IET PROFESSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTING SERIES 18

Modeling and Simulation of

Complex Communication
Networks
IET Book Series on Big Data—Call for Authors
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Modeling and Simulation of
Complex Communication
Networks
Edited by
Muaz A. Niazi

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom

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First published 2019

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 Contents

Preface xiii

Part I Modeling and simulation

1 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 3

Tuncer Ören, Saurabh Mittal, and Umut Durak
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Experimentation aspects of simulation 5
1.3 Experience aspects of simulation 6
1.3.1 Simulation for training 6
1.3.2 Simulation for entertainment 8
1.4 Taxonomies and ontologies of simulation 8
1.4.1 Background 8
1.4.2 Taxonomies of simulation 9
1.4.3 Ontologies of simulation 10
1.5 Evolution and increasing importance of simulation 10
1.6 Conclusion 11
Appendix A – A list of over 750 types of simulation 12
Appendix B – A list of 120 types of input 20
References 21

2 Flexible modeling with Simio 27

David T. Sturrock and C. Dennis Pegden
2.1 Overview 27
2.2 Simio object framework 27
2.3 Simio object classes 30
2.4 Modeling movements 31
2.5 Modeling physical components 33
2.6 Processes 38
2.7 Data tables 40
2.8 Experimentation with the model 42
2.9 Application programming interface 43
2.10 Applications in scheduling 44
2.11 Summary 50
Glossary 50
References 52
vi Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

3 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis based

on network traffic logs 55
Salva Daneshgadeh, Mehmet Uğur Öney, Thomas Kemmerich,
and Nazife Baykal
3.1 Introduction 55
3.1.1 Network simulation 56
3.1.2 Network emulation 58
3.1.3 The application of network simulation and emulation
in network security 58
3.1.4 Virtualization 58
3.1.5 Virtualization using hypervisor 58
3.1.6 Virtualization using container 59
3.1.7 Virtual machines and simulation 59
3.2 Literature review 60
3.2.1 Network anomalies and detection methods 60
3.2.2 Network workload generators 61
3.2.3 Network simulation for security studies 61
3.3 Methodology 64
3.4 Defining a simulated and virtualized test bed for network anomaly
detection researches 64
3.4.1 GNS3 64
3.4.2 Ubuntu 66
3.4.3 Network interfaces 66
3.5 Simulated environment for network anomaly detection researches 68
3.5.1 Victim machine 68
3.5.2 Attacker machine 68
3.5.3 pfSense firewall 69
3.5.4 NAT and VMware host-only networks 70
3.5.5 Traffic generator machine 70
3.5.6 NTOPNG tool 71
3.5.7 Repository machine 74
3.6 Discussion and results 75
3.7 Summary 75
References 76

Part II Surveys and reviews

4 Demand–response management in smart grid: a survey and future

directions 83
Waseem Akram and Muaz A. Niazi
4.1 Overview 83
4.2 Introduction 83
4.3 Backgrounds 85
4.3.1 Smart grid 85
 Contents vii

4.3.2 Demand–response management 86

4.3.3 Complex systems 87
4.3.4 Learning-based approaches 87
4.4 A review of demand–response management in SG 87
4.4.1 Learning-based approaches 88
4.4.2 Complex system 90
4.4.3 Other techniques 92
4.5 Open-research problems and discussion 102
4.5.1 Open-research problems in learning system 102
4.5.2 Open-research problems in complex system 102
4.5.3 Open-research problems in other techniques 103
4.6 Conclusions 105
References 105

5 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid: a survey

and taxonomy 111
Waseem Akram and Muaz A. Niazi
5.1 Overview 111
5.2 Introduction 111
5.3 A review of multi-agent system to smart-grid application 113
5.3.1 Communication management 113
5.3.2 Demand–response management 117
5.3.3 Fault monitoring 121
5.3.4 Power scheduling 125
5.3.5 Storage and voltage management 129
5.4 Open research problems and discussion 134
5.5 Conclusions 137
References 138

6 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies: literature

review and cross comparisons 145
Agnese V. Ventrella, Giuseppe Piro, and Luigi Alfredo Grieco
6.1 Mapping the Internet topology 146
6.1.1 Interface level 147
6.1.2 Router level 151
6.1.3 AS level 152
6.1.4 Geographic network topologies 154
6.2 Internet models based on the graph theory 154
6.2.1 Fundamental notions from the graph theory 155
6.2.2 Topology models 156
6.2.3 Topology generator tools 158
6.3 Shortest path models 160
6.3.1 Parameters definition 160
viii Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.3.2 Shortest path models 161

6.3.3 Cross-comparison among shortest path models 162
6.3.4 Shortest path models applications 163
6.4 Conclusion 167
Acknowledgment 167
References 168

Part III Case studies and more

7 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 175

Homero Toral-Cruz, Al-Sakib Khan Pathan, and Julio C. Ramírez Pacheco
7.1 Introduction 175
7.2 Modern communication networks: from simple packet network to
multiservice network 177
7.3 Voice over IP (VoIP) and quality of service (QoS) 179
7.3.1 Basic structure of a VoIP system 179
7.3.2 VoIP frameworks: H.323 and SIP 181
7.3.3 Basic concepts of QoS 186
7.3.4 QoS assessment 186
7.3.5 Oneway delay 188
7.3.6 Jitter 188
7.3.7 Packetloss rate 189
7.4 Self-similarity processes in modern communication networks 192
7.4.1 Self-similar processes 192
7.4.2 Haar wavelet-based decomposition and Hurst index
estimation 194
7.5 QoS parameters modeling on VoIP traffic 195
7.5.1 Jitter modeling by self-similar and multifractal processes 195
7.5.2 Packet-loss modeling by Markov models 200
7.5.3 Packet-loss simulation and proposed model 202
7.6 Conclusions 204
References 205

8 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study:

Internet of Things 209
Komal Batool and Muaz A. Niazi
8.1 Introduction 209
8.1.1 Agent-based modeling framework 210
8.1.2 Agent-based simulator 211
8.1.3 Case study: 5G networks and Internet of Things 213
8.1.4 Results and discussion 221
8.1.5 Conclusion 229
 Contents ix

8.2 Validated agent-based modeling level case study: Internet of

Things 229
8.2.1 Introduction 229
8.2.2 Validated agent-based level 230
8.2.3 Case study: 5G networks and Internet of Things 233
8.2.4 Results and discussion 235
8.2.5 Validation discussion 236
8.2.6 Conclusion 236
References 237

9 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 239

Hasina Attaullah, Urva Latif, and Kashif Ali
9.1 Introduction 239
9.2 Background and literature review 240
9.2.1 CAS literature 240
9.2.2 Modeling and simulation of CACOONS 240
9.2.3 Chord P2P protocol 241
9.2.4 Hashing and key mapping 242
9.2.5 Node joining 242
9.2.6 Finger table 242
9.2.7 Stabilization 243
9.2.8 Performance of chord 245
9.2.9 PeerSim 245
9.2.10 Literature review 245
9.3 ODD model of a “Chord” 250
9.3.1 Purpose 251
9.3.2 Entities, state variables, and scales 251
9.3.3 Process overview and scheduling 252
9.3.4 Design concepts 252
9.3.5 Initialization 254
9.3.6 Input data 254
9.3.7 Sub-models 254
9.4 DREAM model of a “Chord” 254
9.4.1 Agent design 254
9.4.2 Activity diagrams 255
9.4.3 Flowchart 255
9.4.4 Pseudo-code based specification 256
9.5 Results and discussion 267
9.5.1 Metrics (table and description) 267
9.5.2 PeerSim results 269
9.5.3 ABM results 270
9.5.4 Comparison of PeerSim and ABM 271
9.5.5 DREAM network models 272
x Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

9.5.6 Discussion (ODD vs. DREAM pros and cons of both)

and which is more useful for modeling the chosen P2P
protocol 278
9.5.7 Chord and theory of computation 280
9.6 Conclusions and future work 280
References 280

10 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer

protocol 285
Hammad-Ur-Rehman and Muhammad Qasim Mehboob
10.1 Introduction 285
10.2 Background and literature review 286
10.2.1 Complex adaptive systems 287
10.2.2 Cognitive agent-based computing 287
10.2.3 Complex network modeling 287
10.2.4 Architecture of the “Kademlia” protocol 287
10.2.5 Literature review 292
10.3 Model design 298
10.3.1 ODD model of “Kademlia” 299
10.3.2 Overview 299
10.3.3 Design concept 299
10.3.4 Details 300
10.3.5 Activity diagrams of “Kademlia” 301
10.3.6 DREAM model of “Kademlia” 301
10.3.7 Network model 301
10.3.8 Pseudo-code description 301
10.4 Results and discussion 313
10.4.1 Evaluation metrics 313
10.4.2 Power law plots of centrality measures 313
10.4.3 PeerSim simulation using existing code in PeerSim 314
10.4.4 ABM simulation 323
10.4.5 Comparison of PeerSim and ABM results 325
10.4.6 Discussion 325
10.5 Conclusion and future work 328
References 328

11 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “BitTorrent” P2P protocol 333

Abdul Saboor, Nasir Khan, and Mubariz Rehman
11.1 Introduction 333
11.1.1 Contributions 335
11.2 Background and literature review 336
11.2.1 Complex adaptive systems 336
11.2.2 Modeling and simulation of CACOONS 337
 Contents xi

11.3 BitTorrent peer-to-peer protocol 338

11.3.1 BitTorrent history overview 339
11.3.2 Content publishing in BitTorrent 340
11.3.3 Joining swarm and peers discovery in BitTorrent 340
11.3.4 Delivery procedure BitTorrent 340
11.3.5 BitTorrent architecture and working 341
11.4 BitTorrent literature review 343
11.4.1 PeerSim 348
11.5 Model design 349
11.5.1 ODD approach 349
11.5.2 Overview of the proposed model 351
11.5.3 DREAM model 354
11.5.4 Pseudocode-based specification 356
11.5.5 Globals 357
11.5.6 Procedures 358
11.5.7 Experiments 362
11.5.8 Results and discussions 365
11.5.9 PeerSim results 366
11.5.10 ABM results 366
11.5.11 Comparison of both 367
11.5.12 DREAM network models 369
11.6 Discussion (ODD vs DREAM) 375
11.7 Conclusion 376
References 376

12 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 381

Bisma S. Khan and Muaz A. Niazi
12.1 Introduction 381
12.2 Background 382
12.2.1 Social networks—an overview 382
12.2.2 Citation networks 383
12.2.3 Co-citation networks 383
12.2.4 Bibliographic coupling 383
12.2.5 Coauthorship networks 384
12.2.6 Co-occurrence networks 384
12.3 Materials and methods 384
12.3.1 Data collection 385
12.3.2 CiteSpace—a science mapping tool 385
12.4 Results and discussion 388
12.4.1 Cited-references co-citation network analysis 388
12.4.2 Authors collaboration network analysis 393
12.4.3 Institution collaboration network analysis 396
12.4.4 Country collaboration network analysis 400
12.4.5 Keywords co-occurrence network analysis 403
xii Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

12.4.6 Category co-occurrence network analysis 405

12.4.7 Journal co-citation network analysis 409
12.5 Summary of results 409
12.6 Conclusions and future work 410
References 411

Index 413
 Preface

Thank you for choosing “Modeling and Simulation for Complex Networks.” This book
offers a unique set of chapters and case studies employing the use of various disparate
techniques for the modeling and simulation of complex communication networks.
Rather than focus on simplistic models using simple numerical simulations, the book
focuses instead on tools and techniques which can be used for the realistic modeling of
large-scale and complex communication networks—termed collectively as Complex
Adaptive COmmunicatiOn Networks and environmentS (CACOONS).
The book has been logically sectioned in three parts. The first part focuses on
the importance of modeling and simulation and also gives two varied examples of
unconventional but powerful tools which can be useful for any type of modeling and
simulation, in general, and modeling and simulation of CACOONS, in particular.
This is followed by the second part which presents three critical reviews and
surveys in the domain of modeling and simulation. The third part of the book focuses
on practical case studies of modeling and simulation using different techniques. Of
interest here is a focus on the use of the Cognitive Agent-based Computing (CABC1 )
framework. CABC framework can be used to model any type of complex physical
system or complex adaptive system (CAS). As such, it can be a very useful approach to
model and simulate any type of CACOONS. The third part presents several practical
case studies employing the use of CABC framework in various areas of CACOONS.
Next, I give an overview of the various chapters in a bit more detail.
The first part starts with the essence and importance of “Modeling and Simula-
tion,” presented by Ören et al. The chapter not only gives an overview of modeling
and simulation but also presents taxonomies. The chapter first gives an overview of
why simulation could be needed instead of an actual system. Then it moves on to
taxonomies and ontologies for use in modeling and simulation.
The next chapter in part I presents a detailed overview of using Simio, a modern,
sophisticated object-oriented tool for developing simulations of complex real-world
systems. The chapter first starts out with an overview of the Simio object framework.
This is followed by a description of Simio object classes. Next, concepts related
to modeling movement are presented. This can be transformed to model not only
messages in the Internet of Things but also people, mobile devices, and more. A
description of modeling physical components is also presented. This is followed by
techniques for modeling processes. The chapter concludes by giving an overview of
process tables, API, experimentation, and useful applications in scheduling.

