N U S AN T AR A BIO S C IEN C E ISSN: 2087-3948 (print)

Vol. 2, No. 2, Pp. 97-108 ISSN: 2087-3956 (electronic)

July 2010 DOI: 10.13057/nusbiosci/n020208

Review: Biodiversity conservation strategy in a native perspective; case

study of shifting cultivation at the Dayaks of Kalimantan

AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN

¹Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36a Surakarta 57126, Central Java,
Indonesia. Tel./Fax.: +92-271-663375. email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 17 May 2008. Revision accepted: 14 August 2008.

ABSTRACT

Abstract. Setyawan AD. 2010. Biodiversity conservation strategy in a native perspective; case study of shifting cultivation at the
Dayaks of Kalimantan. Nusantara Bioscience 2: 97-108. Native tribes generally are original conservationists; they build genuine
conservation strategy of natural resources and environment for sustainable living. Dayak is a native tribe of Kalimantan that has been
living for thousands of years; they use shifting cultivation to manage the communal forest lands due to Kalimantan’s poor soil of
minerals and nutrients, where the presence of phosphorus becomes a limiting factor for crops cultivation. In tropical forests, phosphorus
mostly stored in the trees, so to remove it, the forest burning is carried out. Nutrients released into the soil can be used for upland rice
(gogo) cultivation, until depleted; after that, cultivators need to open a forest, while the old land was abandoned (fallow) until it becomes
forest again (for 20-25 years). The consecutive land clearing causes the formation of mosaics land with different succession ages and
diverse biodiversity. This process is often combined with agroforestry systems (multicultural forest gardens), where the will-be-
abandoned fields are planted with a variety of useful trees that can be integrated in forest ecosystems, especially rubber and fruits. These
systems of shifting cultivation are often blamed as the main factor of forest degradation and fires, but in the last 300 years, this system
has little impact on forest degradation. But, this is relatively low in productivity and subsistent, so it is not suitable for the modern
agriculture which demands high productivity and measurable, mass and continuous yield, as well as related to the market. The increased
population and industrial development of forestry, plantation, mining, etc. make the communal forest become narrower, so the fallow
periods are shortened (5-15 years) and the lands are degraded into grasslands. In the future, shifting cultivation remains one of the
Dayaks option to meet the needs of rice, but agroforestry should be developed because of its higher economic value.
Key word: shifting cultivation, agroforestry, Dayak, Kalimantan, conservation, biodiversity.

Abstrak. Setyawan AD. 2010. Review: Strategi konservasi biodiversitas dalam pandangan suku asli; studi kasus perladangan
berpindah Suku Dayak di Kalimantan. Nusantara Bioscience 1: 97-108. Suku asli umumnya konservasionis sejati, mereka membangun
strategi konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati dan lingkungan yang berkelanjutan. Dayak adalah suku asli Kalimantan yang telah tinggal
selama ribuan tahun dan menggunakan sistem perladangan berpindah untuk mengelola hutan ulayat, karena tanah Kalimantan miskin
hara mineral, dimana keberadaan fosfor menjadi faktor pembatas budidaya tanaman pangan. Di hutan tropis, kandungan terbesar fosfor
tersimpan dalam pepohonan, sehingga untuk melepaskannya dilakukan pembakaran hutan. Hara yang terlepas ke dalam tanah dapat
digunakan untuk bertanam padi gogo, hingga terserap habis, lalu peladang membuka hutan baru, sedangkan lahan lama ditinggalkan
(bera) agar menjadi hutan kembali (selama 20-25 tahun). Pembukaan lahan yang berurutan, menyebabkan terbentuknya mosaik-mosaik
lahan dengan umur suksesi dan keanekaragaman hayati beragam. Proses ini seringkali digabungkan dengan sistem agroforestri (kebun
hutan multikultur), dimana ladang yang hendak ditinggalkan ditanami berbagai pohon berguna yang dapat terintegrasi pada ekosistem
hutan, terutama karet dan buah-buahan. Sistem perladangan berpindah sering dikambinghitamkan sebagai faktor utama degradasi dan
kebakaran hutan, namun dalam 300 tahun terakhir sistem ini berdampak kecil pada kerusakan hutan. Namun, produktivitas sistem ini
relatif rendah dan subsisten, sehingga tidak sesuai dengan pertanian modern dimana produktivitas harus tinggi, hasil panen harus
terukur, masal dan kontinyu, serta terkait dengan pasar. Peningkatan penduduk dan perkembangan industri kehutanan, perkebunan,
pertambangan, dan lain-lain telah mempersempit luasan hutan ulayat untuk perladangan berpindah, sehingga masa bera diperpendek (5-
15 tahun) dan lahan terdegradasi menjadi padang alang-alang. Di masa depan, perladangan berpindah tetap menjadi salah satu pilihan
suku Dayak untuk memenuhi kebutuhan padi, namun agroforestri perlu dikembangkan karena bernilai ekonomi lebih tinggi.

Kata kunci: perladangan berpindah, agroforestri, Dayak, Kalimantan, konservasi, keanekaragaman hayati.

