See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/374989364

Precision agriculture practices for smart irrigation

Chapter · October 2023

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-91068-2.00009-6

CITATIONS READS

0 20

4 authors, including:

Md. Saddam Hossain Md. Nahidul Islam

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University
15 PUBLICATIONS 71 CITATIONS 80 PUBLICATIONS 1,329 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Md. Arifur Rahman Khan

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University
65 PUBLICATIONS 612 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Md. Nahidul Islam on 26 October 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Remote Sensing in
Precision Agriculture
Transforming Scientific
Advancement Into Innovation
This page intentionally left blank
 Earth Observation

Remote Sensing in
Precision Agriculture
Transforming Scientific
Advancement Into Innovation

Edited by
Salim Lamine
Higher School of Saharan Agriculture Adrar, Adrar, Algeria

Prashant K. Srivastava
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

Ahmed Kayad
Intermountain Research and Extension Center, University of California,
CA, United States

Francisco Muñoz-Arriola
School of Natural Resources and Department of Biological Systems
Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States

Prem Chandra Pandey

Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences,
Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence (Deemed to be University),
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Series Editor
George P. Petropoulos
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
MATLABs is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does
not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of
MATLABs software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by
The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLABs software.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-323-91068-2

For Information on all Academic Press publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki Levy

Acquisitions Editor: Nancy Maragioglio
Editorial Project Manager: Catherine Costello
Production Project Manager: Sruthi Satheesh
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers
Concept and Idea by Salim Lamine
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
List of contributors .................................................................................................xix
About The editors ..................................................................................................xxv
Preface ..................................................................................................................xxix

Section 1 Introduction and principles of precision

agriculture
CHAPTER 1 Precision agriculture practices from planting to
postharvest: scopes, opportunities, and challenges
of innovation in developing countries ......................... 3
Hasan Muhammad Abdullah, Md. Nahidul Islam,
Mehfuz Hasan Saikat and Md. A.H.B. Bhuiyan
1.1 Precision agriculture for smallholder farming...............................3
1.2 Precision equipment, tools, and technical requirements for
smallholder farming .......................................................................4
1.3 Precision crop breeding..................................................................5
1.4 High-throughput phenotyping to accelerate plant stress breeding .... 6
1.5 Precision agriculture technologies for plant disease management ..... 6
1.6 Major techniques involve in plant disease management...............7
1.6.1 Nanofungicides against field crop pathogens..................... 7
1.7 Nanomaterials for plant disease detection .....................................8
1.8 Deep learning models for plant disease detection.........................9
1.9 Postharvest management ..............................................................11
1.10 Varietal classification...................................................................11
1.11 Contaminant detection .................................................................12
1.12 Firmness .......................................................................................13
1.13 Total soluble solids ......................................................................14
1.14 Moisture and dry matter...............................................................16
1.15 Defect identification.....................................................................17
References.................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER 2 Scope, importance, and limitations of precision-

agriculture-based practices for crop management:
Indian perspective ...................................................... 27
Sushil Kumar, Ashok Yadav, Sukumar Taria, Badre Alam,
Priyanka Singh, R.P. Dwivedi and Ayyandar Arunachalam
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................27

v
vi Contents

2.2 Components of precision agriculture and their use.....................28

2.2.1 Mapping .......................................................................... 29
2.2.2 Global positioning system receivers............................... 30
2.2.3 Yield monitoring and mapping....................................... 30
2.2.4 Grid soil sampling and variable-rate fertilizer
application ....................................................................... 30
2.2.5 Remote sensing ............................................................... 31
2.2.6 Geographic information systems .................................... 31
2.2.7 Quantifying farm variability ........................................... 31
2.2.8 Soil variation ................................................................... 32
2.2.9 Variability of soil water content..................................... 32
2.2.10 Time and space scales..................................................... 32
2.3 Why precision farming.................................................................33
2.4 Precision-agriculture-based practices for crop management.......33
2.5 Scope of precision agriculture in India........................................35
2.6 Challenges and limitations of precision agriculture ....................37
2.7 The policy approach to promote precision farming at farm
level ..............................................................................................37
2.8 Conclusions ..................................................................................38
References.................................................................................... 38

Section 2 Precision agriculture practices for soil

management
CHAPTER 3 IoT based soil monitoring for precision agriculture......43
Shafiyoddin Badruddin Sayyad, Mudassar Akhtar Shaikh,
Sandip Maruti Anpat and Mangesh Madhukar Kolapkar
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................43
3.2 Proposed system ...........................................................................44
3.2.1 Arduino.............................................................................. 45
3.2.2 ThingSpeak-IoT platform ................................................. 46
3.2.3 ESP8266 Wi-Fi module .................................................... 46
3.2.4 Sensors .............................................................................. 46
3.3 Satellite data processing...............................................................47
3.4 Study area .....................................................................................47
3.5 Result and discussion ...................................................................48
3.5.1 IoT-based results ............................................................... 48
3.5.2 Satellite-based results........................................................ 53
3.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................56
Acknowledgments ....................................................................... 56
References.................................................................................... 56
 Contents vii

