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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam

B.Sc. Computer Science

SEMESTER I
Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware
(Core)

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
SYLLABUS
Module I
Introduction to Computers: Generations of Computer (I-V),
Classification of Computers: Analog, Digital and Hybrid
Computers, Micro, Mini, Mainframe, Super Computers, Servers,
Laptop and Block Diagram of a Computer, Functions of the
Different Units: Input unit, Output unit, Memory unit, CPU
(ALU+CU). Booting Process- POST, BIOS, clock speed, memory
speed, memory capacity.

Module II
Introduction to Computer Hardware, DC regulated power
supply- Block Diagram, Concepts of Switch Mode Power supply,
Inverters, UPS and their applications. Basic Components of CPU,
Mother Board.

Module III:
Expansion Slots- ISA, EISA, MCA, VESA, PCI local bus, Processor,
Connectors, CMOS memory, SMPS, Serial and Parallel Ports,
USB, BIOS chip, Steps for assembling a PC.

Module IV:
Input Devices: Keyboard, Point and draw devices: mouse,
joystick, track ball, light pen, Data Scanning devices: image
scanner, OCR, OMR, MICR, Bar code reader, Voice Recognition
Device: Microphone, Output Devices: Monitor- CRT displays,
Non-CRT displays, TFT: LED, LCD, Plasma. Printer, Impact and
non-impact, Character, line and Page Printers.

Module V:
Memory: Primary Memory, RAM- SRAM, DRAM, ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, Secondary memory: Hard
Disk: Structure of a hard disk, how data is stored in a hard disk,
concept of tracks, sectors, clusters, cylinders, CD-R, RW, DVD-
RW, Blue-ray disk, HVD, PC memory Units: SIMM, DIMM, RIMM.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Book of study
1. Pradeep Sinha and Priti Sinha - Computer Fundamentals,
Fourth Edition- 2007, BPB Publications
2. B. RAM, “Computer Fundamentals: Architecture and
Organization”, New age international (P) Limited.

Reference
1. Balagurusamy - Fundamentals of Computer, First Edition-
2009, McGraw-Hill
2. Anita Goel - Computer Fundamentals, First Edition-2010,
Pearson.
3. Peter Norton, “Introduction to Computers”, McGraw Hill

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam

Module I

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Commonly
Operated
Machine
Particularly
Used for
Technical and
Educational
Research
COMPUTER is an advanced electronic device that takes raw
data as an input from the user and processes it under the control
of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result
(output), and saves it for future use.

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a

necessity for everyone to know about computers. A computer is
an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores
data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in
a required format.

Functionalities of a Computer
All digital computer carries out the following five functions −
 Takes data as input.
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as
required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output.
 Controls all the above four steps.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing
calculation of very large amount of data. The computer has units
of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as
compared to man who will spend many months to perform the
same task.

Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The
calculations are 100% error free. Computers perform all jobs
with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability
Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. A
computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
It can store large amount of data. It can store any type of data
such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can work continuously
without any error and boredom. It can perform repeated tasks
with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
A computer is a very versatile machine. A computer is very
flexible in performing the jobs to be done. This machine can be
used to solve the problems related to various fields. At one
instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Reliability
A computer is a reliable machine. Modern electronic
components have long lives. Computers are designed to make
maintenance easy.

Automation
Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to
perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives
a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory,
then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

The use of computers for data processing in an organization
leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the
process. As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when
required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper
files gets reduced. Though the initial investment for installing a
computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each of its
transaction.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No IQ
A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any
task. Each instruction has to be given to the computer. A
computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully
dependent on humans.