INTRODUCTION trees (267 species of dipterocarp), 221 species of terrestrial

mammals and 420 bird species (MacKinnon et al. 1996). In
Borneo (or Pulau Kalimantan in Indonesian) is the third addition, there are still many new species waiting to be
largest island in the world and has very high biodiversity found and named. In 1994-2004 in Borneo, it is discovered
compared to many other areas. On this island lived about 361 new species (Rautner et al. 2005), even in-depth
15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of exploration for 18 months in 2005-2006 found 52 new
98 N U S AN T AR A BIO S C IEN C E 2 (2): 97-108, July 2010

species (WWF 2007). This area is home to large mammals habitat conversion throughout the island. Extensive tropical
which is very rare, such as Borneo orangutan (Pongo forests of Borneo have the most rapid rate of extinction in
pygmaeus pygmaeus), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the world (Sunderlin and Resosudamo 1996) due to logging
Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicecorhinus sumatrensis), Borneo practices, forest plantations and oil palm plantations,
clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa diardi), Borneo mining, forest fires, dam building, creation of wetland peat
banteng (Bos javanicus lowi) and sun bear (Helarctos and others (Notohadiprawiro 1998; Rautner et al. 2005).
malayanus), etc. This encourages the high rate of biological extinction in
The high biodiversity in Borneo is due to diverse Kalimantan. Therefore, sustainable forest management and
ecosystem on it, where there are seven different ecoregions. conservation initiatives become more important in tropical
Most of the island is covered by lowland rain forest; the forest which deforestation rates continue to be worried
other lowland areas are peat swamp forest, heath about (Joshi et al. 2004). In addition, the inclusion of
(kerangas), and freshwater swamp forest in the southwest, various economic activities in the above often leads to
and also mangrove forest. In addition, there are also conflict with Dayak tribe which its community land
mountain rain forest highlands, above 1,000 m asl., which (ulayat) sometimes is taken without proper indemnity or
is located in the center and northeast of the island with its compensation (Jawan 1996; Bujang 2005; Rousyikin 2005;
mountain peak of Mount Kinabalu, Sabah. In the region, SAM 2007). In the past, such disputes can be settled down
some alpine meadows and bushes keep many endemic by customary law, but nowadays, with the capital power,
species, including orchids (Setyawan 2002). plantation and forestry companies do not admit customary
There are several native tribes in Kalimantan based on law, so the case of destruction and violence are often
ethno-linguistic (Figure 1); one of them is the Dayak tribe. happened (Gonner 1999; King 1999).
This tribe mostly lives in the hinterland and is still Timber industry, such as plywood, timber, furniture,
dependent on forest livelihoods. Actually, the original tribe paper pulp rapidly evolving in the 1980-1990s led to a
spread across the island of Borneo, from coastal to large number of natural forest in Borneo to be cut down
mountainous areas in central and northeast. But the tribe (Velasquez and Shimizu 2001; Butler 2005; Engel and
who lived on the coastal area generally has acculturated Palmer 2008). Furthermore, palm oil plantations and forest
with the Malays tribe and Muslims, such as Banjar and industry plants quickly loot the last remnants of primary
Kutai people, so they are often identified as a clump of the forest (Majid-Cooke 2002; Henson and Chang 2003;
Malays. Moreover, they do not practice the Dayak culture. Fitzherbert et al. 2008; Koh and Wilcove 2008; Marti
Dayak tribes who embraced Islam generally no longer 2008). Palm plantation is one of the greatest threats to the
identify themselves as Dayaks except in West Kalimantan. forests of Borneo (Wakker 2006). In 2003, in Sabah and
Dayak tribe has lived in Borneo since thousands of Sarawak, its area reached 1.6 million hectares, while in the
years and practice management systems of natural Indonesian part of Borneo about 1 million hectares
resources and its ecosystem sustainably. They practice (Rautner et al. 2005). Another threat is the mining, because
shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn or swidden agriculture) Kalimantan has the largest coal deposits in the world, and
to produce upland rice/dry land rice (gogo paddies) and the rich variety of other minerals such as gold, lead,
form mosaics of agroforestry lands with different age for diamond and precious stones (Maunati 1998; Fatah et al.
biodiversity managing. The practice is chosen because the 2007). Large dam construction in Bakung, Sarawak is
Kalimantan soil is generally poor of mineral nutrients, due worried about having an impact on local ecosystems
to the absence of volcanoes, so the main source of minerals (Rousseau 1995; Williams et al. 1995). The failed project
is plants that accumulate these mineral nutrients. By of clearing peat lands for food crops in Central Kalimantan
burning trees and shrubs, it is expected that minerals will is proven to alter the natural landscape, causing drought
return to the soil and then, they can be absorbed by would- and fires (Vayda 1999; Boehm and Siegert 2001). All
be-planted food crops. In 4-5 times of rice harvest (1-2 economic activities above are real threat to the preservation
years), the minerals in the soil usually start to thin out, so of natural resources and ecosystems of Borneo.
the cultivators have to move and open new forest for fields. Forest fires from land clearing activities are other
The old fields are abandoned in order to become forest threats to wildlife in Kalimantan. Burning forests is a
again as nutrient accumulators, and they will be cut down traditional method of the Dayak tribe to open agricultural
and burned again to provide nutrients for crops. This land and it has been done in a sustainable manner for
system requires sufficient land area, with relatively limited thousands of years, where the burned area is limited and
results (subsistence), so it is considered ineffective and the burning frequency is 20-25 years (Ave and King 1986).
inefficient by the government and entrepreneurs who need The procedure for land clearing has also been regulated and
land. supervised by customary law leaders. But the growing
This paper aims to express the conservation of number of people either by birth or migration entrants, such
biological diversity, associated with shifting cultivation as transmigrants, company workers, government officials,
practices conducted by the Dayak tribe in Kalimantan. and others, causing land area for each resident narrowed, so
that the frequency of burning land becomes shorter (5-15
years). This is compounded by the entry of various forestry
DEFORESTATION OF KALIMANTAN FOREST
companies, plantation, mining and others which took over a
large number of customary land previously used for
Species richness and diversity of the ecosystems of shifting cultivation.
Borneo are threatened by high rates of deforestation and
 SETYAWAN – Shifting cultivation and biodiversity conservation in the Dayaks 99

