CHAPTER MEP 211

Thermodynamics
9 STEAM POWER Generation
Cycles

Lecture Notes:
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Atteya Okeily

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For students EM 220 and EM 221 only
1- Introduction
Steam (Water Vapor)
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power cycles
because of its many desirable characteristics, such as:
(a) low cost,
(b) availability, and
(c) high enthalpy of vaporization.
Vaporization (Latent heat): the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure, hfg.
Steam power plants are commonly referred to as:
(a) coal plants, (b) nuclear plants, or (c) natural gas plants, depending on
the type of fuel used to supply heat to the steam.
The steam goes through the same basic cycle in all of them. Therefore, all
can be analyzed in the same manner.

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 Vapour Power Cycles
Vapor power cycles are external combustion systems in which the
working fluid is alternatively vaporized and condensed.
Water/steam is easily available, is economical, chemically stable and
physiologically harmless.
Hence it is the most commonly employed working fluid. Due to its use
as working substance in vapour power cycle, this cycle is often referred
as steam power cycle. The vapour is generated in a steam boiler which
then enters the steam turbine, a condenser and a feed pump.
In a vapour power cycle, the main objectives are to convert the energy
present in the fuels into mechanical energy and then to electrical
energy.
The fuel is burnt, hot flue gases are used to produce steam in the
steam generator. This steam so produced is expanded in a steam
turbine to do work.

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A power cycle continuously converts heat energy into work, in which
a working fluid performs a succession of processes. In the vapor
power cycle, the working fluid, which is water, undergoes a change
of phase into steam, which may be in the form wet, dry saturated or
super heated. A vapor power plant differs from a gas power plant in
that, it’s working fluid may undergo a phase change during the
working of the plant.
Like in any other power cycle, the working fluid (steam/water) in a
steam power plant undergoes four basic operations in a cyclic
manner.
For each operation in a vapor power plant, we can think of a
hypothetical or ideal process, which represents the basic intended
operation. Since these operations are cyclic, the idealized processes
representing these operations form an ideal cycle. That is known as
vapor power cycle.

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2-Carnot Vapor Cycle
A Carnot cycle is the most efficient power cycle operating between two isothermal and two
isentropic processes can be thought of as a vapor power cycle.
We can adopt the Carnot cycle first as a prospective ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
However, in practice, it is almost impossible to design a vapor power plant, based on
Carnot cycle.
Sequence of Processes:
1-2 Reversible and isothermal heating (in a boiler);
2-3 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine);
3-4 Reversible and isothermal condensation (in a
condenser); and
4-1 Isentropic compression (in a compressor).

q12

q34
5
The efficiency of the Carnot cycle,

Where,
T1 = Highest temperature corresponding to the boiler P 2
1
pressure p1 = p2.
T3 = Lowest temperature corresponding to the
condenser pressure p3 = p4. 4 3

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Limitations of Carnot Vapour Cycle
Theoretically the Carnot vapour cycle is most efficient;
the following difficulties are associated with it during its
operation.
1. Steam condensation is not allowed to proceed to
completion. The condensation process has to be stopped
at state point 3.
2. The working fluid at 3 is in both liquid and vapour state,
it is difficult to compress two phase mixture
isentropically.
3. The vapour has larger specific volume; hence to
accommodate greater volumes, the size of the
compressor becomes quite big.
4. For running a large sized compressor, more power is
required; this results in poor plant efficiency.
5. The steam at exhaust from the turbine is of low quality
i.e. high moisture content. The liquid water droplets
cause pitting and erosion of the turbine blades.

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Types of thermal power plants

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3-Rankine Vapor Cycle

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 The Rankine Cycle
This is the basic vapour cycle. It is usually attributed to William John M.
Rankine (1820-1872).
This cycle is an ideal cycle for simple steam power plant and, of course, it is a
cycle in which there are no losses.
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by: (a) superheating the steam in the boiler, and (b) condensing the steam
completely in the condenser.
The modified Carnot cycle is called the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal and
practical cycle for vapor power plants.