Environment
The operating environment of the computer should be dust free
and suitable.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
No Feeling
Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make
judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

APPLICATIONS
The application of computers in various fields are as follows.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,
reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in
all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking
current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are
making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with
the help of computers. Insurance companies, finance houses,
and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients
with information showing −
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the
education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system
known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of
learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of
number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational
institutions can use a computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a
student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
 Advertising − With computers, advertising
professionals create art and graphics, write and revise
copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made
possible through the use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs,
and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the
record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT
scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which
computers are used.
 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data
and identify the cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the
reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − these are used to check
the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to
check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in
performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that
provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields
are −
 Structural Engineering − requires stress and strain
analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes,
etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design,
implementation, and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in
planning towns, designing buildings, determining a
range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles,
weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized control
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture,
or speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly
by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some
major fields in this category are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a
computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was
used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software,
which together make up an entire computer system.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
There are five computer generations known till date. Each
generation has been viewed in detail along with their time
period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are
normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

Sl.No Generation & Description
First Generation
1 The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum
tube based.
Second Generation
2 The period of second generation: 1959-1965.
Transistor based.
Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-1971.
Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI
microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI
microprocessor based.

First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
The main features of the first generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Some computers of this generation were −
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation
The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this
generation, transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed
less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than
the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory
and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level

programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The
computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.

The main features of second generation are −

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation
computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation
computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
 UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation
The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The
computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in
place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors,
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made

computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this
generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level
languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are −

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980.
Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and other circuit elements with their associated

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact,

reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal
Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the
high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.

The main features of fourth generation are −

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were −

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth
generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets the means and method of
making computers think like human beings. All the high-level
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.

AI includes −
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life
situations
 Natural language understanding and generation

The main features of fifth generation are −

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at
cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 Notebook
 Ultrabook
 Chromebook

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified by their Architecture and
computing capability is shown in figure.

Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic devices to model the
problem being solved. Analog computers were widely used in
scientific and industrial applications. Analog computers can
have a very wide range of complexity.

Digital Computer
By the invention of semiconductors, electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic devices were replaced less power devices made by
semiconductors. The size of the systems were gradually
reduced. The computers what we see today are digital
computers.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of both
analog computers and digital computers. The digital component
normally serves as the controller and provides logical and
numerical operations. The analog component often serves as a
solver of differential equations and other mathematically
complex equations.

The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp

250, released by Packard Bell in 1961. Another early example
was the HYDAC 2400, an integrated hybrid computer released
by EAI in 1963.

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and

computing power.
S.No. Type Specifications
It is a single user computer
PC (Personal
1 system having moderately
Computer)
powerful microprocessor
It is also a single user computer
system, similar to personal
2 Workstation
computer has more powerful
microprocessor.
It is a multi-user computer
system, capable of supporting
3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users
simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer
system, capable of supporting
hundreds of users
4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software
technology is different from
minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer,
which can execute hundreds of
5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per
second.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put
an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers
for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for
running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing
games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user

systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a
network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications
(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and
other such types of applications which require a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution

graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support,
and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and

Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user
computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up
to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users
simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of
programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently
available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations,

(animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.
in petrochemical prospecting).

Servers
A server is a computer or a computer program that provides
services to other computer programs (and their users) in the
same or other computers. The computer that a server program
runs in is also referred to as a server. That machine may be a
dedicated server or used for other purposes as well.

Servers are often categorized in terms of their purpose.

Web server: serves requested HTML pages or files.

Application server: provides the business logic for an

application program.

Proxy server: acts as an intermediary between an endpoint

device, such as a computer, and another server from which a
user or client is requesting a service.
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Mail server: receives incoming e-mail from local users (people
within the same domain) and remote senders and forwards
outgoing e-mail for delivery.

Virtual server: running on a shared server that is configured in

such a way that it seems to each user that they have complete
control of a server.

File server: responsible for the central storage and

management of data files so that other computers on the same
network can access them.

Policy server: provides authorization services and facilitates

tracking and control of files.

Laptop
A laptop computer, sometimes called a notebook computer by
manufacturers. It is a battery or AC-powered personal computer
generally smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported
and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on
airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A
laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inches or less
in thickness.

Laptop computers generally cost more than desktop computers

with the same capabilities because they are more difficult to
design and manufacture.

Laptops usually come with displays that use thin-screen

technology. Laptops use several different approaches for
integrating a mouse into the keyboard, including the touch pad,
the trackball, and the pointing stick. A serial port also allows a
regular mouse to be attached. The PC Card is insertable
hardware for adding a modem or network interface card to a
laptop. CD-ROM and digital versatile disc drives may be built-in
or attachable.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics.