Figure 1. Ethno-linguistic classification of the natives of Kalimantan (www.ethnologue.com)

A number of plantation and forestry companies are also Kalimantan (Vayda 1999; Siscawati 2000; Fuller et al.
suspected doing land burning, because this is the most 2004; Buttler 2005), of which 6.5 million hectares of land
effective, fast and inexpensive method to clear land, though burned (Rautner et al. 2005) and thousands of orang-utans
it causes the release of carbon compounds into the died.
atmosphere that affects global warming. The land burned The rate of deforestation in Indonesia is very high. In
by the company is certainly far more extensive than the one 1950-2000, 40% of Indonesia's forests have been cleared,
burned by individuals shifting cultivators. Regulation on equivalent to a loss of 2 million hectares of forest each year
prohibition of open burning of land for plantations has been (Engel and Palmer 2008). In Kalimantan, in the mid-1980s
made, but every dry season the burning is repeated. Long forest cover was about 75%, but in 2005 left only 50%. In
dry season due to El Niño in 1997-1998 led to burning to 1985-2005, Kalimantan lost an average of 850,000 hectares
clear land turned into the biggest fire in the whole of of forest every year. In 2000-2002 deforestation throughout
100 N U S AN T AR A BIO S C IEN C E 2 (2): 97-108, July 2010

