S.E.

(Computer Engineering) Semester-IV

(Revised Course 2019-20) EXAMINATION JULY 2022
Discrete Mathematics Answer key

PART-A

1. a) Let A, B and C be any three non empty sets. Prove that

( A − B) − ( B − C) = A − B.
Solution:

A B C 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝐵−𝐶 (𝐴 − 𝐵) − (𝐵 − 𝐶)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0

b) How many relations exist from a set containing m elements to a set

containing n elements? How many of these relations are functions?
Solution: Since set A has m elements and set B has n elements,
A x B has m x n elements. Any subset of A x B is a relation .
There are 2𝑚×𝑛 subsets of A x B.
Therefore, the number of relations from A to B is 2𝑚×𝑛 .
Let A = {a1,a2 , …, am}
B = {b1,b2,…,bn}
A function f: A→ B is of the form
f = {(a1, x),(a2 , x), ……(am ,x) where x→some bj ∈ B
Since there are n number of bj’s , there are n choices for x in each of the
m ordered pairs belonging to f.
∴ The total possible no. of choices for x is n x n x ……n (m
factors)= nm
 Therefore, there are nm functions from set A to set B

c) Find the remainder when 541 is divided by 13.

Solution: 52 ≡ 12 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
(52 )20 ≡ 1220 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ----- (1)
122 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
(122 )10 ≡ 110 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
1220 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13) ----- (2)
40
5 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
5 ∙ 540 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
541 ≡ 5 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 13)
Therefore, remainder is 5.

d) Determine the validity of the following argument.

~𝑟 → ~𝑞
𝑝∧𝑠 →𝑡
~𝑟
~𝑞 → 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠
𝑝∨𝑞
-------------
∴t
Solution:
1. ~𝑟 → ~𝑞 Given premise
2. ~𝑟 Given premise
3. ~𝑞 Modus Ponens using 1 and 2
4. 𝑝∨𝑞 Given premise

5. 𝑝 Disjunctive syllogism using 3 and 4

6. ~𝑞 → 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠 Given premise

7. 𝑢∧𝑠 Modus Ponens using 3 and 6

8. 𝑠 Simplification using 6

9. 𝑝∧𝑠 Conjunction using 5 and 8

10. 𝑝∧𝑠 →𝑡 Given premise

11. 𝑡 Modus Ponens using 9 and 10.

2. a) Define a relation R on set of non zero integers Z* as
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏); 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 ∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 > 0}.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation on Z* and find the distinct equivalence
classes of Z* with respect to R.
Solution: Since 𝑚 ∙ 𝑚 = 𝑚2 > 0 ∀𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 ∗
⟹ (𝑚, 𝑚) ∈ 𝑅 ∀𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 ∗
∴ 𝑅 is reflexive

Let (𝑚, 𝑛) ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑛 > 0

⟹𝑛∙𝑚 >0
⟹ (𝑛, 𝑚) ∈ 𝑅
∴ R is symmetric
Let (𝑚, 𝑛) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑛, 𝑞) ∈ 𝑅
⟹ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑛 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ∙ 𝑞 > 0
⟹𝑚∙𝑛∙𝑛∙𝑞 >0
⟹ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑛2 ∙ 𝑞 > 0
⟹𝑚∙𝑞 >0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛2 > 0
⟹ (𝑚, 𝑞) ∈ 𝑅
∴ R is transitive
Hence R is an equivalence relation on Z*
[1] = {𝑝 ∈ 𝑍 ∗ : 𝑝 > 0}
= {1,2,3,...}
[-1] = { 𝑝 ∈ 𝑍 ∗ : −𝑝 > 0}
= { 𝑝 ∈ 𝑍 ∗ : 𝑝 < 0}
= {…, -3,-2,-1}

b) Using Euclidean Algorithm, find the greatest common divisor of 126

and 342 and express in the form 126x+342y where x and y are
integers.
Solution: Let a = 342 and b = 126
329 = 2 · 126 + 90,
126 = 1 · 90 + 36,
90 = 2 · 36 + 18,
36 = 2 · 18 + 0
 ∴ gcd(126,342) = 18
18 = 90 − 2 · 36
= 90 − 2 · (126 − 1 · 90)
= − 2 · 126 + 3 · 90
= − 2 · 126 + 3 ·(342 − 2 · 126)
= 3 · 342 − 8 · 126
∴ 18 = 3 · 342 - 8 · 126

c) Without using truth tables, obtain the principal disjunctive normal form
of 𝑝 → ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ~(∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞)) .