They can solve highly complicated problems quickly and
accurately.

Input Unit
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve
any problem. Therefore we need to input the data and
instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one
or more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the most
commonly used input device. Other commonly used input
devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All
the input devices perform the following functions.

 Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.

• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for
further processing.

Storage Unit
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions
that are entered through the input unit, before they are
processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before
these are sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the
later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are
divided into two categories. Primary Storage and Secondary
Storage.

Output Unit
The output unit of a computer provides the information and
results of a computation to outside world. Printers, Visual
Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard
disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known
as the Central Processing Unit (CPU).The CPU is like brain
performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison and takes
decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. and does logic
operations namely, >, <, =, ! etc.

Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers

the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are
done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the
control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying
results.

Control Unit
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit (CU)
instructs the input unit, where to store the data after receiving
it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions
from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results
from the ALU to the storage unit. The control unit is generally
referred as the central nervous system of the computer that
control and synchronizes its working.

BOOTING PROCESS
Booting is a startup sequence that starts the operating system
of a computer when it is turned on. A boot sequence is the
initial set of operations that the computer performs when it is
switched on. Every computer has a boot sequence. The average
computer doesn’t understand the boot sequence but is
important to know for customizing and troubleshooting your
computer.

Boot Loader
Computers powered by the central processing unit can only
execute code found in the systems memory. Modern operating
systems and application program code and data are stored on
nonvolatile memories or mass storage devices. When a
computer is first powered on, it must initially rely only on the
code and data stored in nonvolatile portions of the systems
memory. At boot time, the operating system is not really loaded
and the computer’s hardware cannot perform many complex
systems actions.

The program that starts the “chain reaction” which ends with
the entire operating system being loaded is known as the boot
loader (or bootstrap loader). The term creatively came from
early designers imagining that before a computer “runs” it must
have its “boots strapped”. The boot loader’s only job is to load
other software for the operating system to start.

Multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in which several small

programs of increasing complexity sequentially call one after
the other, until the last of them loads the operating system.
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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Boot Devices
The boot device is the device from which the operating system
is loaded. A modern PC BIOS (Basic Input/output System)
supports booting from various devices. These include the local
hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface
card, and a USB device. Typically, the BIOS will allow the user to
configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to:
1. CD Drive
2. Hard Disk Drive
3. Network

Then the BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that
fails then it will try to boot from the hard disk drive, and if that
fails then it will try to boot from the network, and if that fails
then it won’t boot at all.

Boot Sequence
There is a standard boot sequence that all personal computers
use. First, the CPU runs an instruction in memory for the BIOS.
That instruction contains a jump instruction that transfers to
the BIOS start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-
test (POST) to check that devices the computer will rely on are
functioning properly. Then, the BIOS goes through the
configured boot sequence until it finds a device that is bootable.

Once BIOS has found a bootable device, BIOS loads the boot
sector and transfers execution to the boot sector. If the boot
device is a hard drive, it will be a master boot record (MBR).
The MBR code checks the partition table for an active partition.
If one is found, the MBR code loads that partition’s boot sector
and executes it. The boot sector is often operating system
specific, however in most operating systems its main function is
to load and execute the operating system kernel, which
continues startup.
If there is no active partition or the active partition’s boot sector
is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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select a partition and load its boot sector, which usually loads
the corresponding operating system kernel.

CLOCK SPEED
In a computer, clock speed refers to the number of pulses per
second generated by an oscillator that sets the tempo for the
processor. Clock speed is usually measured in MHz
(megahertz, or millions of pulses per second) or GHz
(gigahertz, or billions of pulses per second). Today's personal
computers run at a clock speed in the hundreds of megahertz
and some exceed one gigahertz.

Clock speed is one measure of computer "power," but it is not

always directly proportional to the performance level.

Some processors execute only one instruction per clock pulse.

More advanced processors can perform more than one
instruction per clock pulse. The latter type of processor will
work faster at a given clock speed than the former type.

Similarly, a computer with a 32-bit bus will work faster at a

given clock speed than a computer with a 16-bit bus. For these
reasons, there is no simplistic, universal relation among clock
speed, "bus speed," and millions of instructions per second
(MIPS).

