Communication Technologies

• Define Computer Network

A Computer network is interconnected collection of autonomous computers and other devices which are able to
communicate and share hardware and software resources.

• List the benefits/ advantages of Networking

• Resource Sharing
• Cost saving
• Collaborative user interaction
• Time saving
• Increased storage
A Node is a device, which is directly connected to a computer network. It can be a computer or any other device like
printer, scanner etc

Resource Sharing :
In a networked computer lab , a printer is able to print documents from multiple users . It means that the printer
is being shared by more than one users, and this is possible only when the computers are interconnected to
form a network. Similarly Hard Disk, DVD Drive, Scanner , Application Software , Anti-Virus tools etc. can also be
shared on a computer network. Resource Sharing leads to cost-saving.
Collaborative User Interaction:
The way how the data is being shared on a computer network. If we are working on a computer network, we
can communicate with other user of the network through e-mail or chatting. It takes a fraction of a second to
send and receive messages and watch live videos , irrespective of terrestrial distances.

Increased Storage :
On a network, same data can be repeated (redundancy) on multiple computers to ensure the availability of
data in case some computer getting faulty. They share the data with authorized users. This ensures security.

Evolution of Networking
Networking started way back in 1969 with the development of the first network called the ARPANET. The U.S.
department of defense sponsored a project named ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) whose goal
was to connect computers at different universities and U.S. defense. Soon engineers, scientists, students and researchers
who were part of this system began exchanging data and messages on it.

Internet
The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication
services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. The Internet
is made up of many networks each run by different companies and are interconnected at peering points. It is
really a network of networks spread across the globe, all of which are connected to each other.

Inter space
It is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate online with real time audio,
video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments. It provides the most advanced form of communication
technology available today. It is a vision of what internet will become tomorrow. The users will be able to
communicate in multiple ways and from multiple sources instantly.

1|Page
 Communication Technologies
Network Terminologies
Before continuing our study on networks let us first learn about some terminologies commonly used in
networking.

i) Nodes (Workstations)
A computer becomes a node (also called a workstation) as soon as it is attached to a network. Each user on a
network works on a workstation. If there are no nodes there would be no network.

ii) Server
A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the network is known as the
server. A network can have more than one server also. Each server has a unique name by which it is identified
by all the nodes on the network. Servers can be of two types:

a) Dedicated and b) Non dedicated servers

Dedicated Servers: These are generally used on big network installations where one computer is reserved
for server's job. It helps all nodes access data, software and hardware resources. Since it does not double up
as a workstation but only manages the network, so it is known as a dedicated server and such type of
networks are called master- slave networks.

Non dedicated servers: In small networks, a workstation can double up as a server. These servers are known
as non dedicated servers. The small networks using such a server are known as Peer to Peer networks.

Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used to efficiently transmit data across the network. The two types of switching
techniques are employed nowadays to provide communication between two computers on a network are :
Circuit Switching and Packet Switching.

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a technique in which a dedicated and complete physical connection is established
between two nodes and through this dedicated communication channel, the nodes may communicate. The
circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the duration of the
communication session. Even if no communication is taking place in a dedicated circuit, that channel still
remains unavailable to other users (idle channels).

The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analogue telephone network. When a call is
made from one telephone to another, switches within the telephone exchange create a continuous wire
circuit between the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts.

Packet Switching
Packet switching is a switching technique in which packets (discrete blocks of data of fixed size and of any
content, type or structure) are routed between nodes over data links shared with other traffic. The term
"packets" refers to the fact that the data stream from your computer is broken up into packets of about 200
bytes (on average), which are then sent out onto the network. Each packet contains a "header" with
information necessary for routing the packet from source to destination. Each packet in a data stream is
independent.

2|Page
 Communication Technologies
Data Communication Terminologies

Channel: A communication channel is a medium that is used in the transmission of a message from one point
to another. In simple terms we can say that it is a pathway over which data is transferred between remote
devices.

Bandwidth: In electronic communication, bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies available for
transmission of data. It is expressed as the difference in Hertz(Hz) between the highest frequency and the
lowest frequency. For example, a typical voice signal has a bandwidth of approximately 3KHz. Wider the
bandwidth of a communication system, greater is the capacity and hence greater is the amount of data that
can be transmitted over a period of time.

Data Transfer rate: The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one
place to another in a given time on a network. As studied before, the greater the bandwidth of a given medium,
the higher is the data transfer rate. This can also be referred to as throughput, although data transfer rate
applies specifically to digital data streams. Data transfer rate is often measured in bits per second (bps),
although the unit baud, which is one bps is also used. It is commonly used to measure how fast data is
transferred from one location to another. For example, your ISP may offer an Internet connection with a
maximum data transfer rate of 4Mbps.

Examples of Transfer rate : kbps - Kilo bits per second kBps - Kilo bytes per second letter ‘b’ - bits , letter ’B’ –bytes
Transmission Media :
A medium of data transmission over a computer network is called a channel or a transmission medium. A
transmission medium is a medium to transfer data over a network.
These Channels are Guided (wired Media ) and unguided (wireless Media ).