Solution:
𝑝 → ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ~(∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞)) ≡ 𝑝 → ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞))
≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞))
≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ [((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ~𝑝) ∨ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞)]
≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ [(𝐹 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞)]
≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ [(𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)]
≡ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
≡ [∼ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞)] ∨ [𝑞 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝)]
≡ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
≡ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

d) Find the complement of the following expression

A ∙ B + (A' ∙ B') ∙ (B ∙ C + B' ∙ C')
Solution: Complement = (A’+ B’) ∙ (A+ B) + (B’+ C’ ∙ (B+ C))

3. a) Let A be the set of factors of 90. Define a relation R on A as

a R b if a | b ( a divides b) . Construct the Hasse diagram for the poset
( A, R).
Solution: A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9,10, 15, 18, 30, 45, 90}
b) Express the following statements using predicates, quantifiers and logical
connectives:
Everyone in New Jersey lives within 50 miles of the ocean. Someone in
New Jersey has never seen the ocean. Therefore, someone who lives
within 50 miles of the ocean has never seen the ocean.
Solution: Let J(x) = “x lives in New Jersey”
O(x) = “x lives within 50 miles of the ocean”
S(x) = “x has seen the ocean”

∀x(J(x) → O(x))
∃x(J(x) ∧ ¬S(x))
∴ ∃x(O(x) ∧ ¬S(x))

2𝑥 + 1 ; 𝑥 ≤ 1
c) Determine if the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { is bijective on the
4𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑥 > 1
set of real numbers R. If it is bijective, find its inverse.
Solution: The domain is divided into two parts : (-∞ , 1) , [1,∞)
Let x1 , x2 𝜖 (-∞ ,1) and f(x1 ) = f(x2 )
2x1 + 1 = 2x2 + 1
⟹ x1= x2
Let x1, x2 ∈ [1,∞ ) and f(x1) = f(x2)
So, 4x1 - 1 = 4x2 - 1
⟹ 𝑥 1 = x2
∴ f is one-one
Let y ∈ R
 Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦−1
⟹ =𝑥,y≤3
2

Let 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 1 ⟹ 𝑦 + 1 = 4𝑥
𝑦+1
=𝑥; y>3
4
∴ f is onto
Hence f is bijective.
f-1: R → R
𝑦−1
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = if y ≤ 3
2

𝑦+1
= if y > 3
4

d) Without using Truth tables, prove that

((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) → (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)) ≡ 𝑇
Solution: ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) → (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟))
≡ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ (~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟))
≡ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ ((~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟))
≡ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ [~𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)] ∧ [~𝑟 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)]
≡ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ [~𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)] ∧ 𝑇
≡ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟) ↔ ((∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟)
≡𝑇

PART – B
𝑛
4. a) If the 9th term in the expansion of (𝑥 1⁄3 + 𝑥 −1⁄3 ) does not contain
x, then determine the value of n.
𝑛 10−(𝑟−1) 𝑟−1
Solution: 𝑇𝑟 = (𝑟−1 )(𝑥 1⁄3 ) (𝑥 −1⁄3 )
𝑛−8 8
𝑇9 = (𝑛8)(𝑥 1⁄3 ) (𝑥 −1⁄3 )
𝑛−8 1 8
𝑇9 = (𝑛8)(𝑥 1⁄3 ) (𝑥 1⁄3)
𝑛−8−8
𝑇9 = (𝑛8)(𝑥 1⁄3 )
𝑛−16
𝑇9 = (𝑛8)(𝑥 1⁄3 )
𝑛−16
𝑇9 = (𝑛8)(𝑥) 3