1
Pronounced as Ka-bek.
xiv Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Part I of the third chapter by Salva et al. presents a simulation environment for
cybersecurity attack analysis for network traffic. The chapter gives an overview of
simulation, emulation, and virtualization. After this, a network case study focusing
on network anomaly detection is presented.
In the second part, there are three critical reviews, each analyzing key literature
related to modeling and simulation in the domain of modeling CACOONS of various
kinds. The first survey by Akram and Niazi presents demand response management
in the domain of smart grid. The chapter first gives an overview of smart grid and how
this particular domain offers unique challenges to develop and understand by means
of modeling and simulation. It next presents an overview of the problem domain of
demand–response management in large-scaled CACOONS in the domain of smart
grid. In terms of approaches, the chapter first presents learning-based approaches.
Subsequently, it focuses on the complexity inherent to smart grid domain. Before
concluding, the chapter then moves on to open research problems and directions in
the domain.
The second chapter in the second part is by Akram and Niazi focusing on the
use of agent-based computing, multiagent systems, and agent-based modeling in
the domain of smart grid. It starts with an overview of the concepts and moves to
applications ranging from learning to more. It concludes after giving an overview of
key-open problems and issues in the domain.
The final chapter in second part is by Ventrella et al. This chapter focuses on the
scale-free network topologies giving a detailed overview as well as literature review
and more. The chapter starts with an overview of concepts pertaining to mapping
the Internet. It then gives concepts of using traceroute to mapping. This is followed
by IP options, subnet discovery, and router-level mapping. The chapter then presents
internet models with a focus on graph theoretic approaches. It gives an overview
of relevant concepts ranging from the basics to topological concepts such as scale-
free, power-law, among others. An overview of network topology generation is also
presented. Afterwards, the chapter moves on to the key topic of interest—namely
shortest path models.
In the final part of the book, six modeling and simulation case studies are pre-
sented. The studies have been selected based on the criteria that first, these will be
of interest not only to modelers and simulation experts but also to researchers and
practitioners in the domain of complex communication and social networks.
The first chapter in the part is focused on the important topic of accurate modeling
of VoIP traffic in modern communication networks by Toral-Cruz et al. The chapter
starts by giving an overview of the importance and complexity in VoIP traffic in
large-scale networks. It next presents the concepts of why modern networks have
evolved from simple packet networks to multiservice networks. Subsequently, the
chapter moves on to the importance of QoS in VoIP networks besides presenting VoIP
frameworks such as H.323 and SIP. It then formally describes and models concepts
related to QoS, one-way delay, jitter, self-similar processes, and more.
The second chapter in the last part presents implementation of two framework
levels from the CABC framework in the domain of Internet of Things. The chapter
starts with concepts related to the CABC framework and the simulator of choice.
 Preface xv

It then presents research questions in the domain of 5G and the IoT. It then presents
detailed results and discussion in the domain.
The third chapter in the part is by Attaullah et al. and focuses on the use of the
DescRiptivE Agent-based Modeling (DREAM) from the CABC framework for the
modeling and simulation of the Chord peer-to-peer (P2P) protocol. The chapter first
introduces the Chord protocol describing its inherent complexities requiring the use
of more advanced modeling and simulation techniques. After the description of chord
protocols, the chapter presents the DREAM for the protocol allowing for a quantitative
description using complex network centralities. The chapter also presents detailed
results from both PeerSim as well as NetLogo-based simulations besides comparing
DREAM with the previous approach—the so-called ODD approach originating from
the domain of ecology and having been traditionally used in the past to model agent-
based and individual-based models.
This is followed by another chapter employing the use of DREAM and ODD to
model a P2P protocol commonly known as the Kademlia protocol. The chapter first
gives an overview of the protocol and the challenges associated with the complexity
of P2P protocols. This is followed by ODD and DREAM models, results, discussion,
and a detailed comparison.
BitTorrent is a very commonly used P2P protocol in the real world. The next
chapter in the part presents the use of the DREAM modeling level of the CABC
framework for the modeling and simulation of the BitTorrent protocol. After pre-
senting the background and overview of the torrent protocol, the chapter presents a
BitTorrent case study for use in the simulation model. Next, ODD and DREAM are
presented before a set of detailed discussion on the utility of the CABC framework
in the modeling and simulation of CACOONS.
The final chapter in the book is by Khan and Niazi and presents the application of
CABC level 1—complex network modeling level for the use of complex citation net-
works to analyze the domain of “Social networks.” The chapter starts by introducing
related concepts focused on measuring impact, citations, and scientometrics. It then
presents the dataset retrieved for developing the complex citation networks. This is
followed by a detailed network analysis demonstrating how this approach can be used
to model, simulate, transform, and analyze various types of complex networks data.
The book presents first steps in the domain of consolidating material specifically
focused on the modeling and simulation of complex communication networks—
CACOONS. It presents a selection of key case studies as well as concepts with a
primary focus on making the concepts accessible to a wide audience. However, like
any text in such a large and vibrant domain, it is understandable that we were only
able to present a sampling of key case studies and modeling paradigms in the domain.
Readers are further recommended to follow Springer-Nature CASs Modeling journal
for gaining access to more case studies and applications in the domain of modeling
and simulation of complex communication networks—CACOONS.
While we have tried our level best to minimize errors, it is impossible to minimize
all errors. If the book looks nice, it is all due to the efforts put in by the IET staff. And
if there are any mistakes, I humbly accept them to be mine. As such, it is requested to
kindly do keep sending your valuable and kind feedback and comments to the book
editor at [email protected].
Part I
Modeling and simulation
 Chapter 1
Modeling and simulation: the essence and
increasing importance
Tuncer Ören1 , Saurabh Mittal2 , and Umut Durak3

The technical aspects of the essence of simulation are elaborated based on the
following definition: simulation is performing a goal-directed experimentation or
gaining experience under controlled conditions by using dynamic models either to
develop/enhance skills or for entertainment; where a dynamic model denotes a model
for which behaviour and/or structure is variable over time. Hence, experimentation
and experience aspects are explained. Several taxonomies, ontologies, and some
ontology-based dictionaries are cited for a comprehensive and integrative percep-
tion of simulation. Finally, the evolution and increasing importance of simulation is
explained.

1.1 Introduction
‘Simulation as a discipline is like mathematics and logic. It can be studied per se to
develop its own theories, methodologies, and tools, and it can be used in a multitude
of problem areas in many disciplines. The uses of simulation involve this second
aspect and make it a vital enabling technology for many disciplines’. The above is
from the conclusion section of another publication [1]. A recent publication ‘Guide
to Simulation-Based Disciplines: Advancing our Computational Future’ elaborates
on the universality of simulation [2], and another publication ‘The Profession of
Modeling and Simulation’ casts light on the professional aspect of simulation [3].
The clarifications given in this chapter on many aspects of simulation are relevant to
the universality of simulation.
The term simulation has been in existence in English since fourteenth century.
Its meaning is based on the concept of similarity. Depending on the goal of the
similarity, the original non-technical use of the term simulation has positive and
negative connotations. From a positive point of view, simulation implies imitation
such as simulated leather or simulated pearl. From a negative point of view, simulation

1
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
2
The MITRE Corporation, United States
3
German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, Germany
4 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

implies disguised reality, e.g. counterfeit, feigning, false show, and hypocrisy. Later,
the term simulation acquired technical meanings. However, still the term is also used
with its original non-technical connotations. To denote its technical aspects, we use
the following concise and comprehensive definition:

Simulation is performing goal-directed experimentation, or gaining expe-

rience under controlled conditions by using dynamic models either to
develop/enhance skills, or for entertainment; where a dynamic model
denotes a model for which behaviour and/or structure is variable over time.

Due to its many aspects, there are many definitions of simulation. About 100 defini-
tions of simulation were compiled and presented in nine categories by Ören [4], and
a critical review of them was offered in a sequel publication [5]. As a testimony of the
variety of simulation, Appendix A lists over 750 types of simulation. Appendix B, a
list of 120 types of input variables, is yet another testimony of the richness of the field.
M&S is essentially composed of two separate activities: modelling and simula-
tion. While modelling necessitates abstraction, simulation is purely an engineering
activity that involves expertise from computer science and engineering discipline [2].
When we talk of simulation as a singular activity, it subsumes model building. From
historical evidence, model building has been attempted by various non-technical
means and a constant engagement with the problem-at-hand or the question under
exploration. Model development has been undertaken in different disciplines in
diverse manner. Some examples are as follows:
● Engineering: Model building is done for two purposes: design and control.
The design aspect involves creating model(s) of a ‘would be’ system. The con-
trol aspect necessitates building the model of an ‘existing system’ that needs
exploration of various control algorithms and mechanisms.
● Science: Model building is done to understand a natural phenomenon. New
nomenclature, taxonomy, vocabulary and abstractions are developed. The crit-
ical part is the specification of assumptions that limit the complexity of real
world in the model description.
● Education: Model building is done to explain, teach, understand, or learn a real-
world phenomenon. The abstraction level is dependent upon the audience that is
undergoing learning.
● Training: Model building is done to impart training or enhance skills (motor,
decision-making and communication, and operation) of the trainee in a specific
complex environment where it is cost prohibitive to involve real-world assets and
systems.
● Entertainment: Model building is done to provide a fictional reality in real or
staged environments for amusement purposes.
● Decision support: Model building is done to evaluate various courses of action
of a real-world state of a system on an existing model. In such cases, it is cost
prohibitive to perform real-world evaluation due to danger to life and property.
In all the disciplines mentioned above, model building incorporates the skill of devel-
oping abstractions. The determination of an abstraction level is contingent upon
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 5

various factors such as the problem-at-hand, the desired goal, the available tools,
and the available knowledge. For example, in each economic era, from the age of
farming to Industrial Age and to the Information Era we currently are in, the prob-
lems, the desired goals, the tools, and the availability of knowledge have evolved,
leading to new representation of models. Some models that describe the natural laws
have withstood the test of time for example Newton Laws developed in eighteenth
century, and sometimes, a completely known theory developed in twentieth century
such as quantum mechanics fundamentally changes the perception of reality. Each
economic era has led to the evolution of these four aspects and, consequently, model
building has evolved accordingly. Model building takes its refuge in mathematics
at the core level and involves constant subject–environment engagement to keep the
developed abstractions attuned to the problem-at-hand. In times, today, much of the
model development has moved to computerized workbenches, often called integrated
development environments that bridge the gap between the model builder and the
model representation.
The simulation activity builds upon the model-building activity and presents
the challenge of running the model over time. In a computational environment, a
simulator (a software entity) is tasked with managing the advancement of time. In
a non-computational environment, the perception of movement of time becomes a
critical factor in determining how effective the simulation is. For example, in a stage or
theatre, if the modelled ‘act’is executed in slower time or faster than real time, it would
yield a completely different experience to the audience. Likewise, in a computational
environment, the advancement of time delivers results that may or may not address
the problem-at-hand. Handling time on an appropriate time base then becomes a
paramount activity in simulation.
In the following sections, the following is done. Experimentation aspects of
simulation are discussed in Section 1.2. In Section 1.3, experience aspects to
develop/enhance three types of skills or for entertainment are discussed. Taxonomies
and ontologies of simulation are mentioned in Section 1.4. Evolution and increasing
importance of simulation is discussed in Section 1.5, and last section is for conclusion.

1.2 Experimentation aspects of simulation

From experimentation aspect, a concise definition of simulation is as follows: simu-
lation is a goal-directed experimentation with dynamic models. Experimental condi-
tions can be formally specified by experimental frames [6] and by experimentation
scenarios.
Since Francis Bacon’s Novum Organum (The New Organon) published in 1620,
experimentation has been the essence of scientific approach. Simulation extends the
scope of experimentation to many cases:

1. Real system may not exist (as in engineering problems where new systems are
aimed to be built).
2. Real system may not be reachable for experimentation (e.g. testing lunar
vehicles).
6 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

3. Experimentation on real system may be dangerous (e.g. testing nuclear detonation

or simulation of forest fires).
4. Experimentation on real system may not be convenient (e.g. urban traffic
simulation, instead of experimenting on the real system).
5. Experimentation on real system may not be convenient time-wise (economic
systems would necessitate long time for experimentation, and some natural
phenomena would be too fast to observe).
6. Experimentation on real system may not be cost-effective. Furthermore, testing
a virtual prototype (via simulation) allows flexibility in finding optimal design.
Simulated experiments are used for description/explanation, decision support, explo-
ration, and teaching/learning. For decision support alone, simulation can be used
for the prediction of behaviour and/or performance, test of hypotheses about models
or experimental conditions, sensitivity analysis of behaviour or performances, vir-
tual prototyping, planning, acquisition, testing, and proof of concepts, as well as for
evaluation of alternative models and experimental conditions. Since experimentation
aspect of simulation is very widely used, several publications exist [7,8].

1.3 Experience aspects of simulation

Gaining experience under controlled conditions using dynamic models is one of the
major motivations of simulation [9]. Experimentation aspect includes two major use
cases: (a) training to develop or enhance skills and (b) entertainment. These use cases
will be further elaborated in the following sections.

1.3.1 Simulation for training

Simulation is used in training to enhance or develop three types of skills, namely motor
skills, decision-making skills, and operational skills. These application areas lead
the community to a taxonomy of simulations: live simulations for operational skills,
virtual simulations for motor skills, and constructive simulations for decision-making
skills.
In live simulations, real people use real (or imitation) equipment in the real world.
It puts the real equipment at work interconnected with computers where the assessment
of trainee actions is conducted by computer algorithms [10]. They are used to train
operational skills by using real life-like experience under controlled conditions. Live
simulation has been a major method in defence for training warfighting techniques and
tactics which inevitably require large number of assets and personal. With the advances
in information and communication technologies, the trainings started to make use of
virtual and constructive simulations to achieve a cost-effective mixture [11].
Following the definitions given by Ören in [7], in virtual simulations, real people
use virtual equipment in virtual environments in order to enhance motor skills to gain
proficiency in using the equipment. Typical examples of this type are flight simulators
which have long been establishing training aids in aviation. Link trainer (sometimes
called Blue Box) (Figure 1.1) is recognized as one of the first flight simulators. Ten
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 7

Figure 1.1 Link trainer in a US Army Air Force field

thousand link trainers were manufactured from 1934 to 1950 [12]. They provided
means for training basic motor skill for pilots. The current flight simulator market is
about USD 6 Billion and 2021 forecast is about USD 7.5 Billon [13].
In constructive simulation, simulated people use simulated equipment in virtual
environment. The aim is to enhance decision-making and communication skills of
trainees through interactions with the simulation systems. Air traffic control simu-
lation systems are one of the typical examples [14]. Simulated pilots use simulated
aircrafts in air traffic control simulation systems where the simulation provides the
possibility to train controllers for decision-making and communication skills. One of
the commercial-off-the-shelf products is MaxSim – air traffic control simulators from
Adacel which can generate realistic air traffic based on defined scenarios and provides
direct voice communication possibilities with virtual pilots via speech recognition
features [15].
One of the key issues of simulation-based training is transfer of training which
is defined as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the trained skills in real
operation [16]. The research about transfer of training in flight simulators has quite
a long history. Valverde has published a paper in 1973 that provides a review of
flight simulator transfer of training studies since the 1950s [17]. In one of the recent
studies, Pool and Zaal present a cybernetic approach to assess the transfer of training
for manual control skills in flight simulators using multi-channel pilot models [18].
The fidelity, immersion, presence, and buy-in are defined as the four factors that drive
the transfer of training [19]. Fidelity is defined as the extent to which the simulation
matches the real world. While the immersion is the feeling of the individual to be
absorbed by the experience, in the situated immersion, the presence is defined as the
subjective experience of existence within the simulation [20]. Buy-in is eventually
the user’s acceptance of the experience as a useful training event.
8 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

1.3.2 Simulation for entertainment

Simulation is one of the key concepts of entertainment. It is not only used for interac-
tive entertainment purposes such as computer games but also for computer-generated
animation. With the advances in computer architectures, the interactive entertain-
ment industry started to work on high quality motion synthesis, and physics-based
simulation emerged as a field of study [21]. It was first referred as the study of the
motion of virtual objects using the laws of motion. It evolved in years and now cov-
ers rigid body dynamics to impact and collision, deformable bodies to soft bodies,
fluids and gasses to crowd simulation [22]. During the last decade, physics engines
which can be defined as reusable simulation libraries for interactive entertainment
became popular [23]. One of the well-employed open-source physics engines is Bullet
Physics Library [24]. Its features include rigid-body and soft-body simulation and
collision detection. Integrations plug-ins are available for bullet in order to use it
with Autodesk® Maya [25] or Blender [26] 3D computer graphics software. Well-
known computer games that utilize Bullet for physics simulations include Red Dead
Redemption [27] from Rockstar Games and Toy Story 3 [28] from Disney Interactive
Studios. PhysX [29] has been introduced as a proprietary real-time multi-platform
game physics solution by NVIDIA. It also provides simulation-driven effects such
as destruction or cloth simulation. Havok [30] is another major commercial multi-
platform multi-threaded physics simulation library for interactive entertainment. It
has been used in more than 400 games that have been published. In an ecosystem with
various physical simulation, application programming interfaces exist; there is also
an effort, namely Physics Abstraction Layer, which provide a high-level interface for
various physics simulation libraries [31].
Physics-based simulation methods that are employed in interactive entertain-
ment are also well-applicable in computer-generated animation to synthesize motion
of objects. Non-real-time characteristics of physics-based simulations in animation
applications allow further resolution in modelled behaviour. One of the recent exam-
ples is artistic simulation of curly hair by Disney/Pixar [32]. It has been used for
animating Merida [33] in a famous animation film Brave [34]. Open source 3D ani-
mation software Blender also provides many physics-based simulation features such
as fluids, smoke, cloth, or hair simulation. Reference [35] from Mullen which titled
as ‘Bounce, tumble, and splash!: simulating the physical world with Blender 3D’ can
be introduced as a reference book about physics-based simulation in Blender.

