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Basics of Research Design: A Guide to selecting appropriate research design

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International Journal of Contemporary Applied Researches Vol. 6, No. 5, May 2019
(ISSN: 2308-1365) www.ijcar.net

Basics of Research Design: A Guide to selecting appropriate research

design
Bostley Muyembe Asenahabi
Kibabii University
[email protected]

Abstract
For a research to be carried out successfully, it requires suitable research design. This is a plan
adopted by a researcher before data collection commences so as to achieve the research
objective in a valid way. The essence of research design is to translate a research problem into
data for analysis so as to provide relevant answers to research questions at a minimum cost.
This paper investigates what research design is, the different kinds of research design and how
a researcher can choose the appropriate research design for his/her study. The study reveals
that research design choice is guided by a careful analysis of statement of the problem,
research questions, conceptual /theoretical framework and analyzing the relevant literature.

Keywords: Research design, Quantitative research, Qualitative research, Mixed method

research

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1. Introduction
Research is a careful and systematic way of solving problems and gaining new knowledge
(Bhattacharyya, 2006; Thomas et al., 2011). Research can also be defined as being a
systematic process of discovery and advancement of human knowledge. It should solve a
problem or make an innovative contribution to the existing body of knowledge (Gratton &
Jones, 2010; Kumar, 2008). For something to be counted as research, it has to be systematic
and methodical in its approach and procedures and has to meet relevant norms and standards
for validity and reliability.

Design is basically concerned with the aims, uses, purposes, intentions and plans within the
practical constraint of location, time, money and the researcher’s availability (Hakim, 2000).
Research design is a reflection upon a researcher’s ideas. It helps prevent frustration by
binding the research together through a structure plan that show how all the major parts of the
research work in unison to try to address the research questions.

An inquiry is categorized as a research if, as echoed by Jongbo (2014), it meets specific

standards: it has to be based on a precise research problem and Specific Measurable
Attainable Realistic Time-bound (S.M.A.R.T) objectives; it has to be informed in appropriate
ways by theories and concepts; it must have appropriate data collection, organizing and
analyzing techniques; it must offer an informed interpretation of results, and its findings must
be consistent with the research question and implementation of the research design.
According to Creswell, (2014), researchers have to question themselves about the new knowledge
and theoretical perspectives that they are bringing to any research. They must reflect upon the
strategies they intend to use within their study which will in turn inform their methods. They also
have to question themselves how they will collect and analyze information. Vogt et al., (2012)
postulates that this must be done so that researchers have a perception of any bias that they might
bring to any research investigation, how it will affect the choice of approach that they utilize and
the tools with which they choose to collect their data.

The concept of research has to be understood by a researcher so as to understand which

research methods and techniques to adopt, how to use them and where they will fit in the
overall research process (Jongbo, 2014). A researcher requires sufficient knowledge of
research design and its significance in research so as to overcome the challenges of selecting
the research method and techniques to adopt in a research.
Basically, there are three distinct approaches to connecting research: quantitative, qualitative
and mixed methods. This paper explains the concept of research design citing relevant studies
on the basis of such crucial qualities so that a researcher can have a clear vision of what
research design is, which one to adopt in a research and why.

2. Literature Review
Research design is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual research problems to the
pertinent and achievable empirical research. It is an inquiry which provides specific direction
for procedures in a research (Creswell, 2014). This is a step by step procedure which is
adopted by a researcher before data collection and analysis process commences so as to
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achieve the research objective in a valid way. The essence of research design is to translate a
research problem into data for analysis so as to provide relevant answers to research questions
at a minimum cost. Kerlinger, (1986) describes research design as a plan, structure and
strategy of investigation that is adopted with an aim of obtaining answers to research
questions with optimal control of variables.