𝑛−16
⟹ =0
3
 ⟹ 𝑛 − 16 = 0
⟹ 𝑛 = 16
b) Find the recurrence relation satisfied by an, where an is the total
number of matches played by n teams in a round robin tournament.
Solution: Let 𝑎𝑛 the total number of matches played by n teams in a round
robin tournament.
∴ 𝑎𝑛 is equal to the total number of games played by (n-1) teams plus the
(n-1) games played by nth team with all other remaining teams
. ∴ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + (𝑛 − 1) ; 𝑛 ≥ 3, 𝑎2 = 1

c) Using pigeonhole principle, prove that if 11 integers are selected from

among {1, 2,..., 20}, then the selection includes integer a and b such
that a − b = 2.
Solution: Consider the following pairs of numbers from 1 to 20 whose difference
is 2 .
{3, 1}, {4, 2}, {7, 5}, {8, 6}, {11, 9}, {12, 10}, {15, 13}, {16, 14},
{19, 17}, {20, 18}
There are ten such pairs.
Consider these ten pairs as 10 pigeonholes and the 11 integers to be chosen as 11
pigeons. By pigeonhole principle, two integers will belong to the same pair and
these two integers differ by two.

d) Define graph isomorphism.

Check whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not.

Solution: G and H has the same number of vertices, same number of edges

and same degree sequence 1,1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3. But G and H are not

isomorphic because in G, the two vertices of degree 3 namely 𝑢2 and 𝑢5
are adjacent to two vertices of degree one and one vertex of degree 2 but in
H, this configuration does not exist
5. a) Solve the recurrence relation
𝑎𝑛 − 4𝑎𝑛−1 + 4𝑎𝑛−2 = 3𝑛 ; 𝑛 ≥ 2 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎0 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 = 0
Solution: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (ℎ) + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑝)
To find 𝑎𝑛 (ℎ) , consider the homogenous recurrence relation
𝑎𝑛 − 4𝑎𝑛−1 + 4𝑎𝑛−2 = 0 ----- (1)
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 be a solution of (1)
𝑟 𝑛 − 4𝑟 𝑛−1 + 4𝑟 𝑛−2 = 0
Divide by 𝑟 𝑛−2
⟹𝑟 2 − 4r + 4 = 0
⟹ r = 2, 2
∴ 𝑎𝑛 (ℎ) = 𝑏1 2𝑛 + 𝑛𝑏2 2𝑛 = (𝑏1 + 𝑛𝑏2 )2𝑛
Since 𝑓(𝑛) = 3𝑛 is a polynomial of degree 1 and 1 is not a root of
characteristic equation,
𝑎𝑛 (𝑝) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑛
Substitute 𝑎𝑛 (𝑝) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑛 in the non homogenous recurrence relation
𝑎𝑛 − 4𝑎𝑛−1 + 4𝑎𝑛−2 = 3𝑛
⟹ 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑛 − 4[𝐴0 + 𝐴1 (𝑛 − 1)] + 4[𝐴0 + 𝐴1 (𝑛 − 2)] = 3𝑛
⟹ 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑛 − 4𝐴0 − 4𝐴1 𝑛 + 4𝐴1 + 4𝐴0 + 4𝐴1 𝑛 − 8𝐴1 = 3𝑛
⟹ (𝐴0 − 4𝐴1 ) + 𝐴1 𝑛 = 3n
Comparing coefficients of like powers of n
𝐴1 = 3
𝐴0 − 4𝐴1 = 0⟹𝐴0 − 12 = 0 ⟹ 𝐴0 = 12
∴ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑝) = 12 + 3n
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (ℎ) + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑝) = (𝑏1 + 𝑛𝑏2 )2𝑛 + 12 + 3n is the general solution
put n = 0, 0 = 𝑏1 + 12
⟹ 𝑏1 = −12
put n = 1 0 = 2𝑏1 + 2𝑏2 + 15
⟹ 0 = −24 + 2𝑏2 + 15
9
⟹ 𝑏2 =
2
9
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = (−12 + 𝑛)2𝑛 + 12 + 3n is the required solution.
2
 b) Use mathematical induction to prove that for all positive integers n,
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 5) is divisible by 3.
Solution: Let P(n): 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 5) = 3𝑞 ; 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍
For 𝑛 = 1, 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 6 = 12 = 3 ∙ 4
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = 3𝑟 ; 𝑟 ∈ 𝑍------ (1)
Consider (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + 3(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= 3𝑟 + 3(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= 3(𝑟 + 𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 2)
= 3𝑠
∴ P(k +1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive
integers n.
c) Apply Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path between a and z in
the following weighted graph.