Excessive clock speed can be detrimental to the operation of a

computer. As the clock speed in a computer rises without
upgrades in any of the other components, a point will be reached
beyond which a further increase in frequency will render the
processor unstable. Some computer users deliberately increase
the clock speed, hoping this alone will result in a proportional
improvement in performance, and are disappointed when
things don't work out that way.

MEMORY SPEED
The speed of the memory will determine the rate at which the
CPU can process data. The higher the clock rating on the
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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memory, the faster the system is able to read and write
information from the memory. All memory is rated at a specific
clock rate in megahertz that the memory interface talks to the
CPU with.

All the versions of DDR memory are referred to by the clock

rating. Memory manufacturers are starting to refer to the
bandwidth of the memory.

Memory types can be listed in two ways. The first method lists
the memory by its overall clock speed and the version of DDR
that is used. For instance, you may see mention of 1600MHz
DDR3 or DDR3-1600 which essentially is just the type and the
speed combined.

Latency
For memory there is another factor that impacts the
performance, latency. This is the amount of time (or clock
cycles) it takes the memory to respond to a command request.
Most computer BIOS and memory manufacturers list this rating.

With each generation of memory, the number of cycles for

command processing is increasing. For instance, DDR3
generally runs between 7 and 10 cycles. Newer DDR4 tends to
run at nearly twice that with latency running between 12 and
18. Even though there are higher latency with the newer
memory, other factors such as higher clock speeds and improve
technologies generally do not make them slower.

Lower the latency the faster the memory is to respond to

commands. Faster clock speed memory with slightly higher may
be a bit slower to respond but offer a great amount of memory
bandwidth which can offer better performance.

MEMORY CAPACITY OF LATEST MOTHERBOARDS

A motherboard (sometimes alternatively known as the main
board, system board, planar board or logic board) is a printed
circuit board (PCB) found in many modern computers which
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
holds many of the crucial components of the system, such as the
central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides
connectors for other peripherals.

Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with expansion

capability. The term main board is applied to devices with a
single board and no additional expansions or capability. In
modern terms this would include controlling boards in
televisions, washing machines and other embedded systems.
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize
the system and load an operating system from some external
peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM
PC used ROM chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At
power-up, the central processor would load its program counter
with the address of the boot ROM and start executing ROM
instructions. These instructions displayed system information
on the screen, ran memory checks, and then loaded an operating
system from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If
none was available, then the computer would perform tasks
from other memory stores or display an error message,
depending on the model and design of the computer and version
of the BIOS.

Most modern motherboard designs use BIOS, stored in an

EEPROM chip soldered or socketed to the motherboard, to
bootstrap an operating system.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Model Questions
Part A: Answer in One or Two Sentences
1. Define computer.
2. What is VLSI?
3. What is a hybrid computer?
4. What is a super computer?
5. What is a policy server?
6. What is the use of CU?
7. Define what is booting?
8. Mention any two boot devices.
9. What is latency?
10. Compare GHz and MHz
11. How computer is applicable in engineering design?
12. Compare SSI, LSI and VLSI.
13. Compare mainframe and super computer.
14. What are the operations performed by ALU?
15. What are multi stage boot loaders?
16. What is PCB?
17. What will determine the speed of memory?
18. Write note on MBR?
19. What do you mean by boot sequence?
20. Explain shortly about boot loader.

Part B: Short Essay Type Questions

1. What are functionalities of a computer?
2. What are disadvantages of a computer?
3. Compare 1st and 2nd generations of computers?
4. Distinguish between analog and digital computer.
5. Write note on different types of servers.
6. Write short note on CPU.
7. Explain clock speed.
8. Describe what is POST?
9. What is a notebook computer?
10. Compare what is laptop and tablet.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Part C: Long Essay Type Questions
1. What are the advantages of computers?
2. Describe briefly the applications of computer?
3. Write note on generations of computer?
4. Classify digital computers according to the speed and
computing power.
5. Draw block diagram of a computer and explain each blocks.
6. Describe the sub units of CPU and its operations in detail.
7. Explain the running generation of computer in details

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]