WATER INSTITUTE

NATIONAL TECHNICAL AWARDS LEVEL 4 SEMESTER 1

MODULE: HMT 04101– BASICS OF HYDROLOGY AND METEOROLOGY
INFORMATION SHEET NO 1
PREPARED BY ENG. P. TUMBO

WHAT IS HYDROLOGY?
Hydrology is the science that treats the waters of the earth, their occurrence, circulation, and
distribution, their chemical and physical properties, with their environment, including their
relation to living things.
WHAT IS METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is a science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena and
especially with weather and weather forecasting
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDROLOGY

1. To provide guidance for the planning and management of water

sources
2. Design and operation of hydraulic structures
3. Water supply, Wastewater treatment and disposal
4. Irrigation and Drainage system
5. Hydropower generation
6. Flood control and Mitigation
7. Navigation
8. Erosion and sediment control
9. Salinity control
10. Pollution abatement

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The Hydrological cycle occurs practically everywhere. Water evaporates from the water body
and the land and becomes part of the atmosphere until it finally precipitates to the earth. The
precipitation may be intercepted or transpired by plants, may run over the ground surface and
into streams or may infiltrate into the ground. Much of the intercepted and transpired water and
the surface runoff returns to the atmosphere through - evaporation. The infiltrated water may
percolate to deeper zones to temporary storage as groundwater.
Thus, the hydrological cycle undergoes various complicated process
of evaporation, precipitation, interception, transpiration, infiltration, percolation, storage, and
runoff.

(D) THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE IN DIAGRAMMATIC FORM

MAIN PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

 (i) Evaporation - is the process of water escaping from the surface of a
body of water into the atmosphere.

(ii) Condensation (Storage) - is the process by which water molecules

gather from evaporated gas into stored water in clouds, or
precipitation into collecting bodies of water

(iii) Precipitation - is the process of collected water in the clouds

returning to the earth's surface in rain, sleet, snow....

(iv) Percolation (Infiltration) - is the process that allows water on the

earth's surface to seep into the earth's crust and become ground
water.

(v) Sublimation - is the process that allows solid water in the form of
ice to escape as gas without turning into liquid water.
(vi) Transpiration (Evapotranspiration) - is the process that allows water
released from the process of photosynthesis in plants to be released into the
environment.

FACTORS AFFECT RATE OF EVAPORATION.

1. Pressure — lower air pressure above the liquid mean faster evaporation.
2. Surface area — larger surface area means faster evaporation (see my online lesson
about this).
3. Stirring — stirring the liquid can help the evaporation process.
4. Wind — blowing air across the surface of the liquid will fasten the evaporation
process.
5. Nature of the liquid — liquids with lower boiling point have greater vapor pressures
and evaporate more rapidly (e.g. acetone compared to water).
6. Solute concentration — salty water evaporates more slowly than pure water.
Evaporation is always an endothermic process, meaning that it cools the liquid because it takes
energy to change a liquid to a gas, and that energy comes from the heat in the liquid.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RATE AT WHICH PRECIPITATION IS

INFILTRATED INTO THE SOIL
The main factors that influence the infiltration are:

1. The soil type (texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics). The soil characteristics
influence capillary forces and adsorption;
2. The soil coverage. Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration by increasing the time
of water penetration in soil;
3. the topography and morphology of slopes;
4. the flow supply (rain intensity, irrigation flow);
5. The initial condition of soil humidity. Soil humidity is an important factor of infiltration
regime. The infiltration regime evolves differently in time for dry or wet soils;
6. Soil compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects. The use of hard agricultural
equipment can have consequences on the surface layer of soil.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RATE OF RUNOFF BASED (1)

Meteorological factors affecting runoff:

1. Type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.)
2. Rainfall intensity
3. Rainfall amount
4. Rainfall duration
5. Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin
6. Direction of storm movement
7. Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil moisture
8. Other meteorological and climatic conditions that affect evapotranspiration, such as
temperature, wind, relative humidity, and (season ag winter, summer,spring,autumn)

(2)Physical characteristics affecting runoff:

1. Land use
2. Vegetation

3. Soil type
4. Drainage area
5. Basin shape
6. Elevation
 7. Topography, especially the slope of the land
8. Drainage network patterns