Guided Channels : ( Wired Media) : A number of various types of cables are used to transfer data over computer
networks. These are Twisted Pair Cable, Co-axial Cable, and Optical fibber Cable.

Twisted Pair Cable : This is used for creating small computer networks. It contains four twisted pairs covered in an
outer shield. These pairs are colour coded. An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect this cable to a computer. It is of
two types:

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and STP (Shielded Twisted pair) . ER

3|Page
 Communication Technologies
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair):

Characteristics of UTP cable:

• It is a low-cost cable available for setting up small networks
• It is a thin and flexible cable and therefore it offers ease of installation.
• It can carry data up to a length of 100m at a stretch.

STP (Shielded Twisted pair): It is like UTP cable , but with each pair shielded individually. An outer shield then covers
all the pairs like in UTP. STP data connectors are used to connect STP cable to the computer. RJ-45 connectors can also
be used to connect this cable to a computer.

Characteristics of STP cable:

• STP offers better immunity against internal and external electromagnetic interferences.
• It is expensive than UTP cable.
• As compared to UTP cable, STP cable is difficult to install.
Advantages:
1. It is capable of carrying a signal over long distances without amplification.
2. It is simple, low weight, easy to install and easy to maintain.
3. It is an adequate and least expensive medium for low speed (up to 10 mbps) applications where the
distance between the nodes is relatively small.
Disadvantages:
1. It can easily pick up noise signals.
2. Being thin in size, it is likely to break easily.
3. It is unsuitable for broadband applications.

Co-axial cable (or coax) : A coaxial cable consists of two conductors that share a common axis. The inner
conductor is a straight wire and the outer conductor is a shield that might be braided or a foil. Due to its thickness
(1cm diameter) and less flexibility, it is difficult to install as compared to twisted pair cable.

Characteristics of Co-axial cable:

• It can carry data for a larger distance (185m - 500m) at a stretch.
• Less susceptible to electromagnetic fields
• Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.

Advantages
1. Data transmission characteristics are better than that of twisted pair.
2. It can be used for broadband communication i.e. several channels can be transmitted simultaneously.
3. It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps)
4. It can be used as the basis for shared cable network.
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

4|Page
 Communication Technologies
Optical Fiber cable :- Optical Fibers are long, thin strands of glass about the thickness of a human hair. They are
arranged in bundles called optical fiber cables and used to transmit data through light signals over long distances.

An optical fiber has following parts :

Core - It is the thin glass rod at the center through which the light travels
Cladding - It is the outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core
Buffer coating - It is the plastic coating that protects the cable from damage and moisture
Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable:
• It can carry data for a very large distance at a stretch.
• Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields
• Specially skilled people are required to install optical fiber cables.
• Till date it is the most expensive and at the same time the most efficient cable available for computer networks.

Advantages
1. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference.
2. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
3. It guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission capacity.
4. It can be used for broadband transmission where several channels can be handled in parallel.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to install and maintain since they are quite fragile.
2. It is most expensive of all cables.
3. Connecting two fibres together or even connecting the light source with the cable is a difficult process. Hence
connection loss is a common problem
4. Light can reach the receiver out of phase.

Wireless Media : Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication over computer networks.
Frequencies of waves are measured in Hertz (Hz).. Based on their frequencies, electromagnetic waves are
categorized into various categories. These categories are radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and Gamma rays.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: Out of these only radio waves, microwaves, and infrared rays are used for
wireless communication. Let us now study about these waves in some details.

5|Page
 Communication Technologies
Infrared Waves : Infrared waves have a frequency range of 300 GHz to 400 GHz. Infrared waves are so
called because they have a frequency range of just less than that of red light. These waves are used for
short range communication (approx. 5m) is used in wireless communications, Home-entertainment
remote-control devices, Cordless mouse.
ORKI
Advantages
1. Since it is having short range of communication hence it is considered to be a secure mode of transmission.
2. It is quite inexpensive transmission medium.

Disadvantages
1. It can only be used for short range communication
2. Infrared wave transmission cannot pass through obstructions like walls, buildings etc.

Bluetooth- Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of

2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz. This technology is used for short range communication
(approx. 10m) in a variety of devices for wireless communication. Baby
monitors, door openers, and cell phones ,laptops and all other devices that
utilize Bluetooth communication.
Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:

• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.

• Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously.
• Slow data transfer rate (upto 1Mbps).

Radio Waves : Radio waves have a frequency in the range of 3 KHz to 3GHz.
Radio waves are used for short distances covering like entire city.
These waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and can
penetrate buildings easily. Cordless phones, AM and FM radio broadcast,
etc. are examples of radio wave transmission.
Advantages
1. It is easy to communicate through radio waves in difficult terrains since there is no need of digging and laying cables.
2. Radio waves can travel through long distances in all directions. Also they can easily pass through obstacles like a
Building so they can be used for both indoor and outdoor communication.