1.4 Taxonomies and ontologies of simulation

1.4.1 Background
Taxonomy, as the science of classification, is an indispensable aspect of scientific
studies and is concerned with finding, describing, classifying, and naming of things.
For example, taxonomies of plants and animals identify logical relationships of dif-
ferent species. In animal taxonomy, a living organism is assigned successively in a
kingdom, a phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Another example is tax-
onomy of learning and Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives [36]. Taxonomy of
learning and Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives are particularly important
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 9

in simulation-based learning/teaching [37]. This importance is due to the fact that

simulation-based disciplines are proliferating and teaching/learning them may satisfy
different goals and hence should be targeted properly [2,9].
As a branch of metaphysics, ontology is concerned with the nature and relations
of beings and deals with abstract entities.
Ontology-based dictionaries combine classification of entities and their def-
initions [38]. They show logical relationships of several related terms as well as
their definitions; hence, they are helpful in teaching/understanding even the subtle
differences of related terms.
1.4.2 Taxonomies of simulation
Perception of the big picture and richness of simulation [7,39,40] as well as dis-
criminating the subtle differences in its many aspects would help appreciating many
possibilities it offers. Due to the increasing importance, versatility, and high vari-
ety of simulation, several classification studies already exist. These taxonomies can
be conceived under the following major groups: taxonomies of simulation, simula-
tion languages, simulation software, simulation models, behaviour and processing of
simulation models, simulation quality assurance, and elements of simulation models
and simulation-based experimentations as well as simulation-based experiences. The
taxonomies represent state of the art at the time of their preparations with rooms for
future developments.
Taxonomies of simulation were developed by Ören [41] and Sulistio et al. [42]. The last
one was reviewed by Ören [43]. Maier and Größler [44] developed a taxonomy of
computer simulations to support learning about socio-economic systems. Roeder’s
Ph.D. thesis is on a taxonomy for discrete event simulations [45].
Taxonomies of simulation languages: An early taxonomy of simulation languages
was developed by Ören [46]. Two updated versions of taxonomy of simulation
languages are also by Ören [47,48].
Taxonomies of simulation software: A survey on taxonomies of discrete simulation
software is prepared recently by Rachidi [49].
Taxonomies of simulation models: An early taxonomy of simulation models was pub-
lished by Ören [50]. A taxonomy of symbolic processing of simulation models was
published in 1987 [51]. Fishwick prepared a taxonomy of simulation modelling
[52]. Hare and Deadman published a taxonomy of agent-based simulation models
in environmental management [53]. A review of it was prepared by Ören [54].
Taxonomies of multimodels are prepared by Yilmaz and Ören [55] and by Ören
et al. [56]. Lynch and Diallo prepared a taxonomy for classifying terminologies
that describe simulations with multiple models [57]. Smith elaborates on the value
of taxonomy in modelling [58].
Taxonomies of behaviour of simulation models: A taxonomy of types, as well as gen-
eration and processing techniques of model behaviour was prepared by Ören [59].
Taxonomy of more specific topics: As an example, an early taxonomy of input vari-
ables can be cited [60]. Wenzel et al. published a taxonomy of visualization
techniques for simulation in production and logistics [61]. Le Digabel and Wild
have a taxonomy of constraints in simulation-based optimization [62]. Goldstein
and Khan prepared a taxonomy of event-time representations [63].
10 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Due to the richness of modelling and simulation and its relationship with other
relevant disciplines, several other taxonomies of specific topics will be useful. Even
the most fundamental concepts have several terms to represent nuances. For example,
there are over 150 terms related with ‘variables’, over 90 terms related with ‘values’,
and over 1,000 terms related with or representing types of models (M&S Bok Index
studies). To attest the richness of the field two appendices are given. Appendix A is a
list of over 750 types of simulation and Appendix B is a list of 120 types of input.
1.4.3 Ontologies of simulation
Silver et al. prepared an ontology for discrete-event modelling and simulation [64].
The book edited by Tolk [65] is a very good source of information about simulation
ontologies. From Tolk’s book, the following are noteworthy contributions to simu-
lation ontology: Partridge et al. [66]; Hofmann [67]; Heath and Jackson [68]; and
Wang et al. [69]. An ontology for simulation systems engineering is developed by
Durak and Ören [70].
An ontology-based dictionary of multimodels was prepared by Ören, Mittal, and
Durak [9]. An ontology-based dictionary of machine understanding can be used for
simulating systems with understanding abilities including systems able to understand
emotions [38].
As a normative view, we think that development of new and updated as well
as more diversified taxonomies, ontologies, and ontology-based dictionaries may be
useful for learning several aspects of simulation, since it is progressing very rapidly
and becoming infrastructure for many disciplines.

1.5 Evolution and increasing importance of simulation

A recent publication [9] clarifies nine phases of the evolution of simulation and
documents the vital role of simulation for many disciplines:
1. In the pre-computer days, simulation started as non-computerized simulation
such as thought experiments, role-playing, and sand-box simulation.
2. Computerized simulation was an important step in the evolution of simulation.
At the beginning, the role of computers was limited to generation of model’s
behaviour (mostly trajectory and, sometimes, structural). With the advent of
more powerful computers and maturity of simulation, computers were also used
for the specification of simulation study as well as for other functions [71].
3. Contribution of system theories to simulation was the essence of formal
simulation [72] especially in DEVS (Discrete Event System Specification) [73].
4. Contribution of machine intelligence (or artificial intelligence – AI) opens a new
dimension for the full synergy of simulation and AI which consists of contribution
of simulation to AI and contribution of AI to simulation. At the beginning, AI
studies started as the simulation of natural intelligence [74,75]. Contribution of
AI to simulation provided advanced (intelligent) knowledge-processing abilities
to simulation systems [76].
5. Software agents are associated with the concept of autonomy (or quasi-
autonomy). Similar to the synergy of simulation andAI, full synergy of simulation
and software agents opened the possibility of agent-directed simulation which
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 11

consists of contribution of simulation to agents or agent-based simulation

where intelligent and autonomous entities can be simulated and contributions
of agents to simulation. The second aspect consists of contribution of agents dur-
ing run-time, such as agent-monitored simulation, and contribution of agents
to the simulation systems such as simulation systems with several types of
understanding abilities [77].
6. When advances of computing reached the level of soft computing, fuzzy
computation, evolutionary computation including genetic algorithms, Bayesian
computation, and machine learning were part of the possibilities of computation.
The contribution of soft computing to simulation is soft simulation.
7. Two types of complexity, namely complexity of simulation systems and especially
complexity of simulands, laid the path to the synergy of simulation systems engi-
neering [78]. Indeed, simulation systems engineering provides a proper paradigm
for simulation to tackle complex problems.
8. Many advantages of experimentation and experience aspects of simulation are
the essence of simulation-based activities which provide an indispensable and
often a vital infrastructure for many disciplines. A recent volume, ‘Guide to
Simulation-Based Disciplines: Advancing our Computational Future’ by Mittal
et al. [2] covers in depth this phase of simulation.
9. Widespread availability and hence usage of simulation-as-a-service (SaaS) is a
desirable phase for the maturity of the simulation discipline. This would also
increase the usability and hence usefulness of simulation among many who are
expert in their field of specialization but not in simulation techniques [79]. SaaS
can be used by human users as well as by advanced agent-monitored systems.
The evolution of simulation at each phase of advancement brought to its users more
and more advanced and powerful possibilities in simulation-based problem solving.
Hence, the shift of paradigm from model-based approach [80] to simulation-based
approach [9] appears to be very beneficial for many disciplines.

1.6 Conclusion
Experimentation and experience aspects of simulation have already made it an
invaluable infrastructure for many disciplines and application areas. In this chapter,
evolution and increasing importance of simulation are elaborated after clarifications
of its experimentation and experience aspects. A comprehensive and integrative view
of simulation would be helpful to appreciate many advantages it offers. For this rea-
son, many taxonomies and ontologies and some ontology-based dictionaries are also
presented.

Disclaimer
The author’s affiliation with The MITRE Corporation is provided for identification
purposes only, and is not intended to convey or imply MITRE’s concurrence with,
or support for, the positions, opinions or viewpoints expressed by the author(s).
Approved for Public Release, Distribution Unlimited [Case Number: PR_17-3254-2].
12 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Appendix A – A list of over 750 types of simulation

3-d simulation agent-monitored artistic simulation
simulation as-fast-as-possible
A– agent simulation simulation
ab initio simulation agent-supported asymmetric simulation
abstract simulation multisimulation asynchronous simulation
academic simulation agent-supported atomistic simulation
accelerated simulation simulation audio simulation
accurate simulation agent-triggered augmented live
acoustic simulation simulation simulation
activity-based simulation aggregate-level augmented physical
actor-based simulation simulation simulation
ad hoc distributed agile simulation augmented-reality
simulation AI-controlled simulation simulation
adaptive simulation AI-directed simulation augmented simulation
adaptive symbiotic all-digital analog autopoietic simulation
multisimulation simulation autosimulation
adaptive-system all-digital simulation autotelic system
simulation all-software simulation simulation
adiabatic-system allopoietic simulation
simulation allotelic system B–
advanced distributed simulation backward simulation
simulation ALSP-compliant base case simulation
advanced numerical simulation baseline scenario
simulation alternative simulation simulation
advanced simulation analog-computer baseline simulation
agent-based simulation batch simulation
multisimulation analog multilevel behaviourally adaptive
agent-based participatory simulation simulation
simulation analog simulation behaviourally
agent-based simulation analytic simulation anticipatory
agent-controlled analytical simulation multisimulation
simulation ancestor simulation behaviourally
agent-coordinated anticipatory anticipatory simulation
simulation multisimulation big simulation
agent-directed simulation anticipatory perceptual bio-inspired simulation
agent-initiated simulation simulation bio-nano simulation
agent-mediated anticipatory simulation biologically inspired
simulation appropriate simulation simulation
agent-monitored approximate simulation biomimetic simulation
anticipatory approximate biosimulation
multisimulation zero-variance simulation bisimulation
agent-monitored array simulation blended learning
multisimulation art-directed simulation simulation
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 13

blended simulation combined conservative parallel

block-oriented simulation continuous/discrete simulation
bond graph simulation simulation conservative simulation
boundary value combined simulation constrained simulation
simulation combined-system constructive simulation
branched simulation simulation constructive training
built-in simulation common-use simulation simulation
communal simulation context-free simulation
competition simulation continuous-change
C–
competitive simulation simulation
case-based simulation
complete simulation continuous simulation
catastrophic simulation
component-based continuous-system
cellular automaton
collaborated simulation simulation
simulation
component-based continuous-time
centre-based simulation
distributed simulation simulation
chaotic simulation
component-based continuous-time
classical simulation
simulation continuous simulation
closed-form simulation component simulation
closed-loop real-time conventional simulation
composable simulation convergence simulation
simulation composite simulation
closed-loop simulation convergent boundary
compressed-time simulation
cloud-based simulation simulation
cloud-hosted simulation convergent simulation
computational simulation converging simulation
cloud simulation computer-aided
cluster simulation cooperation simulation
simulation cooperative simulation
coercible simulation computer-assisted
coercion simulation coopetition simulation
simulation coopetitive simulation
coercivity simulation computer-based
coersing simulation cosimulation
simulation
cognitive simulation coupled simulation
computer-mediated
cokriging simulation credible simulation
simulation
collaborative critical-event simulation
computer-network
component-based crowd simulation
simulation
simulation customizable simulation
computer simulation
collaborative DEVS customized simulation
computerized simulation
simulation cyber-physical system
conceptual simulation
collaborative simulation
concurrent simulation
distributed-simulation cycle-based simulation
condensed-time
collaborative simulation simulation
collaborative virtual conditional Monte Carlo D–
simulation simulation data-driven simulation
collocated cokriging conditional simulation data-intensive simulation
simulation conjoint simulation decision simulation
collocated cosimulation conservative event demon-controlled
collocated simulation simulation simulation
14 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

DES (Discrete Event distributed event-driven evaluative simulation

Simulation) simulation event-based agent
descriptive simulation distributed heterogeneous simulation
detached eddy simulation simulation event-based discrete
deterministic simulation distributed interactive simulation
DEVS simulation simulation event-based simulation
difference equation distributed lazy event-driven simulation
simulation simulation event-following
digital-analog simulation distributed-parameter simulation
digital-computer system simulation event-oriented simulation
simulation distributed real-time event-scheduling
digital quantum simulation simulation
simulation distributed simulation evolutionary simulation
digital simulation distributed web-based evolutionary-system
direct numerical simulation simulation
simulation DNA-based simulation ex ante simulation
direct simulation dynamic data-driven ex post simulation
DIS (Distributed simulation ex situ simulation
Interactive Simulation) dynamic simulation exascale simulation
disconnected simulation dynamic system expanded-time simulation
discontinuous simulation simulation explanatory simulation
discrete-arithmetic-based dynamically composable exploration simulation
simulation simulation exploratory
discrete-change multisimulation
simulation
E– exploratory-
discrete-event line
eddy simulation multisimulation
simulation
edge simulation methodology
discrete-event simulation
emergence simulation exploratory simulation
discrete simulation
emergency egress extensible simulation
discrete-system
simulation extreme scale simulation
simulation
emergent behaviour extrinsic simulation
discrete-time continuous
simulation simulation
discrete-time simulation emergent simulation F–
discrete-variable emulation fast simulation
simulation optimization endomorphic simulation fair simulation
display-based simulation engineering simulation fault simulation
dissimilar simulation entertainment simulation fault-tolerant simulation
dissimulation entity-level simulation faulty simulation
distributed agent equation-oriented federated simulation
simulation simulation field simulation
distributed asymmetric error-controlled finite-state machine
simulation simulation simulation
distributed DEVS escapist simulation first-degree simulation
simulation ethical simulation fixed-topology simulation
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 15