Transpiration on the plant is the rates depend on two major factors: 1) the
driving force for water movement from the soil to the atmosphere and 2) the
resistances to water movement in the plant
Driving force: The driving force for transpiration is the difference in water
potential between the soil and the atmosphere surrounding the plant. This
difference creates a gradient, forcing water to move toward areas with less
water. The drier the air around the ,plant, the greater the driving force is for
water to move through the plant and the faster the transpiration rate

FACTORS AFFECTING RATES OF TRANSPIRATION

PLANT PARAMETERS – These plant parameters help plants control rates of transpiration by
serving as forms of resistance to water movement out of the plant.
Stomata – Stomata are pores in the leaf that allow gas exchange where water vapor leaves the
plant and carbon dioxide enters. Special cells called guard cells
control each pore’s opening or closing. When stomata are open,
transpiration rates increase; when they are closed, transpiration rate
decrease.

Boundary layer – The boundary layer is a thin layer of still air hugging the surface of the leaf.
This layer of air is not moving. For transpiration to occur, water vapor leaving the stomata must
diffuse through this motionless layer to reach the atmosphere where the water vapor will be
removed by moving air. The larger the boundary layer, the slower the rates of transpiration.

Plants can alter the size of their boundary layers around leaves through a variety of structural
features. Leaves that possess many hairs or pubescence will have larger boundary layers; the
hairs serve as mini-wind breaks by increasing the layer of still air around the leaf surface and
slowing transpiration rates. Some plants possess stomata that are sunken into the leaf surface,
dramatically increasing the boundary layer and slowing transpiration. Boundary layers increase
as leaf size increases, reducing rates of transpiration as well. For example, plants from desert
climates often have small leaves so that their small boundary layers will help cool the leaf with
higher rates of transpiration.

Cuticle – The cuticle is the waxy layer present on all above-ground tissue of a plant and serves
as a barrier to water move out of a leaf. Because the cuticle is made of wax, it is very
hydrophobic or ‘water-repelling’; therefore, water does not move through it very easily. The
thicker the cuticle layer on a leaf surface, the slower the transpiration rate. Cuticle thickness
varies widely among plant species. In general, plants from hot, dry climates have thicker cuticles
than plants from cool, moist climates. In addition, leaves that develop under direct sunlight will
have much thicker cuticles than leaves that develop under shade conditions.

Relative humidity – Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapor in the air
compared to the amount of water vapor that air could hold at a given temperature.

Temperature – Temperature greatly influences the magnitude of the driving force for
water movement out of a plant rather than having a direct effect on stomata. As
temperature increases, the water holding capacity of that air increases sharply. The amount of
water does not change, just the ability of that air to hold water. Because warmer air can hold
more water, its relative humidity is less than the same air sample at a lower temperature, or it is
‘drier air’. Because cooler air holds less water, its relative humidity increases or it is ‘moister
air’. Therefore, warmer air will increase the driving force for transpiration and cooler air will
decrease the driving force for transpiration.

Soil water – The source of water for transpiration out of the plant comes from the soil. Plants
with adequate soil moisture will normally transpire at high rates because the soil provides the
water to move through the plant. Plants cannot continue to transpire without wilting if the soil is
very dry because the water in the xylem that moves out through the leaves is not being replaced
by the soil water. This condition causes the leaf to lose turgor or firmness, and the stomata to
close. If this loss of turgor continues throughout the plant, the plant will wilt.

Wind – Wind can alter rates of transpiration by removing the boundary layer, that still layer of
water vapor hugging the surface of leaves. Wind increases the movement of water from the leaf
surface when it reduces the boundary layer, because the path for water to reach the atmosphere is
shorter.
THE SUN AND THE ATMOSPHERE
The Sun
The sun is about 150 Million Km away from us. Its radius is about 700,000Km. The temperature
in the core is in the vicinity of 15,000,000 0C and the density there is about ten times that of the
mercury. At such high temperature, thermonuclear processes readily convert hydrogen into
helium at a rate that suffices to replace the energy that the sun surrenders into space. Since over
50 percent of the solar mass consists of hydrogen, there is ample fuel to maintain the activity at
its present level.
The temperature and the density of the solar mass decrease rapidly outward to the photosphere.
This is a thin layer which defines what we call the surface of the sun. The photosphere has a
depth of a few hundred kilometers and the temperature varies from about 8000 0C at the base to
about 45000C at the top. A temperature somewhat less than 60000C is generally taken as a typical
temperature of the sun surface. The gases below the base of the photosphere are completely
opaque. The transparency increases upward and is virtually complete at the top of the layer.
The most spectacular events in the photosphere are the sunspots. They appear as whirls or
depressions in the photosphere with diameters varying upward to almost 100,000 km, or, say, six
or seven times the diameter of the earth. The spots are cooler than their undisturbed surrounding
by as much as 1000 to 15000C.
.

