Semiconductors – A Review

Introduction
• Analysis and design of IC’s depend heavily on
suitable models for components.
– True for hand analysis (simple models)
– True for computer analysis (complex models)
• Analysis is as accurate as the model used.
• Designer should have a thorough
understanding of the model and the
approximations used.
 Introduction
• In designing monolithic circuits, designers do not
have the luxury of choosing devices at will.
– Constrained with devices from the standard process.
• Significant design and layout compromises
necessary.
• Designers have the capability to determine or
specify the geometry and layout of their devices.
– IC designers are also device designers to a small
extent.
 Section of the Periodic Table

III IV V
B (Boron) C (Carbon) P (Phosphorus)
Al (Aluminum) Si (Silicon) As (Arsenic)
Ga (Gallium) Ge (Germanium) Sb (Antimony)
 A Group IV Semiconductor
• Covalent Bonds
 A Group IV Semiconductor
• Creation of electron – hole pairs
Fermi – Dirac Distribution

1
F(E) 
1 e(EE F )/ kT


 Intrinsic Concentration
• Combine Fermi Dirac distribution with density
of states and integrate.
• Difficult to do, see physics books.
• Given empirically as
E g 
n i  5.2X10 T
15 3/2
exp 
2kT 
• Doubles per every 11 degrees increase.


 Intrinsic Concentration
• Eg is the bandgap energy, which is the
minimum energy required to dislodge an
electron from a covalent bond.
• ni = 1.5 X 1010 cm-3 at room temperature.
• Compare this with the atomic density of
silicon which is 5 X 1022 cm-3.
N-type semiconductor
P-type semiconductor
 Activation Energy of Doping Elements
in Si

III V
B 0.045 eV P 0.045 eV
Al 0.067 eV As 0.054 eV
Ga 0.072 eV Sb 0.039 eV
In 0.160 eV
 Majority and Minority Carriers

n i2
nn  N D pn 
ND

n i2
pp  N A np 
  NA

np  n 2
i

 
 Majority and Minority Carriers
• nn and pp are majority carriers.
• pn and np are minority carriers.
 Fermi Levels
kT N D 
F   ln  N-type
q  n i 

 kT  n i 
F   ln  P-type
q N A 


 Fermi Levels
Conduction Band

Fermi Level
Valence Band

N-type P-type
 Fermi Levels
• When doping is around 1020 cm-3, F goes into
valence or conduction bands, respectively.
• Then, the material does not act like a
semiconductor any more, but more like a
metal.
• This is called degenerate doping.
 Carrier Transport - Drift
v 
v  
 is the mobility in cm2/Vs

J  nnq   ppq  qn n   p p


  qn n   p p

 1
 R
L
 A

 Bulk Mobilities in Silicon
• n is 1350 cm2/Vs
• p is 480 cm2/Vs
Velocity Saturation
 Velocity Saturation
0

1 b

 when  is very large, the velocity saturates

0
v sat 
b

0
v 
 0
1
v sat
Carrier Transport - Diffusion

dn
I
dx
dn
I Aq
dx
dn
I  AqDn
dx

Carrier Transport - Diffusion

 dn dp
Itot  AqDn  Dp 
 dx dx 

D kT
 Einstein Relation
 q


 Dn = 34 cm2/Vs
Dp = 12 cm2/Vs
 Properties of Silicon
Property Value Dimension
Atomic Density 5 X 1022 Atoms / cm3
Density 2.33 g/cm3
Atomic Weight 28.1 g/mole
Reticular Constant 0.543 nm
Thermal Conductivity 1.41 W/cm °C
Intrinsic Resistivity (300K) 2.5 X 105 W-cm
Relative Dielectric Constant 11.9 -
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
 Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)

Property Value Dimension

Density 2.22 g/cm3
Dielectric Strength 2 – 8 X106 V/cm
Resistivity (300 K) 1015 - 1017 W-cm
Relative Dielectric Constant 3.4 – 4.2 -
 pn junctions

t=0

p n
 pn junctions

t=t1

p n
 pn junctions
t=∞

p n
Depletion region
pn junctions


qND

-qNA


V – Electrostatic Potential

W1 W2
 Junction Potential
kT N A N D 
0  ln 2 
q  ni 
W1N A  W 2 N D
d 2V  qN A
  
 dx 2
 

2  0  VR 
W1 
  N A 
qN A 1 
 N D 

Detailed derivation can be found in your books


pn Junction under Reverse Bias

dQ dQ dW1
Cj  
dVR dW1 dVR

dQ  AqN A dW1
dW1 
 
 N A 
dVR

2qN A 1  0  VR 
 N D 

qN A N D 1 qN A N D 1
Cj  A A
2N A  N D   0  VR 2N A  N D   0  VD

pn Junction under Reverse Bias
C j0
Cj 
VD
1
0

In the more general case,

 C j0
Cj 
 VD m
1 
  0 

m=0.5 for abrupt junction, 0.33 for graded junction. In practice, typically 0.4


Depletion Capacitance

1,60E-12

1,40E-12

1,20E-12

1,00E-12
Cj-0.5
8,00E-13
Cj-0.4
6,00E-13 Cj-0.33
4,00E-13

2,00E-13

0,00E+00
-2,5 -2 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5

Excel file available

 Depletion Capacitance
• This capacitance is a voltage variable
capacitance and hence can be used for only
small signals.
• For large signals, an approximation is
necessary.
QV2   QV1 
C jav 
V2  V1


pn Junction under Forward Bias
Forward Current
 Forward Current
qVD
I  I0e kT

 1 1 
I0  AD   
N A N D 
 Forward Current
I
3,50E-01
3,00E-01

 2,50E-01
2,00E-01
1,50E-01
1,00E-01
5,00E-02
0,00E+00
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
 Diffusion Capacitance

ID
Cd  T
VT
Ctot  C j  Cd

 Cj=2Cj0 in forward bias


 Junction Breakdown
• The maximum electric field is given by,
qN A
 max   W1

1
2qN N V  2
 max   A D R

 N A  N D 
 
• This is only for an ideal planar junction.
• For an avalanche diode,
IRA  MIR
1
M
VR n
1   
BV 
 Junction Breakdown
• M: Multiplication factor
• Ecrit = 105 – 106 V/cm
• n: a number between 3 and 6
• Zener breakdown due to tunneling.
• 6 V is a practical boundary between avalanche
and Zener regions.