Department of Mechanical Engineering

II B.TECH II SEM
Subject with Code: Materials Science (20ME0309)
UNIT-1
1. (A) What is Material science? List out classification of materials
the scientific study of the properties and applications of materials of construction or manufacture
(such as ceramics, metals, polymers, and composites).
Materials science focuses on the relationship between the atomic and molecular structure of a
material, the properties of the material (such as strength, electrical conductivity or optical
properties), and ways in which the material is manufactured or processed into a shape or product
Classification:
Materials:
1.Metals/Alloys: Ex; Iron, Steel ,Copper, Aluminium, Brass, Titanium
2.Ceramics: Ex: Alumina,Silica,Glss,Porcelain
3.composites: Ex: Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete(GFRC), Carbon fibre reinforced
carbon (CFRC), metal matrix composite (MMC),carbon-carbon composites
4.Polymers : Ex: Nylon,Polyster,Bakelite,Polyethylene
5.Semiconductos : Ex: silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide
6.Nanomaterials :Ex: carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, silver,Iron
7.Biomaterials : Metals, ceramics, plastic, glass, and even living cells and tissue all can be
used in creating a biomaterial
1(b) Explain the primary types of Bonds in solids with neat sketches
Types of bonds in material
1. Ionic Bonding
2. Covalent Bonding
3. Metallic Bonding
4. Hydrogen Bonding
5. Van Der Wall’s Bonding
Ionic Bond:
An ionic bonding is the Attractive Force existing between positive ion and a negative ion when
they are brought into close proximity or surrounding.
They are formed when atoms of different elements lose or gain their electrons in order to
achieve stabilized outermost electronic configuration
 A covalent bond is formed, when two or more electrons of an atom, in its outermost energy level,
are shared by other atoms. e.g.- PCl3

Metallic Bond: Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic
attractive force between conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions. It may be
described as the sharing of free electrons among a structure of positively charged ions.

2. Discuss about the Mechanical and Technological Properties of Engineering Materials?

S.No. Technical & Mechanical Properties

1. Elasticity :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to retain its original
shape and size after the removal of the load.
 Examples : Steel and rubber.
 This property is desirable in materials used in tools and machines.

2. Plasticity :
S.No. Technical & Mechanical Properties

 It is the property of a material by virtue of which a permanent deformation

(without fracture) takes place, whenever it is subjected to the action of external
forces.
 Examples : Clay and lead.
 This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations.

3. Ductility :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires before
rupture takes place.
 Ductility of material can be measured by the percentage of elongation and the
percentage of reduction of area before rupture.
 Examples : Gold, platinum, silver, iron, copper, and aluminium.
 A knowledge of this property is important during fabrication operations.

4. Malleability :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can withstand deformation
under compression without rupture.
 Examples : Gold and lead.
 This property is of importance in forging and rolling operations.

5. Brittleness :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it will fracture without any
appreciable deformation.
 Examples : Cast iron and glass.
 This property is desirable in machine parts which may be subjected to sudden
loads.

6. Hardness :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to resist abrasion,
indentation (or penetration), machining, and scratching.
 It is measured by the resistance of the material it offers to scratching.
 Examples : Diamond, quartz, and glass.

7. Toughness :
 IT is the property of a material by virtue of which it can absorb maximum energy
before fracture takes place.
S.No. Technical & Mechanical Properties

 It is measured by the tenacity and hardness of the material.

 Examples : Mild steel, brass, and wrought iron.

8. Stiffness :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it resists deformation.
 Modulus of elasticity (i.e. ratio of stress to the strain below elastic limit) is a
measure of stiffness of a material.

9. Resilience
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it stores energy and resists
shocks or impacts.
 It is measured by the amount of energy that can be stored per unit volume after
being stressed to elastic limit.
 This property is desirable in materials used for springs.
 The maximum energy which can be stored in a body upto the elastic limit is called
the proof resilience, and the proof resilience per unit volume is called the modulus
of resilience.

10. Creep :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms continuously under a
steady load.
 This property is considered in designing I.C. engines, boilers, turbines, etc.

11. Endurance :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can withstand varying stresses.
 The maximum value of stress that can be applied for an indefinite times without
causing its failure is known as endurance limit.

12. Strength :
 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can withstand or support an
external force or load without rupture.
 This property is very important while designing various structures and
components.
(a) Elastic strength : It is the value of load corresponding to transition from elastic to
plastic range.
(b) Plastic strength : It is the value of load corresponding to plastic range and
rupture.