Over the years many meteorologists and astronomers have shared the belief that changes in the
solar activity could cause significant changes in the weather condition on earth. On account of
the large temperature depressions and strong magnetic fields associated with sunspots, much
work has gone to the exploration of possible sunspot weather relationships. Although the results
of these researches are meager, one may not assume that the influence is negligible.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Our atmosphere extends outward to the boundary of the earth’s magnetic field, i.e. to the
magneto pause within this boundary charged particles are trapped more or less permanently, by
the earth shows the approximate distribution of temperature with height.
1.The troposphere: Start from the ground up to about 17km above the earth in the tropics and 8
to 10km in the Polar Regions.
The temperature is generally decreasing with height.
The troposphere contains more than 80 percent of the mass of the atmosphere.
The tropopause: is the upper limit of the troposphere. The temperature can be as low as -800c
over the tropics.

2. The stratosphere is the upper limit of the tropopause and extends to an altitude of about 50
km. The temperature remains constant or increases.
The stratospause is the upper limit of the stratosphere it is a layer of maximum temperature that
may be higher than the temperature at the ground.

3. The mesosphere is the layer between the stratopause and extends to an altitude of about
80km. The temperature again decreases with height.
The mesopause is the top of the mesosphere and here we find the lowest temperature in the
atmosphere, about - 1400c.
4. The ionosphere extends upward from the mesopause and the upper part merges gradually
with the magnetosphere without any distinct level of demarcation. The temperature increases
with height.
5. The magnetosphere extends outward from about 400 km
.The magnetopause is the outer limit of the atmosphere
The composition of dry air below the ionosphere is estimated as follows:
Gas Volume Percent
Nitrogen (N2) 78.09
Oxygen (O2) 20.95
Argon (A) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03
Traces 0.003
Total 100

RADIATION
Energy can be transported between two bodies, even when they are notb in contact, in the form
of electromagnetic radiation. All space is pervaded by interrelated electric and magnetic fields.
Energy “rides” on waves set up in these fields, which move through vacuous space at a speed of
300 000 km/sec, the speed of light. It is a fundamental fact that all bodies radiate energy from
their surfaces. The quality of radiation is determined by the wavelengths involved. What we call
light is a form of electromagnetic wave radiation.

Most of the wavelengths involved are so short that new units of length are used when describing
them:

1 Angstrom = 1 A = 10-4 = 10-7mm

1 Micron = 1 = 10 000 A = 10-3 mm

Laws of radiation

Kirchoff’s law states that a body that is a good absorber is also a good radiator in the same
wavelengths.

A blackbody is a body that absorbs all radiation in all wavelengths. Although such bodies do not
exist in nature, the concept of blackbody radiation and absorption is very useful. The term black
has little to do with the actual colour of the body. The sun, for example, radiates very nearly as a
blackbody.

Wien’s law states that the maximum output is in a wavelength that is inversely proportional to
the temperature, of the body. Thus, the sun’s surface has a temperature of about 6000 0K, and the
peak of the energy output is found in the middle of the visual range, i.e. at about 0.475 microns.
In comparison the earth’s surface has a temperature of about 285 0K, and the maximum of its
radiation is found at about 10 microns.

Stefan – Boltzmann law states that the intensity of the radiation emitted from a body is
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature Thus:

I = 0 T4

Here T is expressed in 0K and 40 is Stefan – Boltzmann constant

= 8.22 x 10-11 cal/cm2, min, deg4.

ASSIGNMENT NO 1

Radiation from the sun

The suns or solar radiation (also called insolation) includes an enormous span of wavelengths. It
goes all the way from the extremely short waves of gamma radiation to the long radio waves. As
mentioned in the suns’ surface has a temperature of about 6000 0K. This means that the bulk of
the radiated energy is concentrated in the visible and near – visible parts of the spectrum. The
human eye perceives radiation only in the narrow interval from 0.4 to 0.7 microns and these
narrow accounts for over 50 percent of total energy. 99 percent of the suns radiation falls
between 0.15 and 4.0 microns.