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Sequence of Processes

The ideal Rankine cycle consists of four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a water pump;
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler;
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine;
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.

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Energy Analysis of Ideal Rankine Cycle
The pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser are steady-flow devices. Thus
all four processes that make up the ideal Rankine cycle can be analyzed
as steady-flow processes.
The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small.
Thus the Steady-flow Energy Equation per unit mass of steam reduces
to:

Energy Interactions
The boiler and condenser do not
involve any work but both involve with
heat interactions.
The pump and the turbine are
assumed to be isentropic and both
involve work interactions.

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Energy Interactions in Each Device
Pump: The work needed to operate the water
pump,
where,

Boiler: The amount of heat supplied

in the steam boiler,

Turbine: The amount of work

produced
by the turbine,

Condenser: The amount of heat

rejected to cooling medium in the
condenser,

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Performance of Ideal Rankine Cycle
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is
determined from,

where the net work output,

Note: +ve quantities

only!
Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle can also
be interpreted as the ratio of the area
enclosed by the cycle on a T-s diagram to
the area under the heat-addition process.

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 Rankine cycle efficiency
Rankine cycle efficiency

Wn WT − WP
= =
QA QA

( h3 − h4 ) − ( h2 − h1 )
R =
h3 − h2
Neglecting pumping work;
h3 − h4
R 
h3 − h2
Specific steam consumption
 Specific steam consumption (S.S.C.) is
the mass flow of steam required per unit
power output of the plant.
. .
m m 1 3600
S.S.C. = s = . s = kg/kW − s S.S.C. = kg/kW − h
power m  W W W
s 18
 1-2 isentropic pumping [ pump ]
 2-3 heat addition at constant pressure [ boiler ]
 3-4 isentropic expansion [ turbine ]
 4-1 heat rejection at constant pressure [ condenser ]

T
3
P

2 3
2

1
1 4 4

v s

3
 QA = h3 – h2
 QR = h4 –h1
 WT = h3 – h4
 WP = h2 –h1 = v1 ( P2 - P1 ) 2
4

1
s

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4-Actual Vapor Power Cycles
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result
of irreversibilities in various components. Two common sources of
irreversibilities are: (a) fluid friction, and (b) heat loss to the surroundings.

Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the

boiler, condenser, and the piping between
various components. Water must be
pumped to a higher pressure - requires a
larger pump and larger work input.

More heat needs to be transferred to the

steam in the boiler to compensate for the
undesired heat losses from the steam to
the surroundings.
As a result, the cycle thermal efficiency
decreases.

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Isentropic Efficiencies
A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller
work output as a result of irreversibilities.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can
be accounted for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies, defined as,

Pump:

Turbine:

In actual condensers, the liquid is usually

sub-cooled to prevent the onset of
cavitation, which may damage the water
pump. Additional losses occur at the bearings
between the moving parts as a result of
friction. Two other factors are the steam that
leaks out during the cycle and air that leaks
into the condenser.
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Increasing Efficiency of Rankine Cycle
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle can be increased by: (a)
Increasing the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the
working fluid in the boiler, or (b) decreasing the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
Lowering the Condenser Pressure
The condensers of steam power plants usually
operate well below the atmospheric pressure.
There is a lower limit to this pressure
depending on the temperature of the cooling
medium.
Side effect: Lowering the condenser pressure
increases the moisture content of the steam
at the final stages of the turbine – can cause
blade damage, decreasing isentropic
efficiency.

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Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures

Superheating the steam increases both

the net work output and heat input to
the cycle. The overall effect is an
increase in thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Superheating to higher temperatures
will decrease the moisture content of
the steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable – avoid erosion of turbine
blades.
The superheating temperature is
limited by metallurgical considerations.
Presently the highest steam
temperature allowed at the turbine
inlet is about 620°C.
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Increasing the Boiler Pressure

Increasing the boiler pressure raises

the average temperature at which
heat is transferred to the steam.
This, in turns increases the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
Note:
For a fixed turbine inlet
temperature, the cycle shifts to the
left and the moisture content of
steam at the turbine exit increases.
This side effect can be corrected by
reheating the steam.