CHAPTER 4 LIFE GEOCARBON: carbon farming geolocation

support by establishing a spatial soil database
management system ................................................... 61
Dimitris Triantakonstantis, Kostas Bithas,
Spyridon E. Detsikas, Gherardo Biancofiore,
Romina Lorenzetti, José A. Pascual, Margarita Ros,
Carlos Guerrero and Thomas Panagopoulos
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................61
4.1.1 Introducing LIFE GEOCARBON and its
framework ......................................................................... 62
4.1.2 Aims and objectives.......................................................... 62
4.1.3 Project beneficiaries.......................................................... 63
4.2 Materials and methods .................................................................63
4.2.1 Data sources ...................................................................... 63
4.2.2 Data acquisition ................................................................ 64
4.3 Expected results............................................................................67
4.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................68
References.................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER 5 Mapping and monitoring of salt-affected soils:

the contribution of geoinformation ............................ 71
Christina Lekka, Spyridon E. Detsikas,
George P. Petropoulos and Christos Chalkias
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................71
5.2 Salt-affected soils: driving factors and present status .................73
5.2.1 A general overview ........................................................... 73
5.2.2 Drivers of salt-affected soils............................................. 74
5.2.3 Salinity impact on soil organic carbon stocks.................. 75
5.2.4 Geographical distribution of salt-affected soils
worldwide.......................................................................... 76
5.3 Salt-affected soils assessment and the use of
geoinformation .............................................................................79
5.3.1 Remote sensing of salt-affected soils ............................... 79
5.3.2 Geographic information system applications
in salt-affected soil monitoring and
assessment ......................................................................... 84
5.4 Concluding remarks .....................................................................84
References.................................................................................... 86
viii Contents

CHAPTER 6 Soil organic carbon sequestration potential

dynamics in saline and sodic soils in Greece .......... 93
Dimitris Triantakonstantis and Spyridon E. Detsikas
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................93
6.2 Materials and methods .................................................................94
6.2.1 Study area.......................................................................... 94
6.2.2 Input data........................................................................... 94
6.2.3 Methodology ..................................................................... 99
6.3 Results and discussion..................................................................99
6.4 Conclusions ................................................................................100
References.................................................................................. 103

CHAPTER 7 The latest applications of remote sensing

technologies for soil management in precision
agriculture practices ................................................ 105
S.B. Hareesh
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................105
7.2 Active and passive approaches of remote sensing ....................108
7.3 Sensor technologies for soil management .................................109
7.3.1 Soil moisture sensing technology methods .................... 111
7.3.2 Effective soil use and management ................................ 113
7.3.3 Site-specific management zones..................................... 114
7.4 Digital soil mapping...................................................................115
7.4.1 Proximal sensing and digital terrain models .................. 115
7.4.2 Automated methods for soil mapping—electromagnetic
induction and direct current or galvanic methods............... 116
7.4.3 Multispectral satellite sensors and their advantages ...... 118
7.4.4 Hyperspectral remote sensing......................................... 119
7.4.5 Soil salinity mapping and monitoring ............................ 122
7.4.6 Hybrid strategy on the development of a
pedological map .............................................................. 125
7.5 Conclusion and way forward .....................................................127
References.................................................................................. 127

CHAPTER 8 Role of precision agriculture in soil fertility

and its application to farmers .................................. 137
R. Karthika
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................137
8.2 Elements/components of precision agriculture..........................138
8.2.1 Global position systems ................................................ 138
 Contents ix

8.2.2
Global information system............................................ 139
8.2.3
Remote sensing ............................................................. 140
8.2.4
Variable-rate technology............................................... 140
8.2.5
Precision farming .......................................................... 140
8.2.6
Real-time nitrogen management................................... 141
8.2.7
Biointensive farming..................................................... 141
8.2.8
Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
approach ........................................................................ 141
8.2.9 Soil sensors ................................................................... 141
8.2.10 Yield sensors ................................................................. 142
8.3 Precision agriculture in soil fertility ..........................................142
8.3.1 Soil sampling for precision agriculture .......................... 143
8.3.2 Soil sampling and variable-rate fertilization .................. 143
8.3.3 Interpretation of soil test and yield maps....................... 144
8.3.4 On-farm comparison of management practices ............. 144
8.3.5 General recommendations .............................................. 145
8.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................146
References.................................................................................. 146

Section 3 Precision agriculture practices for irrigation

water management
CHAPTER 9 Remote sensing and geographic information
system!based land suitability analysis for
precision agriculture: a case of paddy cultivation
in East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh
(India) ........................................................................ 151
Ranjit Mahato, Dhoni Bushi, Gibji Nimasow and
Oyi Dai Nimasow
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................151
9.2 Materials and methods ...............................................................152
9.2.1 Study area........................................................................ 152
9.2.2 Methodology ................................................................... 154
9.2.3 Sensitivity analysis.......................................................... 160
9.3 Results ........................................................................................161
9.3.1 Assessment of the selected parameters .......................... 161
9.3.2 Land suitability map for paddy ...................................... 161
9.3.3 Sensitivity analysis.......................................................... 165
9.4 Discussion...................................................................................167
9.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................169
References.................................................................................. 169
x Contents