The solar constant is a measure of the rate at which the radiation of the sun is received at the top
of the atmosphere on a unit surface normal to the incident radiation. The value of the solar
constant is about 2.0 cal/cm2, min.

The area that intercepts the radiation is and as the earth rotates once on its axis, this is spread

over the face of the earth (4 so that the energy per unit area of the earth just 25 percent of
the solar constant. Thus the average amount is 0.5 cal/cm2, min.

As the radiation enters the atmosphere, part of it is reflected from clouds, dust, etc. in the air and
a further portion is reflected by the earth’s surface. The part that is reflected back to space is
called the albedo; it is a measure of the earth’s “whiteness”. The long – term average for the
earth’s albedo is about 40 percent. The remaining part, 0.3 cal/cm 2, min, is the energy that is
actually available and becomes absorbed by the air or the surface substance.
Radiation from the earth

The earth’s surface as a whole radiates as a blackbody having a temperature of about 290 0K
(or 170C) In effect, this means that what we call terrestrial radiation lies almost entirely in the
wavelength from 3 to 80 microns, with peak intensity at about 11 microns. The entirely in the
infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum

OZONE

The total amount of ozone in the atmosphere is exceedingly small, about 2 parts in a million by
weight. The bulk of it is formed through photochemical processes at great heights. An ordinary
oxygen molecule (O2) will dissociate completely into atomic oxygen (0) when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation below 2400 A. We symbolize by writing: O 2 + energy O + O when
an oxygen atom (O) collides with an oxygen molecule (O 2) and any third neutral molecules O 2
and O combine to form ozone (O3). Thus

O2 + O + H O3 + M

A three – body collision is necessary, since energy and the moment must remain unchanged.
Ozone is very unstable in the presence of sunlight, and when it absorbs solar radiation with
wavelengths about 2500 A it is again destroyed, so that O 3 becomes O2 + O. But the free atom
(O) may recombine with another oxygen molecule to form ozone once more. However, an atom
of oxygen (O) may meet 2 molecules of ozone to form two ordinary oxygen molecules, O 2 + O2,
thus destroying the ozone. In the photochemical region (above 30 km) these processes go on
simultaneously in such a manner that some kind balance between production and destruction is
maintained. The ozone layer performs a significant function by acting as an opaque window,
absorbing all solar radiation shorter than 3000 A in wavelengths. In this way the hurtful
ultraviolet radiation is kept from the surface of the earth.

END OF ASSIGNMENT 1
SCATTERING

When a beam of light passes through the air, it may be depleted by scattering as well as
absorption. Scattering does not involve a transfer of radiant energy into heat as does absorption,
but merely change in the direction with the scattering particles. Thus a beam of solar radiation
entering the atmosphere is partly scattered to the side and backward, so that upon reaching the
surface the direct beam is less intense.

The amount of scattering depends upon the ration of the radius of the scattering particles to the
wavelength of the scattered light. If this ration is small as for air molecules and visible light, it is
found that the amount of scattering is proportional to the inverse fourth power of the wavelength.
Since the wavelength in the visible region ranges between 0.4 micron (blue) and 0.8 micron (red)
the amount of scattering will be about sixteen times as large on the blue end of the visible region
as on the red end. This explains the blue color of the daylight sky. At twilight, however, the
longer ray path through the lower atmosphere causes most of the scattered blue radiation to be
dispersed from the beam before it reaches the observer. Hence light reflected from the clouds or
scattered from a haze layer is likely to appear reddish and visible light, and clouds therefore
appear white.

The important scattering particles in the atmosphere are air molecules, water droplets, and dust.

THE HEAT BALANCE

Over a long span of time the system earth – atmosphere must operate within a balanced energy
budget. This means that the system must return to space as much energy as it receives from the
sun. however, at any particular time and place the gain is rarely equal to the loss, and this
accounts for much of the variability of the weather.

We cannot regard the earth and the atmosphere as separate entities, for heat and moisture are
continuously exchanged between them. Moisture is a very important item in the heat budget.
Most of the water in the atmosphere is present in the form of vapor which was evaporated from
the earth’s surface. In the evaporation process vast amounts of heat were used, and this heat
becomes liberated as sensible heat when the vapor condenses.