Disadvantages
1. It is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunderstorm etc.
2. Data transmitted through radio wave is not secure.

Micro Waves :- Micro waves have a frequency range of 300MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz. Microwaves travel in straight
lines and cannot penetrate any solid object. Therefore for long distance microwave communication, high
towers are built and microwave antennas are put on their tops, therefore the sending and receiving antennas
have to be aligned with each other.

6|Page
 Communication Technologies
Advantages
1. Microwave transmission does not require the expense of laying cables
2. It can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time.

Disadvantages
1. Signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and so require amplification. To overcome this problem,
repeaters are used at regular intervals (25-30 kms). The data signals are received, amplified and then retransmitted.
2.This makes it a very expensive mode of communication
3. Installation and maintenance of microwave links turns out be a very expensive affair.
4. The transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorms etc.

Satellite Link - Satellite links are used for very long distance wireless communication which may range from
intercity to intercontinental. Transmission from the earth to a satellite is known as uplink. Transmission from
a satellite to the earth is known as downlink. Frequency used for uplink varies from 1.6 GHz to 30.0 GHz and
that for downlink varies from 1.5GHz to 20.0GHz.
Advantages
1. Satellite communication is very economical keeping in mind the fact that the area covered through satellite
transmission is quite large. For e.g., satellites used for national transmission are visible from all parts of the country.
2. Transmission and reception costs are independent of the distance between the two points.
Disadvantages
1. Placing the satellite into its orbit involves very high cost.
2. Since signals sent to a satellite are broadcasted to all receivers, so necessary security measures have to be taken to
prevent unauthorized tampering of data.
3. Transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorm etc.

7|Page
 Communication Technologies
Network Devices:
Modem : A modem (Modulator - Demodulator) is a peripheral device that enables a computer to transmit data
over, telephone or cable lines. The computers operate digitally using binary language (a series of zeros and
ones), but transmission mediums are analogue.

RJ-45 : RJ-45 , short form of Registered Jack - 45 , is an

eight wired connector that is used to connect computers
on a local area network(LAN), especially Ethernet. RJ-45
connectors look similar to the RJ-11 connector used for
connecting telephone equipment, but they are somewhat wider.

Wi-Fi Card : Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your desktop or laptop computer to connect to
the internet through a wireless network. Wi-Fi transmission is through the use of radio waves. The antenna
transmits the radio signals and these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such as computers and cell
phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards. These devices have to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive the
signals.
NIC / Ethernet Card : An NIC (Network Interface Card) is a device that enables a computer to connect to a network
and communicate. A computer communicates with other computers on a network with the help of an NIC only.

Hub/Switch: A Switch is an intelligent device that connects several nodes to form a network and redirects the
received information only to the intended node(s). A switch is an intelligent hub.

Difference between Hub and switch: The difference is in the way they re-transmit the received information. Unlike
a hub, instead of broadcasting (sending to each device attached to it) the received information, a switch sends the
information selectively only to those computers for which it is intended. This makes a switch more
efficient than a hub.

Repeater: A Repeater is a device that is used to amplify the signals which is being transmitted on the network.
A repeater regenerates the received signal and re-transmits it to its destination.

When the data is transmitted over a network for long distances, the data signal gets weak after certain distance.
This distance depends on the data transfer range of transmission channel being used and can be from a few meters
to a few kilometres. If the signal becomes weak, it cannot reach its destination. Therefore, some device is

8|Page
 Communication Technologies
required which can re-strengthen the data signal before it gets too weak. Repeater is such a device. A repeater
regenerates the received signal and re-transmits it to its destination.

Router : A Router is a device, which is used to connect different types of networks with same protocols . and
perform the necessary translation so that the connected networks can communicate properly.

Gateway: A Gateway is a device, which is used to connect different types of networks with different protocols . and
perform the necessary translation so that the connected networks can communicate properly. A
gateway is capable of understanding address architectures used in different networks and seamlessly translate
between these address architectures.

Network Topologies :
The way in which the computers/devices are physically interconnected to form a network is called a Topology. A
Topology is an arrangement of computers connections among nodes in a network .
There are different types of network topologies. 1.Bus Topology 2. Star Topology 3. Tree Topology
Linear / Bus Topology : In bus topology all the nodes are connected in a serial order to a main cable called backbone.
If any node has to send information , it sends the signal thru the backbone. A small device called terminator is
attached at each end of the backbone. When the signal reaches the end of backbone, it is absorbed by the
terminator, which prevents the reflection of signal back on the cable ..

9|Page
 Communication Technologies

Characteristics of Bus topology :

• It is easy to install.
• It requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
• Failure of a node does not affects other computers in the network.
• In case of cable (backbone) or terminator fault, the entire network breaks down.
• Fault diagnosis is difficult.
• At a time only one node can transmit data.

Advantages of a Linear/ Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
•
Disadvantages of a Linear /Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star Topology: In star topology each node is directly

connected to a hub/switch so the communication is
fast with the server to the work station.