Solution:
L(v) a b c d e f g z
1 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
2 0 4 3 6 9 ∞ ∞ ∞
3 0 4 3 6 9 ∞ ∞ ∞
4 0 4 3 6 9 ∞ ∞ ∞
5 0 4 3 6 7 11 ∞ ∞
6 0 4 3 6 7 11 12 ∞
7 0 4 3 6 7 11 12 18
8 0 4 3 6 7 11 12 16
The shortest path is a-c-d-e-g-z
The length of shortest path is 16.
6. a) Find the number of permutations of the word “MISSISSIPPI”. In
how many of these permutations the 4 S’s are together?
Solution: ‘MISSISSIPPI’ has 4 distinct letters: M,I,S,P with 1,4,4,2
occurrences respectively
11!
Therefore, the number of permutations=
4!∙4!∙2!
8!
Number of permutations in which the 4 S’s are together =
4!∙2!
b) Show that a connected graph with n vertices and edges e = n-1 is a
tree.
Proof: We know that the minimum number of edges required to make a
graph of n vertices connected is (n-1) edges. We can observe that removal
of one edge from the graph G will make it disconnected. Thus a connected
graph of n vertices and (n-1) edges cannot have a circuit. Hence a graph G
is a tree.

c) (i) State Euler’s theorem for planar graph.

(ii) Check whether the following graph is planar or not.

The given graph is planar as it can be redrawn as

 d) At a software company, skilled workers have been hired for a project.
Out of 75 candidates, 48 of them were software engineers; 35 of them
were hardware engineers; 42 of them were network engineers; 18 of
them had skills in all three jobs and all of them had skills in at least
one of these jobs. How many candidates were hired who were skilled
in exactly 2 jobs?
Solution: Let A be the set of skilled workers who are software engineers
Let B be the set of skilled workers who are hardware engineers
Let C be the set of skilled workers who are network engineers
𝑛(𝑈) = 75 = 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ); 𝑛(𝐴) = 48, 𝑛(𝐵) = 35, 𝑛(𝐶 ) = 42, 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 18

𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

75 = 48 + 35 + 42 − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 18

𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 143 − 75 = 68

𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵̅ ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 )

−𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 )

= 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 3𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 )
= 68 − 3 × 18 = 14

∴ 14 candidates were hired who were skilled in exactly 2 jobs

PART – C

7. a) Define functionally complete set of connectives.

Show that the NAND connective { ↑ } is functionally complete.
Solution: Any set of connectives in which every formula can be
expressed in terms of an equivalent formula containing the connectives
from this set is called a functionally complete set of connectives.
NAND Connective(↑)
𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ≡∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
To show that ∼ , ∧ ,∨ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ↑.
(i) ∼ 𝑝 ≡∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑝)
≡𝑝↑𝑝
(ii) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
≡∼ 𝑝 ↑∼ 𝑞
 ≡ (𝑝 ↑ 𝑝) ↑ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑞)
(iii) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡∼∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
≡∼ (𝑝 ↑ 𝑞)
≡ (𝑝 ↑ 𝑞) ↑ (𝑝 ↑ 𝑞)

b) A box contains 10 French books, 20 Spanish books, 8 German books,

15 Russian books, and 25 Italian books. Find the minimum number of
books to be chosen to be sure of having 12 books in the same
language?
Solution: Let n be the number of books to be selected
Since there are only 10 French and 8 German books, we cannot have
12 books of these two languages. Consider remaining three language
books as three pigeonholes and the number of these language books to
be selected as as m pigeons
3 language books - 3 pigeonholes
By extended pigeonhole principle,
𝑚
⌈ ⌉ = 12 ⟹ m = 34
3

∴ 𝑛 = 34 + 8 + 10 = 52 books

c) Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be two bijective functions. Then prove

that 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 is also bijective.
Proof: Suppose g ∘ f (x1) = g ∘ f (x2 ) x1,x2 ∈ 𝐴
⟹ g(f(x1))= g(f(x2))
⟹ f(x1)= f(x2) since g is one-one
⟹ x1 = x2 since f is one-one
∴ g ∘ f is one –one
Let c ∈ C
Since g: B→ C is onto, ∃ b ∈ B such that g(b) = c
Since b ∈ B and f: A→ B is onto, ∃ a ∈ A such that f(a) = b
c= g(b) = g(f(a))= g∘f(a)
∴ For any c ∈ 𝐶 , ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, such that g∘f(a)=c
∴ g ∘ f is onto.
Hence, g ∘ f : A → C is bijective.
 d) State Prim’s algorithm.