flattened G-DEVS goal-processing system human-machine

simulation simulation simulation
flattened simulation goal-setting system hybrid computer
fluid simulation simulation simulation
forward multisimulation goal-determined hybrid simulation
full cosimulation simulation
full-immersive simulation goal-regression I–
full-system simulation simulation ideal-seeking simulation
fully coupled simulation goal-seeking simulation identity simulation
functional simulation graphical simulation immersive simulation
fuzzy simulation grid-based simulation imperative-driven
fuzzy [system] simulation grid simulation simulation
G– importance-sampling-
gate-level simulation H– based
Gaussian copula hand simulation simulation
simulation hands-on simulation in-basket simulation
Gaussian distribution hard simulation in context simulation
simulation hardware-in-the-loop in silico simulation
Gaussian random simulation in situ simulation
function simulation heterogeneous simulation in the large simulation
Gaussian sequential hierarchical simulation in the small simulation
simulation high-fidelity simulation in vitro simulation
Gaussian simulation high-level simulation in vivo simulation
gedanken simulation high-performance inappropriate simulation
general purpose simulation incremental simulation
distributed simulation high-resolution indirect simulation
generalized mixed-mode simulation individual-based
simulation high-speed simulation simulation
generalized simulation historical simulation individual simulation
generative HLA-based simulation inductive simulation
multisimulation HLA-compliant industrial scale
generative parallax simulation simulation
simulation holistic simulation instructional simulation
generative simulation holographic simulation integrated simulation
generic simulation holonic agent simulation intelligent simulation
genetic-algorithm holonic simulation intelligent-system
simulation holonic [system] simulation
goal-directed system simulation interaction-based
simulation human-centred simulation
goal-free simulation simulation interactive simulation
goal-generating system human-in-the-loop interactive graphical
simulation simulation simulation
goal-oriented system human-initiated intermittent simulation
simulation simulation interoperable simulation
16 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

interpretational loosely coupled federated mobile-device initiated

simulation simulation simulation
interpretive simulation low-fidelity simulation mobile-device-triggered
interval-oriented low-level simulation simulation
simulation ludic simulation mobile simulation
intractable simulation mock simulation
intrinsic simulation M– model-based simulation
introspective simulation machine-centred modular simulation
inverse ontomimetic simulation Monte Carlo simulation
simulation machine simulation moving-boundary
inverse simulation maintenance simulation simulation
man-centred simulation multiagent-based
J– man-in-the-loop simulation
joint simulation simulation multiagent
man-machine simulation participatory-simulation
man-machine [system] multiagent-based
K– simulation simulation
knowledge-based manual simulation multiagent simulation
simulation Markov chain simulation multiagent-supported
kriging simulation Markov simulation simulation
massive-scale simulation multiaspect
L– massively multiplayer multisimulation
L-system simulation simulation multiaspect simulation
laboratory simulation mathematical simulation multibody simulation
large eddy simulation mental simulation multilevel simulation
large-scale simulation mesh-based simulation multilingual simulation
large simulation meshfree simulation multimedia-enriched
lazy simulation mesoscale simulation simulation
lean simulation metamodel-based multimedia simulation
legacy simulation simulation multimethod simulation
library-driven simulation metamorphic simulation multiparadigm simulation
Lindenmayer [system] metasimulation multiperspective
simulation microanalytic simulation simulation
line-of-sight simulation microcomputer multiphysics simulation
linear [system] simulation simulation multiplayer simulation
live instrumented microgrid simulation multiple-fidelity
simulation microsimulation simulation
live simulation mission-level simulation multiple-run simulation
live system-enriching mission rehearsal multiprocessor simulation
simulation simulation multirate simulation
live system-supporting mixed-mode simulation multiresolution
simulation mixed-signal simulation multisimulation
live training simulation mixed simulation multiresolution
logic simulation mobile-device activated simulation
logical simulation simulation multiscale simulation
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 17

multisimulation O– participatory agent

multistage object-oriented simulation
multisimulation simulation participatory simulation
multistage simulation offline simulation pathway simulation
multi-user simulation on-demand simulation peace simulation
mutual simulation online role-play pedagogical simulation
simulation peer-to-peer simulation
online simulation pen and paper simulation
N–
ontology-based agent perceptual simulation
N-body simulation
simulation pervasive simulation
nanoscale simulation
ontology-based petascale simulation
nano simulation
multiagent simulation Petri net simulation
narrative simulation
ontology-based physical simulation
nested multisimulation
simulation physical [system]
nested simulation
ontomimetic simulation simulation
netcentric simulation
open form simulation physics-based simulation
network-oriented open loop simulation
simulation portable simulation
open source simulation prediction simulation
networked simulation optimistic parallel
non-anticipatory predictive biosimulation
simulation predictive simulation
simulation optimistic simulation
non-convergent prescriptive simulation
optimizing simulation
simulation probabilistic
ordinary differential
non-equation-oriented bisimulation
equation simulation
simulation process-based
ordinary kriging
non-HLA-compliant discrete-event
simulation
simulation simulation
outcome-driven
non-line-of-sight process interaction
simulation
simulation simulation
outcome-oriented
non-stiff simulation process-oriented
simulation
non-terminating simulation
simulation P– process simulation
non-zero-sum simulation parallax simulation program-based
nonconvergent simulation parallel discrete-event simulation
nondeterministic simulation program-oriented
simulation parallel distributed simulation
nondeterministic Turing simulation proof-of-concept
machine simulation parallel simulation simulation
nonlinear [system] parallelized simulation proxy simulation
simulation partial differential pseudo-analytical
nonnumerical simulation equation simulation simulation
normative simulation partial equilibrium pseudosimulation
null Turing machine simulation public domain simulation
simulation partial simulation pure software simulation
numerical simulation participative simulation purposeful simulation
18 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Q– replicative simulation sequential simulation

qualitative simulation reproducible simulation serial simulation
qualitative mixed resimulation serious simulation
simulation retrosimulation service-based simulation
quantitative mixed retrospective simulation shape simulation
simulation reverse simulation simulation
quantitative simulation rigid-body simulation simultaneous simulation
quantum simulation risk simulation single-aspect simulation
quasi-analytic simulation role-play simulation single-component
quasi-continuous role playing simulation simulation
simulation rollback-based discrete single-processor
quasi-identity simulation simulation simulation
quasi-Monte Carlo rollback-based parallel single-run simulation
simulation discrete-event single-user simulation
quasi-identity simulation simulation skeleton-driven
queue simulation rollback-based simulation simulation
rule-based simulation smart phone activated
R– rule-based system simulation
random simulation embedded simulation smoothness simulation
rare-event simulation
S– soft body simulation
rate-based simulation
ratio simulation sandbox-style simulation soft computing
real-life simulation scalable simulation simulation
real-system enriching scaled real-time soft simulation
simulation simulation software-based
real-system support scenario simulation continuous system
simulation scientific simulation simulation
real-time continuous second degree simulation software-based
simulation self-adaptive simulation discrete-event
real-time data-driven self-driven simulation simulation
simulation self-learning simulation software-based
real-time self-organizing simulation
decision-making simulation software-in-the-loop
simulation self-organizing system simulation
real-time simulation simulation spatial simulation
reasonable simulation self-regulating simulation spatiotemporal simulation
reasoning simulation self-replicating system spreadsheet simulation
reconfigurable simulation simulation stand-alone simulation
recursive simulation self-simulation state-maintaining
reflective simulation self-stabilizing system simulation
regenerative simulation simulation static simulation
regular simulation semiotic simulation statistical simulation
related simulation sensitivity simulation steady-state simulation
reliable simulation sequential Gaussian stiff simulation
remote simulation simulation stochastic simulation
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 19

strategic-decision teleological system U–

simulation simulation ubiquitous computing
strategic simulation teleonomic [system] simulation
strategy simulation simulation ubiquitous simulation
strong bisimulation teleozetic simulation ultrascale simulation
strong simulation terascale simulation uncertainty simulation
strong-strong simulation terminating simulation unconditional simulation
strong two-way coupling test and evaluation unconstrained simulation
simulation simulation uncoupled simulation
structural simulation texture simulation unified discrete and
structure simulation third degree simulation continuous simulation
successor simulation thought controlled unified simulation
suitable simulation simulation uniformization
survivability simulation thought experiment simulation
sustainable simulation simulation universal Turing machine
thought simulation simulation
swarm simulation
throttled time-warp unsuitable simulation
symbiotic simulation
simulation utilitarian simulation
symbolic simulation
symmetric simulation time-domain simulation
V–
system dynamics time-driven simulation
value-free simulation
simulation time-interval simulation
variable fidelity
system-level simulation time-slice simulation
simulation
system of systems time-slicing simulation
variable resolution
simulation time-stepping simulation
simulation
system simulation time-varying system
variable-topology
system-theory-based simulation
simulation
continuous system time-warp simulation very large eddy
simulation timing simulation simulation
system-theory-based trace-driven simulation very large simulation
discrete-event tractable simulation virtual reality simulation
simulation training simulation virtual simulation
system-theory-based trajectory simulation virtual system simulation
simulation transfer function virtual time simulation
systematic simulation simulation virtual training
transparent reality simulation
T– simulation virtualization simulation
t-simulation trial simulation visual interactive
tactical decision trustworthy simulation simulation
simulation Turing machine visual simulation
tactical simulation simulation
tandem simulation turning bands conditional W–
technical simulation simulation war simulation
technology-enhanced turning bands simulation warfare simulation
simulation two-level simulation weak bisimulation
20 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

weak classical simulation web-based multi-user Y–

weak simulation simulation yoked simulation
weak-timed mutual web-based simulation
simulation web-centric simulation Z–
wearable computer-based web-enabled simulation zero-sum simulation
simulation web-service-based zero-variance simulation
wearable simulation simulation

Appendix B – A list of 120 types of input

3– common-mode input F–
3-D positional input composite video input fixed input
conditioned stimulus forced input
A– constant input
acoustic input context-aware input G–
actively perceived input context-sensitive input geopositional input
adequate stimulus context-unaware input gesture input
admissible input conventional input global position sensing
alphabetical input converted sensory data input
alphanumeric input counter input
alternative input credible input H–
ambiguous input hand-gesture input
analog input D– haptic input
AND input data input high-level stimulus
antenna input delimiterless input
detected event I–
anticipated fact
digital input imposed input
anticipated input
direct input impulse
assumed goal
discriminative stimulus inadequate stimulus
asynchronous input
distracting input indirect input
audio input
autostimulant inflow
E– input
aversive stimulus
emergent input intake
B– emotional input intermediate input
balanced input endogenous input internal excitation
batch input equivalent input internal input
bounded input evaluated input internally generated input
brain controlled input excitation inverted input
brain signal exogenous input inverting input
buffered input external event irrelevant input
external excitation irrelevant stimulus
C– external input
clock input externally generated K–
command-driven input input keyboard input
 Modeling and simulation: the essence and increasing importance 21

L– perceived exogenous step input

limited input input stimulant
perceived external input stimulator
M– perceived input stimulus
manual input perceived internal input stylus input
marginal input perceptual input subliminal stimulus
microphone input positional input subthreshold stimulus
monotonous input primary input synchronized input
motive synchronous input
multimodal input Q– syntactic input
multiple input quantized input
multisensory input T–
R– tactile input
radar input trigger input
N–
real-time input two directional input
neutral input
reference input
nociceptive input
relevant input U–
nociceptive stimulus
relevant stimulus unambiguous input
noisy input
unconventional input
non-inverting input S– uniform input
non-speech audio input self-excitation user input
numerical input self-test input
semantic input V–
O– sensed input variable input
OR input sensor input video input
sensory input virtual sensor input
P– simulated input vision input
paltry input single input visual input
passively accepted soft sensor input voice input
input sonar input
perceived endogenous speech input W–
input standard input wireless input

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 Chapter 2
Flexible modeling with Simio
David T. Sturrock1 and C. Dennis Pegden1

2.1 Overview

Simio is an object-oriented (OO), general-purpose modeling tool that can be applied in

a broad set of applications including manufacturing, transportation, logistics, health-
care, and communication networks. Simio includes a comprehensive tool set for
building models, providing 3D animation, verifying and validating the model, exper-
imenting and optimizing results, and real-time planning and scheduling. Figure 2.1
illustrates a student model [1] of a rental car parking lot that has taken advantage of
3D animation to illustrate the solution. In this chapter, we will describe the general-
purpose modeling features and capabilities of Simio but, where appropriate, describe
these concepts as they relate to modeling of communication networks.

2.2 Simio object framework

Simio is a simulation modeling framework based on intelligent objects. The intelligent
objects are built by modelers and then may be reused in multiple modeling projects.

Figure 2.1 3D animation of rental car operation

1
Simio LLC, USA
28 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Simio comes with pre-built libraries of objects. For example, the Standard Library
is set of general purpose objects (source, server, path, sink, etc.) that is commonly
used to model a wide range of discrete systems. Likewise, the Flow Library is a
set of general purpose objects (e.g., tank, pipe, filler) that is used to model systems
involving material flows such as liquids, sand, gravel, etc. Many other libraries are
also available such as the Extras library that represents cranes, elevators, robots,
and more.
In many cases, a modeling project is approached by first building a custom library
of special purpose objects, and then those objects are used as building blocks for creat-
ing a model. For example, a complex communication network involving ships, tanks,
airplanes, command centers, satellites, etc. can be modeled by first creating objects
representing each of the physical components and then placing multiple instances of
these objects into the final model. Objects can be stored in libraries and easily shared.
A beginning modeler may prefer to use pre-built objects from libraries; however, the
system is designed to make it easy for even beginning modelers to build their own
intelligent objects.
As noted above, a Simio model is built by combining objects that represent the
physical components of the system. A Simio model looks like the real system. The
model logic and animation is built as a single step. An object is animated in 3D to
reflect the physical object and its changing state. For example, a robot opens and
closes its gripper, and a battle tank turns its turret. The animated model provides a
moving picture of the system in operation. To simplify the effort of building animated
3D models, Simio can import 2D and 3D background objects as well as 2D and 3D
object representations from the target domain. Simio also provides a direct link to
Trimble 3D Warehouse, a free massive online library of 3D graphic symbols that
contains high-quality 3D symbols from virtually every domain.
Objects are built using graphical processes and the concepts of object-orientation.
There is no need to write programming code to create new custom objects. The activity
of building an object in Simio is identical to the activity of building a model—in fact,
there is no difference between an object and a model. This concept is referred to as
the equivalence principle and is central to the design of Simio. Whenever you build a
model, it is an object that can be instantiated into another model. For example, if you
combine two satellite dishes and six missile launchers into a missile defense battery,
the missile defense battery model is itself an object (see Figure 2.2) that can then
be instantiated any number of times into other models. The missile defense battery
model is an object just like the satellite dish and missile launchers are objects. In
Simio, there is no way to separate the idea of building a model from the concept
of building an object. Every model that is built in Simio is automatically a building
block that can be used in building higher level models.

