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HINDUISM

Hinduism, also known as Sanatana Dharma, is the world’s oldest living religion. It
has neither a founder figure nor an organisational system. There is no creed defined as
essential to it. It is so diverse in its beliefs and practices as to manifest the vast regional
variations of the Subcontinent.

1. Origin
The archaeological findings of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa have given clues about
the nature of the earliest religion that existed in the Subcontinent. When the Aryan
communities came to the Subcontinent from the northwest about 1,500 BCE, they found
a striking contrast with the natives of the soil that they referred to as ‘Dasus’, having
darker skin, defending themselves from forts, worshipping phallus1 etc.

However, over time, a two-way process of interaction took place between the
invading communities and the indigenous people. A hybrid kind of religious tie-ups
developed over a long period until 500 BCE. It was this new Indo-Aryan religion that was
later called Hinduism.

Hindu word was derived from the river flow in northern India, Indus. In ancient
times, this river was known as the Sindhu River, but when Persians came to India, they
called it Hindu, and to the land Hindustan, the people residing here were called Hindus.
Likewise, the term ‘Hindu’ came into existence in the 6th century BCE referring to a
geographical terrain rather than a cultural sect.

2. Scriptures
The sacred scriptures of Hinduism are classified into two sets of literature; The
Sruti and The Smrti.

2.1 Sruti
The term ‘Sruti’ literally means “what was heard”. There are five kinds of Sruti
literature: (i)Vedas, (ii) Brahmanas, (iii) Aranyakas and (iv)Upanishads.

1. The earliest literary manifestation of the Hindu religion is called the Veda, which
literally means ‘knowledge’, and to the orthodox Hindu, they are the eternal
words (vac), self-existent truths, constituting the divine revelation.
2. Brahmanas are mostly prose works added to the Vedas, explaining the
procedures of sacrificial rituals.
3. Aranyakas are ‘Forest Books’ composed of those who had renounced the
ritualistic sacrifices at home and gone to forests to live in favour of meditation.
4. Upanishads are philosophical and mystical utterances that are regarded as the
core of the Vedas, and so were called the ‘Vedanta’ (the end of Vedas).

Ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas relate narratives that identify
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the lingam as the phallus of Shiva. Practising Hindus consider the lingam and yoni together to symbolize
the union of the male and female principles and the totality of all existence.

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2.2 Smriti
The term ‘Smriti’ literally means ‘that which was remembered’, and so it refers to
tradition. Therefore, they have only secondary authority, in so far as they are in
accordance with the Vedas. They include:
1. The two Ithikasas or Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata)
2. The Puranas (sacred chronicles with a lot of legendary romances)
3. The Dharma Shastras (codes of law)
4. The Darshanas (Philosophical schools)
5. Agamas (Manuals of worship).

3. God Concept
The immigrant Aryan communities brought their own gods. Along with that, each
of the diverse racial groups that existed across the Subcontinent had its own gods or
goddesses. The Aryan community went on conquering the local kingdoms, they also
absorbed their gods. But the whole process was taking place in some systematic way so
that eventually it gave rise to the doctrine of the Hindu trinity (Trimurthi): Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva.

In the Upanishadic understanding, there is in an eternal, infinite and all-embracing

ultimate force called Brahman. The relationship between the Brahman (the universal
soul) and Atman (the individual soul) has been the main concern in Upanishads. But later
this idea of Brahman, got referred to the background and represented as a personal god
as Brahma, with human qualities, having creation as his main function.

Vishnu, a minor god of Vedas, got syncretised with various existing deities, with a
new identity as a benevolent god, concerned for the welfare of the world. He is said to
periodically descend into the world through his avatars. Shiva, originally a pre-Aryan god
of South India, was identified by the Puranas with the Vedic god Rudra and was depicted
as a fiercer figure, symbolizing both the creative and destructive aspects of deity.

Another remarkable development is that the divine energy of the threefold gods
was also seen as a distinct female deity. Thus Goddess-worship also emerged,
representing each member of Trimurthi with a companion.

4. Purushartas
A fourfold goal of human life is set for the integrated personality. These fourfold
ends of human life are called the Purushartas. They are usually put in a single formula:
“Dharma- artha- kama- Moksha” which sums up the whole of ethical teachings of a
Hindu life. The Righteousness (dharma) of life consists in directing our passions (kama)
and possessions (artha) to a spiritual end (moksha).

5. Varnashrama Dharma
Varnashrama Dharma implies one’s personal ethics and social ethics. The one part
of the formula, viz.
• ‘Ashrama dharma’ defines the personal ethics of a Hindu life.
• while the other part of it ‘Varna dharma’ defines Hindu social ethics.

The personal ethics of an individual is organized into four stages (ashramas).