Characteristics of Star topology:

• It is more efficient topology as compared to bus topology.
• It is easy to install
• It is easy to diagnose the fault in Star topology.
• It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch
• Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network
• It requires more cable length as compared to bus topology.
• Star topology generally requires more cable than bus topology.
•
Advantages of a Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

10 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies

Tree Topology : Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies. It is used to combine multiple star
topology networks. This bus-star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network. NET

Characteristics of Tree topology:

• It offers easy way of network expansion
• Even if one network (star) fails, the other networks remain connected and working.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Network Protocols:
A network protocol is a set of rules which is used to deduct and correct the errors on the networked devices.
Different types of Protocols are - HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), TCP/IP, (Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol), PPP(Point to Point Protocol) , SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) , POP(Post Office Protocol),
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): HTTP is used to transfer all files and other data (collectively called resources)
from one computer to another on the world wide web. HTTP is the protocol that is used for transferring
hypertext (i.e. text, graphic, image, sound, video etc.) between two computers and is particularly used on the
World Wide Web. It is a TCP/IP based communication protocol and provides a standard for Web browsers and
servers to communicate.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol): It is the basic protocol where Communication
between two computers on internet is done. TCP/IP is a two-layer protocol. When data is to be sent from one
computer to another over internet, it is first broken into smaller packets which are actually sent. When these
packets are received by the receiver computer, they are assembled into the original message. This job of
dividing the original message into packets and re-assembling the received packets into the original message is
done following TCP protocol. The Internet Protocol (IP)handles the address part of each packet so that it reaches to
the right destination. It gives distinct address (called IP address) to each data packet. Internet protocol is used to
ensure that each of these packets gets to the right destination.

11 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
IP Address: Every machine in a network has another unique
identifying number, called its IP Address. An IP address is a
group of four bytes (or 32 bits) each of which can be a number
from 0 to 255. A typical IP address looks like this : 145.10.34.3 IP
address is assigned by the network administrator or the internet service provider.

File Transfer protocol (FTP) : This is the simplest and one of the oldest protocols designed for transferring files
of any type(ASCII or binary) from one system to another on the internet. As mentioned before FTP can transfer
both ASCII i.e. plain text and binary files but the mode has to be set in the FTP client. If you attempt to transfer
a binary file (such as a program or music file) while in text mode, the transferred file becomes unusable.

PPP (Point to Point Protocol): It is a protocol for direct communication between two computers, typically a
personal computer connected by phone line to a server. Most Internet service providers (ISPs) use PPP for
customer dial-up access to the Internet. PPP is used over many types of physical networks including cellular
telephone, serial cable, phone line, trunk line, specialized radio links, and fibber optic links.

E-Mail Protocols:
Simple Mail transfer protocol (SMTP) : SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol that allows transmission
of email over the Internet. Most email software is designed to use SMTP for communication purposes when
sending email. It only works for outgoing messages. So when an email has to be sent, the address of their
Internet Service Provider's SMTP server has to be given. The actual mail transfer is done through Message
Transfer Agents(MTA). So the client computer must have a client MTA and the server must have a server MTA.
SMTP actually defines the MTA client and the server on the internet.

Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3) : Post Office Protocol 3 or POP3 is the third version of a widespread
method of receiving email which receives and holds email for an individual until they pick it up. POP3 makes it
easy for anyone to check their email if their email program is configured properly to work with the protocol. It
is extremely common among most mail servers because of its simplicity and high success rate and minimum
errors. Also it can work with virtually any email program, as long as the email program is configured to host the
protocol. Many popular email programs, including Microsoft Outlook, are automatically designed to work with
POP3.

Remote Access Protocol (Telnet): Telnet is the main internet protocol for creating a connection with a remote
machine. It allows you to connect to remote computers (called remote hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as
the Internet). Once your telnet client establishes a connection to the remote host, your client becomes a virtual
terminal, allowing you to communicate with the remote host from your computer with whatever privileges you
may have been granted to the specific application and data on that host computer.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) : IRC protocol is used for chatting. It provides chatting between a group or between
two individuals. It was developed by JarkkoOikarinen in Finland in the late 1980s. It is based on client/server
model. The IRC client sends and receives messages to and from an IRC server. The IRC server transports the
message from one client to another. The IRC server is linked to many other servers to form an IRC network. IRC
server identifies every user through a unique nickname. Each user is assigned a unique channel in case multiple
discussions are taking place.

12 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
VOIP : VOIP stands for voice over internet protocol. It enables the transfer of voice using packet switched
network rather than using public switched telephone network. By using VOIP software, phone calls can be done
using standard internet connection. This method of making phone calls is much cheaper than convectional way
because the service of Telecommunication Company is not used.