Research design always determines the kinds of analysis that are to be done so as to get the
desire results. It articulates what data is required, what methods are going to be used to collect
and analyze the data and how it is going to answer the research questions. In line with this,
Jongbo (2014) pinpoints that if a researcher collects data before thinking through the research
design matters and what information is required to answer the research questions, the
conclusions drawn will most likely be weak and unconvincing hence in the end fail to obtain
the research objective. The research design must contain a strategy for interpreting the
analysed data so as to provide adequate findings and conclusions from the research which will
allow the researcher make recommendations or implications based on the study. Research
design is divided into three groups: quantitative; qualitative and mixed method research
design. The researcher has to decide the most appropriate design which befits the type of
research work.

Research
Design

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Method

Research Design Research Design Research Design

Experimental Case studies Convergent parallel

mixed method
 True experiment
 Quasi-experiments Narrative Research Explanatory
sequential mixed
Phenomenological methods
Non-Experimental Research
 Survey Research Exploratory sequential
 Causal-comparative Grounded theory mixed methods
research
 Correlation design Ethnography

Action Research

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Figure 1: Summarized form of research design types.

2.1 Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research design is the technique and measurements that produces
quantifiable/discrete values (Kothari, 2007). The collected data results from empirical
observations and measures. These methods require a good amount of time and planning. They
always tend to have closed ended responses.

Quantitative reserch is considered as an analytical approach towards research. Quantitative

researchers, as Rovai et al., (2014) elaborate, regard the world as being outside of themselves
and there is an objective reality which is independent of any observations.

They further explain that for the purpose of research study, this objective reality is to be
broken down into small manageable pieces which form the research objectives or hypothesis
so that it can be understood. The relationships among variables in the objectives enable the
researcher to generate data or test hypothesis through diffetent data collection methods.
Conclusions can be drawn with respect to the objectives or hypothesis following a series of
data analysis. The process of collecting and analyzing data is conducted applying
mathematical and statistical methods which focus upon either experimental or non-
experimental methods on collecting numeical data and generalizing the analyzed results to the
study population. This method is based on postpositivist worldview (Phillips & Burbules,
2000). Quantitative research is divided into non-experimental research and experimental
research designs.

2.1.1 Non-Experimental Design

Non-experimental design is basically quantitative research which does not involve
experiments in the process of data collection. It is divided into three groups: Survey design;
Causal-comparative design; Correlation design.

Survey Research
This type of research provides a numeric description of attitudes, opinions or trends of a
population by studying a sample of that population. According to McNeill and Chapman,
(2005) it is a method of obtaining large amounts of data, usually in a statistical form,
from a large number of people in a relatively short time using closed-ended questions.
Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) point out that survey method is the process of collecting data
from a sample group so as to determine the status of that group as per that time with respect to
one or more variables. It is concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of
the phenomena being investigated (Singh, 2006). This method comes in handy when a
researcher is studying several variables using a large sample size and rigorous statistical
analysis (Sjøberg et al., 2007).

Survey research, as Jongbo, (2014) explains, involves a critical observation of events, objects,
subjects and ideas without attempt to control the condition of such phenomenal. It describes a
given state of affairs which exists at a particular time and requires a direct contact with
individual whose characteristic, behaviours and attitudes are relevant to the investigation.
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Survey research observations can be cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. Cross-sectional

means the observations are done at one or more point in time while longitudinal study means
the observations are carried out at different points in time. Cross sectional research
design is descriptive, exploratory and explanatory while longitudinal survey focus on trend
analysis cohort design and panel design (Jongbo, 2014). It either uses questionnaires or
structured interviews for data collection with the intention of generalizing the sampled
data to a population (Fowler, 2009). A variety of methods are available for administering
surveys, however, the most popular are face-to-face, telephone, internet survey and mail. This
is a good method to use to get data about what, why, how many (Mugenda & Mugenda,
2003).

It deals with questions that seek to find out about the nature of the target population and is
best utilized when control of dependent and independent variables is not easily achievable
or desirable (Wabwoba & Ikoha, 2011). It is instrumental when the sample has to be studied
in its natural setting and occur in the current time or the recent past.