the island of Kalimantan rose to 1.3 million ha per year, of as well as the arrival of the Javanese at the Majapahit era
which 1.2 million hectares per year occurred in Indonesian and at the Islamic sultanate of Demak-Pajang-Mataram
Borneo and 100,000 hectares per year in North Borneo cause them to move into hinterland part of Borneo.
(Sabah and Sarawak). If this continues, the forest cover Dayak language is an Austronesian language family
will decrease to less than one-third by 2020 (Rautner et al. (Grimes 2000). The language is divided into about 450
2005). different ethnolinguistic groups, with speakers of about 3-4
million, with a density of about 14 people per square
kilometer (Cleary and Eaton 1996) spreading across four
THE DAYAKS provinces of Indonesia, West Kalimantan, Central, South,
East and; two Malaysian states, Sabah and Sarawak as well
Origin of the Dayaks as in the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam (Davis 1993). In
Dayak tribe is descendants of Austronesian migrant the Indonesian part of Borneo, there are more than 140
who gradually sailed from Taiwan to the archipelago since languages are still used, whereas there are 50 languages in
the 4000-6000 years ago and reached Borneo 4,500 years Sabah and in Sarawak for more than 30 languages (Rautner
ago (Blust 1984/1985, 1999; Gray and Jordan 2000; et al. 2005). But no language is spoken more than 100,000
Diamond and Bellwood 2003). They replaced or people; even some of the language is only spoken by about
assimilated with the Austro-Melanesians who have 500 people, making it very vulnerable to extinction. One of
inhabited the Borneo from 35,000-45,000 years ago (King the Dayak languages, namely OtDanum-Hamlet-Manyaan
1993; Rautner et al. 2005). In genealogy, the assimilation of Barito river valley located in the northern part of South
of ethnic Dayak and other Borneo population causes the Kalimantan and the eastern part of Central Kalimantan has
formation of several sub-ethnic, namely Mongoloid Dayak, a compatibility with the Malagasy language used in
Malayoid Dayak, Austro-Melanesoid Dayak and mixed Madagascar, so it is suspected that from this region is the
Dayak (Lumbut 1992). origins of the population of Madagascar (Dahl 1951, 1977;
Dayak, which means upstream or inland, is the Dewar and Wright 1993; Bellwood et al. 1995).
collective name for various indigenous groups on Kalimantan has a population of about 15 million
Kalimantan Island. Dayak tribe has a loose grouping, people, with the main composition of the Malays, Dayaks,
where there are many sub-tribes, each of which has a and Chinese. Dayak tribe has a number of about 3-4
dialect of the language, customs, laws, and culture of its million, of which the largest group is the Iban Dayak
own territory, but their general appearance showed the consisting of 710,000 people living in the northwest of the
same characteristics and is easily identified (Grimes 2000). island. In addition, there are also ethnic of Javanese,
This tribe is to share physical features, architecture, Madurese, and Bugis in significant quantities. Most of the
language, oral traditions, customs, social structure, inhabitants of Borneo live in coastal cities, while in rural
weapons, agricultural technology and similar views of life areas; they generally live along the river (MacKinnon et.
(Davis 1993). They have a genuine belief of Kaharingan al.1996). In the hinterland, there is also Dayak Punan,
(animism), although many are now an official religion which some members still live subsistence lifestyles and
follower (Kana 2004; Winzeler 2008). Dayak tribes practice life of nomadic hunter-gatherers (Arnold 1958;
practicing shifting cultivation generally live along the river King 1964; Whittier 1964; Langub 1975).
in the outback of Borneo, sometimes they live communally
in a traditional long house (a kind apartment in modern Dayaks as the indigenous tribe
society), and apply customary law (Harrisson 1984; Generally, original inhabitants (tribe) are genuine
Deschamps and Hartman 2006). They are traditionally conservationists; they build a strategy for biodiversity and
highly dependent on hunting wild animals to satisfy protein environment conservation to sustain the needs of
needs. The main wild animals hunted are wild boar (Sus sustainable living. Since thousands of years ago, the Dayak
barbatus) (Deschamps and Hartman 2006). people of Borneo use technology and traditional
Dayak tribe is divided into six major clusters, namely: knowledge, namely shifting cultivation to manage natural
Kenyah-Kayan-Bahau generally living in the eastern part resources and biodiversity in the forest. They build and use
of Kalimantan, OtDanum in the southern part of certain steps as a strategy for the conservation of natural
Kalimantan, Iban (Sea Dayak) in the northwestern inland to resources and environment. At first, they learn the
the coastal area of Borneo, Klemantan (land Dayak) in the limitations of natural resources, where the excessive and
northwestern outback of Borneo, Murut in northern unwise use of it will reduce its availability and
Borneo, and Punan (Penan) in the center to the east of sustainability. Traditional knowledge is the unique local
Borneo (Lontaan 1975). Dayak tribes generally live in the knowledge owned by a particular culture or society. This
outback of the island, especially on the banks of the river knowledge is the accumulation of human knowledge and
by making use of about 200 rivers that flow into the inland understanding of the universe, including the spiritual
as transportation routes, but many who live in the hills relationship with the Almighty, the relationship with
(Jessup and Vayda 1988). There is also a tribe that lived in nature, and relationship with humans, and it is reflected in
the hinterland to the coast, for example, Dayak Iban in language, organization, values and law system, to be the
West Kalimantan and Sarawak. As descendants of sailors, ethics that govern the behavior of a society. Dayak tribe
initially Dayaks are suspected living along the coast, but always believes that there is a limitation of natural
the arrival of the Malay-Sriwijaya of Sumatra and Malaya resources, thus requiring conservation, except for certain
 SETYAWAN – Shifting cultivation and biodiversity conservation in the Dayaks 101