CHAPTER 10 Precision agriculture practices for smart

irrigation.................................................................... 175
Md. Saddam Hossain, Uttam Kumar Ghosh,
Md. Nahidul Islam and Md. Arifur Rahman Khan
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................175
10.2 Components of smart irrigation system.....................................177
10.2.1 Data acquisition ............................................................ 177
10.2.2 Interpretation ................................................................. 177
10.2.3 Control........................................................................... 177
10.3 Smart irrigation systems.............................................................177
10.4 Different types of irrigation methods ........................................180
10.4.1 Surface irrigation methods............................................ 181
10.4.2 Modern or microirrigation and pressurized
irrigation ........................................................................ 181
10.4.3 Advanced or automated irrigation ................................ 182
10.5 Benefits of smart irrigation ........................................................182
10.5.1 Water savings................................................................ 183
10.5.2 Yield and profit............................................................. 183
10.6 Conclusion and future perspectives ...........................................183
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 184
References.................................................................................. 184

CHAPTER 11 Precision irrigation management:

a step toward sustainable agriculture ..................... 189
Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Mahima Begum, Bhaswati Sarmah,
Bipul Deka, Raktim Bhagawati, Shantonu Paul and
Marami Dutta
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................189
11.2 Importance of irrigation management .......................................190
11.3 Need and advantages of precision irrigation .............................191
11.3.1 Increasing water use efficiency .................................... 193
11.3.2 Water and energy savings............................................. 193
11.3.3 Reduction in disease and pest....................................... 194
11.3.4 Reduction in weed infestation ...................................... 194
11.3.5 Reduction in problems associated with over/
underirrigation............................................................... 195
11.3.6 Increase in yield and profit........................................... 195
11.4 Impact of microirrigation in precision agriculture ....................196
11.4.1 Drip irrigation ............................................................... 196
11.4.2 Sprinkler irrigation........................................................ 197
 Contents xi

11.5 Recent advancements in precision irrigation technologies .......198

11.5.1 Variable-rate irrigation.................................................. 198
11.5.2 Intelligent system using low-cost sensor network ....... 199
11.5.3 Precision irrigation automating farm irrigation............ 200
11.5.4 Internet of Things.......................................................... 200
11.5.5 Remote sensing!based precision irrigation ................. 201
11.6 Fertigation and precision agriculture .........................................202
11.6.1 Effect of fertigation on organic carbon in soil............. 202
11.6.2 Effect of fertigation on soil properties ......................... 203
11.6.3 Effect of fertigation on production............................... 203
11.6.4 Effect of fertigation in mitigating climate change ....... 203
11.7 Impact of precision irrigation on soil properties .......................203
11.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................204
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 204
References.................................................................................. 204

CHAPTER 12 Applications of remote sensing in water

quality assessment ................................................... 217
Mohit Kumar Srivastava, Shishir Gaur, Anurag Ohri,
Prashant K. Srivastava and Nikhilesh Singh
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................217
12.2 Basis of remote sensing .............................................................218
12.3 Spectral reflectance curve for water bodies ..............................218
12.4 RS techniques in water quality monitoring ...............................221
12.5 Shallow water spectral characteristics .......................................221
12.6 Groundwater remote sensing .....................................................222
12.7 Water quality parameters ...........................................................222
12.7.1 Suspended sediment concentration............................... 223
12.7.2 Chlorophyll concentration ............................................ 223
12.7.3 Algae ............................................................................. 224
12.7.4 Temperature .................................................................. 225
12.8 Sensors for water quality ...........................................................225
12.8.1 Airborne sensors ........................................................... 225
12.8.2 Space-borne sensors ...................................................... 231
12.9 Hyperspectral sensors.................................................................231
12.10 Multispectral sensors..................................................................232
12.11 Advantages of using remote sensing in water quality
assessment ..................................................................................232
12.12 Barriers in RS measurements of WQ ........................................233
References.................................................................................. 234
xii Contents

Section 4 Precision agriculture practices for

crop yield management
CHAPTER 13 Combined use of uncrewed aerial vehicle and
satellite remote sensing data to gain crop
insights within Colombia .......................................... 239
Samantha Lavender, Michael Selvaraj and
Carlos Bojaca
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................239
13.2 Methodology...............................................................................241
13.2.1 Uncrewed aerial vehicle data collection and
processing...................................................................... 241
13.2.2 Satellite data download and processing ....................... 242
13.2.3 Uncrewed aerial vehicle and satellite data extraction ...... 243
13.2.4 Rice ground-based phenology Leaf Area Index
approach ........................................................................ 245
13.3 Results ........................................................................................247
13.3.1 Rice................................................................................ 247
13.3.2 Palm............................................................................... 252
13.4 Discussion and conclusions........................................................252
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 255
References.................................................................................. 256