Survey research method can be further classified into: Descriptive survey (survey testing
method, questionnaire survey method, Interview survey method); Analytical survey
(Documentary frequency, Observational survey, Rating survey, Critical incident, Factor
analysis); School survey and Genetic survey (Singh, 2006). School survey is an attempt to
measure the effect of objective characteristics on human beings. It is concerned with both the
objective aspects of an educational institutions including its administrative provisions and
practices and the educational attainments of its pupils. The ultimate aim of all school surveys
in educationalprogress which they achieve by focussing attention on unfulfilled needs or
unrecognized evils of a school system on the one hand and on worthwhile practices on the
other.

The principal advantage of survey studies is that they provide information on large groups
of people, with very little effort, and in a cost-effective manner. Surveys allow
researchers to assess a wider variety of behaviors and other phenomena than can be studied in
a typical naturalisticobservation study (Marczyk et al., 2005).

The major drawbacks of survey design are: controlling against sample bias which can greately
compromise generalization of the findings to the population; its dependency on the
cooperation of the respondents which in the long run determines the degree of the results’
reliability. Information that is not known by the respondents can hardly by unearthed and the
information that is personal or secretive may easily be inaccurate (Wabwoba & Ikoha, 2011).

Causal-comparative/ ex-post facto research

Causal-comparative research is a type of non-experimental quantitative design where the
researcher compares two groups or more. This comparison is performed with respect to a
cause (which is the independent variable) which has already occurred (Creswell, 2014).
Jongbo, (2014) attests that it is employed when there are two groups which differ on
independent variable and the researcher wishes to investigate the difference of one or more
dependent variables or difference of one or more independent variables.
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Correlational research
Correlational research is a non-experimental quantitative design in which the researcher
applies correlational statistics to measure and describe the degree of association among
variables or sets of scores (Creswell., 2012). They attempt to find relationships between the
characteristics of the respondents and their reported behaviors and opinions (Marczyk et al.,
2005).

2.1.2 Experimental Research

Experimental research is the investigation where one or more dependent variables is
manipulated to measure the effect on one or more variables. Jongbo, (2014) postulates that
experimental research is based on cause-and-effect relationship on selected subject matter. It
employs the use of two groups namely experimental and control groups where the
experimental group is given treatment while the control group is not manipulated in order to
establish the nature of relationship between the studied variables. In line with this, Sjøberg et
al., (2007) contend that experiments are performed where the researcher needs to have control
over the situation with direct, precise and systematic manipulation of the behaviour of the
phenomenon under study. This method is important in situations where testing of theories or
hypothesis is at the centre of the study (Wabwoba & Ikoha, 2011).

There are different types of experimental designs: Pre-experimental designs is where the
researcher studies a single group and provides an intervention during the experiment. In
this case, there is no control group to compare with the experimental group. Quasi-
experiments where the researcher uses control and experimental groups but does not
randomly assign participants to groups. True experiment where the researcher randomly
assigns the participants to treatment groups. Single-subject design which involves observing
the behavior of a single individual or a small number of individuals over time. (Creswell,
2014).

One procedure to have control over experiments is using covariates for instance pretest scores
as moderating variables and controlling for their effects statistically, selecting homogeneous
samples, or blocking the participants into subgroups or categories and analyzing the
impact of each subgroup on the outcome (Creswell, 2012).

2.2 Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research emphasizes on exploring and understanding the meaning which a person
or group of people ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014). The historic origin
for qualitative research comes from anthropology, sociology, the humanities and evaluation.
Qualitative research design produces data that is not quantifiable using open-ended questions.
This approach enables the researcher to comprehend issues by investigating them in their own
specific context and the meaning that individuals bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Its
main focus is to generate meaning, purpose or reality from opinions and experiences of
participants (Merriam, 2009).