types of resource availability which exceeds demand (Uluk unclear concepts and terminology used. So, it needs to be
et al. 2001). Review of the literature shows that people who made clear the parties that affect the forest as well as key
intentionally build conservation strategy usually has limited terms and concepts used, such as forests, deforestation,
natural resources and easy to decline. The strengthening degradation, and causes of damage (Sunderlin 1997).
conservation strategies in the traditional culture are very Dayak and other Indonesian tribes have endured for
important to help to survive in the limited natural decades to gain recognition of civil rights, and rights to
resources, especially when natural resources run out. manage forests and water residence. At first, the state has
Dayak is the indigenous tribes of Borneo. According to no special protection systems against indigenous people,
the World Bank, indigenous people have the following but now there is significant progress so that the strategies
characteristics: (i) live in ancestral territory, (ii) is an entity and tactics used are imitated by many indigenous tribes in
separate from other groups, (iii) use the native language, other countries (Alcorn and Toledo 1998; Alcorn 2000).
(iv) has a traditional political and social institutions; and Dayak tribes face two typical problems of worldwide
(v) subsistence (Colchester 1999). Biodiversity tropical forests, namely the struggle to adapt to new
conservation strategy of indigenous tribe is part of technology and to withstand the onslaught of entrants,
knowledge and traditional technologies of the tribe. Local employers, and governments who claim their natural
wisdom is often more appropriate to apply to the local resources (ILO 1996). The Dayak tribes are the remnants of
environment than the western system of knowledge and natural ecosystems dwellers (ecosystem people), namely
technology that is "scientific" (Slikkerveer 1999). the people who adapt to and dependent on local ecosystems
Traditional knowledge and technologies are developed and to meet the intent of his life (Dasmann 1991). Collective
are accumulated over generations within the scope of identity, cultural traditions, and practices of management
certain cultures and regions, including health, agriculture, developed are capable of maintaining the ecosystems
plants, forestry, irrigation, and others. Traditional productivity resilience (Berkes 1999), although there is
knowledge has the potential to support the development of pressure of changes both on a local scale from members of
rural areas, such as traditional herbal medicine, livestock the society itself, as well as on a national scale from the
medicine, intercropping agriculture, garden of talun, government (Alcorn 1991). Unlike most people associated
disease management, wild food plants, architecture and with the global economy (biosphere people), the native
others (Richards1989; Warren et al. 1989; 1994). tribes are dependent on local ecosystems and arevaffected
In the world of agriculture, a holistic point of view of directly by changes in the ecosystem (Dasmann 1991). The
traditional knowledge has been developed for food failure of indigenous tribes in adaptation of pressure to
production and natural resource management, including: change often causes them to be marginalized and brings out
concept, perception, belief, cosmology; attitude, violence.
experience, skills, technology, artifacts, seeds, plants, crop
type, and also institutions, procedures, and processes used Dayak tribes and their habitats
(Slikkerveer 1994). Recent research in traditional systems Humans began to build settlements and adapt to
of knowledge and technology in various fields produces ecological and political changes in the forests of Borneo
inter-disciplinary approaches, including anthropology, since 35,000-45,000 years ago (King 1993; Rautner et al.
ecology, sociology, science, and etnosains, which include 2005). The indigenous people who live in the interior of
ethnobotany, etnosejarah, and etnoekologi. Dayak tribe Borneo are collectively known as Dayaks. Dayak
owns all of the terms of indigenous. indigenous territory is rich in natural resources, and it
becomes a habitat for large numbers of fish, birds, plants,
Native tribes and the destruction of Indonesian forests including many endemic species and 300 species of
Indonesia has 10% of tropical rain forests of the world, Dipterocarpaceae which has high economic value, and also
ranking third after Brazil and Zaire. Most studies of a large number of mammals such as orangutans, Borneo
deforestation in Indonesia stated that about one million ha banteng, Sumatran rhinoceros, wild buffalo, sun bears, and
of about 100 million ha of remaining forest lost each year Asian elephants (Potter 1993; Cleary and Eaton 1996). For
(World Bank 1990; FAO 1990). Some authors assume that centuries, the Dayak tribes develop various forms of
shifting cultivation is a major cause of deforestation (FAO agriculture, fishing, hunting, and forest products
1990; World Bank 1990; Barbier et al. 1993). Though harvesting, which are the move-turn in accordance with
admitting a significant influence of shifting cultivation on environmental changes. These changes follow the general
deforestation, other authors give a greater emphasis on pattern that constantly changes the forest environment
government policy and development projects in forestry (Padoch and Peluso 1996). Dayak natural resource
and plantation sector (Dick 1991; WALHI 1992; Ascher management has adapted to suit a variety of natural and
1993; Dauvergne 1993; Porter 1994; Thiele 1994; World anthropogenic events, such as drought, famine, fire, flood,
Bank 1994; Angelsen 1995; Dove 1996; Ross 1996). The war, and fluctuations in the population, making it possible
latter group of researchers assumes that the effects of to live and survive.
shifting cultivation have been exaggerated. Traditional Indigenous Dayak tribes as in other Southeast Asian
shifting cultivation is not a threat for forests, even develop agricultural systems (agroecosystem) which are
necessary for the conservation and management of adapted from the tropical forest ecosystem. It is governed
Indonesian forest remnants in the future (Colfer 1993; by customary law, i.e. regulations made and enforced
Hasanuddin 1996). These debates often occur because of according to the consensus of indigenous peoples. Dayak
102 N U S AN T AR A BIO S C IEN C E 2 (2): 97-108, July 2010