CHAPTER 14 Prediction of plant pigments for phytosanitary

and yield estimation ................................................. 259
Ayşenur Özcan, Uğur Murat Leloğlu and
Mehmet Lütfi Süzen
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................259
14.2 State of the art ............................................................................261
14.2.1 Photosynthetic pigments and their roles in yield
estimation ...................................................................... 261
14.2.2 Remote sensing in agricultural applications and
yield estimation ............................................................. 265
14.2.3 Soft computing and its applications in yield
estimation ...................................................................... 268
14.3 Materials and methods ...............................................................271
14.3.1 The data and the study area.......................................... 273
14.3.2 Methodology ................................................................. 276
14.4 Results and discussion................................................................284
14.4.1 The endmembers ........................................................... 284
14.4.2 The abundances............................................................. 285
 Contents xiii

14.4.3 Parameter selection and interactions ............................ 286

14.4.4 Yield estimation using three different machine
learning approaches ...................................................... 291
14.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................295
References.................................................................................. 296

CHAPTER 15 Land salinity mapping using Sentinel-1/2 remote

sensing imagery: a case study in Da’an,
Jilin Province ............................................................ 305
Qianqian Zhang and Li Li
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................305
15.1.1 Sentinel-1 data are inconsistent .................................... 307
15.1.2 Inconsistency between Sentinel-1 and
Sentinel-2 data .............................................................. 307
15.1.3 Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 sensor performance
differences ..................................................................... 307
15.1.4 Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data are also defective ........ 307
15.2 Research data..............................................................................308
15.2.1 Sentinel-1 data .............................................................. 308
15.2.2 Sentinel-2 data .............................................................. 308
15.2.3 Land cover label............................................................ 309
15.2.4 The workflow of this method ....................................... 309
15.3 Method........................................................................................311
15.3.1 Feature set ..................................................................... 311
15.3.2 Classification standard and sample making ................. 311
15.3.3 Random forest!based classification ............................ 312
15.4 Results ........................................................................................313
Reference ................................................................................... 315

CHAPTER 16 Precision nutrient management for field and

horticultural crops .................................................... 317
Bhaswati Sarmah, Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Marami Dutta,
Mahima Begum and Bipul Deka
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................317
16.2 Benefits of precision nutrient management ...............................318
16.2.1 Precise nutrient uptake and utilization.......................318
16.2.2 Judicious use of fertilizers..........................................319
16.2.3 Maximization of yield per unit area ..........................319
16.2.4 Environmental sustainability......................................320
16.2.5 Enhanced profit ..........................................................320
xiv Contents

16.3 Tools and techniques in precision nutrient management ..........321

16.3.1 Electrochemical and optical sensors ..........................322
16.3.2 Chlorophyll meters .....................................................324
16.3.3 Variable-rate technology ............................................325
16.3.4 Geographic information system and global
positioning system .................................................................327
16.3.5 Remote sensing...........................................................329
16.3.6 Decision support systems ...........................................331
16.3.7 Machine learning and Internet of Things ..................333
16.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................333
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 334
References.................................................................................. 334

Section 5 Precision agriculture practices for

crop protection
CHAPTER 17 Smart farming to support agricultural crop
damage assessment: interweaving Earth
Observation and IoT data.......................................... 347
Anastasia Dagla, Panagiota Louka, Yorgos Efstathiou,
Nikos Kalatzis, Vassilis Protonotarios and
Argyros Argyridis
17.1 Introduction ................................................................................347
17.2 Use cases and data used.............................................................350
17.3 Methodology and implementation .............................................354
17.3.1 Data preprocessing ........................................................ 354
17.3.2 Processing...................................................................... 356
17.4 Results ........................................................................................359
17.4.1 ResAgri dashboard ........................................................ 359
17.4.2 Extreme weather events ................................................ 360
17.4.3 Crop damages................................................................ 361
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 363
References.................................................................................. 364

CHAPTER 18 Detection of grapevine yellows using

multispectral imaging ............................................... 367
ˇ
Uroš Zibrat and Matej Knapič
18.1 Introduction ................................................................................367
18.2 Remote sensing approaches for grapevine
yellows detection........................................................................369
 Contents xv

18.3 Methods ......................................................................................371

18.3.1 WorldView-2 image acquisition and
preprocessing................................................................. 371
18.3.2 Plant health assessment................................................. 371
18.3.3 Spectral data preprocessing .......................................... 372
18.3.4 Classification................................................................. 376
18.4 Results and discussion................................................................376
18.5 Conclusions ................................................................................383
References.................................................................................. 383

