harder than material aS be cut, th blank and the tool should be strong ‘shouh to, with developed in cutting. Metals are given different usable forms by various processes... These processes are of two types. (a) Chip removal processes._ (0) Non- chip removal | processes (Chiptess processes) ‘41. Chip Removal Processes oval processes the desired shape and dimensions: are of nist op separating a layer from the patent workricce im: . the form of chips. The various chi forming —processes—are- as. follows : = i ii) Shaping _— @ Turning i) api (iii) Boring (iv) Drilling ) Milling (i) Honing (vii) Grinding. During the process of metal cutting there is a relative motion between the workpiece and cutting tool. Such a relative motion” is produced by a combination of rotary and translatory movements either of the workpiece or of cutting tool or of both. This relative motion depends upon the type of metal cutting operation. Table 10 indicates the nature of relative motion for various continuous. cutting operations,SS 2___ Machine Tool Engineering Table 1:0 ‘inne Katy Rae 2 oi ne ey { ‘Milling Translatory Rotary —— Te cachion *2Y ™etal cutting process the following sims shoul ‘@ Work piece surface finish should be of desired quality. (ii) Metal removal rate should be high. (it) Power consumed during the process should be low. _ @) Cutting tool life should be more. 12. Chipless Processes In chipless processes the metal is given the desired shape with~ out removing any material from the parent workpiece. Some of the »chipless processes are as follows : @ Rolling (ii) Forging i) Spinning (iv) Stamping. 4:3, Cutting Principle * \\Metal cutting is one of the most important processes carried - out in an industry.” The purpose of any metal cutting operation “commonly called machining is to produce a desired, shape, size and finish of a component by. removing the excess metal in the form of “chips from a. rough block’of material. Consequently the primary ‘objective in’ metal cutting is the production of chips, a! h~these i -only-a~-means~ta_an.end-and.are-disearded. They may constitute more than 50% of the initial workpiece material. the machining process should be carried at high speeds and feeds an “Yeast cutting effort and at lowest cost. The cutting operation “whether being carried out on lathe, milling machine or any other ‘machine tool is based on theory which is same for all processes. ‘wx “number of inter-related factors affect metal cutting, the more -important factors being as follows : | @) The Properties of work material. ¢ Gi) The properties and geometry of the cutting tool. (ii) The int m between the tool and the w. 2 ork duri; fatal ae : during exact mechanism metal cutting briefly stated is th: ee it -a cut | exerts a compressive force on the workpi er > this, ee sive force the material of the ngee. Under ced Lene kpiece is stressed fsform plastically ¢ in a localised regi ‘Which extends from the cuttingbe a a ammemnnet Process of Metal Cutting 3 - ut surface ahead of tool (Fig. 12). The Ree oe cegine to How: elong ithe. Sotiat tool face in are of small pieces called chips. |The compressive force. incited: to form the chips is called cutting force, The flowicg Chip Sheor plone Fig, 1-2. chips cause wear oi cutting tool. Heat is produced during shearing “aciton. The heat generated raises the temperature ee Cutting tool and chips. The temperature rise in the cutting tool tends to soften it and causes loss of keenness in the cutting edge Teading to its failure. The cutting force, heat and abrasive wear are thus the basic features of the material cutting process. “3 During cutting process the following Properties of the work- piece material are quite important. (®) Hardness (i) Toughness (ii) Inherent hard Spots and surface inclusions (iv) Abrasive qualities () Tendency to weld. On the other han, t ; i tough and wear resistin’ tBe tool material should be hard, strong,Machine Tool Engineering - j erations is One of the basic requirements for mie ‘nel rigidly that the tool is harder than the work piece. B« ce and this is how @ and the tool tends to penetrate into the work pe led as chip. small portion of work piece material is removed cal 1 lasic elements of machining ewe The basic elements of all machining operations are as fo 7 Workpiece €@f) Cutting tool. per Chip. from which the of tool to obtain ction a relative The workpiece provides the parent metal unwanted material is removed by the cutting action desired size and shape. For providing the cutting a‘ motion between tool and workpiece is necessary. Classification of Cutting Tools _ Peis Depending upon the number of cutting edges the cutting tool used in metal cutting are classified as follows : (i) Single point cutting tool (#) Multipoint cutting tool. (@) Single point cutting tool. This type of tool has an effec~ tive cutting edge and removes excess material from the workpiece along the cutting edge. Single point cutting tool is of the following types : (a) Ground type (0) Forged type (©) Tipped type (d) Bit type. In ground type the cutting edge is formed by grinding the end of a piece of tool steel stock. Whereas in forged type the cutting edge is formed by rough forging before hardening and grinding. pitelg panes