13. Impact strength :

S.No. Technical & Mechanical Properties

 It is the property of a material by virtue of which it can resist or absorb shock

energy before it fractures.

14. Fatigue : It is the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms under the
fluctuating or repeated loads.

Table 3.3 Technological Properties

1. Machinability : It is the property of a material, which indicates the ease with

which it can be cut or removed in various machining operations such as turning,
drilling, boring, shaping, etc.

2. Castability : It is the property of a material, which indicates the ease with

which it can be cast into different shapes and sizes.

3. Weldability : It is the property of a material, which indicates the ease with

which two similar or dissimilar metals are welded.

4. Formability or workability : It is the property of a material, which indicates

the ease with which it can be formed into different shapes and size.

3.Define the following terms: (i) Space lattice (ii) Unit cell (iii)primitive cell iv) Bonding energy
iv) Atomic packing factor
Ans: (I )A space lattice is an array of points showing how particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are
arranged at different sites in three dimensional spaces
(II) The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeated unit with full crystal structure symmetry
(III) The primitive cell is a unit cell corresponding to a single lattice point,
(IV) Bond energy is a measure of the bond strength of a chemical bond, and is the amount of
energy needed to break the atoms involved in a molecular bond into free atoms.
(V) Atomic Packing Factor (APF) tells that, what percent of an object is made of atoms vs empty
space.
(Vi) Crystal structure: it deals with the atomic arrangement in solids.

4. How does grain size effect on the properties of alloys, also determine the grain size.
Effect of grain boundaries on properties in metals and alloys:
GRAIN BOUNDARY: It is the outside area of grain that separates it from other grains . The dark
areas are grain boundary and each light area is grain
 Effect of grain boundaries on properties in metals and alloys: Grain boundary effect in
Polycrystals Grain boundaries act as barriers to the motion of dislocations in polycrystalline metal
during plastic deformation .The metal undergoes strain hardening/work hardening the increase in
strength of metal we observe in Cold worked metals.

Grain boundary effect in polycrystals : grain boundaries act as

barriers to the motion of dislocations in polycrystalline metal
during plastic deformation. The metal undergoes strain
hardening/work hardening the increase in strength of metal we
observe in cold worked metals.
EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE ON PROPERTIES OF METALS: The
smaller grain size, the better mechanical properties than bigger
grain size metal/or alloys. The relationship between yield strength and grain size of metal/or alloy is
furnished in the next slide.

FIG: GRIAN SIZE

5. What are the various types of solid solutions? Explain with examples
Solid solution: it is an alloy in which the atoms of solute are distributed in the solvent and has the
same structure as that of the solvent.
Types of solid solutions
Two kinds of solid solutions formed are:
1. Substitutional solid solutions
(a) Random and (b) ordered.
2.Interstitial solid solutions
1. Substitutional solid solutions
When the solute atoms (impurities) substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice,
they are called substitutional atoms, and the mixture of the two elements is called a substitutional
solid solution.
In other words, in substitutional solid solution, the atoms of the solvent substitute for atoms of the
solute in the lattice structure of the solvent.
This type of solid solution is quite common among various metal systems.
Illustration: a Cu-Ni system ,is shown in fig ,is an example for a substitutional
Solid solution. These two elements are completely soluble in one another at all proportions. This
system also satisfies all the Hume Rothery’s rules that govern the degree of solubility, as below:
(i) the atomic radii for copper and nickel are 1.28A˚ and 1.25A˚ respectively;
(ii)
both the Cu and Ni have the FCC crystal structure;
(iii)
The most common valencies are +1 for Cu and +2 for Ni; and
(iv)
The electro negativities of Cu and Ni are 1.9 and 1.8 respectively.
Thus, Cu-Ni system forms an extensive substitution solid solution.
(a) Random (or Disordered) substitution solid solution
In random substitution solid solution, there is no order in the substitution of the two elements; the
solute and solvent atoms are randomly distributed

FIG: disordered substitution solidsolution

In the formation of a substitutional solid solution, the solute atoms do not occupy any
specific position but are distributed at random in lattice structure of the solvent. This alloy is said to
be in a random or disordered condition.
 Fig illustrates a random substitutional solid solution of copper-zinc system (i.e, brass), here
the crystal pattern is not altered.
(b) Ordered substitutional solid solution
If the solute and solvent atoms take up some preferred position, then the solution is called
ordered substitutional solid solution or super lattice.
Fig shows an ordered substitutional solid solution
Diffusion (that takes place during cooling ) tends to produce uniform distribution of solute
and solvent atoms. Thus the solute atoms move into definite orderly positions in the lattice, as
shown in fig