indigenous institutions play an important role in managing value (Belcher et al. 2005). Dayak tribe has long practiced
ecosystems (Folke 1997). Dayak vision of prosperity agroforestry systems. When the fertility of the land in
suggests that rivers, soils, and forests are very important for shifting cultivation started to decrease, they plant various
ethnic identity. Same vision is shown in the mosaic useful crops, so when the land is completely abandoned,
patterned of shifting cultivation system in the forests they the planted trees are already quite high and can compete
live. In shifting cultivation, mosaics patterns are formed with shrubs and grasses that grow later. In West
consisting of a collection of natural forest, artificial forests, Kalimantan, agroforestry is known as tembawang which
vacant land, and the fields in accordance with ecological based on the rubber tree (Ansari 1996; Sardjono 1990,
conditions and local topography, namely hills, wetlands, or 2003), in East Kalimantan agroforestry is known as lembo
river valley. The only land without forest is wetland. which is based on fruit trees (Sundawati 1993, 2003) and
Landscape lands have different shapes, but forest cover is simpukng which is based on fruit trees, rattan , bamboo,
substantially always there. Research in 1996-1999 shows wood and other useful plants (Mulyoutami et al. 2008).
that of the 21 communities that lands are mapped, with an With the formation of canopy, agroforestry systems can be
area between 900-126000 ha, where the community has used to suppress the growth of grasslands (Hairiah et al.
made an agreement to preserve the forests from logging or 2000; Purnomosidhi and Rahayu 2002).
mining, forest vegetation covers around 50-99% of the The traditional systems above require very little or no
communal land, where approximately 29% of primary agrochemical inputs at all, and the only sustainable way of
forests (Sunderlin 1997). Kalimantan is designed as a cultivation of rice to poor areas of mineral nutrients such as
logging concession area, but around 63% is still forested Borneo (Dauvergne 1993). According to Lawrence and
plains, and about 35% is the remaining forests of Indonesia Schlesinger (2001), land infertility in Kalimantan is caused
(Potter 1993). by low phosphorus content. The trees which are deep-
Kalimantan forests are mostly located in areas claimed rooted and grow on fallow land can raise levels of organic
by the Dayak tribe (communal land). Most of these lands phosphorus significantly, so they can improve soil fertility.
are the forested hills that can not be penetrated. In some This research is supported by Sanchez and Buol (1976) and
places, this communal forest is isolated in fragments Richter and Babbar (1991) which state that phosphorus is
surrounded by very large monocultures lands belonging to the limiting factor in agricultural production in the tropics.
oil palm plantation companies (Alcorn 2000). In the past, The productivity of gogo paddies in shifting cultivation
millions hectares of land is covered by a mosaic of shifting system is far below the wetland paddies. Most government
cultivations which form the landscape with high resilience. officials blame this system, consider it inefficient, unable to
But now, many Dayak tribes follow the entrants and turn raise living standard (subsistence), cause damage, and
the land into oil palm plantations, so the mosaic pattern of become a source of forest fires and a major cause of
shifting cultivations which are rich in biodiversity are deforestation. So, they all become the reasons to forbid
difficult to be applied again (Potter 1993). National shifting cultivation and settle the cultivators to some settled
centralization of land use decisions led to the establishment villages (Dauvergne 1993; Faithful 1998). It is prevalent in
of plantations, agriculture, and degraded land which are indigenous tribes throughout Southeast Asia (Padoch et al.
poorer than the ecosystem biodiversity in shifting 2007).
cultivation (Alcorn 2000). Adverse effects of deforestation have been widely
recognized, that is a major cause of land degradation,
Shifting cultivation and agroforestry systems biodiversity loss and threatening of species extinction, as
Shifting cultivation is a traditional way of farming that well as contributing to global warming (Gillis 1988; Dick
is very old. Shifting cultivation is mainly found in highland 1991). WCED (1987) shows that deforestation and
forests. In a system of shifting cultivation, the main crops environmental destruction are positively correlated with
cultivated are gogo rice. First, the selected land is cleared poverty and shifting cultivation, especially in developing
by burning, and the ash is used to enrich the soil. It is countries. Those who are poor and hungry often damage
followed by brief periods of rice cultivation (about 4-5 the environment to survive; they will cut down the forest
times of harvest). After the soil fertility is depleted, the and cultivate marginal lands repeatedly, resulting in land
farmer leaves the land in order to let secondary forest grow degradation. Arifin (1993, 1998) considers the charge is not
or converts it into agroforestry by planting rubber trees, fair because it blames the victim and ignores the role of
fruit trees, and other crops. After 20-25 years, soil fertility shifting cultivation in conserving the environment. Even if
will return, so a new cycle of shifting cultivation can start poor people do environmental vandalism, mostly because it
(Lim 2001). Given the importance of gogo rice and rubber is the only choice left to live.
in this system, it is very important for the government to
provide both superior strains of this species, so that local Dayaks shifting cultivation system
communities can be more effective in managing forest Native tribes in the tropics generally practice the
resources sustainably (Arifin 1998). shifting cultivation system, by forming mosaics of land to
Agroforestry is done by changing the primary forest ensure the availability of resources in the future (Figure 2).
into artificial forests planted with various species of Dayak tribes historically have practiced shifting cultivation
beneficial plants. This system has a high density of species system by planting gogo paddies, followed by long fallow
with a relatively diverse and complex structure. This periods, intensive agroforestry and natural resource
system combines productivity, biodiversity and economic extraction. Shifting cultivation is a complex system in
 SETYAWAN – Shifting cultivation and biodiversity conservation in the Dayaks 103

which forest land is cleared in rotation for a certain (Cleary and Eaton 1992; Colfer 1993; 1997; Dove 1985;
frequency. This system is also marked by the burning of King 1993; Padoch and Peters 1993).
land to restore minerals to the soil from forest plants, thus Dayak tribe use disturbance to form a space for food
increasing fertility and then it can be planted with gogo crops and use forest succession process as a resource of
paddies and other food crops such as maize and cassava production (Alcorn 1989). Gogo paddies occupy a principal
(Crevello 2004). position in a shifting cultivation system, so highly
Dayak tribes use shifting cultivation system that forms respected, and is surrounded by various rituals and they can
the mosaic with high resilience, and has richer biodiversity cause the formation of work activities that bind
due to low population density. This system can survive communities. Dayak tribe has a dependency on a variety of
because it has a broad market for non-timber products, natural resources such as fishing, hunting, forest
diverse and extensive ecosystems and is exploited only by production, and agriculture, but their social ties play a role
one community, and also strong traditional institutions that in maintaining the integrity of the entire system against
are resistant to the colonial administration (Alcorn 1990; various disasters such as droughts, fires, and floods. The
Alcorn and Toledo 1998; Messerschmidt 1993; Warner use of natural markers and augury to determine the location
1991). Description of Dayak traditional knowledge in of shifting cultivation land cause random locations are
natural resource management has been widely publicized chosen because of the lottery and experience (Dove 1996).