utes eh pay, be left handed or type. A tool is said to be right/left hand type if 1 i i on the right or left side when icwiie toot oe Roarae Lathe tools, shaper tools, planer tool: ; i point tools’ 2 S and boring tools are single Multipoints cutting tools. h effective euiting—edge to remove the srccicmateagr oy tat one Piece. _ cutters, drills, Teamers broaches and jj Tk~ are Multiy aches and grinding wheels tight handed of getting the Maximu | : m Z before it needs regrinding is one of the Objectives ot teal ad c A CChnalas.efore its failure occu: Ta i peereing tool effctency. ‘Among the most inportane Pore the following : _(i) The shape of the cutting edge that removes the ex rat o — eee ete ae. nee =“(ii) The correct selection of the type of cutting tool for the material to be machined. Seal : The correct choice of cutting speed and feed. (iv) ‘The proper setting of cutting tool relative to work. (®) The correct choice and proper application of coolants.) Inless the cutting tools is ground to the corséct shape with conde Wi Ske acel The optirium tool geometry depends upon the rollowing. factors : (®) Workpiece material ~ (i) Machining variables (@), Cutting speed (®) Feed (c) Depth of cut - (iii) Material of the tool point Gv) Type of cutting} (Tool geometry refers to the tool angles, shape of the tool face and the form of the cutting edges, Fig. 1°3 shows a typical signal point tool. The most important features are the cutting edges and adjacent surface: . . Tool oxi: Minor curting edge °° O'S Cutting port A i ALA Bose, Me Mojor cutting edge Minor Flonk ™ \_ Major flonk Fig.13 Soal pl F tool with, resP‘ principal a 14 shows the pr teference to a single point cutting along. Z axis whereas Fig._1'5 shows relation to working surface, ind cutting planes im WoRK PIECE a CUTTING. i ‘vO ‘irrine PANE PRINCIPAL A. PLANE Fig. 14 Fig 1S Fig. 1°6 shows the geometry of a single point tool. 151. Terms and definitions Face. The face is the surface over which the chip flows. Gutting edge. The cutting edge carries out the cutting. Nose. The nose is the corner, arc or chamfer at the junction of the major and minor cutting edges. Co Flank of the tool is the surface below the cutting ige. Tool angles. The various angles influence tool performance to a considerable extent and therefore their value should be selected with great care and consideration. End cutting ongie Shonk Side cutting ‘angle Nose rodius Side roke ongle Bock ‘Oke ongie ide relief Senate) hed Eng 4 ire Enger Fig. 16 -Fig. 1-7 size of the angle depends upon the material to be machined, the softer_the material the greater should be positive rake angle. Aluminium requires more back rake angle than cast iron or steel. Back rake angle may be positive, neutral or negative. Fig. 1'8 shows a tool with a positive back rake angle. Fig. 1°9 shows a tool with a natural back rake angle and Fie. 1°10 shows a tool with a negative: back rake angle, ~_—Positive oe <‘8 Machine Toot Engineering Neutrot ~ Fig. _—Negotive Fig. 1-10 _ Higher vatue of rake angle weakens the cutting edge, ‘A nega- five rake angle increases tool forces to some extent but this minor disadvantage is off set by the added support to the cutting edge. aking intermittent cuts and in ial engagement of the tool and This is particularly important in absorbing the impact during the ini work. *) The inherently tough H.S.S. tools are used with positive rake mainly for reducing the magnitude of cutting forces power, consump- tion and cutting temperature. - Positive rakes are used when cutting low tensile strength and “non-ferrous materials, materials which work harden while being (Negative rake angles are used for machining high tensile strength materials, heavy feeds and tee ee serare “ase that a negative Take will be used that speed or cast tool bits, They are generally used for carbide tool cutting materials such as py, Malleable: cast iron, cast steels, hot work die steels, and tool steels. : Excessive positive rake weakens the cutting edge, i i Hormally given negati rake" because cemented carbide oage = Ait soe strength and comparatively yery low ten: shear strength. Phe advantages of nesative rake cutting when using « carbide or ceramics tool under suitable cond ions ar 28 follow a (Higher cutting speeds may be used, 4 < ti) There is a less tendency for a built up edge to form on sth: tool.Process of Metal Cutting Theheat/conductivity ‘of the working pact of me tore improved. (i) Favourable combination of conditions in that at high cutting speeds and corresponding high chip velocity, heat ig carried away rapidly by the chip. Negative rake cutting with sintered carat cutting tools can be applied with advantage on ductile steels. The machine tools using such tools must possess considerable rigidity and be equipped with high quality bearing. () The main cutting force is directed towards strongest part of the tool. i cutting tool with positive rake (Fig. 1°11) results in a force component in the direction of arrow 4 which tends to shear the NT Coh Work-piece Fig. 1-11 1 Too! B Work -piece Fig. 1-12 ee10 Machine Toot Engineering ith a negative edge of tool. When the cutting tool is provided silt at the take (Fig. 1°12), the main force eomponcit ae Cutting strongest