Composite objects: The previous example in which we defined a new object def-
inition (missile defense battery) by combining other objects (satellite dish and
missile launcher) is one example of how we can create object definitions in Simio.
This type of object is called a composed object because we create this object by
combining two or more component objects. This object-building approach is fully
 Flexible modeling with Simio 29

Figure 2.2 Placing a missile defense battery object in a model

hierarchical, i.e., a composed object can be used as a component object in building

higher level objects. This is only one way of building objects in Simio—there are
two other important methods.
Base objects: The most basic method for creating objects in Simio is by defining
the logical processes that alter their state in response to events. For example, a
router object might be built by defining the processes that alter the router state as
events occur such as packet arrivals, breakdowns, etc. This type of modeling is
like the process modeling done in traditional modeling systems in use today such
as Arena™or GPSS™. A base object can in turn be used as a component object
for building higher level objects.
Derived objects: The final method for building objects in Simio is based on the
concept of inheritance. In this case, we create an object from an existing object
by overriding (i.e., replacing) one or more processes within the object, or adding
additional processes to extend its behavior. In other words, we start with an object
that is almost what we want, and then we modify and extend it as necessary to
make it serve our own purpose. Whereas in a programming language, we extend
or override behavior by writing methods in a programming language; in Simio, we
extend or override behavior by adding and overriding graphically defined process
models. With Simio, the skills required to define and add new objects to the system
are modeling skills, not programming skills.
As an example of the idea of inheritance, we might build a specialized satellite
dish from a generalized satellite dish object by adding additional processes to handle
the failure and replacement of one of its critical components. An object that is built
in this way is referred to as a derived object because it is subclassed from an existing
object.
30 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Regardless of which method is used to create an object, once created it is used

in the same way. An object can be instantiated any number of times into a model. You
simply select the object of interest and place it (instantiate it) into your model.
Entity is a class of objects that represents physical items in the system that can be
created and destroyed and moved through 3D space, such as ships, satellites, tanks,
etc., or packets of information that move between physical items. When modeling
systems comprise the IoT, the objects can represent the “things” or the “messages”
that are sent back and forth between the things.
Objects in Simio have static inputs referred to as properties, and dynamic vari-
ables referred to as states. For example, a missile might have a property that specifies
its maximum travel speed, and states that specify its current 3D position, direction,
and speed. The number and types of properties and states are defined by the creator
of the object. Both properties and states are strongly typed and can be defined as
numeric, Boolean, list, etc. There are two basic types of states: discrete and con-
tinuous. A discrete state is a value that only changes at event times (packet arrival,
machine breakdown, etc.). A continuous state (e.g., degrees of tank turret rotation,
position of a satellite, etc.) has a value that may change continuously over time by
specifying its rate of change.

2.3 Simio object classes

There are six basic classes of objects in Simio. These six classes of objects provide
a starting point for creating intelligent objects within Simio. By default, all six of
these classes of objects (Figure 2.3) have very little native intelligence, but all can
gain intelligence. You build intelligent versions of these objects by modeling their
behavior as a collection of event-driven processes. The Standard Library included
with Simio provides a rich and customizable set of objects that are derived from these
six basic classes of objects.
The first class is Fixed Objects. This object has a fixed location in the model
and is used to represent the things in your system that do not move from one location
to another. Fixed objects are used to represent stationary equipment such as routers,
servers, etc.
Links and Nodes are objects that are used to build networks over which entities
may flow. Note that links and nodes can model networks for both communication
movements as well as physical movements. A link defines a pathway for entity

Intelligent object

Fixed Link Node Agent

Entity

Transporter

Figure 2.3 Basic Simio object classes

 Flexible modeling with Simio 31

movement between objects. A node defines a starting or ending point for a link.
Links and nodes can be combined into complex communication and physical net-
works. Although the base link has little intelligence, we can add behavior to allow
it to model unconstrained flow, congested traffic flow, or complex material handling
systems such as accumulating conveyors or power and free conveying systems.
Agents are objects that can freely move through three-dimensional space. Agents
are also typically used for developing agent-based models. This modeling view is
useful for studying systems that are composed of many independently acting intel-
ligent objects that interact with each other and in so doing create the overall system
behavior. Examples of applications include market acceptance of a new product or
service, or population growth of competing species within an environment. Note that
in Simio, all objects graphically defined processes provide intelligence to control
their behavior rather than requiring Java or other programming code as in most other
products.
Entities are objects that can freely move through three-dimensional space. Entities
can move through the system from object to object over a network of links and nodes
or move directly between objects through free space. Examples of entities include
communications such as information packets, or physical items such as tanks, satel-
lites, ships, etc. Note that in traditional modeling systems, the entities are typically
passive and are acted upon by the model processes. However, in Simio, the entities
can have intelligence and control their own behavior.
The final class of object is a Transporter and is subclassed from the entity class.
A transporter is an entity that has the added capability to pick up, carry, and drop-off
one or more other entities. By default, transporters have none of this behavior, but by
adding model logic to this class, we can create a wide range of transporter behaviors.
A transporter can model an airplane, ship, subway car, automated guided vehicle
(AGV), or any other object that can carry other entities from one location to another.
The Standard Library contains a vehicle object and a worker object, both of which
are derived from a transporter object.
A key feature of Simio is the ability to create a wide range of object behaviors
from these six basic classes. The Simio modeling framework is application domain
neutral—i.e., these basic classes are not specific to communications, manufacturing,
service systems, healthcare, military, etc. However, it is easy to build application-
focused libraries comprising intelligent objects from these classes designed for
specific application. For example, it is relatively simple to build an object (in this
case a link) that represents a complex accumulating conveyor for use in manufacturing
applications. The design philosophy of Simio directs that this type of domain-specific
logic belongs to the objects that are built by users, and not programmed into the core
system.

2.4 Modeling movements

A major focus in modeling typical communication networks is representing the move-
ment of both physical items and information packets through the system. In Simio,
32 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

B F

Figure 2.4 Example network

both items are modeled with entities, which move through the 3D model in one of two
ways. The first is to simply move in free space with no constraints in movement. In
this case, the entity can set its own direction, speed, and acceleration. In free space, the
entity is in complete control of its own movement. The second method is to move over
a network of nodes and links, where the network may control and limit the movements
of the entities. Networks are very useful for modeling complex movements.
Networks comprise one or more links, where each link starts and ends at a
node. A node can have any number of incoming and outgoing links. Links can be
unidirectional or bidirectional, have a capacity that limits traffic on the link, and can
have a maximum speed to limit traffic speed. Links also have a selection weight that
can be used in decision rules for routing entities through the network. The example
network in Figure 2.4 has six nodes (labeled A–F) and ten links connecting the nodes,
where the triangles are entities moving through the network.
The complete set of all links in a model is referred to as the global network.
However, links can also belong to one or more subnetworks. For example, the com-
munication links between a set of satellite dishes might be represented by a subnetwork
that is limited for use by signals traveling between satellite dishes, and pathways where
ships travel may be specified by a separate network.
The Standard Library contains four link objects and two node objects. The con-
nector, path, time path, and conveyor are derived from the link object and the basic
node and the transfer node are derived from the node object. The connector moves
entities across the link in zero-time. This type of link is used to model movements
such as signals that travel at the speed of light, for which the travel time is negligible
and can be ignored. The path is a type of link used to model entity movements where
 Flexible modeling with Simio 33

each entity can travel at its own speed and either pass or not pass other entities based
on a property that is specified on the path. The time path is used to model situations
where the travel time on the link is specified by an expression (perhaps involving
random variables and other system status variables). The conveyor is a type of link
that is used to model both accumulating and non-accumulating conveyors that are
found in typical manufacturing and warehousing applications. Although the links and
nodes provided by the Standard Library work for many applications, users can also
create their own custom nodes and links.
Each entity in the network can have a single destination where it is headed, or
it can follow a specified travel sequence through the network. A travel sequence is
an ordered list of nodes (e.g., A, C, D, F in Figure 2.4) that must be visited in the
specified order on the way to its last node in the sequence. In either case, an entity
may have more than one possible routing to its next destination. For example, an
entity traveling from C to E could either take the direct path from C to E or travel
from C to D and then D to E. This might be advantageous, for example, if the link
to C to E was congested, and the travel speed on the alternate route through D was
faster and warranted the extra travel distance. The decision for which route to take
when moving to its next intermediate or final destination is based on properties that
are specified on the transfer node. The Outbound Link Rule property specifies that
the link should be selected based the shortest path or on decision weights that can
be assigned to each link. The Link Preference Property specifies if all links are to be
considered, only links that are currently available or a specific link is desired.

2.5 Modeling physical components

When modeling communication networks, it is also important to be able to model the
physical components of the system, such as vehicles, machines, workers, etc. This
can be done using objects in the Standard Library, Flow Library, or other custom
libraries. Although custom libraries are the most flexible, many applications can be
done using the Standard Library. The Standard Library consists of pre-built objects
to model a wide range of systems. We have already briefly discussed the four link
objects and two node objects that are included in this library. Table 2.1 summarizes
the 15 objects in the Standard Library.
The Flow Library is designed to represent situations where flow is continuous
(e.g., fluid in a pipe or ore on a conveyor) or so fast that it can best be modeled
as continuous (e.g., pills on a conveyor). The Flow Library also handles conversion
between discrete and flow (e.g., a filling machine that converts continuous fluid flow
into filled bottles). Table 2.2 summarizes the ten objects in the Flow Library.
Every object has properties that control its behavior. For example, the source
object properties view shown in Figure 2.5 has an arrival mode property that specifies
the mechanism for creating entities (either based on an interarrival time, data in a table,
an event, or based on a time-varying arrival rate). Each property value may in turn
switch on additional properties; e.g., if the arrival mode is specified as interarrival
time, then a property is switched on that specifies the expression for computing the
34 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 2.1 Objects in Simio Standard Library

Name Class Description

Source Fixed Creates entities that arrive to the system

Sink Fixed Destroys entities and records statistics
Server Fixed Models a multichannel service process with input/output
queues
Resource Fixed Models a resource that can be used by other objects
Combiner Fixed Combines entities in batches
Separator Fixed Separates entities from batches
Workstation Fixed Models a three-phase workstation with setup, processing,
and teardown
Vehicle Transporter Carries entities between objects and serves entities at a fixed
location
Worker Transporter Carries entities between objects and serves entities at a fixed
location
Basic node Node A simple intersection of links
Transfer Node An intersection where entities set destination and wait on
node transporters
Connector Link A zero-time connection between two nodes
Path Link A pathway between two nodes where entities travel based
on speed
Time path Link A pathway with a specified travel time
Conveyor Link An accumulating/non-accumulating conveyor device

Table 2.2 Objects in Simio Flow Library

Name Class Description

Flow source Fixed Generates a flow of fluid or other mass of a specified entity type
Flow sink Fixed Destroys flow entities representing quantities of fluids or
other mass that have finished processing in the model
Tank Fixed Models a volume or weight capacity–constrained location for
holding entities representing quantities of fluids or other mass
Container Entity Models a type of simple moveable container (e.g., barrels or totes)
entity for carrying flow entities representing quantities of fluids or
other mass
Filler Fixed Fills containers with flow entities representing quantities of fluids
or other mass
Emptier Fixed Empties the flow contents of container entities
Item to flow Fixed Converts entities representing discrete items into flow entities
converter representing quantities of fluids or other mass
Flow to item Fixed Converts flow entities representing quantities of fluids or other
converter mass into entities representing discrete items
Flow node Node Regulates the flow of entities representing quantities of fluid or
other mass
Flow Link A zero-time connection between two flow nodes
connector
 Flexible modeling with Simio 35

Figure 2.5 Selected properties of source object

interarrival time (typically a random variable). All properties can be used for either
deterministic or stochastic arrivals. Other properties provide flexibility in terminating
the arrival stream, for example, after a specified time or specified number of arrivals.
Many objects also use events to customize their behavior. Events let objects easily
communicate with other objects. For example, an event triggered elsewhere in the
model might cause a source object to create an arrival or entirely stop creating new
arrivals.
Figure 2.6 shows a simple model built using the source, server, and sink objects,
along with path links to define the movements between these objects. In this example,
entities are created at the source, travel to the server where they queue up and wait
for processing, and then travel to the sink where they depart the model.
The objects shown in Figure 2.6 all have their default generic graphics; in a
typical model, these would be replaced by more appropriate graphics. For example,
if the server represented an ATM machine at a bank, we would typically replace
the rectangular server symbol with a graphic symbol of an ATM machine from 3D
Warehouse. We could also replace the triangles representing entities with animated
36 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Sink1

Server1

Source1

Figure 2.6 Example model using source, server, and sink objects

Sink1

Server1

Source1

Figure 2.7 Example model with domain-specific 3D animation

walking people. Figure 2.7 enhances that same model with the default graphics for
the server and entity replaced, which required only a few minutes to create.
The server object that is used in this simple model is one of the most powerful
and commonly used objects in the Standard Library. It can model a wide range of
 Flexible modeling with Simio 37

Values
Starved
Processing
Blocked
Failed
53.3606%
Off shift
Failed processing
Off shift processing
Setup
Off shift setup

46.6394%

Server1

Figure 2.8 Selected server properties and optional graphics

physical elements of a system that constrain the movement of entities based on one
or more activities that must take place, secondary resources that may be required, and
material that may be consumed. Figure 2.8 illustrates many of the common properties
of the server object as well as an optional attached pie chart in the facility view that
indicates possible resource states.
The server can model multichannel processors, follow complex work schedules,
and incorporate failure/repair patterns. The server can also model complex operations
composed of a network of tasks that follow precedence relationships and operate
parallelly and/or sequentially. For example, Figure 2.9 illustrates a generic six-step
task sequence where each task has prerequisite tasks. Not only is the number and
relationship of tasks unlimited, but each individual task could require resources or
materials, or even be defined to execute one or more other objects, which themselves
might have networks of tasks.
The worker and vehicle are two other objects that are commonly used in Simio
models. The worker object is used to model operators or crew members that move
around the system and perform tasks. For example, a server may request that a worker
must come to the server to set it up before processing an entity. The vehicle object
is used to model ships, trucks, AGVs, etc., that travel through the model, picking up
and dropping off entities. Vehicles have flexible work selection and allocation logic,
38 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Task2 Task4

Task6
Task1

Task3 Task5

Figure 2.9 Generic parallel/serial task sequence

reliability logic, and many options to control both behavior and animation such as
load and unload time, dwell logic, and automatic parking and homing options.
While each object has object-specific properties as mentioned above, each object
also has categories of properties that are found across many different objects. For
example, objects that incorporate buffers or queues typically have a Buffer Logic
category that contains properties to describe the capacity of those buffers, as well
as the logic that governs balking (bypass queue entry) and reneging (abort queue
waiting). Most objects have a Financials category that specifies the properties to
support comprehensive activity–based costing and supporting all world currencies.
Objects that typically represent some types of machine or equipment have a
Reliability category where failure-related properties such as downtime mode, period
between downtimes, and time to repair are specified. Downtime modes include cal-
endar or processing time between failures, processing count between failures, and
event-based failures.
Many objects also have categories to provide higher level interaction with other
objects such as state assignments, statistics, customized animation, and data log-
ging. Two broad interaction mechanisms—processes and data tables—are discussed
in Sections 2.6 and 2.7, respectively.