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a) For the same maximum and
minimum temperatures Rankine
cycle has lower efficiency than that
of the Carnot cycle.
b) For the same maximum and
minimum temperatures Rankine
cycle has the higher specific
output than that of the Carnot
cycle.
c) Compression of wet vapor is
difficult and involves large work in
case of Carnot cycle when
compared to the pumping work of
feed water to the boiler in case of
a Rankine cycle.
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The basic and main difference between Carnot and Rankine
cycle is that in Carnot cycle heat is added and rejected at
constant temperature and in Rankine cycle heat addition and
rejection take place at constant pressure. The other main
difference is that the Rankine cycle use water as working
substance and Carnot cycle used air as working substance.
There are many other differences which are describe below in
tabular form.

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Difference between Carnot Cycle and
Rankine cycle:

Sr. Carnot Cycle Rankine Cycle

No.
1. It is a theoretical cycle. It gives This one is a practical cycle of steam
maximum efficiency between engine and turbine.
two temperature difference

2. Heat is added and rejected at Heat is added and rejected at constant

constant temperature. pressure.

3. It has highest efficiency Rankine cycle has lower efficiency than

between two temperature Carnot cycle.
differences.

4. Carnot cycle uses air as the Rankine cycle uses water as working
working substance. substance.

5. Carnot cycle is ideal cycle for It is ideal cycle for vapor power engine.
heat engine.

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Problem
The Simple Rankine Cycle

Consider a 210-MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal

Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and is
cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine:
(a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit,
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and
(c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
Answers: (a) 0.793, (b) 40.2 percent, (c) 165 kg/s

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5. Ideal reheat Rankine cycle
Objective of reheat the Rankine cycle :
Increase the net work output and thus the thermal efficiency
without the problem of excessive moisture at the final stage of
the turbine

Two possible solutions :

1. Superheat the steam to very high temperature before it
enters the turbine (limited by metallurgical consideration)
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it
in between.

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 wturb I wturb II
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
qprimary
2-3 Isobaric heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in high
pressure turbine
4-5 Isobaric heat addition in boiler
(reheat)
qreheat
5-6 Isentropic expansion in low
pressure turbine
6-1 Isobaric heat rejection in
condenser

qin = qprimary + qreheat = (h3 − h2 ) + (h5 − h4 )

wturb out = wturb I + wturb II = (h3 − h4 ) + (h5 − h6 )
qout = h6 − h1
wpump = h2 − h1
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 qreheat 1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
wturb I
wturb II 2-3 Isobaric heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in high
pressure turbine
wturb I
qprimary 4-5 Isobaric heat addition in boiler
wturb II (reheat)
qreheat 5-6 Isentropic expansion in low
pressure turbine
wpump in qprimary 6-1 Isobaric heat rejection in
condenser

wturb I + wturb II − wpump

 th =
qprimary + qreheat
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34
Problem
The Reheat Rankine Cycle

Consider a steam power plant that operates on a reheat Rankine cycle

and has a net power output of 80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure
turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and the low-pressure turbine at 1 MPa
and 500°C. Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at a
pressure of 10 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 80
percent, and that of the pump is 95 percent. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine:
(a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit,
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and
(c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
Answers: (a) 88.1°C, (b) 34.1 percent, (c) 62.7 kg/s

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Problem
The Reheat Rankine Cycle

A steam power plant operates on the reheat Rankine cycle. Steam

enters the high-pressure turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550°C at a rate of 7.7
kg/s and leaves at 2 MPa. Steam is then reheated at constant pressure
to 450°C before it expands in the low-pressure turbine. The isentropic
efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85 percent and 90 percent,
respectively. Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid. If the
moisture content of the steam at the exit of the turbine is not to exceed
5 percent, determine:
(a) the condenser pressure,
(b) the net power output, and
(c) the thermal efficiency.
Answers: (a) 9.73 kPa, (b) 10.2 MW, (c) 36.9 percent.