rake section of the tool, as pees 4 he used to cut high tools with negative rake angle are stronger and a Strength alleys, i leads tO. However the use of an increased. negative rake “angie lew Fes increased cutting foree during machining. ‘This causes vibration reduces machining accuracy and raises power cont whet AbEOTAS Therefore tools with negative take should be used only tely necessary. abe Side rake angle. It measures the slope of the top surf of the tool to the side in'a direction. perpendicular te “Tob, nal axis. It also guides the direction of the chip away from if ith The amount that a chip is bent depends upon this ang le wu increase in side rake angle jount of. chip has to bel a Scrsaas gud hence the power required to part and bend the chip g side take angle produces smooth surface finish. Fig. 1°13 ide rake angle, | mace toke ongle 6 ' i i i Side relief angle Fig, 1713 i End cutting edge angle, It is the an, of the tool and a plane Perpendictilar to the si “acts as a relief angle that it allows only smal ct igle_between the face ide of the shank. It ll_section of the ead st vatchined surface and prevents chat r Normally it varies from 5 to 15°. Be Side cutting edge angle. It is the angle betw, cutting edge and the longitudinal axis of formation of built _w and distributes ‘culfting edge. | “Side relief angle. It is the an : gle “made by the fi tool and a plane perpendicular to the base just cee fo ‘een the side: the tool. _It avoids n of chi flow iRelief Angle Rake Angle — Material (degrees) (degrees) side End Back ‘Side Aluminium 12-14 8—10 30—35 14-16 Brass (Free cut) 10-12 810 0 13 Cast Iron (Gray) 8-10 6-8 aes 10-12 Copper (Commerical) 12-14 12-14 14—16 18—20 Steel 1-9 6—8 pes) 8-10 Recommended tool angles for carbide single Point tool are indicated in Table 1°2.. 12 Machine Tool Engineering Table 12 ae ad Be Rake Angle faterial gent ia (degrees) A Side End Back ae Aluminium 6—10 6-10 0-10 10 Copper 6—8 6—8 0-4 te Brass 68 6-8 0-(-5) Ga CastIron «S868 = 0-(—7) GB Steel 10, 7 s—t0 Cae 152. Methods of holdi fi There are different ways of holding single point cutting tools. Tool directly fitted into tool holder is shown in Fig. 1°14 whereas Fig. 1'15 shows a tool fitted in a tool post. The tool hold by a clamp is shown in Fig. 1°16 and tool insert to a tool shank is shown in Fig, 1°17. TooteT Fig. 14 Fig. 415 clamp 1 INSERT. mseER SHANK: GRATE Fig. 1-17Signature q Tatas been standardised by the Ameri e tool anzles have A). The seven important elements iareseoueation cutting tool and are stated inthe comprise the signature of ue loa angle, side rake angle, end a ea side reliet angle, = SSsnE, edge ang Pec ane ceces and may Sinply starting the numerical vale ofeach element. For. example a tool having tool signature as 10, 10, 6, 6, 8, 8, following angles : see ack rake angle= Tool End cutting edge angl Side cutting edge angl Nose radiu A 161. Requirements of a cutting tool_ Bi. 3 A cutting tool intended for high production machining should’ be possess the following requirements : i) It should be amply strong and rigid. 7 & It should be kneely sharpened with a high class finish. iii) It should have optimum geometry. ” ® Tt should “be crodeente in manufacture and convenient _ in use. . -The performance and economy of cutting tool mainly depend on the following : (@ Cutting tool material properties, (i) ‘Geometry of cutting tool. (ii) Methods used for mounting, clamping, indexing and change over for cutting tools, 17. Two Systems of Defining the cutting Angles of a Single Point Tool. The cutting angles of a single point tools are commonly defined in two systems called Z-M-N Planes and X-Y-Z planes.. The L-M-N plane system is chosen in reference to three mutually Perpendicular planes. The plane L called as eutting plane being a vertical plane is tangent to the cutting edge of the tool. The. Plane M called as orthogonal plane being a vertical plane is perpendicular Z plané. The~plane N-called as tact plane is a horizontal plane being perpendicular to Various angles according to this shown in Fi Side relief angle, Wedge angle. Orthogonal rake angle, ‘Cutting angle=a+g, $1= Auxiliary cutting edge angle,14 Machine Too! Engineering le). (Principal cutting edge angle): . 1 System This system is also known as International Orthogonal Sy -of designating tool angles. Fig. 118. Tool angles in L-M-N plane, ¥<\ te The various angles in X-¥-Z systems are shown in Fig. 1°19, 8 system is the most popular system. This system is also called American system of tool nomenclature. tion ocross x-plane Section eres y-siang Fig. 119. Tool angles in ¥-¥-Z planes,‘ =Back rake angle. Foe °, ,—End relief angle. a,—Side rake angle. B,=Side rake angle. =Nose angle. $,=Side cutting edge angle. $a=End cutting edge angle. Inter-relationship between different angles of system L-M-N and system X-Y-Z is as follows : Tan A=tan 4, sin ¢—tan a, cos $ in ¢ tan y—cos ¢ tan A cos ¢ tan y+sin ¢ tan A Tan y=tan a, cos $+ tan a, sing Normal rake angle (y,) is given by Tan y,=tan cos A. VE ‘Types of Metal Cutting Process The metal cutting processes are of two types : 485 Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting). 