Figure 2. Shifting cultivation system shows the land use mosaic of two adjacent communities (2500 ha) surrounded by oil palm
plantations (white area) in West Kalimantan. Adapted by Alcorn (2000) from maps provided by PPSDAK Pancur Kasih.
104 N U S AN T AR A BIO S C IEN C E 2 (2): 97-108, July 2010

Dayak tribe generally establishes a permanent The practice of shifting cultivation is the most dominant
settlement at a place and (formerly) lives together in a type of land use on a large number of ethnic Dayak. The
longhouse (van Beukering et al. 2008). There is also a combination of rubber cultivation, maize, cassava and rice,
community that moves from one place to another to follow and harvesting non-timber forest products including wild
the shifting cultivation field (Joshi et al. 2004). Dayak animals often become the dominant form of land use (Dove
indigenous territory usually consists of settlements, rivers, 1985; Colfer et al. 1996). In peatlands, the Dayak combines
and ponds, dry farm field, undisturbed primary forests as a the shifting cultivation system with the burning and is
source of regeneration and animals hunting, bush and combined with rubber agroforestry using mineral from the
secondary forest which is the remnants of shifting riverbed as a planting medium (van Beukering et al. 2008).
cultivation, various agroforestry, such as mixed fruit There are also several ethnic groups that combine
orchards, rubber and rattan, and woody plants. Gogo shifting cultivation and agroforestry with extensive
paddies remain the center of land use change and agriculture such as oil palm and rubber plantations, as well
management of shifting cultivation systems (Joshi et al. as hunting, collecting forest products and domestication
2004). The position of the fields is sometimes far from the (Dove 1985; Colfer et al. 1996; Sellato 1996, 2002). In
settlement so they make huma (newly cleared dry field) for some regions, rattan harvest from the wildwood has to be
temporary shelter and keep main fields from wild boar replaced with the domestication of rattan intercropped with
attacks. Huma is left as the soil fertility started to deplete. a variety of useful trees (Dove 1985; Colfer et al. 1996).
When left behind, this land often has been planted with a Dayak tribe did not develop animal husbandry despite
variety of useful plants that will form agroforestry. extensive grasslands in the early stages of succession of
Customary law regulates the establishment and shifting cultivation. Livestock does not play a major role in
harvesting of forest landscapes, where the conservation, land use patterns in Borneo. Cattle and buffalo as private
biodiversity, and sustainability is very important. Dayak property is limited and does not have a major impact on the
tribe has traditional knowledge to maintain soil fertility, type of land use (Dove 1985; Colfer et al. 1996; Sellato
they also know the species of wild plants, economically 1996, 2002). Changes in land use patterns are possible, it
useful plants, plants which are ecologically useful, plants as should be supported as long as it gives benefit to the
indicators of soil fertility, plants having medicinal value, community and protects the environment (Kartawinata et
etc. (Joshi et al. 2004). al. 1992).
In Loksado, South Kalimantan, every Dayak family has Dayak tribes believe that the crop of shifting cultivation
a duty to process the fields of 2 hectares per year for rice depends on the close agreement between the farmers and
farming. Families who do not comply with these provisions the world of spirits that control the harvest. Forests and
are prohibited following the ceremony. This customary law forest products is very important, so a different set of forest
is still an obligation to be carried out, although some is managed with different intensities according to the
families have saved quite a lot, so much that his family can purpose (Padoch and Peters 1993). Dayak tribes exploit
not spend it for 15 years, even if they stopped planting rice. much subsistence of forest products; they use about 200
Increased population causes the land needed to fulfill species of medicinal plants from forests (Caniago 1999).
customary obligations also increased, while most of the Rituals associated with excess or shortage of fruit crops
shifting cultivation land should be left fallow temporary to show the importance of the principle of the exchange and
avoid land degradation. It is necessary to open new land in give each other (Dove and Kammen 1997). Because most
primary forest. In Loksado, every year an area of 10-40 indigenous fruit crops are seasonal, the scarcity of crops led
hectares of primary forest was opened to meet the to public awareness of the importance of relationships with
obligations of this law (Boer 2006). nature and with others (Alcorn 2000).
Hardwood plant regeneration in former shifting Dayak tribe has set the balance between economic
cultivation land may be failed if fallow periods are dependence on forest products with the production of gogo
shortened and the frequency of land clearing is increased. paddies. For Dayak tribes, shifting cultivation is an action
In Loksado, narrowing of the land due to population to be taken (Dove and Kammen 1997). Most of the Dayak
growth and other modern pressures cause fallow periods to rituals associated with rice cultivation. In the management
be shortened from 20 years to 5-15 years, so the soil of shifting cultivation, rice has a spirit that must be treated
fertility can not be regained and erosion happened. Natural carefully and appreciated highly (Djuweng 1998). This
regeneration of timber plants as a signal of the return of belief supports the shifting cultivation system resilience. In
fertility has failed to form; otherwise, the reed dominates the 1930s, when rubber prices are uncertain, an indigenous
because of its resistance to fire. secondary forest is difficult elder’s dream about people who are forced to eat the rubber
to grow naturally on this land and thus require the help of due to the absence of rice spreads rapidly throughout
tree planting to assist the process of succession (Boer Borneo, and warns the residents to maintain the system of
2006). The similar thing has happened in East Kalimantan shifting cultivation and integrate rubber plantations in this
where soil characteristics are also prone to erosion, so that system (Dove 1999).
the opened forests must be reclaimed (Stadtmueller 1990). Logging concessions have taken over the Dayak
Primary forest damage due to shifting cultivation is much indigenous forests and cause ecological damage. Only
smaller than the extraction of timber and oil palm about 4% of owner of HPH (forest concession) that comply
plantations (Lawrence et al.1998). with the regulations set by the government in forest
 SETYAWAN – Shifting cultivation and biodiversity conservation in the Dayaks 105