Qualitative research is usually inductive in nature and has several underlying assumptions:
reality is a social construct; variables are difficult to measure, complex and interwoven; there
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is a primacy of subject matter and data collected will consist of an insider’s viewpoint (Rovai
et al., 2014). This approach to research values individuality, culture and social justice hence
providing a content and context rich breadth of information which despite being subjective in
nature, it is current. The methods used to collect data under this design are basically
interview, observation and participation.

Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) attest that this enables the researcher to go beyond statistical
results. This research method is based on constructivist worldview (Lincoln et al., 2011).

2.2.1 Case Study

Case study is a design of inquiry in which a researcher creates an in-depth analysis of a case
which entail a process, animal, person, household, organization, group, industry, culture, or
nationality. This is in line with (Sjøberg et al., 2007; Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) who
elaborate that it is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or
phenomenon within its real life context especially where phenomena and context have
a slim difference. Here depth means to explore all peculiarities of case. Case study is the
intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It
gives a detailed knowledge about the phenomena and not able to generalize beyond the
knowledge (Singh, 2006). Singh goes on to explain that case study is an intensive
investigation of the particular unit represented. It is bounded by time and activities. According
to Woodside, (2010) case study is an inquiry that focuses on describing, understanding,
predicting, and/or controlling the unit under study.

Case study gives a rigorous understanding of how and why certain phenomena occurs by
revealing the mechanism by which a causal relationship occurs (Wabwoba & Ikoha, 2011).
The researchers collects detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures and
tools over a sustained period of time (Yin, 2012). Basically, a case study is out to determine
factors and the relationships among them which led to the behavior being studied. It gives
detailed information about the unit being studied. Case study technique studies the subject-
matter qualitatively and covers all aspects of a single entity (Trochim et al., 2015). It requires
a considerable amount of information, and therefore conclusions are based on a much more
detailed and comprehensive set of information (Marczyk et al., 2005).

This method has been criticized for relying on the researchers’ interpretation which most
likely leads to different interpretations over the same situation. The data collection process
and analysis is also open to researcher bias (Wabwoba & Ikoha, 2011). Like all non-
experimental approaches, they merely describe what occurred, but they cannot tell us why it
occurred. The small number of individuals examined in these studies makes it unlikely that
the findings will generalize to other people with similar issues or problems (Marczyk et al.,
2005).

2.2.2 Narrative research

Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities where by the researcher studies
lives of individuals and asks them to provide stories about their lives (Riessman, 2008). The

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information is then organized and retold by the researcher into a narrative chronology. Often,
in the end, the narrative combines views from the participant’s life with those of the
researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The participants’
stories are re-told by the researcher using structural devices, such as plot, setting, activities,
climax and denouement.

2.2.3 Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry which originates from philosophy and
psychology where the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon as described by the participants.it is a qualitative strategy in which the
researcher identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by
participants in a study (Creswell, 2014). This description culminates in the essence of the
experiences for several individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. It uses the
analysis of significant statements, the generation of meaning units, and the development of
essence description (Moustakas, 1994). This design has strong philosophical underpinnings
and typically involves conducting interviews (Giorgi, 2009)

2.2.4 Grounded theory

Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement
and interrelationship of categories of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & Strauss, 2007).
Grounded theory has systematic steps which involve generating categories of information
(open coding), selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a theoretical model
(axial coding), and then explicating a story from the interconnection of these categories
(selective coding). This is a discovery method which allows the researcher to develop
theoretical accounts which are based on concepts, categories and prepositions. It is used for
developing theoretical framework for conceptualizing organizational issues around the
adoption and use of Information Technology innovations and applications (Jabar et al., 2009).
Jabar goes on to expound that the main undoing of this method is its sensitivity to the
thoroughness and skills of researchers in interpreting data making it unfavorable for novice
researchers.

2.2.5 Ethnography
Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which
the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time. Data collection often
involves observations and interviews (Creswell, 2014). Ethnographic research involves a
rigorous description of the setting or individuals which is afterwards followed by analysis of
the data for themes or issues (Wolcott, 1994).