1. Brahmacharya: The student’s phase, demands one to learn one of the Vedas.

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2. Grahasta: The Householder’s life, requires him to perform domestic rituals of the
Brahmanas to get his desired benefits.
3. Vanaprastha: The Forest dweller’s life, requires him to follow the teachings of the
Aranyakas, internalizing the sacrificial rites. It starts when the householder, after
living a full and fruitful life, throws off his family ties and devotes himself to the study
of scriptures and religious practices.
4. Sanyasi: The life of the renouncer, necessitates him to live a life of complete
renunciation and solitude with the only aim of realization of spiritual freedom or
mystic union with the divine.

The Social ethics of Hindus was summed up in the Varna dharma. The Hindu
society is divided into four main classes;
1. Brahmana (the priestly & teaching class),
2. Kshatriya (the warrior and ruling class),
3. Vaisya (the agricultural and commercial class) and
4. Sudra (the serving and labourers’ class).
Apart from the four, there is what is called the outcaste - the ‘avarna,’ who are
marginalized from the mainstream in every aspect.

6. Salvation
The Truth is One, but the Paths are Many…
The Bhagavad Gita praises three major margas or paths of Yoga which help a
person base his personal nature with the highest goal, realization and union with
Brahman.

Although each path is different, the destination is ultimately the same. One path is
not higher than the other; rather the lessons of each contain its unique wisdom that
provides an integrated and balanced view of one’s relationship to oneself and the higher
reality.

These three paths are:

1. Karma Yoga: The Path of Selfless Action
2. Bhakti Yoga: The Path of Devotion
3. Jnana Yoga: The Path of Self-Transcending Knowledge

Karma Yoga
Karma Yoga is essentially doing one’s duties in life as per his/her dharma, or duty,
without concern for results. It is an action done without thought of gain. One cannot
live in the world without performing actions, and thus a proper mindset should be
established when doing these actions.

Karma Yoga purifies the heart by teaching one to act selflessly, without thought
of gain or reward. By detaching oneself from the fruits of one’s actions and offering them
up to God, one learns to redirect the ego. This is the difference between simply
performing actions for personal gains, and performing actions without attachment
(vairagya) as a spiritual practice where all fruits are given to God. This is the most difficult
of all paths as most of us are attached to the fruits of our actions.

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Bhakti Yoga
Bhakti yoga is based on the doctrine “Love is God and God is Love”. The Deity is
the beloved and the devotee is the lover. In Bhakti yoga, everything is but a manifestation
of the divine and all else is meaningless, including the Ego. When the Bhakta is blessed by
divine grace, he feels an undivided union and non-dual consciousness prevails. Bhakti
Yoga is regarded as the most direct method to merge in cosmic consciousness.

This path appeals particularly to those of an emotional nature. Through prayer,

worship, chanting and ritual one surrenders himself to God or object of faith,
channelling and transmuting his emotions into unconditional love and devotion.
Continuous meditation of God or an object of faith gradually decreases the ego of the
practitioner. Suppressed emotions get released and the purification of the inner self
takes place. Slowly the practitioner loses the self-identity and becomes one with God or
the object of faith, this is the state of self-realization.

Jnana Yoga
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what
is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of
the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops
into a Jnani. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regard to the
difference between the immortal soul (atman) and the body.

Jnana Yoga is the process of converting intellectual knowledge into practical

wisdom. Jnana literally means ‘knowledge’, but in the context of yoga it means the
process of meditative awareness which leads to illuminative wisdom. It is not a method
by which we try to find rational answers to eternal questions, rather it is a part of
meditation leading to self-enquiry and self-realisation.

Taking the philosophy of Vedanta, the Jnana Yogi uses his mind to inquire into its
own nature. Jnana Yoga leads the devotee to experience his unity with God and dissolving
the shrouds of ignorance (maya).

Thus, the paths of salvation that suits one must be decided by each and adopt it
for attaining salvation.

In the early 21st century, Hinduism had nearly one billion adherents worldwide
and was the religion of about 80 per cent of India’s population. Despite its global
presence, however, it is best understood through its many distinctive regional
manifestations.

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JAINISM

Jainism is an ancient religion that is rooted in the philosophy that teaches the way
to liberation and a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined
nonviolence to all living creatures.

1. When did Jainism Originate?

• Jainism came to prominence in the 6th century B.C.E. when Lord Mahavira
propagated the religion.
• There were 24 great teachers, the last of whom was Lord Mahavira.
• These twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras-people who had attained
all knowledge (Moksha) while living and preached it to the people.
• The first Tirthankara was Rishabnatha.
• The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jina or Jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.

2. Cause of Origin
• Hinduism had become rigid and orthodox with complex rituals and the dominance
of Brahmins.
• The Varna system divided the society into 4 classes based on birth, where the two
higher classes enjoyed several privileges.
• Kshatriya’s reaction against the domination of the Brahmanas.
• Spread of the new agricultural economy in north-eastern India due to the use of
iron tools.