Using Prim’s algorithm, find the minimum spanning tree for the
weighted graph shown below.

Solution: The minimum spanning tree is

The minimum cost = 22

8. a) (i) Define incidence matrix of an undirected graph.

Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph. Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , ⋯ 𝑣𝑛 be the
vertices and 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 , ⋯ 𝑒𝑚 be the edges of the graph. The incidence
matrix of G denoted by 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑚 is defined as
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑖
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 (ii) Represent the following graph by an incidence matrix.

1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
The incidence matrix is 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
[0 0 1 0 1 0]

b) State and prove Binomial theorem.

Theorem: Let x and y be variables and 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + . Then
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑖=0(𝑛𝑖)𝑥 𝑛−𝑖 𝑦 𝑖 = (𝑛0)𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑛1)𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + (𝑛2)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + (𝑛3)𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑦 3
+ ⋯ + (𝑛𝑛)𝑦 𝑛
Proof:
Let P(n): (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = (𝑛0)𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑛1)𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + (𝑛2)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + (𝑛3)𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑦 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑛)𝑦 𝑛
𝑛 = 1 (𝑥 + 𝑦)1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 = (10)𝑥 1 + (11)𝑦1
∴ P(1) is true
Assume P(k) is true
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘 = (𝑘0)𝑥 𝑘 + (𝑘1)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 + (𝑘2)𝑥 𝑘−2 𝑦 2 + (𝑘3)𝑥 𝑘−3 𝑦 3 + ⋯ + (𝑘−1 𝑘
)𝑥𝑦 𝑘−1
+(𝑘𝑘)𝑦 𝑘
Multiply both sides with (𝑥 + 𝑦)
(𝑥 + 𝑦) ∙ (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)[(𝑘0)𝑥 𝑘 + (𝑘1)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 + (𝑘2)𝑥 𝑘−2 𝑦 2 + (𝑘3)𝑥 𝑘−3 𝑦 3 + ⋯ +
𝑘
(𝑘−1 )𝑥𝑦 𝑘−1 + (𝑘𝑘)𝑦 𝑘 ]
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘+1 = (𝑘0)𝑥 𝑘+1 + (𝑘0)𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 + (𝑘1)𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 + (𝑘1)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 2 + (𝑘2)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 2 +
(𝑘2)𝑥 𝑘−2 𝑦 3 + ⋯ + (𝑘−1 𝑘
)𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑘−1 + (𝑘−1𝑘
)𝑥𝑦 𝑘 + (𝑘𝑘)𝑥𝑦 𝑘 + (𝑘𝑘)𝑦 𝑘+1
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘+1 = (𝑘0)𝑥 𝑘+1 + [(𝑘0) + (𝑘1)]𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 + [(𝑘1) + (𝑘2)]𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + [(𝑘−1 𝑘
) + (𝑘𝑘)]𝑥𝑦 𝑘 +
(𝑘𝑘)𝑦 𝑘+1
= 𝑥 𝑘+1 + (𝑘+1 1
)𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 + (𝑘+12
)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + (𝑘+1𝑘
)𝑥𝑦 𝑘 + 𝑦 𝑘+1
= (𝑘+10
)𝑥 𝑘+1 + (𝑘+1 1
)𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 + (𝑘+12
)𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + (𝑘+1𝑘
)𝑥𝑦 𝑘 + (𝑘+1
𝑘+1
)𝑦 𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence, by Mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + .
c) Using Fleury’s algorithm, find an Euler’s circuit for the graph shown
below.
a b c

e d

f g h
Solution: a - b – c - d - h – g – d – b – e - g - f – e - a

d) Define the following and give an example of each.

(i) Hamiltonian graph : A graph which contains a Hamiltonian circuit.

(ii) Regular graph: A graph in which all the vertices are of equal degree
is called a regular graph. If the degree of each vertex is r, then the
graph is called regular graph of degree r or r-regular graph.

(iii) Complete bipartite graph: A complete bipartite graph Km,n is the

graph that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets of m and n
vertices, respectively. There is an edge between two vertices if and
only if one vertex is in the first subset and the other vertex is in the
second subset.