Its goal is to study a community of people to understand how the members make sense of the
social interactions. Ethnography as a design can be applicable in Information Technology
where by the researchers can research on human, social and organizational aspects of

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Information Technology innovations and applications for instance communities building a

culture of practice and communication strategies to enable them to collaboratively use
technology innovations (Sjøberg et al., 2007). Wabwoba and Ikoha, (2011) further explain
that it is a powerful assessment of technology user’s needs and allows for perceiving
Information Technology innovations and applications in the eyes of the users.

Ethnography involves the researcher taking part, talking and doing things with participants
in their real life situation for a long period of time. It is mainly carried out through
observation over a period of time, (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) hence giving it a longitudinal
perspective.

2.2.6 Action Research

Action research has for a long time been used to come up with an immediate and concrete
solution to a problem in a local setting (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). It seeks to generate a
solution to the problem at hand and is not concerned with whether the results can be
generalized to any other setting. This research approach is of interest to scholars with an aim
to intervene in the studied circumstances by developing an innovation to solve a problem in
the society with little or no interest in generalization of the solution (Wabwoba & Ikoha,
2011). Sjøberg et al., (2007) clarify that it develops a solution that is of practical value to the
people or organizations with whom the researcher is working with as it is an interactive
process, yet it has minimal contribution to knowledge.

Despite the limited contribution it has for the body of knowledge, it is significant because it
has the ability to provide answers to problems that can not wait for theoretical solutions.
Its main weakness lies in its lack of objectivity on the researcher (Mugenda & Mugenda,
2003). This research approach also lacks control group and variables.

2.3 Mixed Methods research design

Mixed method research design is an integration of qualitative and quantitative research and
data in a research study. According to Burke-Johnson et al., (2007) this is an empirical
research in which a researcher combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research
approaches for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.
Under mixed method research design, qualitative research brings in open-ended data without
predetermined responses while quantitative research brings in closed-ended data (Creswell,
2014). Mixed method research design is based on pragmatic worldview (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 2010). This method was born out of the idea that both qualitative and quantitative
designs have weaknesses, thus collecting both of them neutralized the weakness of the other.
This approach leads to a greater degree of understanding being formulated unlike if a single
approach is adopted to a specific study (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). They further stated
that a researcher collects and analyzes both qualitative and quantitative data in either
sequential and/or simultaneous and the exhaustive manner in whichthe researcher integrates
the two forms of data will depend upon the nature of the inquiry and the philosophical outlook
of the researcher.

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There are four distinct justifications for integrating quantitative and qualitative research data
(Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2007): Triangulation design; Embedded design; Explanatory design
and Exploratory design
Triangulation design

Figure 2: Triangulation mixed method design. Adopted from Creswell and Plano-Clark,
(2007).

Triangulation design which seeks to gather complimentary yet distinctly different data on the
same topic which can then be integrated for analysis and interpretation. It provides
opportunities for convergence and corroboration of results that are derived from different
research methods. It makes intuitive sense to utilize different methods to gather information
from different sources which work together as an efficient design.
Embedded design

Figure 3: Embedded mixed method design. Adopted from Creswell and Plano-Clark, (2007).

Embedded design where one method of enquiry is used in a supportive secondary role which
enables researchers and readers to make sense of the study in its entirety. It seeks elaboration,
supporting, enhancement, illustration, clarification of the results from one method using the
results from the other method. It requires fewer resources and produces less data which
makes it an easier option for researchers to tackle. This method is used in quantitative
experimental designs where only a limited quantity of qualitative data is necessary.
Explanatory designs

Figure 4: Explanatory mixed method design. Adopted from Creswell and Plano-Clark, (2007).