EXAMPLES: Au-Cu and Cu2MnAl have ordered crystal structures

2. Interstitial Solid Solution.
In interstitial solid solution, the solute atoms fit into the space between the solvent or parent
atoms. These spaces or voids are interstices.
Interstitial solid solution can form only when one atom is much larger than another.
The atoms which have atomic radii less than 1 A˚ are likely to form an interstitial solid
solution .Such atoms are hydrogen(0.46 A˚), carbon (0.77A˚), nitrogen (0.71 A˚), and oxygen (0.6
A˚).
 Illustration: illustrates an interstitial solid solution that is formed by carbon in FCC γ iron just
above 912˚C. In this case, the atomic radius of carbon is 0.75 A˚ and that of γ iron is 1.29A˚, and so
there is an atomic radius difference of 42%.
Like substitutional solid solutions, interstitial solid solutions also depend on size, valency,
and electro negativity factors. But they do not depend on the type of crystal structure.
Interstitial Solid Solutions
interesting examples of interstitial solid solutions are: Just as sugar dissolved in water is a
liquid solution, carbon dissolved in iron is an interstitial solid solution.
Metal Strengthening: Just as carbon interstitials increase the strength of iron, small atoms like
nitrogen and oxygen can increase the strength of metals like titanium and aluminum by filling
their interstitial sites.

6(a) Differentiate between composite and alloy?

Both alloys and composites are a mixture of different elements.
The primary difference between alloys and composites is in the compositions of the two materials.
An alloy must have a minimum of one metal in its composition while composites don't have any
metal components
Composites are superior insulators: They don't respond to an electric field and resist the flow of
an electric charge, can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
Alloys are conduct electricity, homogeneous mixture
Alloys acquire completely new characteristics, which differ from the ones of their components:
more favorable mechanical properties, increased corrosion resistance, color change, improved
processing ability,

Alloy Composite

An Alloy is a mixture of one or more metals Composites are also a mixture of two or more
with other elements. elements, but it does not contain metals.

An alloy can either be a homogeneous or a

A composite is always a heterogeneous mixture.
heterogeneous mixture.

Alloys are lustrous due to the presence of Composites are not lustrous as they do not contain
metals in their composition. metals in their composition.

Composites do not conduct electricity except for

Most alloys can conduct electricity.
polymeric composites.
6(b) Evaluate metallic bond and list out characteristics compound.
The metallic bond is a term used to describe the collective sharing of the sea of valence
electrons between several positively charged metal ions The collective sharing of the sea of valence
electrons between many positively charged metal ions is referred to as the metallic bond. It can be
defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between a metal kernel and a valence electron or we
can say the electrostatic force of attraction between metal ions arranged in the lattice structure and
free-floating electrons is known as metallic bonding.

Characteristics of metallic compound:

(i) Metallic compounds are crystalline in nature.

(ii) They are very good conductors of electricity.

(iii) They have usually moderate to high, melting temperature (since the metallic bonds are not
very strong).

(iv) They are opaque to light (since free electrons in a metal absorb light energy).

(v) They have high thermal conductivity

(vi)They have high reflectivity and lustre

7. Evaluate the cooling curve of solidification of a pure metal with diagram

Solidification of Pure metals

Pure metals possess:-
i) Excellent thermal and electrical conductivity.
ii) Higher ductility, melting point, lower yield point and tensile strength.
iii) Better corrosion resistance, as compared to alloys.

Pure metals melts and solidify at a single temperature which may be termed as Melting point or
Freezing point (FP).
1- Liquid metal cools from A to B.
2- From B to C, the melt librates latent heat of fusion; temperature remains constant.
3- The liquid metal starts solidifying at B and it is partly liquid and partly solid at any point
between B and C and at C the metal is purely solid.
4- From C to D the solid metal cools to room temperature.
5- The slops of AB and CD depend upon the specific heats of liquid and solid metals respectively

If a pure metal cools rapidly or even otherwise when it is very pure and does not contain at all any
impurity as nucleus to start crystallization, it may cools as fig (1-b).
1- Nucleation of solid starts at B' instead of B, i. e after liquid metal has supercooled by an amount
ΔT. This phenomenon is known as supercooling or undercooling.
2- Besides pure metals, supercooling may occur in alloys also, e.g. cast iron.