There are three different methods of VoIP service :-

ATA - ATA stands for analog-to-digital converted. It is used to connect the telephone device to the computer. It
takes the analog signals from the phone and converts them to digital signals. These digital signals can known be
transmitted over the internet. Some providers also are bundling ATAs free with their service.
IP phones - IP phones appear much like an ordinary telephone or cordless phone. They are directly connected
to the router or the LAN. They have all the hardware and software necessary right onboard to handle the IP
call. IP Phones are sometimes called VoIP telephones, SIP phones or Soft phones.
Computer-to-computer - It is the most easy and simplest way to use VoIP. The basic hardware requirements
are as follows: Computer , Internet , Speakers , Microphone.
The only cost involved with computer - to- computer VoIP is the monthly ISP fee

Types of Networks :
There are four types of Network , namely PAN - Personal Area Network, LAN - Local Area Network, MAN -
Metropolitan Area Network, WAN-Wide Area Network

PAN (Personal Area Network) : A PAN is a network of Communicating devices (Computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player,
Camera etc.) in the proximity of an individual. It can cover an area of a few meters radius. A PAN When you have to
transfer songs from one cell phone to another, you set up a PAN of two phones. When files are transferred from a PC
to an MP3 player, a PAN is set up between the two. There can also be multiple devices in PAN. A PAN can be set
up using guided media (USB cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared). TER NETWORKING

LAN (Local Area Network) : A LAN is a network of Computing/Communicating devices in a room, building, or
campus. It can cover an area of a few meters to a few kilometres radius. A networked office building, school, or
home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building can contain a few small LANs.
13 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
Occasionally a LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. In addition to operating in a limited space, a LAN is owned,
controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. A LAN can be set up using wired media (UTP cables,
Co-axial cables etc.) or wireless media (Infrared, radio waves). If a LAN is setup using unguided media, it is
known as WLAN (wireless LAN).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) : A MAN is a network of computing/communicating devices within a city. It can
cover an area of a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres radius. A network of schools, or banks, or
Government offices etc., within a city, are examples of MANs. A MAN is usually formed by interconnecting a
number of LANs and individual computers. All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are used to
set up a MAN. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or a large
corporation. A good example of a MAN is the interconnected offices of a state government. NETWORKING

WAN (Wide Area Network): A WAN is a network of computing/communicating devices crossing the limits of a city,
country, or continent. It can cover an area of over hundreds of kilometre radius. A network of ATMs, BANKs, National
Government Offices, International Organizations' Offices etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering
many continents are examples of WANs. WANs usually contain a number of interconnected individual
computers, LANs, MANs, and maybe other WANs. All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are
used to set up a WAN. The best known example of a WAN is the internet. R NETWORKING

Network
Parameter PAN LAN MAN WAN
Small Area A few meters to a few A city and its vicinity 50km Entire country
Area Covered < 10m radius kilometres < 1Km radius Upto 100Km radius) continent, or globe
Switch,
Devices wifi twister pair cable Router, Radio wave , micro Satellite
wave ,optical fiber cable
Transmission Moderate Speed
Speed High Speed High Speed Low speed
Networking Moderately
Cost Negligible Inexpensive Expensive Expensive
14 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
Mobile Telecommunication Technologies:

Mobile is a device which is portable. Mobile communication is based on cellular networks. A cellular network is nothing
but a radio network. In this network, land is divided into areas called cells. Every cell in the network has a transmitter and
a receiver known as cell site or base station. Each cell in the network uses different frequency for the transmission of
signals. When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a large geographical area. The network of cells
enables the mobile devices to communicate even if they are moving from one cell to another via base stations. The first
systems offering mobile telephone service were introduced in the late 1940s in the US and in the early 1950s in Europe.

1 G Mobile System :
The 1G Mobile System was introduced in late 1970s and early 1980s.The 1G mobile system was based on the analog
cellular technology. They only had voice facility available and were based on circuit-switched technology. In 1G mobile
systems voice was modulated to a frequency of about 150MHz and higher. They used radio towers for transmission. The
major drawbacks of the 1G system were its low capacity, poor voice links and no security.

FDMA : It stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access. In this, each user utilizes a portion of the frequency bandwidth
available. Each user has its own frequency domain. In FDMA, the user is assigned a specific frequency band in the
electromagnetic spectrum, and during a call that user is the only one who has the right to access the specific band. each
of which can carry a voice conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data.

One way to understand FDMA is to imagine different people in the same room communicating in voices with different pitches,
some high and some low; they would all be able to talk simultaneously and (more or less) understand one another. This is similar
to the way FDMA works. FDMA is used by traditional AM and FM radio bands to allow broadcast by individual stations.

CDMA : Unlike FDMA, virtually allows numerous users to use the channel at the same time. Thus, transmitting and
receiving are all done by various users simultaneously. This is only made possible by a process called Spread Spectrum, a
type of modulation that captures every user’s flow of digital bits and spreads them all around the channel in a pseudo-
random manner.

TDMA :It stands for Time Division Multiple Access. In this, each user is allowed to transmit only within specified time
intervals. Different users transmit in different time slots. TDMA chops or divides the channel into sequential time
portions. Users of the channel will have their respective round-robin turns in receiving and transmitting data. Breaking it
down, only a single user is actually utilizing the channel at any given instance. Each user only uses the channel in short
bursts at a time and that grant to use resources is given up for a while to also allow others to use the channel. When
users transmit, they occupy the whole frequency bandwidth.