ALBEDO

The overwhelming part of the energy that comes to our planet is shortwave radiation. The
fraction of the total incoming radiation that is reflected back to space is called the earth’s alhedo.
It is estimated to about 35 – 40 percent. The average value of the energy absorbed in the system
earth – atmosphere amounts to a supply of about 60/100 x 0.5 = 0.30
The albedo varies within wide limited, depending on the substances involved. Some typical
values are as follows:

Substance Albedo (Percent)

Clouds 50 – 80

Snow (Field) 70 – 80

Snow (Forest) 40 – 50

Ice 50 – 70

Fields 15 – 30

Forests 3 – 10

Water 2–5
The eight elements that are observed by the meteorologists for
making weather forecasts are
i. air temperature,
ii. wind direction,
iii. humidity,
iv. wind speed,
v. clouds,
vi. precipitation,
vii. visibility, and
viii. atmospheric pressure.

CLOUDS
A cloud may be defined as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice, or both, in the
free air.

The Forms of Clouds

The most convenient method of classification of clouds is based on their altitude. The
major cloud types and their principal subdivisions are described in the following. (The
typical heights indicated refer to temperate latitudes. In the tropics clouds may reach up
to 18km, and in the polar regions they reach beyond 8 km.)
1. High clouds, typical heights 5-13km. The principal forms are:
a. Cirrus (Ci) having a fibrous or feather appearance, frequently arranged in bands
across the sky, sometimes called mare’s tail.
b. Cirrocumulus (Cc). Clouds like patches of cotton or a mass of mall white flakes,
frequently in groups or lines, sometimes called mackerel sky.
c. Cirrostratus (Cs). Whitish layers, like a sheet or veil, giving the sky a milky
appearance.
 2. Middle clouds, typical heights 2-7 km. The principal forms are:
a. Altocumulus (Ac). White or gray patches or layers of clouds having a rounded
appearance.
b. Altostratus (As). Gray to bluish layers of clouds, often with a streaked
ppearance.

3. Lower clouds, typical heights below 2km.

a. Stratus (St). Low uniform, sheet like clouds similar to fog but not resting on the
ground.
b. Stratocumulus (Sc). Large rounded clouds with a soft appearance, usually
arranged in some pattern with spaces between.
c. Nimbostratus (Ns). Low, shapeless, thick layers, dark gay in color. They are
usually accompanied by rain or snow.

4. Clouds with vertical development. These are clouds which extend from a lower level
500m to a maximum of more than 1200m.

a. Cumulus (Cu). Thick, dome-shaped clouds, usually with flat bases and many
rounded projections from the upper areas. They are often widely separated from
one another.
b. Cumulonimbus (Cb). Thick, towering clouds of large dimensions with
cauliflower-like tops. They are frequently associated with thunderstorms.

PRECIPITATION
Classification
The number of different forms of precipitation elements is quite large and only the more
common forms are briefly described in the following:
(1) Rain is precipitation of liquid water particles either in the form of drops of more than
0.5mm diameter or of smaller, widely scattered drops.
(2) Drizzle is fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops of water
very close to one another, diameter less than 0.5mm.
(3) Snow is precipitation of ice crystals, most of which are branched
 (4) Sleet (British) is nothing but melting snow or a mixture of snow and rain.
(5) Freezing rain (or drizzle) the drops of which freeze on impact with the ground, or
with objects on the earth’s surface, or with aircraft in flight.
(6) Granular snow is opaque small grains falling from stratus clouds. It is the frozen
counterpart of drizzle.
(7) Hail is precipitation of balls or pieces of ice, with diameters ranging from 5 to 50mm
or more, falling separately or joined up into irregular lumps. Hail falls are generally
observed during heavy thunderstorms.

HYDROLOGY
Hydrology, as the science of water, is concerned with three broad problems:
1. Measuring and recording, processing and compiling basic hydrologic data.
2. The analysis of the collected data to develop fundamental theories in the discipline.
3. The application of the developed theories and data to a multitude of practical problems.

The International Association scientific Hydrology recognizes four subdivisions of the science,
of which surface and groundwater have received the greatest attention. The four branches are:
i. Potamology: the study of surface streams.
ii. Geo hydrology; the study relating to subsurface waters.
iii. Limnology; the study of lakes.
iv. Cry ology; the study of snow and ice.

