planar motion |~ ~ i | = |~

ω×R ~ i | =⇒ u2 = ω 2 R2
ω ||R i i
 
1 2 1 X
T = M~vcm +  mi Ri2  ω 2
2 2 i

1 2 1
=⇒ T = M~vcm + Icm ω 2
2 2

Definition. The continuous case: Lecture 30

X Z
M= mi = dm
i B

P R
mi~ri
i B
~r dm
~rcm = =
M M
X Z
Icm = mi Ri2 = R2 dm
i B

Equations of motion remain the same.

Example 8.5 (Uniform Rod).

79
8 Rigid Body Motion Mechanics

a
ω

Alternatively, we may do it in terms of forces and torques,

F
v
Mg α

8.2 * Parallel Axis Theorem *

Lecture 31
(Non-examinable in 2015)

Theorem 8.6: Parallel Axis Theorem

For an axis, P , parallel to the centre of mass

2
IP = ICM + M rCM

Proof. X X
IP = mi ri2 = ~ i )2
mi (~rCM + R
i i
X
2
= mi rCM +2
i
”

Felina. Consider a Physical Pendulum

Mg

80
8 Rigid Body Motion Mechanics

Taking the pivot to be the origin because we know that it does not move.
Compute I, J~ and ~τ relative (or about) the pivot rather than the centre of
mass.
EXT
Icm ω̇ = τcm =⇒ Ip ω̇ = τpEXT
We can use the parallel axis theorem to find Ip . For point particles
X
I= mi ri2
i
X
= ~ i )2
mi (~rcm + R
i
X X X
= 2
mi rcm + 2~rcm · ( ~ i) +
mi R mi Ri2
i i i

2
= M rcm + Icm
2
=⇒ I = Icm + M rcm

We can consider
Ip ω̇ = τpEXT

We just need to consider the torque due to gravity.

~τg = ~rcm × F~g
Since
~rcm = rcm [cos θ î + sin θ ĵ]

F~g = M g î

~τg = ~rcm × F~g

= M grcm sin( ĵ × î)

= −M grcm sin θ k̂

We can write ω̇ = θ̈
=⇒ Ip θ̈ = −M grcm sin θ
M grcm
θ̈ + sin θ = 0
Ip
Recall: For a point mass
g
θ̈ + sin θ = 0
l
Take θ << 1, sin θ ≡ θ
M grcm
θ̈ + θ=0
Ip

Frequency: s
M grcm
ω=
Ip

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8 Rigid Body Motion Mechanics

For a disc:
Icm = M R2 /2
From parallel axis theorem

M R2 2
Ip = + M rcm
2
s
M grcm
ω= M R2
+ M rcm2
2
r
g
=
l
!
R2
Where l = rcm 1+ 2
2rcm

- End of Mechanics -

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