WLL : Wireless Local Loop is the use of a wireless communications link as the connection for delivering plain old
telephone service to present Wireless telephone system. This system provides connections between land line phone and
wireless mobile system.

2 G Mobile System :
The 2G mobile system was introduced in early 1990s. They used digital signals for transmissions of voice. 2G enabled the
mobile systems to provide paging, SMS, voicemail and fax services. Both voice and data conversations were digitally
encrypted. The 2G system was based on GSM technology. GSM standard was defined by ETSI in 1989. GSM stands for
Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM technology is a combination of FDMA and TDMA. With GSM, all
subscriber and wireless provider information is stored on interchangeable modules known as SIM (Subscriber
Identification Module) cards. By swapping out the SIM card, users can painlessly switch phones or providers. They used
circuit switching. The speed upto 64 kbps

15 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service )
The mobile technology using packet switched domain instead of circuit switched domain were termed as 2.5G mobile
systems. They used GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) in addition to GSM. With 2.5G services like MMS, sending
pictures through e-mail became possible. GPRS technology was also a major step towards 3G mobile system.

3 G Mobile System :
The 3G technology adds multimedia facilities to 2G phones by allowing video, audio, and graphics applications. With the
advent of 3G technology watching streaming video or video telephony became a reality. The idea behind 3G is to have a
single network standard instead of the different types adopted in the US, Europe, and Asia. 3G mobile systems are also
known as Universal Mobile Telecommunications. The speed upto 2 Mbps.
Characteristics of 3 G:
• A single family of compatible standards that can be used worldwide for all mobile applications.
• Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data transmission.
• Data rates up to 2 Mbps (depending on mobility).
• High bandwidth efficiency.

4 G Mobile System - LTE (Long Term Evolution) Technology

4G networks will be based on packet switching only. It will be able to support faster transmission. They are projected to
provide speeds up to 100 Mbps while moving and 1Gbps while stationary. It is a wireless access technology. 4G can
provide better-than-TV quality images and video-links. The Speed is 4G is 12 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

5 G Mobile System
It is next generation wireless network technology that's expected to change the way people live and work. It will be
faster and able to handle more connected devices than the existing 4G LTE network, improvements that will enable a
wave of new kinds of tech products. The fastest 5G is known as mmWave, had a top speed of 1.8 gbps (Gbit/s)

WiMax
It delivers wireless broadband Internet access. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, better known
as WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) is a standards-based technology that delivers wireless broadband access - or wireless
connectivity to rural locations, according to the WiMAX Forum.

Difference between WiFi and WiMax

WiFi WiMax
Uses licensed or unlicensed spectrum to deliver Handle a larger inter-operable network.
connection to network.
WiFi is short range technology. WiMax is long range technology.
WiFi connection can transmit upto 54 mbps. WiMax connection can transmit upto 70 mbps.
Protocol : IEEE 802.15 Protocol: IEEE 802.16(WMAN) , IEEE 802.11(WLAN)

Network Security: Computer networks are communication highways on which the data travels. Data travels on a
network when an e-mail is sent or received, any transaction is made using a credit or a debit card, a web site is
accessed, chatting is done, or any other work is done on a network. Data travelling over a network is vulnerable
to attacks and thefts. There are some people who want to illegally access this data for any reason, using a
credit/debit card data for shopping, using a company's data to sell it to some rival company, to find the kind of web
sites a person accesses, or may be hundreds of other reasons. These people sometimes also want to destroy the data
on its way, or block the services of some resources or sites. As the data goes from one point to another point on the
Internet, for example, it may pass through several points along the way, giving other users the opportunity to
access, and even alter it. Even other users on your system may maliciously transform your data.

16 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
Firewall: A firewall is a hardware device or a software that is installed to monitor the data entering the
computer/Network or leaving it. A firewall permits only that data to enter or leave a computer/Network for
which permissions have been granted by the computer/network administrator.
Types of Virus:
File Virus: These viruses infect and replicate when it gets attached to MS-DOS program files with EXE or COM extensions.

Boot sector virus: These viruses infect the boot sector of floppy disks or hard drives. Boot sector of a drive contains
program that participates in booting the system. A virus can infect the system by replacing or attaching itself to these
programs.

Macro virus: These viruses infect and replicate using the MS Office program suite, mainly MS Word and MS Excel. The
virus inserts unwanted words or phrases in the document.

Worm: Worm is also a malicious program like a virus. But unlike viruses, it does not need to attach itself to a host
program. A worm works by itself as an independent object. It uses security holes in a computer networks to replicate
itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the
new machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.

Trojan Horse: A Trojan horse is a program that contains hidden malicious functions. Trojan Horses trick users into
installing them by appearing to be legitimate programs. Once installed on a system, they reveal their true nature and
cause damage. Some Trojan horses will contact a central server and report back information such as passwords, user IDs,
and captured keystrokes. Trojans lack a replication routine and thus are not viruses by definition.