2.6 Processes

The use of library objects permits fast, highly productive modeling. But unless the
library is designed to closely match your application, you will often have to customize
objects in order to model accurately enough to meet project objectives. In most OO
simulation products, this customization can only be accomplished by modifying the
object definition using programming code like Java, C++, or a proprietary language.
Doing so takes a level of expertise often not readily available. Simio provides two
alternatives, both based on the patented concept of processes.
A process is a graphical way of defining the logic behind an object. Processes can
be used to make decisions, seize or release resources, search collections of objects or
data, wait for or trigger communications events, assign state variables, record custom
 Flexible modeling with Simio 39

Process1
Decide1 Seize1 Delay1 Release1 Tally1
Begin End
Decide Seize Delay Release Tally
True
False
Wait1 Assign1
Wait Assign

Figure 2.10 Example process logic

Table 2.3 Commonly used process steps

Assign step is used to assign a new value to a state variable

Create step is used to generate objects into the system
Decide step may be used to determine the flow of a token through process logic
Delay step delays the arriving token in the step for the specified time duration
Destroy step destroys either the parent object or the executing token’s associated object
EndTransfer step may be used to indicate that the entity object associated with the executing
token has completed transfer into an object or station
Execute step may be used to execute a specified process
Find step may be used to search the value of an expression over a specified range of one
or more index variables. The expression will typically involve array variables (vectors or
multidimensional arrays) or indexing-related functions
Fire step may be used to fire an object event
Move step may be used to request a move from one or more moveable resources that have been
seized by either the parent object or object associated with the executing token. The executing
token will be held in the Move step until the resources have arrived to the requested locations
Release step releases capacity of one or more objects on behalf of the parent object or the object
associated with the executing token
Scan step may be used to hold a process token at the step until a specified condition is true
Search step may be used to search a collection of objects
Seize step may be used to seize capacity of one or more objects on behalf of the parent object
or the object associated with the executing token
SetNode step may be used to set the destination node of any entity object
Tally step tallies an observation for each token arriving to this step
Transfer step may be used to transfer the entity object associated with the executing token
between objects and between free space and objects
Wait step may be used to hold the arriving token in the step until a specified event occurs

statistics, and much more. Figure 2.10 illustrates a process that makes a decision, then
either seizes, delays, and releases a resource or waits for an event, assigns a state, and
then records an observational statistic. Although over 60 steps are available, the most
commonly used steps are described in Table 2.3.
A process can be used in an object definition to define the logic in a new object
or customize the logic in a subclassed object. But in many cases an even simpler alter-
native is available. Most library objects have “hooks” called add-on process triggers
that can be used to supplement the logic in a specific object instance. Figure 2.11
illustrates the add-on process triggers available in the server object. These support the
40 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 2.11 Server add-on process triggers

application of custom logic based on triggers related to starting/ending the process-

ing, starting/ending a failure, going on/off shift, and much more. This allows users to
graphically specify custom logic—for example, examining the current system state
before deciding what to do with any entities in process when a server is about to
transition off shift.
In addition to the flexibility in easily customizing logic, processes provide two
other important benefits: spanning time and allowing parallel processing. In most
programming solutions to customized object, the logic cannot span time, so the seize–
delay–release sequence and the alternate wait sequence illustrated in Figure 2.9 would
not be possible in a single program function. Another advantage is that while entities
or agents are the most primitive construct in most simulation products, Simio has the
concept of Tokens, which are delegates of an object—tokens execute processes. Since
an object can have many tokens, this allows for an entity to take multiple actions at
once by using multiple tokens. For example, a server object might execute a setup
process while at the same time summoning a mechanic to do a concurrent repair
operation.

2.7 Data tables

Simio contains a set of process steps that provide comprehensive input/output capabil-
ities including the ability to read/write CSV files, Excel™ files, and a wide variety of
 Flexible modeling with Simio 41

Figure 2.12 Relational tables with partial master-detail view expansion

database files. But processing such files incrementally during a model run can often
be slow and inconvenient. So Simio extends this commonly available capability to
also create in-memory data repositories called data tables. In-memory tables execute
extremely fast.
The schema or design of data tables is under user control—you can have any
number of columns of different data types, in any order you want. A table can be
designed to be most convenient to the modeler or could be designed to perfectly
match an external data source to avoid transforming the data on each use. Data tables
can be simple tables, like a spreadsheet, or can be comprehensive sets of hierarchical
relational tables linked by keys and foreign keys. Figure 2.12 illustrates a set of
three tables, Job Table, Process Plan, and WIP, that are related by a key field. The
master-detail view is expanded on the first part type to show the relationships.
Tables can be built and used entirely within Simio, but it is more common to
import the table data from an external source. Simio incorporates sophisticated table-
input mechanisms. In addition to CSV, Excel, and databases, Simio directly supports
reading data tables in the Business to Manufacturing Markup Language (B2MML).
Since B2MML is used to integrate business systems such as ERP and software such
as SAP [2] with manufacturing systems such as manufacturing execution systems
(MESs), it is a rich source of predefined information for use in simulations. Simio
can also generate tables directly from Wonderware™, a leading MES software. Tables
can be configured to import on demand, or tables with frequently changing data can be
configured to automatically import with each run. Not only does Simio have extensive
built-in support of data import (see Figure 2.13), but also it provides the capability,
including sample source code, to customize data import with programming in any of
over 60 .NET languages.
42 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 2.13 Data table binding and import options

Simio tables are key to implementing two important modeling strategies which
are having major impact on the simulation industry.
Data-driven modeling is a way of structuring a model, so much of the model
data is in data tables rather than disseminated throughout the model and allowing
the configuration of the model to take place in data tables (or associated external
files). The combination of these features makes models easier for the modeler to
understand, maintain, and share with others, and makes it easier (e.g., “lowers the
bar”) for stakeholders to use and update the model without comprehensive knowledge
of simulation.
Data-generated modeling is a mechanism for building all or most of a model
entirely from external data. For example, a fairly complete model can be built directly
from data using the B2MML, ISA 95, or Wonderware™ import mechanisms men-
tioned above. Alternatively, the Simio application programming interface (API) can
be used to import model data from virtually any database, spreadsheet, or other data
source. Importing major parts of system configuration and descriptive information
can dramatically lower the time and expertise required to create a model-based solution
to a pressing problem.

2.8 Experimentation with the model

When you build a model in the facility view, you can run it, view real-time 3D
animation, interact with the model, use sophisticating debugging techniques, like step,
break, watch, and trace, and view sample output results. But in stochastic models,
it is vitally important to run multiple replications for statistical analysis and validity.
Simio has a built-in experiment window to very efficiently and quickly run multiple
replications, configure controls (what changes) and responses (KPI’s), configure and
compare multiple scenarios, and even run automatic optimization.
 Flexible modeling with Simio 43

While the experiment window offers standard textual reports, most people prefer
the built-in Pivot Grid reports. Like the pivot tables featured in many top data analysis
packages, Simio allows you to filter, sort, and recategorize the data. This allows you
to generate concise, custom reports in literally just a few clicks, then you can save
those reports and reuse them anytime. The details of all scenarios are shown along
with statistical measures like mean, minimum, maximum, and half-width. Both the
summary and the detailed results can also be exported for additional analysis in
external programs.
Simio’s experiment window will automatically run any number of replications,
using all your available processors (defaults up to 16). If you have the common
configuration of a dual-threaded quad core processor, you can run eight replications
in about the same time it would take to run one. With higher versions of Simio, you
can also take full advantage of other computers in your workgroup, and you can even
extend the limit of 16 to take full use of a server farm or network of workgroup
computers. Another approach to running replications is to use the Simio Portal. This
Azure™-based software as a service offering allows you to bring the processing power
of the cloud and scale up to run massively parallel replications and instantly distribute
the results across the internet.
Running many replications quickly is most important when you want to compare
multiple scenarios. Simio allows you to define referenced properties in your model,
which are displayed as controls in your experiment. Controls describe how one sce-
nario differs from another, for example, number of workers or number of servers.
Simio also allows you to define Responses in the experiment. A response is like a
key performance indicator (KPI) that is a quick measure of the performance of each
scenario. Additional statistical information is also recorded on responses to support
the response results view. The response results view is an enhancement of the measure
of risk and error (MORE) analysis technique described by Nelson [3] that makes it
easier for people without a strong statistical background to gain important insight into
their data.
When you have many possible scenarios to evaluate, manually generating them
can be tedious. And it is important to minimize or completely avoid the execu-
tion of poor scenarios. Simio is tightly integrated with OptQuest ® , the leading
simulation-based optimization product. OptQuest uses metaheuristics to guide the
search algorithm to quickly find better solutions. OptQuest combines Tabu search,
scatter search, integer programming, and neural networks into a single composite
search algorithm that is orders of magnitude faster than other approaches [4].

2.9 Application programming interface

The Simio libraries are comprehensive, especially when supplemented with add-on
processes. Many users also choose to create custom objects, either by modifying
the open-source Simio libraries or using processes to graphically create entirely new
objects. But in rare instances, users desire even more customization.
44 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Simio has an extensive API that allows customization of virtually all aspects of
Simio using the API and any of over 60 .NET languages. Users with programming
background can create new tools and customize the menus to display those tools
to your stakeholders. You can create new steps and elements—the fundamentals of
Simio processes. You can create design-time add-ins that support building models
from external data. You can build in new import/export capabilities to support a
unique or proprietary data source for importing individual items, entire data tables, or
even generating models directly from external data. With the API, you can even add
custom experimentation. For example, both OptQuest and the Select Best Scenario
tools were implemented as experiment add-ins.
As an example of highly customized menu items, a customer who was schedul-
ing weather-sensitive operations used the API to add a “Get Weather” menu item
which would log on to a weather subscription service and download regional weather
forecasts into a Simio data table that was directly accessed during planning. This
was combined with other application-specific items to create a custom ribbon using
customer terminology.
While Simio already includes a comprehensive set of scheduling rules (see Sec-
tion 2.10) you can customize these or create your own rules. On the analysis end,
although Simio already includes extensive support for experimentation and optimiza-
tion, the API supports creation of custom design of experiments and add-ins such as
a custom optimization algorithm.
In addition to providing comprehensive documentation of the API, Simio supplies
extensive sets of sample code for all the items mentioned above.

2.10 Applications in scheduling

Although simulation tools in the past have been primarily used in the design of complex
networks, Simio is specifically designed to also support applications for scheduling
these same systems. In scheduling applications, the focus is on simulating the actual
flow of entities through the network, given an initial starting state for the system. The
simulation of the entity flow then produces an operational schedule of the system, for
a given starting state and a given set of entities. The purpose of the simulation is to
forecast the operational performance of the network in an actual real-time setting.
An example of a complex network scheduling application is the scheduling of
computational tasks to be executed on a network of processors. This application
can be represented as a directed graph, where each node on the graph is processor
that can perform one or more independent computational tasks. However, because
of data interdependencies, the tasks have precedence relationships that define the
permissible sequences for execution for these tasks. This is a complex scheduling
application; however, it is relatively simple to model the basic network system using
Simio (using routing sequences or task sequences).
Traditional simulation tools lack the necessary features to use them effectively
in a real-time scheduling environment. However, Simio has been designed from the
 Flexible modeling with Simio 45

ground up to support these applications by incorporating key features to support

critical scheduling functions. These features include the ability to
1. Drive the model from relational data tables.
2. Initialize the model state—particularly with entities in process.
3. Incorporate complex decision logic—particularly involving dynamic rules that
must be executed each time a decision must be made.
4. Log-detailed transactional data for creating reports, dashboards, and Gantt charts
that depict the planned schedule.
5. Evaluate schedule robustness and the associated risk.
In the following sections, we will describe each of these key features.
As discussed in Section 2.7, Simio has extensive capabilities in representing,
storing, and importing flat and relational data files. This is particularly useful in
scheduling applications. Resource data (e.g., machines, machine groupings, fix-
tures, manpower) must be mapped to model constructs. Dynamic data (e.g., order
information, material arrivals, man power schedules) must drive system arrivals.
Simio’s data-generated modeling features are designed to “reach into” existing data
repositories and configure or entirely build a simulation model from that data.
Up-to-date WIP information must be used to initialize the scheduling system
before each schedule is generated. This data is usually tracked in a MES or other
real-time data system. Simio data tables have user-configurable schemas and com-
prehensive importing capabilities that support flexible mapping to existing data. It
also features the capability to configure data import, so sensitive data is automatically
refreshed. Figure 2.14 illustrates a high-end deployment with ERP and MES integra-
tion. While typically such deployments include a human scheduler in the loop, some
deployments are done with the MES and Simio automatically detecting problems and
taking corrective actions.
Most planning and scheduling tools are highly limited in the complexity of the
system that can be represented [5]. As a general-purpose simulation language, Simio
provides the capability to model the devices like electronic switches, AGVs, cranes,
tanks, ovens, and conveyors that are often critical to facility operation. Most planning
and scheduling tools are also limited in the decision logic controlling device inter-
action. Figure 2.15 illustrates the dynamic ranking and selection rules that form a
part of Simio’s decision logic. Simio also includes a comprehensive set of standard
dispatching rules (Table 2.4) that can be used to provide both local and global system
optimization through routing and resource allocation. In addition to these built-in
rules, the Simio API allows creation of custom rules and optimization algorithms
unique to a facility.
While design-focused simulation is often concerned mainly with summary
statistics like cost and utilization, scheduling models need to record and display trans-
actional data. Logs of the start and end times of every significant transaction (like
a resource, entity, or material state change) must be maintained along with impor-
tant transactional details. These logs are then used to generate custom reports like
Resource Dispatch Reports and Workflow Constraints Analysis. Those same logs are
used to create interactive displays like the resource plan Gantt (Figure 2.16) and the
46 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Actual production Order/Shop floor

data status Wonderware
operator
New order data Production
schedule screen
Master planning Operator view

Orders, WIP, etc.

Production data
Production
Schedule
Simio
Production
portal schedule
view
Scheduling Production floor

Figure 2.14 Example scheduling deployment integrated with ERP and MES

Figure 2.15 Simio ranking and selection

entity plan Gantt. These two forms of Gantt charts graphically display activity from
a resource or entity perspective. The Simio implementations provide extra tracking
options such as graphical material inventory, resource states, downtime, schedules,
constraints, and detailed background information on any Gantt item. Data logs are also
the basis for user-designed Dashboard Reports (Figure 2.17). In addition to extensive
tracking and diagnostics, using a drag and drop interface, the Gantt charts can be used
to interact with the plan by such actions as specifying overtime or downtime periods,
or selecting alternate process flows. While these Gantt and log-related features are
primarily designed for planning and scheduling applications, many users have found
them to also be extremely valuable in providing debugging and clear communication
for traditional design applications.
A common problem with most scheduling systems is that the schedule must be
created deterministically. There is no good way to generate a schedule that accu-
rately predicts system downtime, material delays, extended processing times, and
other commonly encountered variability. One approach is to ignore such variability
entirely, which results in an optimistic schedule that becomes infeasible the first time
something goes wrong. Another approach is to build-in extra processing time or idle
 Flexible modeling with Simio 47