Section 6 Advanced modeling practices in

precision agriculture
CHAPTER 19 Geostatistical modeling—a tool for predictive
soil mapping.............................................................. 389
Aatira Hilal, Shabir Ahmed Bangroo, Nayar Afaq Kirmani,
Javaid Ahmed Wani, Asim Biswas, Mohammad Iqbal Bhat,
Khushboo Farooq, Owais Bashir and Tajamul Islam Shah
19.1 Introduction ................................................................................389
19.2 Digital soil mapping using geostatistics (spatial statistics).......392
19.3 Brief overview of approaches to soil spatial prediction............395
19.3.1 Geostatistics and related methods ................................ 397
19.3.2 Theory of regionalized variables .................................. 401
19.3.3 Kriging interpolation technique .................................... 404
19.3.4 Digital soil mapping paradigms
(The SCORPAN model) ............................................... 407
19.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................409
References.................................................................................. 409

CHAPTER 20 A novel approach for training nonparametric

statistical models to retrieve rapeseed fresh
above-ground biomass using in situ and
Sentinel-2 data ......................................................... 419
Dessislava Ganeva
20.1 Introduction ................................................................................419
20.2 Dataset ........................................................................................420
20.2.1 In situ data collection.................................................... 420
20.2.2 Sentinel-2 data .............................................................. 420
20.3 Methodology...............................................................................422
20.3.1 Verification of assumptions .......................................... 422
xvi Contents

20.3.2 Nonparametric statistical models’ development

for fresh above-ground biomass retrieval and
comparison .................................................................... 422
20.4 Results ........................................................................................423
20.4.1 Goodness-of-fit metrics................................................. 423
20.4.2 ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test ................................... 423
20.4.3 Speed of training methods ............................................ 425
20.4.4 Learning curve .............................................................. 425
20.5 Discussion...................................................................................425
20.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................427
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 427
References.................................................................................. 427

CHAPTER 21 Applications of drones in precision agriculture:

future of smart and sustainable farming.................. 429
Ritvik Tyagi and Prem Chandra Pandey
21.1 Introduction ................................................................................429
21.2 Precision farming .......................................................................431
21.3 Drones in precision agriculture..................................................434
21.3.1 Types of drones............................................................. 436
21.4 Applications of sensors mounted on unmanned aerial
vehicles .......................................................................................439
21.4.1 Thermal applications..................................................... 439
21.4.2 Hyperspectral applications............................................ 440
21.4.3 LiDAR applications ...................................................... 441
21.5 Agricultural applications performed using drones-acquired
images.........................................................................................441
21.5.1 Farm drone setup and surveying .................................. 441
21.5.2 Crop monitoring, plant disease detection, and
management .................................................................. 443
21.5.3 Soil analysis and practices using drones ...................... 443
21.5.4 Crop water stress and water-use efficiency.................. 444
21.5.5 Route planning and optimization using drones............ 445
21.5.6 Prescription maps: crop dusting and spraying ............. 445
21.5.7 Crop productivity and crop insurance .......................... 446
21.6 Other applications using drones.................................................448
21.7 Limitations of drones .................................................................448
21.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................449
Acknowledgement ..................................................................... 450
References.................................................................................. 450
 Contents xvii

CHAPTER 22 Precision opto-imaging techniques for seed

quality assessment: prospects and scope of
recent advances........................................................ 455
Bhaswati Sarmah, Rajasree Rajkhowa, Ishita Chakraborty,
Indira Govindaraju, Sanjai Kumar Dwivedi,
Nirmal Mazumder and Vishwa Jyoti Baruah
Chapter highlights...................................................................... 455
22.1 Introduction ................................................................................455
22.2 Infrared spectroscopy and its application in seeds ....................461
22.2.1 Near- and mid-infrared ................................................. 461
22.2.2 Fourier transform near-infrared .................................... 462
22.2.3 Raman spectroscopy ..................................................... 463
22.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry ................................464
22.4 Spectral imaging in seeds ..........................................................465
22.4.1 Hyperspectral imaging in seed ..................................... 465
22.4.2 Multispectral imaging in seed ...................................... 467
22.5 Fluorescence and photoluminescence imaging in seeds ...........468
22.6 Thermal imaging in seeds ..........................................................470
22.7 Light detection and ranging imaging.........................................473
22.8 Challenges and limitations .........................................................474
22.9 Future prospects .........................................................................475
22.10 Conclusion ..................................................................................475
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 475
Funding ...................................................................................... 476
Abbreviations............................................................................. 476
References.................................................................................. 476

CHAPTER 23 Remote sensing!aided disaster risk

mitigation in agriculture........................................... 487
Bhaswati Sarmah, Vishwa Jyoti Baruah and
Tanaya Sarmah
23.1 Introduction ................................................................................487
23.2 What is remote sensing? ............................................................488
23.3 Remote sensing for drought assessment and prevention...........490
23.4 Remote sensing for flood assessment and prevention...............492
23.5 Remote sensing for biotic stress prediction and prevention .....494
23.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................495
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 495
References.................................................................................. 496