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 Problem 1
Water is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle with reheat.
Superheated vapor enters the turbine at 10 MPa, 480oC, and the
condenser pressure is 6 kPa. Steam expands through the first-
stage turbine to 0.7 MPa and then reheated to 480oC. Determine
for the cycle
a) The rate of heat addition, in kJ per kg of steam entering the
first stage turbine
b) The thermal efficiency
c) The rate of heat transfer from the working fluid passing
through the condenser to the cooling water in kJ per kg of
steam entering the first-stage turbine

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 Solution
State 1: p1 = 100 bars, T1 = 480oC, h1 = 3821.4 kJ/kg; s1 =
6.5282 kJ/kg.K
State 2: p2 = 7 bar, s2 = s1, x2 = (s2 – sf2)/(sg2-sf2) = 0.9619.
h2 = 2684.8 kJ/kg
State 3: p3 = 7 bar, T3 = 480oC, h3 = 3438.9 kJ/kg,
s3 = 7.8723 kJ/kg.K
State 4: p4 = 0.06bar, s4 = s3, x4 = (s4 - sf4)/(sg4 - sf4) = 0.9413
h4 = 2425.6 kJ/kg
State 5: p5 = 0.06 bar, sat liquid, h5 = 151.53 kJ/kg
State 6; h6 = h5 + vf (p6-p5) = 151.53 + (1.006 x 10-3) (100 -
0.06) (105)/(103) = 161.59 kJ/kg

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 Solution
a) Heat in for unit mass flow rate: [(h1-h6) + (h3-h2)] =
[(3321.4 – 161.59) + (3438.9 – 2684.8)] = 3913.9 kJ/kg
b) Thermal efficiency: Net work / Heat in
Net work = (h1 - h2) + (h3 - h4) – (h6 – h5)
= 636.6 + 1013.3 – 10.06 =
1639.8 kJ/kg
Efficiency = 1639.8 / 3913.9 = 0.419
c) Condenser: Heat transfer = (h4 – h5) = 2425.6 – 151.53
= 2274.1 kJ/kg

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 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Superheated steam at 36 bar and 300C enters the
turbine of a steam and expands to a condenser
pressure of 0.40 bars. Assuming the isentropic
efficiencies of the turbine and pump are 85% and 80%
respectively. Calculate:
(a) The thermal efficiency of the cycle
(b) What is the corresponding Rankin cycle efficiency?

2. Consider a reheat cycle utilizing steam. Steam leaves

the boiler and enters the turbine at 4 Mpa, 400C.
After expansion in the turbine to 400 kPa; the steam is
reheated to 400C and then expanded in the low-
pressure turbine to 10 kPa. Determine the cycle
efficiency.
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3. A steam power plant operates on the reheat Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 12.5
MPa and 550°C at a rate of 7.7 kg/s and leaves at 2
MPa. Steam is then reheated at constant pressure to
450°C before it expands in the low-pressure turbine. The
isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85
percent and 90 percent, respectively. Steam leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid. If the moisture content of
the steam at the exit of the turbine is not to exceed 5
percent, determine:
(a)the condenser pressure,
(b)the net power output, and
(c)the thermal efficiency.
Answers: (a) 9.73 kPa, (b) 10.2 MW, (c) 36.9
percent.

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 4. A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat-
regenerative Rankine cycle and has a net power of
80MW. Steam enters the high pressure turbine at
10MPa and 550oC and leaves at 0.8MPa. Some
steam is extracted at this pressure to heat the
feedwater in an open feedwater heater. The rest of
the steam is reheated to 500oC and is expanded in
the low pressure turbine to the condenser pressure of
10kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with
respect to saturation lines, and determine

a)The mass flow rate of steam through the boiler

b)The thermal efficiency of the cycle

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