2 Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting). Orthogonal cutting. Orthogonal (two dimensional) cutting occurs When the major cutting edge of the tool is presented to the work piece perpendicular to the direction of feed motion. Ortho- gonal cutting involves only two forces—and this makes the-analysis of cutting motion much easier. (Fig. 1:20). i Work-piece @———— Sa Fig. 1-21. Oblique cutting. 1°81. Comparison of orthogonal and oblique cutting ‘These two methods are compared as follows : Orthogonal cutting (i) The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed. (ii) The direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool. iif) The cutting edge clears the width of the work+ piece on either ends. (iv) Only two components of <7 cutting forces act on the tool: ‘These two compo- rependicular Oblique cutting The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed. The direction of ghip flow velocity is at an angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of the workpiece. Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces aet at the cutting edge of the tool. Chip Formation the ‘The type of chip produced during metal cutting depends upon machining conditions and material being cut. The variable which influence the type of chip produced are as follows : (i) Properties of material cut especially ductility (ii) depth of cut18 Machine Tool Engineering (iti) feed rate (iv) effective rake angle of tool (>) cutting speed (i) t)pe and quantity of enteing fluid. Factors like surface finish of tool faces, cotsicient of ee between tool and chip, and temperature reached in the oe h cutting also have some influence on chip formation but are generally less significant as compared to variables listed above- ‘Thre€ different type of chips formed during metal cutting are ov Sey Continuous chip. Ai, Discountinuous chip. “Sif Continuous chip with a built up edge-] as jontinuous chip. A continuous chip: is obtained whet _cutting ductile materials such as low carbon steel, aluminium an copper. This chip is severly deformed and gither comes off in the form of a long string, or curls into a tight roll) (Fig. 1°22). (Some very soft and ductile materials with a low strength tend to tear away from the parent metal of the workpiece rather than shear clearly. - This results in a rough surface that has to be cleaned up bya very keen cutting edge. In addition to ductile workpiece “material the other conditions which favour their formation are fine “Teed, sharp cutting edge, higher cutting speeds and larger rake angles] Discontinuous chip. Brittle materials_such_as_grey—cast iron, Tack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic chip for- mation.. Consequently the compressed material ahead of tool fails in a brittle nianner along the shear zone producing small fragments. Such chips are called discontinuous chips. (Fig. 1°23). Lower cut. pe Sie and insufficient rake angles cause the formation of such chips. _{Centinuoas chips with a built up edge. Wherduring cutting, the ssure is quite high it i “material _to weld itself to the tool face near. themes ere This called "Built up edge" oe accumulated build us oral; , material will then break away, ‘part adhearing to the undera eae ‘the chip and part to the workpiece. This process gives tye + Poor finish on the machined surface) and accelerated westtool face. (High friction at tool m “Ineffective use of cutting fluid pro Discontinuous chips Work - piece Discontinuous chip. Fig. 1:23. Frogments of built op edge on work piece ond chip Work-piece Fig. 1-24,20 Machine Toot Engineering 110. Chip Thickness Ratio ip tobi The outward flow of the metal causes pees being eu ri after separation from the parent metal. Metal ri 05): 2 much longer than the chip which is removed (Fig- F oa Bale Cc A J Z Work -piece g Fig. 1°25. Let t,=chip thickness before cutting t,=chip thickness after cutting \chip thickness ratio, rt 1 ie "The chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio is always leis than unity. Ifthe ratio r is large, the cutting action is good. A ratio of” “1:2 yields good results. ~~ chip reduction coefficient Ur ~ when metal is cut there is no change in the volume of the metal: cut. 5 tyubyly= ty byl, be f,=chip thickness before cutting (Depth of cut where 6,=width of cut 1,=Iength of chip before cutting t,=chip thickness after cutting b,=width of chip after cutting 4,=length of chip after cutting It is observed that b,=b, i :Although chip thickness ratio can chip thickness (/,) and depth of cut (¢,) procedure, Chip thickness ratio can bee andl. ~~ sing sing From right angle triangle ABD BB sin (908-2) 00s (68) or Byes (8-2) t wa G-a A) From (i) and (ii) we get sin B = Gs pcos atsin p sin & sin 8 7= Sos B cos asin. sin & reos Bcosa ,rsin Bsina _y sin 8 sin ® r.cos a POs. +r sin a=1 tan pt rcos a ; ——_ =1-rsin o tan 6 r cos * tan p= 5 = 1—r sine Shear angle can be measured by measuring chip thickness, depth of cut and rake angle of tool. This can be most convenientlysolved with the help of nomograph shown in Fig. 1°26 for det gles, ~ Pigr: ; ing shear an, B = Sheor ongle a | Ton B -—tcos_& 013 =r sin © ofa 15° O16 oz 0.18 019 0.20 F~Chip length ratio ° 2 8 0.40 050 0.60 080 100 Fis. 126. Nomosraph for Shear Angles, gle B—Sheor anare dangerous to the