Index ......................................................................................................................501
This page intentionally left blank
List of contributors
Hasan Muhammad Abdullah
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Badre Alam
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Sandip Maruti Anpat
Department of Computer Science, Marathwada Mitramandal College of
Commerce, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Argyros Argyridis
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece
Ayyandar Arunachalam
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Shabir Ahmed Bangroo
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India; School of Environmental
Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Vishwa Jyoti Baruah
Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biological Sciences,
Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, India
Owais Bashir
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Mahima Begum
AICRP on Potato, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India;
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
Raktim Bhagawati
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
Mohammad Iqbal Bhat
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Md. A.H.B. Bhuiyan
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Gherardo Biancofiore
Institute of BioEconomy, National Research Council (IBE CNR), Florence, Italy
Asim Biswas
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

xix
xx List of contributors

Kostas Bithas
Institute of Urban Environment and Human Resources, Department of Economic
and Regional Development, Panteion University, Kallithea, Athens, Greece
Carlos Bojaca
Colombian Oil Palm Research Center—Cenipalma, Oil Palm Agronomy
Research Program, Geomatics Section, Bogotá, Colombia
Dhoni Bushi
Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal
Pradesh, India
Ishita Chakraborty
Department of Biophysics, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy
of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
Christos Chalkias
Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Kallithea, Athens,
Greece
Anastasia Dagla
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece
Bipul Deka
AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat,
Assam, India
Spyridon E. Detsikas
Department of Soil Science of Athens, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
ELGO—DIMITRA, Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece
Marami Dutta
Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam,
India
R.P. Dwivedi
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Sanjai Kumar Dwivedi
Department of Horticulture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Yorgos Efstathiou
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece
Khushboo Farooq
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Dessislava Ganeva
Space Research and Technology Institute of the Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Shishir Gaur
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
 List of contributors xxi

Uttam Kumar Ghosh

Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Indira Govindaraju
Department of Biophysics, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy
of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
Carlos Guerrero
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
S.B. Hareesh
Division of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science, Central Coffee Research
Institute, Coffee Research Station, Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka, India
Aatira Hilal
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Md. Saddam Hossain
Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Md. Nahidul Islam
Department of Agro-Processing, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Nikos Kalatzis
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece
R. Karthika
PG & Research Department of Biotechnology, Mahendra Arts & Science
College (Autonomous), Kalippatti, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India
Md. Arifur Rahman Khan
Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Nayar Afaq Kirmani
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Matej Knapič
Plant Protection Department, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Mangesh Madhukar Kolapkar
Vidya Pratishthan’s Arts Science and Commerce College, Baramati,
Maharashtra, India
Sushil Kumar
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Samantha Lavender
Pixalytics Ltd., Plymouth Science Park, Plymouth, Devon, United Kingdom
xxii List of contributors

Christina Lekka
Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Kallithea, Athens,
Greece
Uğur Murat Leloğlu
Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Geodetic and Geographic
Information Technologies Department, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara, Turkey
Li Li
College of Land Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing,
P.R. China
Romina Lorenzetti
Institute of BioEconomy, National Research Council (IBE CNR), Florence, Italy
Panagiota Louka
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece; Department of Natural Resources &
Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Ranjit Mahato
Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal
Pradesh, India
Nirmal Mazumder
Department of Biophysics, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy
of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
Gibji Nimasow
Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh,
India
Oyi Dai Nimasow
Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh,
India
Anurag Ohri
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ayşenur Özcan
Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Geodetic and Geographic
Information Technologies Department, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara, Turkey
Thomas Panagopoulos
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Prem Chandra Pandey
Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar
Institution of Eminence (Deemed to be University), Greater Noida,
Uttar Pradesh, India
José A. Pascual
Group of Soil Enzymology and Bioremediation and Organic Wastes,
Department of Soil and Water Conservation, CEBAS-CSIC, University Campus
of Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
 List of contributors xxiii

Shantonu Paul
Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
George P. Petropoulos
Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Kallithea, Athens,
Greece
Vassilis Protonotarios
NEUROPUBLIC SA, Piraeus, Greece
Rajasree Rajkhowa
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Assam Agricultural University,
Jorhat, Assam, India
Margarita Ros
Group of Soil Enzymology and Bioremediation and Organic Wastes,
Department of Soil and Water Conservation, CEBAS-CSIC, University Campus
of Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
Mehfuz Hasan Saikat
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Bhaswati Sarmah
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Assam Agricultural University,
Jorhat, Assam, India; AICRP on Potato, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat,
Assam, India
Tanaya Sarmah
Resilience Innovation Knowledge Academy (RIKA), New Delhi, India
Shafiyoddin Badruddin Sayyad
Microwave and Imaging Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of
Computer and Management, Milliya College, Beed, Maharashtra, India
Michael Selvaraj
The Alliance of Bioversity International and International Center for Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia
Tajamul Islam Shah
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Mudassar Akhtar Shaikh
Department of Electronics, New Arts, Commerce and Science College,
Ahmednagar (Autonomous), Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
Nikhilesh Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Priyanka Singh
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
xxiv List of contributors