Spam: The term spam means endless repetition of worthless text. In other words, unwanted messages or mails are
known as Spam. At times internet is flooded with multiple copies of the same message, it is nothing but spam. Most spam
is commercial advertising. In addition to wasting people's time, spam also eats up a lot of network bandwidth.
Cookies :
When the user browses a website, the web server sends a text file to the web browser. This small text file is a cookie.
Generally a cookie contains the name of the website from which it has come from and a unique ID tag. Some cookies last
only until the browser is closed. They are not stored on your hard drive. They are usually used to track the pages that you
visit so that information can be customised for you for that visit. On the other hand, some cookies are stored on your
hard drive until you delete them or they reach their expiry date. These may, for example, be used to remember your
preferences when you use the website.

Cyber Crime :
Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a computer and internet is used in an illegitimate way to harm the user. Cyber
criminals may use computer technology to access personal information, business trade secrets, or use the internet for
exploitive or malicious purposes. Cybercrimes can be against persons or against property or against the government.
The list of Cyber Crimes includes
• harassment by computer (Cyber Stalking, defamation)
• pornography
• illegal downloads, plagiarism
• software piracy/counterfeiting, copyright violation of software, counterfeit hardware, black market
• sales of hardware and software, theft of equipment and new technologies
• fraud (credit card fraud, fraudulent use of ATM accounts, stock market transfers, telecommunications fraud),
theft of (electronic) money
Cyber Law :
Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the challenges presented by human activity on the internet with legal system of laws
applicable to the physical world.
17 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
There was no statute in India for governing Cyber Laws involving privacy issues, jurisdiction issues, intellectual property
rights issues and a number of other legal questions. With the tendency of misusing of technology, there has arisen a need
of strict statutory laws to regulate the criminal activities in the cyber world and to protect the true sense of technology.
"INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT, 2000" [ITA- 2000] was enacted by Parliament of India to protect the field of e-
commerce, e-governance, e-banking as well as penalties and punishments in the field of Cyber Crimes. The above Act was
further amended in the form of IT Amendment Act, 2008 [ITAA-2008].

Intellectual property rights (IPR) Issues

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to an individual over the invention of their own. They usually give the
creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.

There are only three ways to protect intellectual property

1. Patents 2. Trademarks 3. Copyrights
1. Patents
A Patent is a term used for a specific product designed by an individual. The designer is given exclusive rights
over the patent for a limited period of time. With help of the patent right, the owner can stop others from
making, using or selling the product design. The owner can take a legal action if someone uses the patent
without his/ her permission In order to obtain a patent, the following conditions should be met:

• The product should be new

• It should be capable of being made or used in some kind of industry
• It should not be a scientific or mathematical discovery

2. Trademark
Trademark can be defined as a name or a different sign or a device identifying a product or a service. The
product or the service is produced or provided by a specific person or a company. A Trademark is also known as
brand name. It should be officially registered and legally restricted to the use of the specific person or the
company.

3. Copy writes
Copyright is the term used for a written document. A legal action can be taken, if copyrights are violated. The
following category of work can be considered for copyrights.
• literary works
• musical works, including any accompanying words
• dramatic works, including any accompanying music
• pantomimes and choreographic works
• pictorial, graphic and sculptural works , motion pictures and other audio visual works
• sound recordings
• computer programs and websites
Hacking
A computer enthusiast, who uses his computer programming skills to intentionally access a computer without
authorization is known as hacking. The computer enthusiast involved in this activity is known as a hacker. A
hacker accesses the computer without the intention of destroying data or maliciously harming the computer.
Another term commonly used with hacking is cracking. Cracking can be defined as a method by which a person
who gains unauthorized access to a computer with the intention of causing damage.

18 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
Introduction to Web Services
HTML(Hypertext Markup Language)
HTML is language that helps in creating and designing web content. It is a markup language. It has a variety of tags and
attributes for defining the layout and structure of the web document. It is designed to display the data in formatted
manner. A HTML document has the extension .htm or .html. Hypertext is a text which is linked to another document.
XML (EXtensible Markup Language)
XML is a markup language like HTML. It is designed to carry or store data. In contrast to HTML, it is not designed to
display data. Unlike HTML, it does not have predefined tags. It is possible to define new tags in XML. It allows the
programmer to use customized tags. XML is case sensitive. XML is deigned to be self descriptive.

WWW (World Wide Web):

WWW can be defined as a hypertext information retrieval system on the Internet. Tim Berners -Lee is the inventor of
WWW. WWW is the universe of the information available on the internet. WWW consists of web pages, which use HTML
to interchange information on the internet. All the webpages on WWW use HTTP transfer protocol for any information
with the capability for making hypertext jumps.
Web page
Web page is an electronic document designed using HTML. It displays information in textual or graphical form. It may also
contain downloadable data files, audio files or video files. Traversal from one webpage to another web page is possible
through hyperlinks.

A web page can be classified into two types:

Static web page: A web page which displays same kind of information whenever a user visits it, is known as a static web
page. A static web page generally has.htm or .html as extension.