Operational hydrology (hydrometry) is concerned mainly with the first of the problems, which
involves:

(a) Establishing hydrometrical stations (stream-flow, sediment transport, water

quality, groundwater levels. rainfall, evapotranspiration, temperature)
(b) Operating and maintaining these stations to collect basic hydrological data, and
(c) Processing, compiling and presenting the collected data.

COMPONENTS OF CATCHMENT RUNOFF

There are four major components of catchment runoff. These are channel precipitation, overland
flow, interflow' and groundwater flow (also called base flow).
Channel precipitation is rain that falls directly onto the surfaces of rivers and lakes and
immediately enters the stream flow. Since water surface generally account for less than 5% of a
catchment area, unless there are large areas of lakes and/or swamps, channel precipitation is
usually very small.
Overland flow is rain that flows over the ground surface as rill or sheet flow and does not
infiltrate into the ground. Overland flow increases with decreasing infiltration capacity of the
surface.

Interflow (also termed through flow or subsurface flow) consists of rainwater, which after
infiltrating into the soil surface moves laterally through the upper soil horizon towards the
stream channel. Actually the routes taken vary a great deal and interflow- may occur at various
levels below the surface. So depending on the routes taken interflow may be rapid or delayed.
Base flow (also sometimes called groundwater flow and drv-weather flow) is the water
contributed by the water table, if the water table intersects the stream or river channel. The
ground water contribution to stream flow' cannot fluctuate rapidly because of its very low-- flow
velocity.

STREAM GAUGING

Basic Information:
Runoff represents the excess of precipitation over evapotranspiration losses, when allowance has
been made for infiltration and surface detention. Runoff is known by several terms such as
stream flow, stream or river discharge and catchment yield. Values of watershed runoff are
expressed in either of two ways:

(i) As flow rate at the collecting or measuring point, e.g. litres per second or cubic
metres per second (cumecs).
(ii) As equivalent depth over the area, usually the catchment, contributing to the runoff,
e.g. millimeters per day, month or year.

While the first method of expressing runoff is favoured by water engineers, research hydrologist
often use the second method as it allows easy comparison between precipitation and runoff rates
and totals since precipitation is usually expressed in the same way.

Snowmelt is an important source of runoff where it is coldest, at high altitudes and high,
latitudes. In these areas, a high proportion o: the total surface runoff may come from the melting
of snow and glaciers.
In the tropics, rainfall is the major source of stream flow; the only other source being
groundwater flow which is in turn derived from precipitation.

The total runoff from a catchment thus consists of the direct runoff (quick flow) and the base
flow. Direct runoff consists of channel precipitation, surface runoff and rapid interflow. Base
flow consists of groundwater flow and delayed interflow. The flow characteristics of a river or
stream depend largely on the amounts of quick flow and base flow and the relationships between
these two components of total runoff.
Using the above criteria rivers and streams are classified into three categories; namely
ephemeral, intermittent and perennial.

Ephemeral streams flow only during or immediately after rainfall or snow melt. There is no
base flow as the water - table is well below the stream bed. The flow of an ephemeral stream
therefore consists only of quick flow or direct runoff. Ephemeral streams are common in arid
areas and semi-arid environments and do not usually have permanent or well defined channels.

Intermittent streams flow only during a part of the year and dry up during the remaining part.
They are commonly found in tropical areas characterized by well defined dry season. Base flow
contributes to the total runoff only during the wet season when the water-table is high. During
the dry season the base flow virtually stops and because of lack of rainfall the quick flow also
dries up. In temperate areas, base flow stops in winter when the ground water becomes frozen.

Perennial streams are those that flow throughout the year because the climate is humid and the
various sources of subsurface flow can contribute to total runoff at all times, particularly during
dry spells.

It should be noted that the whole length of a stream cannot usually be fitted into one of the above
categories. A stream may be ephemeral in the upper course and intermittent downstream.
Similarly, a stream may be intermittent in its upper course and perennial downstream. However,
streams which are perennial throughout in their course are those fed by major springs or melting
glaciers.

COLLECTION OF STREAM FLOW DATA:

Direct collection of stream - flow data is called stream gauging and involves %measurement of
water-surface elevation (water level) and stream discharge. Water level (stage) records are
obtained by systematic observations on a manual gage or from an automatic recorder.
Measurement of discharge is made to define the relation between stage and discharge, and this
relation is used in computing a continuous record of stream flow. These records are useful in
evaluating the total water supply, in forecasting flood events, designing hydraulic structures and
in computing the load of streams.