8(a). Describe with a neat sketch of FCC crystal structure and calculate its packing factor,
coordinate Number
It is the number of equidistant nearest neighbors
FCC (face centered cubic): Atoms are arranged at the corners and center of each cube face of the
cell.
 FIG: FCC Crystal structure
Close packed Plane: On each face of the cube Atoms are assumed to touch along face diagonals.
4 atoms in one unit cell.
The coordination number of FCC is 12. That is because there are 12 spheres per unit cell that are
shared with other unit cells. The net total of spheres present in FCC unit cell is 4. It can be
calculated as follows.

Total spheres in corners = (1/8) x 8 = 1

Total spheres in cubic faces = (1/2) x 6 = 3

Then the total spheres per unit cell = 1 + 3 = 4

The packing factor of FCC structure is 0.74.

This means the ratio between the volume occupied by spheres and the total volume of the unit cell
is 0.74.

8(b) Draw a neat sketch of BCC crystal structure and calculate its packing factor, coordinate number
BCC: Body Centered Cubic :Atoms are arranged at the corners of the cube with another atom at the
cube center.
Close Packed Plane cuts the unit cube in half diagonally • 2 atoms in one unit cell

FIG:BCC crystal Structure

In this arrangement, the spheres are located in each corner of a cube and one sphere in the middle of
the cube. A unit cell of a lattice is the smallest unit that resembles the whole structure of the lattice.
 Since a cube has 8 corners, there is a total of 9 spheres in a BCC structure (eight in the corners plus
on in the middle).
The packing factor of BCC is 0.68.
9.Describe the various imperfections in crystals and their effects on properties.
Imperfections or defects: Any deviation from the perfect atomic arrangement in a crystal is said to
contain imperfections or defects.
Adding alloying elements to a metal is one way of introducing a crystal defect. Crystal
imperfections have strong influence upon many properties of crystals, such as strength, electrical
conductivity and hysteresis loss of ferromagnets. Thus some important properties of crystals are
controlled by as much as by imperfections and by the nature of the host crystals.

1. The conductivity of some semiconductors is due entirely to trace amount of chemical impurities.
2. Color, luminescence of many crystals arise from impurities and imperfections
3. Atomic diffusion may be accelerated enormously by impurities or imperfections
4. Mechanical and plastic properties are usually controlled by imperfections

Imperfections in crystalline solids are normally classified according to their dimension as follows

1. Point imperfections (Zero dimensional defects)

2. Line imperfections (one dimensional defects)
3. Plane or surface imperfections (Two dimensional defects)
4. Volume imperfections (three dimensional defects)
Point Defects:- Point defects are where an atom is missing or is in an irregular place in the lattice
structure. Point defects include self interstitial atoms, interstitial impurity atoms, substitutional
atoms and vacancies.
Line Imperfections:
In linear defects groups of atoms are in irregular positions. Linear defects are commonly called
dislocations. Any deviation from perfectly periodic arrangement of atoms along a line is called the
line imperfection.
Planar defects: which are interfaces between homogeneous regions of the material. Planar defects
include grain boundaries, stacking faults and external surfaces.
Volume Defects: Voids are regions where there are a large number of atoms missing from the
lattice. The image to the right is a void in a piece of metal. The image was acquired using a
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

10(a) What is necessity of alloy?

Effects of alloying elements in steels
Purpose of Alloying
The alloying of steel is generally done :
1. To increase its strength
2. To improve hardness
3. To improve toughness
4. To improve resistance to abrasion and wear
5. To improve machinability
6.To improve ductility
7.To enhance grain size control
8. To achieve better electrical and magnetic properties.
10(b) What is the Hume Rothery, s rules? Discuss in detail
(Factors governing solid solubility)
To form an extensive solid solution (i.e., greater than 10 atomic percent soluble), the solute and
solvent elements should obey the following general rules of Hume Rothery’s.
1. Size factor: The atoms must be of similar size, with less than a 15% difference in atomic radius
(in order to minimize the lattice strain).
2. Crystal structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure. Otherwise, there is
some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to a second phase with a different
structure.
3. Valence: The atoms must have the same valence†. Other wise, the valence electron difference
encourages the formation of compounds ‡ rather than solutions.
4. Electro negativity: the atoms must have approximately the same electro negativity. Electro
negativity is the ability of the atom to attract an electron. if electro negativity differ
significantly, the compounds will form.
If one or more of the Hume Rothery’s rules are violated, only partial solubility is possible.