Table 2.4 Simio standard dispatching rules

Dispatching rule Selection criteria

FirstInQueue The entity ranked nearest the front of the queue

LargestPriorityValue The entity with the largest priority state value
SmallestPriorityValue The entity with the smallest priority state value
EarliestDueDate The entity with the earliest due date
CriticalRatio The entity with the smallest critical ratio. Critical ratio is
the time remaining until the entity’s due date divided by
the total operation time remaining
LeastSetupTime The entity with the least setup time
LongestProcessingTime The entity with the longest operation time
ShortestProcessingTime The entity with the shortest operation time
LeastSlackTime The entity with the least slack time. Slack time is the time
remaining until the entity’s due date minus the total
operation time remaining
LeastSlackTimePer The entity with the least average slack time per its
Operation remaining operations
LeastWorkRemaining The entity with the least total operation time remaining to
complete its assigned sequence
FewestOperations The entity with the fewest number of operations remaining
Remaining to complete its assigned sequence
LongestTimeWaiting The entity that has been waiting longest in the queue
ShortestTimeWaiting The entity that has been waiting the least time in the queue
LargestAttributeValue The entity with the largest value of the specified expression
SmallestAttributeValue The entity with the smallest value of the specified expression
CampaignSequenceUp The entity that has a campaign value equal to or next largest
compared to the value of the last processed entity
CampaignSequenceDown The entity that has a campaign value equal to or next
smallest compared to the value of the last processed entity
CampaignSequenceCycle Alternates back and forth between a campaign sequence up
and a campaign sequence down

time to allow for when things go wrong. But unfortunately, this is time that is wasted
when things go well.
Simio initially creates a deterministic plan based on no variability, then it makes
additional stochastic replications that consider all the potential problems and cal-
culates the risk of key milestones or targets being missed. The colored markers on
each order in Figure 2.18 indicate the risk associated with each order. For example,
even though Order-01 and Order-02 have similar slack time, the lower likelihood
of Order-02 achieving its release date target might be due to utilizing an unreliable
machine or consuming materials that are often late. With the knowledge of this risk
before deploying the schedule, the scheduler can use Simio to objectively evalu-
ate the most cost-effective ways to reduce the risk. This in-turn makes the schedule
more robust, e.g., it stays useful for a longer time. A related benefit is the ability to
quickly replan. When a major event (e.g., an equipment failure) invalidates the plan,
in Simio, the replan time is typically a few minutes versus the hours required in most
other approaches.
Figure 2.16 Resource plan Gantt
Figure 2.17 Interactive custom dashboard
50 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Mon Tue Wed

Transaction

Order-01 Drill Weld Paint 72%

Order-02 Weld Cut Drill Shape 47%

Order-03 Paint 92%

Order-04 Cut Shape Drill 91%

Shape 12% Cut

Order-05

Figure 2.18 Entity Gantt with target risk analysis

2.11 Summary
Library-based modeling has long provided a faster way to build models, but unless the
library was closely matched to your application, it was often necessary to make model
approximations which made your solutions less accurate. The flexibility promised
through OO technology has the potential for dramatic improvements but often has
problems scaling to large models, and the customization of objects and libraries still
required high programming expertise.
Simio was invented with two primary goals in mind. The first was to bring new
technology to the OO simulation field to allow users to more effectively build objects,
libraries, and models without programming. The second goal was to extend the field
of discrete-event simulation beyond the traditional system design applications into
planning and scheduling. Rather than “bolting on” features as needed, Simio was
designed from the ground up to incorporate all the features needed to solve problems
in design, planning, and scheduling, in a single tool using a single model.
The creation of Simio with its data-driven and data-generated modeling features
was timely—just as the concepts of the smart factory promise a new way of operating
our production systems. The smart factory [5], also referred to as the fourth industrial
revolution or Industry 4.0 (Figure 2.19), represents the concept of physical systems
where the components are monitored and connected to a virtual system model to
predict and improve system performance. The virtual factory model provided by
Simio is a key component of the smart factory of the future.

Glossary
B2MML: Business to Manufacturing Markup Language as defined in [6] is a set of
XML schemas implementing the ISA-95, Enterprise-Control System Integration
family of standards, known internationally as IEC/ISO 62264.
 Flexible modeling with Simio 51

ERP

Industry 4.0
Industry 3.0
Industry 2.0
Industry 1.0

Mechanization, steam Mass production, Automation, computers, Cyber physical systems,

power, weaving loom assembly line, and electronics internet of things, networks
electrical energy

Figure 2.19 Simio is a key technology to implement smart factory [5]

Dispatching rule: An algorithm for deciding which job to process next in a production
facility, such as which job has the earliest due date or which requires a minimum
changeover.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP): Enhancements of the original material require-
ments planning (MRP) functions to bring together accounting, human resources,
and other functions into a fully integrated IT system. ERP also incorporated sup-
ply chain management (SCM) to extend inventory control over a broader scope,
including distribution.
Entity: Part of an object model and can have its own intelligent behavior. They can
make decisions, reject requests, decide to take a rest, etc. Entities have object
definitions just like the other objects in the model. Entity objects can be dynam-
ically created and destroyed, moved across a network of links and nodes, move
through 3D space, and move into and out of fixed objects. Examples of entity
objects include customers, parts, or workpieces.
Event: A notification that can be given by one object and responded to by several. It
alerts other objects that an action has occurred.
Experiment: Part of the project that is used for output analysis. The user defines one
or more sets of inputs/outputs (scenarios) and runs multiple replications to get
statistically valid results from which to draw conclusions.
Finite capacity scheduling (FCS):A scheduling approach that accounts for the limited
production capacity of the system. This contrasts with the enterprise resource
planning system that typically assumes an infinite capacity.
Gantt chart: A chart used in scheduling applications for showing activities over a
timeline. A resource Gantt and an entity Gantt show the same information, but
from two different perspectives.
52 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Manufacturing execution system (MES): A computerized system used to track and

document the transformation or raw materials into finished goods, including the
status of resources and the flow of work.
Model: A representation of real-world object or collection of objects that interact
with each other. Models are usually used to make decisions and are defined by
their properties, states, events, external view, and logic. A model is an object that
is executable.
Optimization: The process of defining and evaluating experiment scenarios to deter-
mine the overall “best” scenario. OptQuest is a tool that is highly integrated with
Simio that will automatically optimize against a single objective, multi-objective
weighted, or pattern frontier.
Planning: The process of creating a high-level production plan that identifies the that
work needs to be done, the materials that are required to perform that work, and
where the work will take place.
Risk-based planning and scheduling (RPS): The use of a custom-built stochastic
simulation model for both system design and scheduling. RPS incorporates risk
measures for assessing the robustness of a production schedule.
Scheduling: The process of turning a master production plan into a detailed, action-
able schedule that can be followed to produce required items while meeting key
objectives. Scheduling requires a detailed model of all the critical constraints in
a system, and a good schedule is dependent upon good planning.
SimBit: A brief, well documented, example of solving a specific modeling issue.
Basic and advanced SimBit search engines are provided via the Support Ribbon
or descriptive information is in Help.
Smart factory (Industry 4.0): A fully connected and automated production system,
based on digital part data, interconnected devices, and a virtual factory model to
plan and project the future of products and production facilities. The Industry 4.0
initiative is focused on creating the smart factory of the future.
Table: A table is a set of rows and columns to hold data during a run. It may be
relational and may contain special columns like times or destinations in addition
to general model data. Tables may be imported and exported. An object may be
associated with a specific table and row.
Transporter: A transporter object is a special type of entity that can pick up entity
objects at a location, carry those entities through a network of links or free space,
and then drop the entities off at a destination.

References
[1] Student Models, Student Simulation Competition [online]. Available from
https://www.simio.com/academics/student-competition.php. Accessed Nov
2018.
[2] Junot Systems, Inc. Advanced SAP MES Integration [online]. Available from
http://mes-to-sap.com/. Accessed Nov 2018.
 Flexible modeling with Simio 53

[3] Nelson, B. L. 2008. “The MORE Plot: Displaying Measures of Risk & Error
From Simulation Output.” In Proceedings of the 2008 Winter Simulation Con-
ference, edited by S. J. Mason, R. R. Hill, L. Mönch, O. Rose, T. Jefferson,
J. W. Fowler, Piscataway, New Jersey: Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Inc.
[4] OptTek Systems, OptQuest [online]. Available from http://www.opttek.
com/products/optquest/. Accessed Nov 2018.
[5] Pegden, C. D. Deliver onYour Promise, How Simulation-Based Scheduling Will
Change Your Business. Pittsburgh, Simio LLC, 2017.
[6] MESA International, Business to Manufacturing Markup Language (B2MML)
[online]. Available from http://www.mesa.org/en/B2MML.asp. Accessed
Nov 2018.
 Chapter 3
A simulation environment for cybersecurity
attack analysis based on network traffic logs
Salva Daneshgadeh1 , Mehmet Uğur Öney2 ,
Thomas Kemmerich3 , and Nazife Baykal1

The continued and rapid progress of network technology has revolutionized all modern
critical infrastructures and business models. Technologies today are firmly relying on
network and communication facilities which in turn make them dependent on network
security. Network-security investments do not always guarantee the security of orga-
nizations. However, the evaluation of security solutions requires designing, testing
and developing sophisticated security tools which are often very expensive. Simu-
lation and virtualization techniques empower researchers to adapt all experimental
scenarios of network security in a more cost and time-effective manner before decid-
ing about the final security solution. This study presents a detailed guideline to model
and develop a simultaneous virtualized and simulated environment for computer net-
works to practice different network attack scenarios. The preliminary object of this
study is to create a test bed for network anomaly detection research. The required
dataset for anomaly or attack detection studies can be prepared based on the proposed
environment in this study. We used open source GNS3 emulation tool, Docker con-
tainers, pfSense firewall, NTOPNG network traffic–monitoring tool, BoNeSi DDoS
botnet simulator, Ostinato network workload generation tool and MYSQL database
to collect simulated network traffic data. This simulation environment can also be
utilized in a variety of cybersecurity studies such as vulnerability analysis, attack
detection, penetration testing and monitoring by minor changes.

3.1 Introduction

A computer network is a set of connected network devices at the edge of the net-
work which are used in personal and professional lives such as PCs, tablets, iPads and

1
Department of Information Systems, Informatics Institute, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
2
Department of Computer Engineering, Atılım University, Turkey
3
Department of Information Security and Communication Technology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Norway
56 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

smartphones. Furthermore, it encompasses the network cores such as network switch-

ing and routing. Additionally, computer networks offer dedicated network services to
the connected devices as well as to applications. These network services can be DHCP,
NTP and security services like encryption or packet filtering [1]. Recently, network
researchers have also started to use simulation tools to test and evaluate communi-
cation protocols and network behavior. Every network simulation requires network
topologies, traffic models between senders and receivers, background noises intro-
duced by other devices and possible dynamic events. Moreover, researchers require
virtualization tools to understand, verify and analyze the complicated behavior in
network simulation [2].

3.1.1 Network simulation

Living in the age of information and telecommunication technologies, our personal
and professional lives are extremely dependent on Internet-based technologies. A
thriving, innovative and secure network topology and networking protocols can be
seen as a key for successfulness of the businesses operations. Therefore, an increasing
trend is observed for designing, developing and managing novel, high-performance
and security enabled–computer networks. However, designing and validating each
new network technologies requires huge investments. Subsequently, network design-
ers and researchers rely on network simulation. Generally, there are two types of
network simulation: analytical modeling and computer simulation. Analytical mod-
eling uses mathematical analyses to characterize a network, but it is mostly a too
simple model to emulate the dynamic features of the network. Computer simulation
models the behavior of real events in a real life scenario in association with time [3].
Simulator tools also are able to model interaction between different network entities
(e.g., routers, switches, links) and their related events such as link changes, route
changes, link failures and link overloading [4]. Network simulation empowers net-
work designers to investigate different design options before coming to an agreement
on a final network design.
Evaluation of network performance is one of the preliminary aims of network
designers to simulate the network topology before realizing it. Other motivating
factors of network simulation include failure analysis, network design and network
resource planning [5]. The network simulation not only saves a lot of time and money
but also increases efficiency by allowing testing of multiple behaviors of the network
in a controlled and reproducible manner.
Network simulations have been initialized in the early 1990s by the advent of the
Network Simulation Testbed (NEST) tool. NEST can be seen as a backbone of the
many modern simulation tools [6]. It had a graphical environment for simulation and
rapid prototyping of distributed networked systems and protocols. In the 1990s, it was
used by designers of the distributed networked systems to measure the performance of
the systems under a different situation such as failure of the links or switches. NEST
simulation tool was composited of a network server and monitors as clients. The
client/server architecture of it allowed multiple remote accesses to a shared test bed.
NEST was based on the standard Unix and its server and clients were UNIX libraries
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 57

and functions. Therefore, users could easily modify its functions based on their own
needs [7].
REAL (realistic and large) network simulation tool was based on a modified
version of the NEST 2.5 simulation test bed. Its initial developing motivation was to
compare the “fair queuing” gateway algorithm with first-come-first-served schedul-
ing and with competing proposals from Digital Equipment Corporation. REAL was
composited of two parts: a simulated server and a display client. The Berkeley UNIX
socket was used to connect the server to the client. It supported packet switched, store
and forward networks similar to the existing Xerox corporate net and the DARPA
Internet. REAL was able to model many details of the flow in the network and
transport layers [8].
In general, each network simulation or emulation study requires a simulation
scenario which defines the input configuration. According to Bajaj et al. [9], each
simulation scenario is usually made up of four components:
1. Network topology: which defines the physical interconnects between nodes and
the static characteristics of links and nodes.
2. Traffic model: which defines the network usage patterns and locations of unicast
and multicast senders.
3. Test generation: which creates events such as flooding traffic toward specific
node.
4. Network dynamics: such as node and link failures.
Additionally, NS2, NS3, OMNeT++, SSFNet, J-Sim, OPNET and QualNet are
some other examples of the well-known network simulation tools [10]. According
to Wehrle et al. [11], simulation tools have to model different network elements as
following:
● Network nodes: which illustrate end nodes such as PCs, laptops, servers, tablets
and network devices such as routers, hubs and switches.
● Network devices: which illustrate the physical devices that connect nodes to
Ethernet network interface card, a wireless IEEE 802.11 device, etc.
● Communication channels: which illustrate the medium for sharing information
among network devices such as fiber-optic-point-to-point links, shared broadcast
media, wireless spectrum, etc.
● Communication protocols: which model the implementation of standardized and
experimental network protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Domain
Name System (DNS), etc.
● Protocol headers: which illustrate the special data related to the specific protocol
in the network packets.
● Network packets: which are the main parts of the information exchange in
computer networks. Network packets consist of protocol header and payload
data.
Conjointly, Wehrle et al. [11] emphasize on the importance of the realism rather
than abstraction in network simulation, as the high level of the abstraction might result
in abundant divergence from the experimental results.
58 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

3.1.2 Network emulation

Network emulation is an integration of simulated networks with real end-systems
such as computers, routers, switches, etc. The connections between real world and
simulated environments are done in a seamless manner as the connection among real
network objects.

3.1.3 The application of network simulation and emulation

in network security
Conducting real experiments such as attack scenarios in an operational network envi-
ronment causes high risks. Therefore, simulation environments become more popular
in network security research. Network anomaly and intrusion detection is one of the
interesting research subjects in the area of network security. Most of the existing stud-
ies in the field of network anomaly detection validate their methods using simulated
datasets, because practicing attack scenarios on real and live networks may causes a
network crash [12].

3.1.4 Virtualization
Computer virtualization techniques were first developed in 1960s by IBM [13]. Virtu-
alization techniques enable users to divide the physical computer to multiple isolated
environments called virtual machines or guest machines. Virtual machines also can
be seen as an emulation of physical machines. Virtual machines are another solu-
tion which is used to model networks. There are two types of virtualization: virtual
machines which are powered by hypervisors and container-based virtual machines
(Docker).