Dynamic web page: An interactive web page is a dynamic webpage. A dynamic web page uses scripting languages to
display changing content on the web page. Such a page generally has php, .asp," or .jsp as extension.

A scripting language is a programming language which can be embedded or integrated with other languages. Some of the
most widely used scripting languages are JavaScript, VBScript, PHP, Perl, Python, Ruby, and ASP. They have been used
extensively to create dynamic web pages.

Dynamic web pages support two types of scripting:

Client-Side Scripting
On some web pages the contents change in response to an action done by the user, for example a click from the mouse
or a key press from a keyboard action. Such pages use client-side scripting. In this technology, the content is generated
on the user's local computer. VB Script and Java Script are examples of client-side scripting languages.

Server -Side Scripting

Some web pages use applications running on the server to generate the web content. Such pages use server-side
scripting language. Web page display the current time and date, forums, submission forms, shopping carts etc., use
server-side scripting. ASP,JSP, PHP are examples of server-side scripting languages.

Website:
Related web pages from a single web domain is termed as a website. A website has multiple web pages providing
information about a particular entity.

Web browser:
Web browser is software program to navigate the web pages on the internet. A browser interprets the coding language
of the web page and displays it in graphic form. A web browser allows anyone to access the web without even knowing
commands used in software languages to design a web page. Internet works on client -server model. A web browser is a

19 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
client which requests the information from the web server. The web server sends the information back to the client. The
web address of the webpage written on the address bar tells the web browser which page to access.

URL (Uniform resource locator)

Web address of the web page written on the address bar of the browser is known as the uniform resource locator (URL).
A URL is a formatted text string used to identify a network resource on the Internet. Network resources are files that can
be plain Web pages, text documents, graphics, downloadable files, services or programs. Every network resource on the
web has a unique URL. The text string of a URL has the following format:
protocol://server.domainname/path/resource
The URL text string consists of three parts:
network protocol : // host name or address or domain /file or resource location

Network Protocol
The network protocol substring identifies the protocol to be used to access the network resource. These strings are short
names followed by the three characters '://' . Other examples of protocols include http, gopher, wais, ftp and mailto.

URL Host/Server/Domain Name

The host name or address substring identifies the host/server that holds the resource. Hosts names are sometimes called
domain names. For example: www. School.com is a domain name. Host names are mapped into numeric IP addresses.
The domain name www.school.com may have IP address
192.2.100.1.An IP address is a binary number that uniquely
identifies computers and other devices on a TCP/IP network.

URL Resource Location

The file or resource location substring contains a path to one specific network resource on the host/server. Resources are
normally located in a host directory or folder. For example http://www.school.com/syllabus/preprimary/nursery.htm
is the location of this Web page including two subdirectories and the file name.

Generic Domain Names:

·com - commercial business ·edu - Educational institutions ·gov - Government agencies
·mil - Military ·net - Network organizations ·org - Organizations (nonprofit)
Country Specific Domain Names:
.in - India ·au - Australia ·ca - Canada .ch – China .nz - New Zealand .pk - Pakistan .jp - Japan .us - USA
Web Server
A Web server is a computer or a group of computers that stores web pages on the internet. It works on client/server
model. It delivers the requested web page to web browser. Web servers use special programs such as Apache or IIS
(Internet Information Server) to deliver web pages over the http protocol. Each server has a unique IP address and
domain name. In order to access a webpage, the user writes the URL of the site on the address bar of the browser.
Web hosting
Web hosting is the process of uploading/saving the web content on a web server to make it available on WWW. In case a
individual or a company wants to make its website available on the internet, it should be hosted on a web server.
Web 2.0
The term web 2.0 was given by O'Reilly Media in 2004. Web 2.0 refers to new generation of dynamic and interactive
websites. Web 2.0 websites uses a new programming language called AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML). AJAX
helps a dynamic website connect to the web server and download small amount of data based on the interaction with
the user. In this technology only the part of the website which is updated is reloaded. This helps in making the website
interactive.

Applications supported by web 2.0 are as followings:

20 | P a g e
 Communication Technologies
• blogging
• wikis and other collaborative applications
• interactive encyclopedia and dictionaries
• Advanced Gaming
e- Commerce
Electronic commerce is a way of doing business over large electronic networks such as the Internet. Also called e-
commerce, electronic commerce greatly facilitates transactions between companies and consumers (B2C), between one
company and another (B2B), and between individual consumers (C2C). It is also use for buying and selling of goods
and services, or the transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the internet.

Advantages of Ecommerce
• Faster buying/selling procedure, as well as easy to find products.
• Buying/selling 24/7.
• More reach to customers, there is no theoretical geographic limitations.
• Low operational costs and better quality of services.
• No need of physical company set-ups.
• Easy to start and manage a business.

Disadvantages of Ecommerce
There are various types of e-commerce threats. Some are accidental, some are purposeful, and some of them are due to
human error. The most common security threats are phishing attacks, money thefts, data misuse, hacking, credit card
frauds and unprotected services.

21 | P a g e