operator of the hard, sharp and hot, ‘They become Job and the cutting tool, ‘Thi chip sharp angle and causes it to break into are easily removed by the coolant or air into the chip pan of the machine, There are basically two types of chi (i) Groove type (ii) Obstruction type. t- Fig. 1°27 shows the groove type chip breaker Chip breoker Fig. 127, Fig. 1°28 shows an obstruction type chip breaker. ca breoker ssh LA Wil Fig. 1-28, ‘vature 112. Radius of Chip Cur Jn_an_obstruction ¢ i i a é ‘ype chip breaker the chip starts to ct away fom the ool face at the end of chip tool contact region an¢ “at tie chip then maintains a constant iedice ct curvature until it24 Machine Toot Engineeriug —s clears the chip breaker. (Fig. 1°29). ‘The radius of the chi ture can be found by the following formula. iB . ae is aoh aga where R=Radius of chip curvature S=Ghip breaker distance H=Length of chip tool contact h=Chip breaker height. —| +>. | k— Fig. 1:29. It is observed that larger shear angles requiré less castings forces than smaller shear angles because smaller the shear angls the greater thickness of the material which the fracture plane need. to traverse. (Fig. 1°30) the > shear angle is a function of the rake Work-pieceof the tool, the material the tool. Ags thickness is fy shear angle is By, Curling of Chip, The at layer adjoining the tool is detonate that on the side facing the foros pit ta stequires a wedge shape as a result of yet takes place curling is also produced by the non-uniform cooling of the chip throughout its thickness, Depending upon ‘the machining conditions the chip may cut into a flat (logarithmic) spiral or inte a helix. 113. Chip Reduction Coefficient The chip produced during metal fcutting turns out to be shorter{than the part of the work from which it has been cut Work -piece Fig. 132. Chip contraction,26 Machine Tool Engineering f metal (Fig, 1°32) because of the plastic compression of the ley eal cin being cut. This shortening of the chip is known as the coefficients contraction and its, magnitude is characterised by ccntraction. Let, K=Chip reduction co-efficient ae L,=Length of the section of the work from whic] chip was removed in mm Ly=Length of chip cut from the section in mm \ xo. a i the The value of K may be as high as 6 to 8 depending uponet is machining conditions. The coefficient of chip contrac! on a certain quantitative measure of the degree of plastic deformation #9 metal cutting smaller value of chip contraction coefficient ind os nee Jess plastic deformation_in_ cutting process and this will require less power consumption to machine the given workpiece. Chip con tion depends upon the following factors : (i) Cutting variables such as cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. (ii) Geometry of cutting tool. (iii) Type of cutting fluid used. (iv) Type of material of work piece and its mechanical properties. It is observed that the greater the cutting angle (or the smaller the positive rake angle) the greater the contraction. An increase in nose radius leads to greater chip contraction, Fig. 1°33 shows the effect of cutting speed (V) on chip reduction coefficient K. With an increase in cutting speed contraction is first reduced, reaching a minimum and then increases reaching a maximum after which it drops again. Fig. 1'34 shows variation of chip reduction coeffi- cient with feed upon an increase in feed,coefficient of chip reduction is usually reduced. The effect of surface active cutting fluids is clearly manifested is the reduction of chip contraction (Fig. 1°35). 114. Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut Cutting speed. It is the travel of edge relative to the surface of cut in unit time in the process of accomplishing the primary cutting motion. For example in lathe work when a workpiece of diameter D rotates at a speed N revolu- tions per minute the cutting speed (V) is given by the relation yao Z:D.N : =—To00 ™ per min. a point on the cuttingx14 10 200 1490 600 800 1000 200 1400 1600 —_— (m/min) Fig. 1°33, 20 fig | Le x 17 0 01 G2 03 04 05 06 Feed ——+ Fig. 1:34, 4.0 Dry 35 Refined kerosene Emulsion Activated kerosene28 Mochine Teel Engineering —_ ae where D=Diameter of workpiece in mm is amount Feed. The feed or more. precisely rate of feed ie the of tool advancement per revolution of job parallel fo the being machined. Feed is expressed cither as hnillimetres per ‘by the tool in one minute. It is expressed “the work is Mov revolution. On a shaper feed is the distance vont is expressod as relative to the tool for each cutting stroke. Ee proaches. Feed millimeters per tooth for milling cutters an\ d type of cutting depends on depth of cut, rigidity of cutting tool ‘hing cuts, rigid sets tool material. Higher feeds are used in roughing cw TiBY oom ups, soft materials, rugged cutters and heavy macliae, Soe Lower feeds are used for finishing cuts, frail set-up’ ‘om 0'1 to materials and weak cutters. Normally feed varies 15 mm. E Table 1:3 shows cutting speed and feed for H.S.S. turning tools for machining some of the materials. Table 1:3 Material to be Cutting speed Feed machined (m/min) (mm|rev.) Aluminium 70—100 0-2—1°00 Brass (Free cutting) 70—100 0-2-1°5 Copper 35—70 0°2—1'00 Grey Cast Iron 25-40 015-17 