SELECTION OF GAUGING SITE

A stream is chosen for gauging because information is needed on the particular stream or
because it is representative of other streams in the area, and can be used as a part of a
hydrological network. selecting a specific site for a gauging station, consideration should be
given to the accuracy with which observation can be made.

The site for measuring stage should be carefully chosen to ensure where possible, a stable
relation between stage and discharge and easy measurement of flow.

The major items which should be considered when selecting a site are:
a) The stability of the channel bed. A rock riffle or falls, often indicate an ideal site. If this
requirement cannot be fulfilled, repeated determinations of the stage — discharge relation
are necessary.
b) Opportunity to install an artificial control

Controls may change because of the effects of a changing channel slow and fill in an alluvial
channel, backwater, rapidly changing stage, variable channel storage, aquatic vegetation and the
freezing and breaking of ice.

No control is absolutely permanent. The continuous flow of more or less loaded water combined
with the effects of temperature change causes even the hardest granites to slowly disintegrate.
Nevertheless, a control that is formed by hard, resistant rock may be considered as a permanent
control, at least tor several decades. On the other hand, if erosion, deposition or vegetation
causes the stage- discharge relation to shift either intermittently or constantly, the control is
called a shifting control.

NATURAL CONTROL
The simplest and most satisfactory types of natural control consists of a rock reef situated either
at the head of a series of rapids or at the crest of a waterfall, creating a pool of appreciable extent,
of which a record of stage may be obtained by installation of a gage. However, such favorable
natural controls are rarely found in many countries where the riverbed shift either intermittently
or constantly. In those sections, controls vary widely in types, shape and stability.
ARTIFICIAL CONTROL
.An artificial control consists generally or a low dam or weir constructed across a stream channel
below a gauging station for the purpose of stabilizing the stage -- discharge relation, thereby
"simplify the procedure of accurate records of discharge.

IN THE DESIGN OF ARTIFICIAL CONTROLS, THE FOLLOWING FOUR MAJOR

POINTS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED:
a) The shape of the structure should permit the passage of water without creating
undesirable disturbances in the channel above or below the control.
b) The structure must be of sufficient height to eliminate the effects of variable downstream
conditions.
c) The profile of the crest of the control should be designed sc that a small change in the
discharge at low stages will cause a measurable change in stage, and the relation of
changes in stage to changes in discharge should produce a rating curve of a shape that
may be extended to peak stages without serious error.
d) The control should have structural stability and should be permanent. It should be self-
cleaning and not subject to obstruction by debris and ice or to deposits of sand, gravel or
silt, neither upstream nor downstream.
 ASSIGNMENT NO 2

STAFF GAUGE:
The gage is an instrument that is installed upstream from but within the range of influence of the
control for the purpose of determining the fluctuations in stage with respect to time.

The gage may consist of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge pier, pilling, wharf or other
structure that extends into the low-water channel of the stream. If no suitable structure exists in a
location which is accessible at all stages, a sectional staff gage may be used. Short sections of
staff are mounted on available structure or on specially constructed supports in such a way that
on section is always accessible.

Gage height may be observed by systematic observations, usually once or twice a day.
Gages may be classified either recording or non-recording. Recording gages draw a continuous
graph of the fluctuations in stage. Non-recording gages require an observer who reads the gage
and records the reading at regular time intervals.

Regardless of the type of gage employed, the gage must be located so as to

Conform to the flowing specifications:
a) It must be upstream, but within the influence of the control.
b) Its support should be rigid and immovable so that the elevation of the datum is likely to
change.
c) It should be as sensitive as possible, in other words, it should be located where the greatest
range of fluctuations in stage occurs.
 d) It should be in a protected spot so that destruction by ice or other floating debris is
improbable.
e) It should be easily accessible.
f) If the gage is non-recording and on a northern stream, it should be located at' a point in the
stream where the velocity of the water is great enough to prevent ice formation. Often
times a good location is on the side of a bridge pier near the downstream end. At this
point, the water usually flows smoothly, do not freeze or pile up on the gage, and the
danger of destruction and probability of change in datum height is slight.
g) The gage should never be located upstream from the junction with another stream. Nor
should it ever be located within the influence of backwater from a hydrometric point. At
neither of these locations the relation between stage and discharge is constant.