exploitation (Potter 1993). In 1998, the coalition of the introduced in the early 1900s has caused Indonesia to be
Institute of Indigenous Peoples' Council sued this matter one of the world's largest rubber producing countries (Dove
and asked the government to withdraw the status of state 1996). These rubber-producing forests have extremely high
forests to renew the boundary between state forests with diversity species (Penot 1999).
indigenous forests, and take back all the rules and policies In West Kalimantan, agroforestry has a high level of
related to exploitation and violation of community rights biodiversity, and does not differ significantly from primary
(Coup 1998). But the Forestry Law No. 41/1999, which forest. On transect with the length of 1,500 m in primary
was made to respond to this, did not make much change on forests there can be found 102 species of birds, whereas in
the situation; it was more like a lip service for indigenous the artificial forest 101 species are found. The pressure of
peoples. This shows that the pressure to the government hunting activity on both locations is different because of
and Parliament should be more powerful, reformation differences in land cover, but the species in both habitats
needs to be done in order that the change is bigger, and are relatively similar, where the value of Sørensen's
local leadership must be more powerful to organize the similarity index was 68%. Hunting activity provides a high
weakened community ties (Anonymous 1998). pressure on several species of animals such as wild boar
People often do not realize the boundaries of their (Sus barbatus), deer (Tragulus spp., Muntiacus spp.,
customary forest. Just after the logging by industrialist or Cervus unicolor), honey/tree bear (Helarctos malayanus),
the conversion of forest land into oil palm plantations, they hornbills (Bucerotidae), partridge ( Phasianidae), parrots
claimed that the forest is theirs. On the other hand, the (Gracula religiosa), and freshwater turtles (Testudines).
community also helps clearing the forest and supplies the All prey species are still survived, due to a reserve forest
illegal timber to the lumber mills, inter-island shipping, and that is difficult to reach and the annual flood that allows the
even exporting to neighboring countries, Malaysia. breeding of waters species (Gonner 2001).
Unconsciousness territorial boundaries will also cause loss At this time, socio-cultural changes threaten the old
of ecological protection responsibilities, such as forest practices in conserving forests. The receipt of the official
clearance leads to loss of useful species which are usually religion and the abandonment of the original trust cause a
abundant. Upstream society does not care about the impact number of traditional rituals no longer performed, whereas
faced by the downstream communities due to logging these rituals are part of Dayak holistic perspective in
activities and forest clearing (Alcorn 2000). The spread of viewing the human and nature. In addition, traditional
smoke in the dry season and floods during the rainy season knowledge about the value use of plants, such as medicine
are the real result of deforestation. and toxic substances, is declining, where only the older
generation and shamans who still understand it. The
absence of traditional knowledge that is replaced by more
Preservation of biological resources in shifting relevant knowledge to survive in today's world, causes
cultivation systems ignorance of the benefits of these plants so that
In East Kalimantan, after one year of gogo paddies conservation efforts no longer exists (Gonner 2001).
cultivation, Benuaq Dayak tribes often plant their land with
a variety of useful trees, such as fruit trees, rattan, and
bamboo, so the land is developed into agroforestry CONCLUSION
(simpukng). These artificial forests become an important
resource for gathering fruits, medicines, timber, fuel wood, Traditional knowledge is very useful to preserve the
rattan, and wild animals. Various simpukng serve the indigenous environment because of the increasingly limited
function of ecological, economic, religious and cultural. In of natural resources, and the increase of population.
addition, they also leave certain areas as protected reserves Shifting cultivation by Dayak tribe in Borneo is
forest (bengkar). With this combination, Benuaq Dayak traditionally not only to fulfill their daily lives but also to
tribe has built a system of natural resource management maintain the balance of ecosystems and biodiversity. The
that is relatively sustainable. The logging activity and oil measured disturbance which is done in shifting cultivation
palm plantations are the biggest threat to the system (Joshi system causes the growth of new seeds. On the other hand,
et al. 2004). forest concessions and large plantations where there has
System of shifting cultivation and agroforestry and the been land clearing and monocultures farming significantly
collection of forest products are relatively sustainable interfere with the preservation of ecosystems and reduce
compared to plantations, farms, and forest harvesting. biodiversity.
Development of settlement and cultivation activities
undertaken during the last 300 years does not cause
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