Mohit Kumar Srivastava

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prashant K. Srivastava
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mehmet Lütfi Süzen
Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Geodetic and Geographic
Information Technologies Department, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara, Turkey; Geological Engineering Department, Middle East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey
Sukumar Taria
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Dimitris Triantakonstantis
Department of Soil Science of Athens, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
ELGO—DIMITRA, Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece
Ritvik Tyagi
School of Management, School of Management and Entrepreneurship (SME),
Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence (Deemed to be University), Greater Noida,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Javaid Ahmed Wani
Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Shalimar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Ashok Yadav
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Qianqian Zhang
Department of Earth System Science, Institute for Global Change Studies,
Ministry of Education Ecological Field Station for East Asian Migratory Birds,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, P.R. China
Uroš Žibrat
Plant Protection Department, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia
About the editors
Salim Lamine is a distinguished scientist, serving as a
professor and international consultant specializing in
remote sensing and precision agriculture. He earned his
PhD through a collaborative program between
Aberystwyth University in the United Kingdom and the
University of Sciences and Technology Houari
Boumediene in Algeria. His academic pursuits further
extended to the University of Nottingham in the UK,
where he delved into GNSS applications, and he gained
valuable research experience as an assistant researcher
at the University of Aberystwyth. In 2017 Dr. Lamine
was honored with the prestigious International Prize for the Environment,
“ECOWORLD,” by the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. He holds mas-
ter’s degrees from both the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari in Italy
and the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania in Greece. Currently, he
is serving as a member of the editorial board for the prominent Taylor &
Francis journal, Geocarto International. Additionally, he extends his expertise
as a valued member of the Advisory Panel for several MDPI Journals.
Dr. Lamine’s research portfolio encompasses a wide range of multidisciplinary
areas, including remote sensing, precision agriculture, hyperspectral imaging,
drone-based data analysis, crop yield prediction, field spectroradiometry, water
and soil management, agri-biosystems engineering, GIS and space mapping,
machine learning and SVAT models. Dr. Lamine has made substantial contribu-
tions to the academic realm, evidenced by over 30 peer-reviewed publications
in esteemed journals and participation in more than 150 international confer-
ences. His scholarly influence also extends to the authorship of several book
chapters. He authored a book entitled REMOTE SENSING: Multispectral &
Hyperspectral Applications published in 2020.

Prashant K. Srivastava is working at IESD, Banaras

Hindu University, as a faculty and was affiliated with
Hydrological Sciences, NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center, as research scientist on SMAP satellite soil mois-
ture retrieval algorithm development, instrumentation,
and simulation for various applications. He received his
PhD degree from the Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom. Prashant
was the recipient of several awards such as NASA
Fellowship, USA; University of Maryland Fellowship,
USA; Commonwealth Fellowship, UK; Early Career

xxv
xxvi About the editors

Research Award (ECRA, DST, India), CSIR, as well as UGC!JRF-NET (2005,

2006). He is leading a number of projects funded from reputed agencies in India
as well as world. He was also a collaborator with NASA JPL on SMAP soil mois-
ture calibration and validation as well as Scatsat-1, NISAR, AVIRIS-NG missions
of India. Prashant made more than 200+ publications in peer-reviewed journals
and published 14 books with reputed publishing house such as Springer, Taylor
and Francis, AGU-Wiley, and Elsevier, and several book chapters with good cita-
tion index. He presented his work in several conferences and workshops and is
acting as a convener for the last few years in EGU, Hydroinformatics (HIC), and
other conferences. He is also acting as Regional Editor Asia-Geocarto International
(T & F), Associate Editor-Journal of Hydrology (Elsevier), GIScience and Remote
Sensing (T & F), Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment
(Elsevier), Sustainable Environment (T & F), Water Resources Management
(Springer), Frontiers Remote Sensing, Associate Editor- Remote Sensing-MDPI,
Associate Editor- Environment, Development and Sustainability (Springer),
Environmental Processes (Springer), Bull of Env and Sci Res.

Ahmed Kayad is an agricultural engineer advisor for

applied research and extension at the University of
California, Agriculture & Natural Resources (UC ANR),
United States. He holds a PhD in environment resources-
digital agriculture from the University of Padova in Italy,
awarded in 2021. His academic journey began with a BSc
in agricultural engineering from Alexandria University,
Egypt, followed by an MSc from King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia. Ahmed’s career has encompassed various
roles, including serving as a farm machinery engineer at
CLAAS agent in Egypt from 2010 to 2011, conducting
research at the Precision Agriculture Research Chair
(PARC) at King Saud University, Saudi Arabia from 2011 to 2018, and pursuing
doctoral and postdoctoral research at the Digital Agriculture Lab, University of
Padua, Italy, from 2018 to 2022. Additionally, he was a visiting doctoral
researcher at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
(CIMMYT), Mexico, in 2020, and pursued postdoctoral studies at the University
of California, Riverside, United States, from 2022 to 2023. Ahmed published
several articles in scientific journals and international conferences, primarily
focusing on remote sensing in agriculture, precision agriculture, and digital agri-
culture. His expertise extends to serving as an expert reviewer for prestigious
funding agencies in Europe and the United States, particularly in projects related
to digital and precision agriculture. Ahmed’s research is centered on crop yield
monitoring, weed detection, farm machinery, and the application of drones and
sensors in agriculture.
 About the editors xxvii