Mild Steel 35—50 0-2—1:00 In lathe work distinction is made between longitudinal feed when the tool travels in a direction parallel to the work axis and “¢ross feed when the tool travels in a direction Perpendicular to the work axis. Feed of a lathe and similar machine tools is the distance the cutting tool is fed for each revolution of work. The feed of drilling machine is the rate at which drill is advanced into the work piece per revolution of drill. The feeds for reaming operation is ‘usually higher than that used for drilling because Teamers have more teeth and a reaming operation is used for sizing and finishing. The feed of shapers and planers is the distance the cutting tool advances at the “end of each cutting stroke. Feed of a milling machine is expressed. in millimeter per minute of table movement, The maximum feed is limited by the following factors : @) Cutting edge strength =8 (il) Rigidity and allowable deflection (iii) Surface finish required (iv) Tool chip space. Use of proper cutting fluid permits hi . cutting speeds as well as attainment of Deter auefaee aad enereaed, eeree Table 1°4 shows typical lathe turning speeds for ceramic is, _ a h of cut. It is the thickness of tl 1 one cut OF pass MeasuFed_ in w digee he ee Of ca chined surface. The depth of cut is alwa action of the feed motion, In exteron) longitu ween the work diameter we eeDy) obtalned aftee-on6 pasa’ t=Depth of cut— =D, ni ig. 1°36 she cuttin; ed (¥), depth of wn pel fate, milling achines sill machine and thea and feed, Sanit Gunter ab tv er A, 1S CHIP FEED\ ro 01 Feed LATHE MILLING: BS) (>) TOO, iM v a crip DRILLING a MACHINE SHAPER {c) (3) Fig. 1°36, Im general speed and feed depend upon the following factors : () Type of material of workpiece, (it) Type of material of cutting tool. (iii) Quality of finish desired. (iv) Type of coolant used, () Rigidity of the machine tool. gts Table 1°4, Materia! to be cut Roughing (mjmin) Finishing (m/min) Upto 0:2 Carbon § ¢ tee] 120 -260 320-420 03 R 3 Carbon Stee] 100—200 260—320 0°4 to Org Gare’ Steel 80—160 330-300 Cast tron (ERO Steel 65—100 130-200 el 1 320-500 Se30 Machine Tool Engineering —aee 115. Obj 1 Design ; 4 "jectives of a Good Tool Desig! ¢ proper material and } A cutting tool should be made up of evel the following ‘should be accurately designed in order to acl objectives, (i) Easy chip flow. Gi) Proper surface finish and accuracy. (ii) High productivity. (i) Less amount of input power. () Minimum overall cost. The tool designed should have sufficient strength ‘a sharp cutting edge during cutting and should have s' ‘hardness to prevent picking up the chips. 1°16. Cutting Tools Materials : Gal andl ‘The purpose of cutting tool material is to remove mi controlled aan Therefore the tool must be harder then ite material which it is to cut. The cutting tools are made up different materials. The cutting tool material should possess the following requirements : : (@ It should be strong enough to withstand the forces being -applied due the cutting i.e. bending compression, shear ete. _ __ Gif) It should be tough (resistant to shock loads). It is quite important when tool is used for intermittent putting. ___ (ii) It should be sufficient harder (resistant to wear, abrasion ‘and indentation) the material being cut. () It should be able to resist high temperature. () It should. be capable of withstanding the sudden cooling effect of coolant used during cutting. Bee (vi) The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool soon be as low as possible in the operating range of speed and to maintain sufficient “| (li) It should be easily formed to the required cutting shape. __ Material chosen for a patticular application will depend o ‘the material being machined, the quantity of pene te Produced, the cost of cutting tool materials, the type of machi: ing Operation (intermittent or continuous roughing or finishing, high ngs otiod of boding igi et) and rata eeane® etl ‘olding, rigidity etc.) an iti oP adhihe eon IB, THE ¢ general conditions Several materials exhibiting above Properties in varying degrees have been developed for use in cutting tools,ingsten carbide (a) Carbon tool steel. (6) High speed steel. (c) Cemented carbides. (a) Ceramics. (e) Diamonds. Carbon tool steels. Carbon steels are limited in tools of small section operating at lower speeds. A typical carbon steel used for cutting tool has the following conte te C=0°8 to 1'3% SI=0'1 to 04% Mn=0'1 to 0°4%. Such steels when hardened and tempered have good hardness, strength and toughness and can be given a keen cutting edge. Tools made up cf plain carbon steel can be used for machining soft materials such as free cutting steels and brass. ‘This mat loosing its hardness at about 250°C and is therefore the operational temperature is more.. : of cutting took High speed steels. High speed steel tools give sen cutting performance and higher metal removal rates. High speed: steel is widely used for drills, many types of general purpose milling” cutters and single-point tools, Although several types of high speed steels are in use but 18.4.1 high speed steel containing tungsten 18%, chromium 4% and vanadium 1% is quite commonly used.. This type of material gives excellent performance over a great range of materials and cutting speeds and it retains its hardness upto around 600°C. The” coolant should be used freely to inerease tool life. ‘The chie characteristics of high speed steels are superior hardness and weat Tesistance, : b spmatinies: the surface of high speed steel tools are treated _ by the following methods to reduce friction and to increase wear resistance, (@) Super finishing (to reduce friction). a Sorat of electrolytic plating (to reduce friction). (is) Niguation (to reduce frition) Table | 8 (to increase wear resistance). © 15 indicates some of the carbon tool steels.cA 06-1 00-9 06.