Mars is the fourth planet and the furthest terrestrial planet from the Sun.

The reddish color of its

surface is due to finely grained iron(III) oxide dust in the soil, giving it the nickname "the Red
Planet".[21][22] Mars's radius is second smallest among the planets in the Solar System at 3,389.5 km
(2,106 mi). The Martian dichotomy is visible on the surface: on average, the terrain on Mars's
northern hemisphere is flatter and lower than its southern hemisphere. Mars has a thin
atmosphere made primarily of carbon dioxide, and two irregularly shaped natural
satellites, Phobos and Deimos.

Geologically, Mars is fairly active, with dust devils sweeping across the landscape
and marsquakes (Martian analog to earthquakes) trembling underneath the ground. The surface of
Mars hosts a large shield volcano (Olympus Mons) and one of the largest canyons in the Solar
System (Valles Marineris). Mars's significant orbital eccentricity and axial tilt cause large seasonal
changes to the polar ice caps' coverage and temperature swings between −110 °C (−166 °F) to
35 °C (95 °F) on the surface. A Martian solar day (sol) is equal to 24.5 hours and a Martian solar
year is equal to 1.88 Earth years.

Like the other planets in the Solar System, Mars was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.
During the Noachian period from about 4.1 to 3.7 billion years ago, Mars's surface was marked
by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, and the possible presence of water oceans.
The Hesperian period from 3.7 to 3.2–2 billion years ago was dominated by widespread volcanic
activity and flooding that carved immense outflow channels. The Amazonian period, which continues
to the present, was marked by the wind's influence on geological processes. It is unknown whether
life has ever existed on Mars.

Mars is among the brightest objects in Earth's sky, and thus has been known from ancient times. Its
high-contrast albedo features make it a common subject for viewing with a telescope. Since the late
20th century, Mars has been explored by uncrewed spacecraft and rovers, with the first flyby by
the Mariner 4 probe in 1965, the first Mars orbiter by the Mars 2 probe in 1971, and the first landing
by Viking 1 in 1976. As of 2023, there are at least 11 active probes orbiting Mars or at the Martian
surface. Mars is an attractive target for human missions.

Natural history
Main article: Geological history of Mars
Scientists have theorized that during the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of
a random process of run-away accretion of material from the protoplanetary disk that orbited the
Sun. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System.
Elements with comparatively low boiling points, such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur, are much
more common on Mars than on Earth; these elements were probably pushed outward by the young
Sun's energetic solar wind.[23]

After the formation of the planets, all were subjected to the so-called "Late Heavy Bombardment".
About 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era,[24][25][26] whereas much of
the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events.
There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, spanning
10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi), or roughly four times the size of the Moon's South
Pole – Aitken basin, the largest impact basin yet discovered.[27] This theory suggests that Mars was
struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of
the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the
planet.[28][29]
A 2023 study shows evidence, based on the orbital inclination of Deimos (a small moon of Mars),
that Mars may once had a ring system 3.5 billion years to 4 billion years ago.[30] This ring system may
have been formed from a moon, 20 times more massive than Phobos, orbiting Mars billions of years
ago; and Phobos would be a remnant of that ring.[31][32]

The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are the three primary
periods:[33][34]

 Noachian period: Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago.
Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic
upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late
in the period. Named after Noachis Terra.[35]
 Hesperian period: 3.5 to between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked
by the formation of extensive lava plains. Named after Hesperia Planum.[35]
 Amazonian period: between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago to the present. Amazonian regions
have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during
this period, with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Named after Amazonis Planitia.[35]
Geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava
flows created about 200 mya. Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less
than 20 Mya, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions.[36] The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has
captured images of avalanches.[37][38]

Physical characteristics
Main article: Geology of Mars

Comparison: Earth and Mars

Animation (00:40) showing major features of Mars
Video (01:28) showing how three NASA orbiters mapped the gravity field of Mars

Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth, with a surface area only slightly less than the total
area of Earth's dry land.[2] Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and
11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's surface gravity. Mars is the only presently
known example of a desert planet, a rocky planet with a surface akin to that of Earth's hot deserts.
The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by ferric oxide, or rust.[39] It can look
like butterscotch;[40] other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish,
depending on the minerals present.[40]

Internal structure
Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense materials.[41]
[42]
Current models of its interior imply a core consisting primarily of iron and nickel with about 16–
17% sulfur.[43] This iron(II) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements as Earth's.
[44]
The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features
on the planet, but it appears to be dormant. Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant
elements in the Martian crust are iron, magnesium, aluminium, calcium, and potassium. The average
thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 kilometres (31 mi), with a maximum thickness of 125
kilometres (78 mi).[44] By comparison, Earth's crust averages 40 kilometres (25 mi) in thickness.[45][46]

Mars is confirmed to be seismically active. In 2019, it was reported that InSight, now offline, had
detected and recorded over 450 marsquakes and related events.[47][48] In 2021 it was reported that,
based on eleven low-frequency marsquakes detected by the InSight lander, the core of Mars was
determined to be liquid. From this the Martian core was also found to have a radius of
about 1830±40 km and a temperature around 1900–2000 K. The Martian core radius is abnormally
large, accounting for more than half the radius of Mars. The core radius of Mars is about half the size
of Earth's core radius. To this, it has been suggested that the core contains some amount of
lighter elements like oxygen and hydrogen in addition to the iron–nickel alloy and about 15% of
sulfur.[49][50]

The core of Mars is overlaid by the rocky mantle, which does not seem to have a thermally insulating
layer analogous to Earth's lower mantle.[50] The Martian mantle appears to be solid down to the depth
of about 500 km, where the low-velocity zone (partially melted asthenosphere) begins.[51] Below the
asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves starts to grow again; and at the depth of about
1050 km lies the boundary of the transition zone extending down to the core.[50]

Further analysis of data from the InSight lander has suggested that Mars has a liquid core.[52]
[53]
Additionally, on 25 October 2023, it was reported by scientists using data from InSight that Mars
has a radioactive magma ocean under its crust.[54]