Explanatory design is a two-stage which involves quantitative data being used as the basis on
which to build and explain qualitative data. The quantitative data informs the qualitative data

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selection process. In this case, the researcher can specifically collect data that is relevant to
that specific research.
Exploratory design

Figure 5: Exploratory mixed methods design. Adopted from Creswell and Plano-Clark,
(2007).

Exploratory design is a two stage design which involves qualitative data being used as a basis
on which to build and explain quantitative data gathering process. The separate stages are
easy to implement and the qualitative data is acceptable to quantitative researches.

There are three basic types of mixed method research: convergent parallel mixed methods;
explanatory sequential mixed methods and exploratory sequential mixed methods.

2.3.1 Convergent parallel mixed methods

Convergent parallel mixed methods is a form of mixed methods design in which the
researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator typically
collects both forms of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the information
in the interpretation of the overall results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are
explained or further probed in this design. Creswell, (2014) outlines that this is a mixed
methods strategy in which a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data,
analyzes them separately, and then compares the results to see if the findings confirm or
disconfirm each other.

2.3.2 Explanatory sequential mixed methods

Explanatory sequential mixed methods is one in which the researcher first conducts
quantitative research, analyzes the results and then builds on the results to explain them in
more detail with qualitative research. It is considered explanatory because the initial
quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data. It is considered
sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative phase. This type
of design is popular in fields with a strong quantitative orientation (hence the project begins
with quantitative research), but it presents challenges of identifying the quantitative results to
further explore and the unequal sample sizes for each phase of the study. According to
Creswell, (2014) this is a mixed methods strategy that involves a two-phase project in which
the researcher collects quantitative data in the first phase, analyzes the results, and then uses
the results to plan (or build into) the second, qualitative phase.

2.3.3 Exploratory sequential mixed methods

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Exploratory sequential mixed methods is the reverse sequence from the explanatory
sequential design. In the exploratory sequential approach the researcher first begins with a
qualitative research phase and explores the views of participants. The data are then analyzed,
and the information used to build into a second, quantitative phase. The qualitative phase may
be used to build an instrument that best fits the sample under study, to identify appropriate
instruments to use in the follow-up quantitative phase, or to specify variables that need to
go into a follow-up quantitative study. Particular challenges to this design reside in focusing
in on the appropriate qualitative findings to use and the sample selection for both phases of
research. Creswell, (2014) explains that this is a mixed methods strategy that involves a
two-phase project in which the researcher first collects qualitative data and then follows up or
builds on this database with a second quantitative data collection and analysis.

2.4 Choosing the correct research design for a research

The essence of research design is to achieve the research objective clearly, objectively,
precisely and economically, control extraneous variance and minimize errors.

A researcher is expected to identify an area of interest, analyze literature in that area and
locate a research gap in that area. The research gap should be critically analyzed and be
framed into research objectives anr research questions with researchable variables. A research
design is build on a concisely framed statement of the problem, research questions and clear
sense of the research purpose. The researcher needs to keep reading the relevant literature
until he is confident of the research question and the kinds of theory and concepts that fit the
research question. It also helps to make coherent and justifiable decisions about the kinds of
data to collect and how to analyze it.

Having prior knowledge of the different types of research design and guidance by a careful
analysis of research statement of the problem, research questions, conceptual /theoretical
framework and analyzing the relevant literature, the researcher should be able to select the
most appropriate and relevant research design.

A quality research design comes up with a plan which incooperates the research problem,
research questions, data collection methods, organization and analysis techniques which form
a strong evidence of answers to the research questions and even convince users to accept that
the findings based upon them are reasonable inferences.

3.0 Conclusion
A good research design shields a researcher from frustration by binding the research work
together through a plan that outlines how all the major parts of the research work together to
address the research questions. The chances of success of research work is boosted when the
initial part is correctly defined as a precise statement of goals and justification. After this, the
sequential steps necessary for writing a research plan and then successfully executing the
research work will be easier to identify and organize. The choice of reseach design for a
research study should be based on the nature of research but not randomly picking without
justifiable reasons.

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