¢ OIF 620.0 $Z-0 $6.0 O0F.0 £8.0 tO9M9°NEBL SLOWIAPID 06.5 CBT SBBI SLO OZ $20.0 $Z.0 $6.0 04.0 SL.0 9°DBIMSLE — 081 set — SI. $20.0 $2.0 $6.0 0b.0 0L0 IAPOSTMOLL 20D hA %M FW LIN 1D hd WS %IS\ HN %I uoypusisag uopjsoduop poo}uay ourwoyy r9étlodet : St Tea3g poads qr “9.7 21qe “s1003 Surqeur 05 pasn sjo03s poods ysry Jo sopes8 xejndod jo ouros smoys 9,1 o[qus, £0.0 £0.0 02.0 $3.0 0f-1 est £0.0 £00 03.0 $2.0 SLT str L £0.0 £0.0 02.0 $2.0 00.1 sot £0.0 £0.0 02.0 sz0 06.0 06 LT £0.0 £0.0 03-0 $2.0 08.0 8 £0.0 £0.0 02.0 $2.0 0L.0 oe iu ha h49 Nd hS his % UW ho Machine Tool Engineering uonpusisag uoyjsoduoz poojutoy> pounwoy iia: 32 [999g [OO woqaey °¢.T a1quT,Cemented carbides, They consij ad titanium carbides together with a avked together as fine powders, (compre sed) into the \required shape ay temperature treatment known as sintering: the cobalt binder is fused to the carbides, p substance. Tools made ae of cane carbid ing Rockwell hardness varying from. § Sune at cutting §] peri 200 to 500% gi igh speed steel. ‘They have e Ni Pend Mateo are very hard and the usual relatively small shape known as an a tough steel shank or holder. tool bit is well supported. to resi tting may have three to eight edges and is so de cutting edges can be used in turn, It may n replaced with a new tool bit giving down time. (i) They have high thermal condi and low thermal expansion. (ii) They have high hardness over a wide r: ture (up to 900°C). (iii) Their compressive strength is more ar strength. aa (iv) They are very stiff. ‘Their Young’s modulus three times than steel. . Ceramics. Aluminium oxide and: boton nitride mixed together and sintered at 1700°C form the ingredients | ceramic tools. These materials are very hard with 1 pressive strength. Ceramics are usually in the form of disposable tips. They can be operated at from two to. three times the cutting speeds of tungsten carbide and cutting speeds on east iron in order of 1000 m/min are not uncommon. They resist - cr Riually require no coolant. However in order’ to take ‘ate tay hees +. i it tage of thei capabilities special and more rigid machine Ceramic and jcmented carbide cutting tools should be sharpened to a hi ae Perron ct oe deere of surface finish to minimise friction min iP. This will § fficiency of the “NS Process and less power will be absorbed at there will BeMachine Tool Engineering f form on } 1 less tendency for a built up edge to the tool. TOOL SHANK © CLAMP. SCREW SERT - SEATING. Fig. 137. é eee es Cemented carbide or ceramic tips can be braze carbon steel shank and resharpened by eringing when the ip For many applications it is more economical to aor: Reece the shank (Fig. 1°37), The technique enables a tip to be away (called throw away tips) at the end of its ‘useful life and new tip to be clamped to the existing shank. The various conditions for the effective use of carbide or ceramic tool are as follows (i) Ragidity of tool and workpiece, (ii) Highly finished surface on cutting tool. + (iii) High cutting speeds. (iv) Use of machine tool having high quality bearings. (») Use of effective chip bearings. (vi) Elimination of any unbalanced forces (vii) Chip guards are essential when using these tools. Daimonds,. Diamond is the hardest material known. It has ‘a low coefficient of friction, high compressive strength and is-extremely wear. resistant It is used mainly for cutting very hard materials, such. as glass, plastics, ceramics etc. Diamond tools produce a very, good surface finish’at high speeds wi dimensional accuracy. Diamond tools are small and Suited for light cuts and finishi =a jamond is that it is It is the hardest known substance, c 2. It has lowest thermal expansion of any pure substanee, _ 3. Tt has high heat conductivity, oS 4. “Tt is poor electrical conductor, 5. Tt has very low coe! ficient of friction against met:vce very high hardness is always see Sines cool must be, cautiously used gana This usually limits the “use ‘of Eintinuous cut in relatively iy metals anon Stale are usually used to provide @ stronger cutting) ‘The main disadvantages of diamonds are th igh cost, ‘ariation of Hardness with Temperature _ " hows the variation of for ei nats up of different ere 1. A plain carbon tool steel tool, 2, An 18-4-1 high speed steel tool. 3. Acast alloy tool. 4. Accast iron grade cemented tungsten carbide tool, 1-18 Economic Comparison of Tool Materials _ a The principal tool materials are high speed steel,” j cexrbide and ceramics. in increasing order o ieee order of toughness. High speed steel is quite commonly used as it ‘can be used to manufacture compli fie ea ee as drills, taps, reamers, dies and milling cutters. Cemented carbide because of its high cost and need to form it in its final shape has limited applications and is generally used for rough or finish turn- ing and face milling operations. Ceramic tool material is brittle, cannot withstand high force and is generally used in finish turning ‘operations. ; 'g00 1400 1200 tooo} | 809 600. Brinell hardness —.» 