However, automatic recording gages have so many advantages over the non recording type that
they are used more often. Their principle advantages are:
a) The personal equation error is almost entirely eliminated. In disagreeable weather or at
times when the observer of a non-recording gage is busy with other matters, there is a
strong temptation not to read the gage for considerable periods at a time and then to
interpolate the missing values. Authenticity of records may therefore be questionable at
time.
b) A non-recording, age is usually read by the observe once or twice a day. Especially on
the smaller streams, large fluctuations may occur between readings, and as a result the
hydro graph obtained by plotting the discharges from the daily reading does not present a
true picture of the actual behavior of the stream.. This miner becomes doubly important
when one or more power plants are located upstream from the gage and also
whendiversions for irrigation, municipal or industrial uses are made at upstream points
which change the natural now of the stream.

Non-recording gages of four general types: (1) staff, (2) weight (3) float end (4) hook. However,
the staff type is the one that is used in Tanzania.
(iii) THE POINT OF ZERO FLOW: Stream gages are usually established at a arbitrary
datum. The elevation of gage zero is decided on the day of establishment of the gages and is set
below the lowest stage anticipated at the site. It is therefore only in a very few cases that the zero
of the gage will correspond by coincidence to the point of zero flow.

The control section is defined by surveying a close grid of spot levels over a reach of the
downstream from the station site or by surveying a sufficient number of cross-sections. The point
of zero flow will be the lowest point in the controlling section. In those cases the control is well -
defined by a rocky barrier over which the water flows, usually, it is very easily to locate the point
of zero flow and obtain it correct gauge height values.
Determination of the point of zero flow from soundings taken during current meter
measurements is not possible. These sounding might have been, taken at any cross-section of the
river in the vicinity of the gage and will only give the correct point if the soundings happen to be
taken in that particular cross-section containing the control.
(iii) THE MEASURING (METERING) SECTION):
The measuring (metering) section is the cross-section of the river channel where discharge
measurements are taken by Current Meters.

END OF ASSIGNMENT NO 2

INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDWATER

Aquifer: A geologic formation, or a part of formation, or group of

formations that yield significant quantity of water examples of aquifer
are sand, gravels etc

What is Groundwater?

Groundwater is broadly defined as the water present in the zone

of saturation below the ground

The zone of saturation is technically called'aquifer'

On the other hand, water stored in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams,
seas/oceans and other surface reservoirs is called surface water

TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

Aquifer: A geologic formation, or a part of formation, or group of
formations that yield significant quantity of water is defined as aquifer
and examples of aquifer are sand, gravels etc.

Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant

amount of water but does not have the capability to transmit a significant
amount of water
Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some
water as well as can transmit water at a relatively low rate
compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of aquitard.
Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation

that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid granite is an ideal example
of aquifuge.

UNCONFINED AQUIFER
An unconfined aquifer, also called a water-table aquifer, is an aquifer which
has the water table as its upper boundary. Unconfined aquifers occur near
the ground surface.

A confining bed is a body of distinctly less permeable material that is

located above or below one or more aquifers.

CONFINED AQUIFER
A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is bounded above and below by
confining beds. Confined aquifers generally occur at significant depth
below the ground surface.

Advantage and disadvantages of groundwater

The advantages of withdrawing groundwater include
 i. Water for drinking and irrigation;
ii. Availability and locality;
iii. Low cost,
iv. No evaporation losses; and
v. It is renewable.

Disadvantages include
i. aquifer depletion from over pumping,
ii. subsidence,
iii. pollution,
iv. saltwater intrusion, and
v. reduced water flow.

WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS OF GROUNDWATER?

Depletion of water tables, saltwater encroachment, drying of aquifers,
groundwater pollution, water logging and salinity,

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDWATER
i. weak turbidity,
ii. a constant temperature
iii. chemical composition and
iv. almost overall absence of oxygen

HOW CAN WE PROTECT GROUNDWATER?

i. Properly dispose of all waste; don't dump chemicals down drains or on the
ground.
ii. Test underground fuel oil tanks for leaks; if possible, replace them above ground.
iii. Safely store all chemicals and fuels.
iv. Minimize the use of chemicals; always use according to directions.