Francisco Muñoz-Arriola is an associate professor in

hydroinformatics and integrated hydroclimate at the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln and adjunct faculty in the
Department of Biosystems Engineering at Universidade
do Sao Paulo. Francisco has been a volunteer for science
at the US Geological Survey and national researcher at
Mexico’s National Council of Science and Technology.
He is also a fellow of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for
Food Global Institute and the Public Policy Center. He
has been a member of the American Meteorological
Society’s Water Resources Committee for 5 years.
Francisco has worked on the diagnostics and predictability of natural and altered
states of biogeochemical cycles and the water continuum from the atmosphere to
the aquifer. His research focuses on the predictability of hydrometeorological and
climate extremes and their impact on water and agricultural resources, the devel-
opment of information technologies and models. His collaborative network
encompasses more than 20 countries in Asia, Europe, and the United States.

Dr. Prem Chandra Pandey received PhD from the

University of Leicester, United Kingdom, under
Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan.
Currently, he is working as an assistant professor at the
Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural
Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence (Deemed
to be University), UP, India. Previously, he has been
associated with Banaras Hindu University, India, as an
SERB-NPDF fellow. He received BSc and MSc degrees
from Banaras Hindu University and MTech degree
(Remote Sensing) from Birla Institute of Technology,
India. He has worked as a professional research fellow on remote sensing applica-
tions in the National Urban Information System funded by NRSC Government of
India. He has been a recipient of several awards including Commonwealth
Fellow, United Kingdom, INSPIRE fellow GoI, MHRD-UGC fellow GoI,
Malviya Gold Medal from Banaras Hindu University, SERB-NPDF from
Government of India, and Young Investigator Award. Dr. Pandey is working in
three projects related to monitoring of wetlands/Chilika lake mainly focusing on
Ramsar sites along with other natural resources!based research work funded by
NGP and SERB Government of India. He has published more than 50 peer-
reviewed journal papers, seven edited books, several book chapters, and presented
his work in national and international conferences. He is serving as a member of
editorial board for Geocarto International journal, Taylor & Francis, Sustainable
Development (Wiley- IF 12.5) and acted as a guest editor for Remote Sensing,
xxviii About the editors

MDPI. Additionally, he is also a member of ISG (Indian Society of Geomatics),

ISRS (Indian Society of Remote Sensing), IUCN-CEM (2017!25), Society of
Wetland Scientists (2021!22), SPIE, and AAG. Dr. Pandey focuses his research
on remote sensing for natural resources including forestry, agriculture, urban stud-
ies, environmental pollutant modeling, and climate change.
Preface
The world of agriculture is undergoing a technological revolution, and remote
sensing is at the forefront of this transformation. With the ability to collect vast
amounts of data from the air and space, remote sensing is providing farmers and
researchers with unprecedented insights into crop growth, soil moisture, and
weather patterns. These insights are enabling farmers to make more informed
decisions, optimize their yields, and reduce their environmental impact.
The book “Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture: Transforming Scientific
Advancement into Innovation” is a comprehensive guide to the state of the art in
remote sensing for precision agriculture. It provides a thorough examination of
the latest scientific advancements and how they are being translated into innova-
tive solutions for farmers. It covers a wide range of topics, including the use of
drones and satellites, machine learning and big data, and the integration of remote
sensing with other precision agriculture technologies.
One of the most exciting aspects of remote sensing is its ability to support
sustainable and efficient agricultural practices. The book examines in six sec-
tions on how remote sensing is being used to improve crop yields, reduce water
and fertilizer usage, and detect and manage pests and diseases. It also high-
lights the potential of remote sensing to support precision conservation and pre-
cision forestry.
The book concludes by looking to the future of remote sensing in precision
agriculture. It explores the potential of emerging technologies such as artificial
intelligence to further enhance the capabilities of remote sensing. The authors
also discuss the potential of remote sensing to support precision conservation and
water sustainable management.
The book is edited by leading experts in the field of remote sensing and preci-
sion agriculture and is an essential resource for researchers, practitioners, and pol-
icymakers alike. Whether you are a farmer looking to improve your crop
management or a researcher working on the next breakthrough in precision agri-
culture, this book is an essential guide to the state of the art in remote sensing for
precision agriculture.
We hope that this book will provide inspiration and guidance for anyone inter-
ested in this exciting and rapidly evolving field. As the world continues to face
global challenges such as climate change and population growth, the need for sus-
tainable and efficient agricultural practices has never been greater. Remote sens-
ing, with its ability to provide real-time data and insights, is a powerful tool for
addressing these challenges and ensuring food security for future generations.

xxix
 xxx Preface

We believe that this book will be an invaluable resource for anyone looking to
understand the role of remote sensing in precision agriculture and how it can be
used to transform scientific advancement into innovation.

Salim Lamine
Prashant K. Srivastava
Ahmed Kayad
Francisco Muñoz-Arriola
Prem Chandra Pandey

View publication stats