400 200 HIGH 1 94-1 al Stee, | Mss 200 "600 1000-—«*400— 1800 Temperatur a a Fig. 1:38,36 Machine Too! Engineering following (i) Chemical composition of the mi ains of materials be! (ii) Type and size of gr (ii) Manufacturing process. (iy) Finishing treatments. 119. Molti-edge Cutting Tools Multi-edge cutting tools present m¢ tothe work. They have a higher metal adged cutting tools and-also the life of the is_raised_by increasing the numb: multi-edge cutting tools are divid g' table 1'7. A grinding wheel is also a form of multi-ed| OS eat ee i Table 1°7 _ Group Machines A Drills Capstan Lathe Turret Lathe oB “Milling Machines engagement with the work and are revolution. The underformed chi) i i it : a ip thickness is’ ¢ ae saineetl Proportional to the feed/rev. The ee neo prathen pense with hot discussed for single point tools, ls in group B have thei i Bermiteal ly engaged with the work and are fed aa puaaey i i Perpendicular to the cutter axis of rotation, ae Properties of tool materials are ‘End mills basically aterials, fore man into two group: ‘ F ige cutting tool. ca “Cutting Tools Twist drills Reamers , Multi flute core drills Counter bores spot Facing cutters. Saws and slotting cutters Side and face cutters Slab mills Face mills Form-relieved cutters.1:20. The Twist Drill Ir is used to produce a hole in the remove the maximum volume Pose itortime. The finish obtained by a Rete of accurate size and good finish ; should be finish machined by means of a reamer or poring tool. Twist drills are usually ‘made of hic High carbon steel ean also be used to manufac swith cemented carbide cutting tips (tips are bray very high speeds for drilling operations on non- are not recommended for ferrous metal parti icularly steels b tips are not supported as.effectively as in case of sim tools or mill ee twist drill o i oa arrying two helic&l grooves. into it to from the flutes, fin che full length of body of twist drill and perfor function: we. (i) They provide the rake angle, (ii They form the cutting edges. (iii) ‘They provide a passage of the coolant. a (iv) They facilitate swarfremoval. 121. Elements of a Twist Drill A. twist drill is shown in Fig. 1°39. The various elements of twist drill are as follows : ae () Body. It is the part of the drill that is fluted and relieved (i) Shank. Itis the part held in the holding device. —Drill oxis . = ee SS FeSN On eee | 1 Flute Length f a) Overon Length - F '@. 139, Elements of a twist drill,Machine Toot Engineering a ks are the tape Th st common types of shanl the parallel’ shana Small drills up to abou 127 sre provided with parallel shanks and the larger si vite a Flute Cutting edge Fig. 1°40, The point of twist drill, tapered shanks. Tapered shank drill carry a tang at th “shank to_ensure @ po egtip. “The straight sl mac! by a chuck. The jaws of the around the drill by means of a key or wrench, ~is the entire cone shaped surface at the cutting e the drill. (Fig. 1°40). i (iii) Dead centre, ‘The dead centre or chisel edge of the drill is the shatp edge at the ex tip end of the drill. It should always be in the exact centre of the axis of the drill. (iv) Lip. Lip or cutting edge is formed by the intersection of the dank and face. Both the lips of the drill should be of equal length aad should be af the same angle of inclination with the drill. “axis. This will enable to produce a perfectly round,smooth and accurate hole. Unequal lips will result in an oversize hole. (vy) Flank. Flank is the surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute. (vi) Chisel edge corner. The corner formed by the int section of a lip and the chisel edge is called chisel edge corner. vii) Flutes. The grooves in the body of the drill wi provides lips.40 Machine Tool Engineering “ a The various angles for a drill are shown in € Table 18 " Point angle Lip cleara~ Chisel Material (Degrees) nee angle i (Degrees) inium 12 120—18 s Brew 1 B13 120-135 Copper 8-15 120—135. Sost iron hard 1 g—12 120-135 Ser aee 8-12 120—135 } Stainless Stee] 125-135 10-12 120-135 122 Cutting Fluids for Drilling d Gutting coolants and oils are used during drilling to. | Ray the heat from the drill point preventing it from overhe This permits higher cutting speeds and longer drill life. The gichips coming out of the hole tends to restrict the entry fluid. A continuous supply of cutting fluid should be in order to obtain proper cooling. . For severe co n containing oil holes have a considerable advantage. “In not only the fluid is supplied near the cutting edges but the fluid aids in chip removal from the hole. .,, Practically all metals Tequire the use of coolant drilled except cast iron which may be machined dry. 123. Twist Drill Grinding It Js very important that drills ore proj i of grinding w hown in Fig, 1°42 (a). The fi FACE OF GRINDING WHEEL DRILL f (a) Fig, 1:42, (6)