3. Scripture
Most of the ancient Jain texts are written in Prakrta (an early form of Sanskrit).
The general outline of the canon is as follows. It is divided into six sections and contains
either forty-five or forty-six books which are I.) The twelve Angas or limbs, II.) The twelve
Upangas, or secondary limbs, III.) The ten Painnas, or ‘Scattered pieces,’ IV.) The six
Cheya-Suttas, V.) Individual texts (two), VI.) The four Mula-Suttas.

4. The Concept of God

Jainism believes that the universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. It
has no beginning or end concerning time. The universe runs on its own accord by its
cosmic laws.
All substances change or modify their forms continuously. Nothing can be destroyed
or created in the universe.
• There is no need for someone to create or manage the affairs of the universe.
• Hence Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the
universe.
However, Jainism does believe in God, not as a creator, but as a perfect being.
• When a person destroys all his karmas, he becomes a liberated soul. He lives in a
perfect blissful state in Moksha forever.
• The liberated soul possesses infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power,
and infinite bliss. This living being is a God of the Jain religion.
• Every living being has the potential to become God.
Hence Jains do not have one God, but Jain Gods are innumerable and their number is
continuously increasing as more living beings attain liberation.

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5. Concept of Soul
The Jaina holds that every living and non-living being is gifted with souls. All souls
are not equally conscious, but every soul has the potential to attain infinite consciousness,
power, and happiness. Each Jiva (soul) is eternally associated with Ajiva (non-sentient or
non-conscious being) because of Karman. They are obstructed by karma, just as the
natural light of the sun is hindered by clouds. By removing the karmas, a soul can remove
bondage and regain its natural perfections. The Karma or the sum of the past life of a soul
- its past thought, speech, and activity - generates in its certain blind cravings and
passions that seek satisfaction.

6. Ethics
The most important part of Jaina philosophy is its ethics. The goal of right conduct
is salvation (moksa), which negatively means the removal of all bondage of the soul, and
positively, the attainment of liberation.

For spiritual discipline, there are twelve vows. They are: the gross vow of
refraining from violence, refraining from telling lies, refraining from taking anything
that is not given, refraining from sexual activities, limiting one’s possessions, limiting
the area of acts that are not virtuous, limiting the quality of things that could be used
once as also of things that could be used repeatedly, to abstain from harmful activities
that serve no useful purpose, remaining completely calm and composed for a fixed
period, reducing the limits of the area outlined in the sixth vow for a limited period,
observing fast and living like a monk for certain days, and sharing things with deserving
guests.

Some of them consider the first five, namely, the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas)
as sufficient for the perfection of conduct. They are the following. Ahimsa or Non-violence
is the most important vow. It is abstinence from all injury to life. Satya or Truth is
abstinence from falsehood. Astheya or Non-stealing consists in not taking what is not
given. Brahmacharaya consists in abstaining from all forms of self-indulgence. This
refers to purity of personal conduct in the matter of sex. Aparigraha or Abstinence from
all attachment consists in abstaining from all attachment to the senses. Liberation is
impossible without the withdrawal of attachment.

7. Liberation (Moksa)
Liberation is the expulsion of matter from the soul. It is achieved through
observing Right faith, Right knowledge, and Right conduct which are known as the Three
Gems (Triranta). Liberation is the joint effect of these three.

1. Right Faith (samyag-darshana): Right faith is an attitude of respect towards truth.

Perfect faith can result only from perfect knowledge. It is a cyclical process.

2. Right Knowledge (samyag-jnana): Right knowledge consists in the detailed

knowledge of all truths. All our miseries and distresses are due to our ignorance
of the soul.

3. Right Conduct (samyak-caritra): Right conduct is refraining from wrong and

performing what is right. The true meaning of ‘right conduct’ is to make one’s life

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pure, keeping it aloof from vices and moral defilements, and to help others strive
for the good according to one’s ability.

8. Jain Sects
There are two important Jain sects, the Svetambaras (wearers of white clothes)
and the Digambaras (the naked). The literal meaning of the word digambara is sky-clad
and that of svetambara is white clad.

1. The Digambara thinks that a man should abstain from food and possessions,
including clothing, to become a saint. The Digambaras strictly maintain that there
can be no salvation without nakedness. Since women cannot go without clothes,
they are said to be incapable of salvation. The Digambaras believe that no original
canonical text exists now.

2. The Svetambaras still preserve a good number of original scriptures. They

believe that it is attachment to material things, that acts as an obstacle to salvation.
If one is free from passions and observes the spiritual practice of non-attachment,
then clothing is not an obstacle to salvation. The Svetambaras also allow women
to enter the monastic order under the assumption that they have a possibility of
attaining Nirvana.

9. What is the Relevance of Jain Ideology in Today’s World?

Contribution of Jainism:
• Attempts to reform the evils of the varna order.
• Contributed to architecture and literature immensely.
Ø Layana/Gumphas (Caves)
Ø Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra

Introduction to Major Religions – Notes JMBC

Prepared by Rev. Justin Paul