3.1.5 Virtualization using hypervisor

All of virtual machines working on a physical computer (host) share their physical
resources such as the memory, disk and network devices by means of a software which
is called hypervisor or a control program. VMware, KVM, Xen, Xbox and Hyper-V
are the most well-known hypervisors. The hardware resources are allocated by the
virtual machines on request. Resource sharing and isolation are two prominent advan-
tages of the virtual machines. Virtualization empowers system administrators to create
a simplified abstract view of the system as a working space of the software application.
Additionally, most of the cybersecurity phenomena cannot be studied experimentally
due to the potential risk of collapsing or infecting the experimental environment, high
cost and legal issues. Therefore, virtual machines are absolutely essential for cyberse-
curity studies. Virtual machines empower researchers to develop intrusion prevention
and intrusion detection systems (IDSs) by safely testing suspicious activities in a
virtual environment.
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 59

App1 App2 App3 App1 App2 App3

Bins/Libs Bins/Libs Bins/Libs Bins/Libs Bins/Libs Bins/Libs
App1 App2 App3
Guest OS Guest OS Guest OS Guest Linux
Bins/Libs Bins/Libs Bins/Libs

Hypervisor Docker engine Hypervisor

Host OS Host OS Host OS

Figure 3.1 Architecture of Docker and hypervisor-based virtual machines

3.1.6 Virtualization using container

Linux containerization is a virtualization method which enables running of multiple
processes on multiple isolated environments or operating systems only by means of a
single kernel. It is an operating system level virtualization environment which takes
advantages of Linux Cgroups1 and namespace2 to allow different containers to run on
a single host [14]. Docker provides very light vitalization, because it does not require
hardware level virtualization. It wraps software and its dependencies such as shared
applications and services into a standardized container [15]. In other words, a Docker
enables a transparent and an independent workspace for each application running on
it by dividing operating system resources [16]. Figure 3.1, displays the difference of
traditional virtual machines and Docker.
The advantages of using a Docker image rather than a traditional virtual machine
image are agility, portability and controllability of the application environments. It
enables users easy to maintain customized execution environments, in the shape of
lightweight Docker images instead of bulky virtual machine images. This paves the
way for the micro-services architectural pattern to rise.

3.1.7 Virtual machines and simulation

Virtual machines are suitable for modeling mid-scale networks, but the representation
of huge networks with thousands of network objects are not practical using virtual
machines [17]. In this chapter, we took advantage of both simulation and virtualization
techniques to create a safe virtual lab for imitating different attack scenarios and collect
traffic logs. These network traffic logs can be used to develop novel detection and
defense methods in the field of network security.
The remainder of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 3.2 describes the
background of network simulation and virtualization in the field of anomaly and
attack detection; Section 3.3 provides the methodology used; Section 3.4 describes
the network topology of our test bed; Section 3.5 provides detailed information about
the way that different objects of the network topology were configured; Section 3.6

1
Control group is a Linux kernel feature which provides isolated workstation with limited resources called
container.
2
Namespace is a Linux feature that prevents observation of resources used by different groups.
60 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

presents discussion and results; and finally, Section 3.7 summarizes the study and
presents a road map for the future work.

3.2 Literature review

This section presents a short overview of network anomalies and their detection tech-
niques, network workload generators and some simulation practices in the field of
network security.

3.2.1 Network anomalies and detection methods

In a large dataset, nonconforming patterns are often called anomalies, outliers,
exceptions, aberrations, surprises, peculiarities or discordant observations in various
domains. However, outliers and anomalies are the most frequently used terms in the
context of network intrusion detection [18]. Network events which are far from nor-
mal or expected normal behavior are suspicious from the perspective of the security.
Not certainly all anomalies reflect a malicious activity in the network. Anomalies also
can be observed when the meaning or scope of the normality changes. Therefore, the
number of anomalies is always equal or higher than the number of malicious points in
a given dataset. On the other hand, anomalies which are the result of the unauthorized
attempt to access information, unauthorized information manipulation and attempt to
make a system unreliable or unusable are categorized as malicious activities. There are
bunch of studies in the literature which investigate network anomalies using different
methods including statistical methods, classification, clustering, information theory.
References [19–22] are examples of many survey studies which present the state of
the art in the field. All network anomaly detection researches require dataset to vali-
date their detection methods. Nevertheless, there are only few real datasets which are
publicly available such as FIFA World Cup Dataset 1998, DARPA Intrusion Detec-
tion Data Sets 1998, KDD cup Dataset 1999, UCLA Dataset 2001, CAIDA DDoS
Attack Dataset 2007 and TUIDS DDoS Dataset 2012. The KDDCUP’99 dataset is
the most widely used benchmark dataset in network anomaly and attack detection
studies. On the other hand, some researchers have blamed it for its inherited problems
as following [23]:

● Both the background and the attack data were synthesized for the privacy issues.
● Data’s false alarm characteristics were neglected; therefore, it is difficult to claim
that the available dataset is similar to the observed data.
● The workload of the synthesized data does not seem to be similar to the traffic in
real networks.
● More probably, the TCPdump data collector tool was overwhelmed during the
heavy traffic load and drop packets.
● There is no exact definition of the attacks for some cases such as probing or buffer
overflow.
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 61

Gogoi et al. [24] emphasize on the nature of the input data as the key aspect of
any anomaly detection system. Input data is defined as a collection of data with some
attributes of same or different types such as binary, categorical or continuous. As the
nature of attributes determines the applicability of an anomaly detection technique,
it is so prominent to employ the dataset with desired attributes. It is not likely to find
any publicly available real dataset which perfectly matches attribute requirements of
all anomaly detection studies. In a nutshell, the combination of real data and realistic
synthetic dataset which represents the real environment could be seen as a coherent
choice to validate novel anomaly detection engines in the rapidly growing computer
and information technology area.

3.2.2 Network workload generators

There are only a few studies in the literature regarding the realistic network workload
generation in contrast to the huge amount of studies on the characterization, model-
ing and simulation of computer networks. In general, a synthetic network workload
generator should be able to appropriately capture the complexity of real workload in
different scenarios, modify the properties of workload based on specific demands of
the scenario and finally measure indicators of the performance for the workload at net-
work level [25]. OSTINATO [26], SEAGULL [27], Tmix [28], RUDE/CRUDE [29],
MGEN [30], KUTE [31] and BRUTE [32] are some examples of the network work-
load generation tools. Network workload generation approaches can be classified into
two groups such as following:
● Trace-based generation: In this approach, the content and the timings of traffic
traces are mimicked based on previously collected data in the real scenarios.
● Analytical model-based generation: In this approach, flows and packets are
generated based on statistical models.
A comprehensive network workload generation tool should employ both
approaches depending on the characteristics of the various scenarios[25].

3.2.3 Network simulation for security studies

In recent years, simulation and virtualization have gained popularity in network secu-
rity research as well. They empower researchers to run vulnerability-related programs
against IT-systems and IT-applications and then develop solutions to detect and mit-
igate vulnerabilities. Network anomaly detection is one of the well-known research
focus in the area of network security. Enormous research efforts have been spent on
anomaly-based network intrusion detection using mathematical, machine learning,
artificial neural network, fuzzy set, knowledge-based and combination learning tech-
niques [33]. In general, all these techniques have a common point of intersection:
they need network traffic datasets to validate their anomaly detection approaches.
Real and simulated datasets are two major types of datasets which are used in
network anomaly detection studies. However, each of them has some advantages and
disadvantages. Most of the real datasets in the field are outdated and anonymized
for privacy concerns. Furthermore, there is no existing dataset that can meet all
62 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

requirements of researchers for various attack detection methods [34]. Therefore,

researchers struggle to validate their approaches using real datasets in experiments or
simulations. On the other hand, real system–based experiments are very complicated,
time consuming and expensive. As a result, researchers have launched to prepare their
own datasets in simulation environment due to the controllability, reproducibility and
scalability of simulated data [35]. In this section, we presented some recent exam-
ples of the studies which have benefited the simulation tools to investigate network
anomalies.
Kuhl et al. [36] used ARENA simulation software for modeling a network setup,
for modeling cyberattacks, for simulating cyberattacks and generating IDS data. Their
simulation environment composited of three main components: machines, connec-
tors and subnets. Machines were individual client computers or servers which were
employed as attacker or target machines. Target machines were equipped with IDS
sensors to detect cyberattacks and create alarms. In this study, attack scenarios were
defined in 5 major groups and 23 subgroups. The simulated environment enabled
users to choose different types of attacks to be occurred over a period of time along
with a specified quantity of network noise. The main goal of this study was to generate
automated attack and produce IDS alert files which included alerts from both attack
actions and noise. Correspondingly, these alert files were used to test and evaluate
cybersecurity systems.
Elejla et al. [37] proposed a flow-based IDS for detecting ICMPv6-based DDoS
attacks. Since there was no existing dataset that could meet their criteria for detecting
ICMPv6-based DDoS attacks, researchers created their own dataset in virtual envi-
ronment using GNS3 emulation tool. The GNS3 allowed them to collect a normal
traffic from the real-life network of a university and generate attack data in simulated
environment. Their simulated environment consisted of one victim and two attacker
machines: Kali OS with THCtoolkit and an Ubuntu OS machine with SI6 attacking
tool. In this study, different ICMPv6 DDoS attack scenarios were performed, and the
related network traffic was captured using Wireshark3 tool in PCAP file format.
Balyk et al. [38] used the GNS3 tool to simulate DDoS attacks. The experimental
network topology consisted of three virtual PCs of regular users, one Fedora core 22
64 bit Linux system running apache 2.4.12 web server and one attacker host. The
network was realized by Cisco Ethernet switches and Cisco routers. For DDoS attack
simulation, a simple Perl script was used to create multiple parallel connections to
destination port 80 of the web server. Wireshark was used to capture the traffic flows
on the closest switch to the web server. This study only simulated a single DDoS
attack scenario, while the concentration of the study was on web server parameters
settings and defense modules settings in GNS3 simulations.
Al Kaabi et al. [39] developed a virtual lab called DoS_VLab to allow students
to practice five types of DDoS attacks including ARP cache poisoning, Switch CAM
table corruption, TCP SYN flood, Land and ARP storm attacks in secure academic
environment. The lab was based on virtualization and GNS3 network simulation for

3
https://www.wireshark.org/.
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 63

building virtual networks. It consisted of two Windows XP Virtual Machines (VMs):

one of them acts as the attacker host and the second as the victim host. The study only
mentioned that appropriate tools were installed on the attacker machine and different
types of DDoS attacks were performed, but the names of the tools were not implicitly
indicated.
For developing a traffic analyzer to detect DDoS attacks, Ojeniyi et al. [40]
proposed a simulated environment using GNS3 tool. The network topology consisted
of an attacker and a victim machine both running Kali Linux. In order to simulate
the DDoS attack, the built-in Hping3 tool of the Kali Linux on the attacker’s machine
was used to perform DDoS attack toward the victim.
For proposing a method to discriminate DDoS attacks from the flash events (FE),
Behal and Kumar [41] developed a test bed to generate dataset of low-rate and high-
rate DDoS attacks and of FE. Their test bed was a combination of real and emulated
systems. Their test bed consisted of 75 physical nodes that run Ubuntu and Windows
OS, Ethernet switches, routers and Linux server. The Core emulator tool was used
to increase the number of the identical virtual nodes. The httperf and D-ITG traffic
generator tools were used to generate legitimate HTTP traffic and BoNeSi botnet
simulator tool was used to generate DDoS attack traffic.
Zhao et al. [42] evaluated different methodologies to detect network anomalies.
In order to prepare datasets for their experiments, they defined the topology of the
simulation network in NS2 format, then they used Malicious traffic Composition
Environment (MACE) tool4 as the malicious traffic generator and the LTProf tool5
as the legitimate traffic generator. Moreover, Scalable URL Reference Generator
(SURGE) tool6 was used to produce extra workload on the web servers to test stress
tolerance of the network. NetFlow was generated for all passing network traffics in
both directions of the link (in the form of compressed nfdump files) and passed to
anomaly detection engine for further analyses.
Sieklik et al. [34] developed a simulated environment to investigate the amplifi-
cation DoS attack based on the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). Their network
topology was consisted of three routers, a computer and two servers. GNS3 simulation
software was used to simulate the network topology in this study. VMware virtualiza-
tion software was utilized to implement more flexible simulation systems. The three
virtual machines (attacker, target and amplifier) were connected to the router run-
ning in GNS3. The attacker server ran Kali Linux 5 R3 OS with various penetration
testing tools. Both amplifier and target were running Windows XP SP3. The attacker
computer ran several TFTP service, and the target machine ran default Windows XP
UDP services whereas any other UDP service could be employed. They investigated
a realistic amplification scenario by creating spoofed packets using Scapy,7 then the
attacking machine using a loop command to send these multiple crafted packets to
the amplifying server.

4
MACE is a toolkit to generate divers set of attacks [43].
5
TheLTProf collects legitimate traffic samples from public traces [44].
6
SURGE is a web workload generation tool which mimics a set of real users accessing a server [45].
7
It is a special network analysis tool written in Python to create network packets [46].
64 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

3.3 Methodology
The most challenging aspect of simulation based anomaly detection research is
proving the reliability and dependability of simulated datasets in comparison to
real-life datasets. On the other hand, well-designed simulation environment offers
repeatability, programmability and extensibility of the validation instrument [12].
The main purpose of this chapter is to introduce a simulation environment
using VMware virtualization software to design a flexible and reliable simulation
environment. In order to realize the simulated environment, some software and
hardware were required such as VMware workstation, GNS3 software and Ubuntu
Docker image. We also used open-source pfSense firewall, NTOPNG and MYSQL
to apply network rules, collect network flow data and store network flow data, respec-
tively. Moreover, we utilized botnet simulator and network traffic–generator tools
for creating DDoS attack and normal traffic data samples. We used GNS3 sim-
ulator to develop our experimental environment; as mention in [38], the results
of the GNS3 simulation tool matched the results obtained from the Cisco net-
work. Additionally, GNS3 is a well-tested and established network-simulation tool,
which is also used by many other companies like Exxon, Walmart, AT&T, NASA,
etc. [38].

3.4 Defining a simulated and virtualized test bed for network

anomaly detection researches

We have implemented the virtual lab named Cyber Security Simulated Lab (CSSL)
in order to create an isolated platform to simulate, test and analyze different types
of security threats. Our infrastructure was built by means of a VMware virtualiza-
tion software on one physical machine. In order to connect the virtual machine to the
network, we mapped the external Internet connection of our host machine to the inter-
nal VM network. The CSSL allows us to configure different network topologies for
simulating different attack scenarios. Our virtual test bed is an isolated environment
to mainly fabricate and collect simulated DDoS attack data. As network technolo-
gies are growing rapidly, we primarily employed open platforms to include different
efforts and different packages whenever there is a need [10]. Moreover, using open
source tools and applications facilitates the repeatability of the study. We initially
defined the network topology as shown in Figure 3.2 using GNS3. Attacker and tar-
get machines are Ubuntu Docker appliance for GNS3. pfSense is an appliance of the
GNS3. VMnet8 is our exit point to the Internet. We disabled all incoming and out-
going traffic to/from the VMnet8 using firewall rules during the experimental phase
for security concerns. (For more information refer to Section 3.5.3.)

3.4.1 GNS3
GNS3 is a graphical network emulation tool which can provide simulation/emulation
of entire networks and many network devices such as links, switches, routers
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 65

Simulated outside VMnet8

VMnet1 VMnet2 Real outside

Attacker
Attacker zone
Simulated inside
victim zone

Service_Machine
Switch(MirroringFunction) PfSense_Firewall Switch

Victim NTOPNG Data_Repository

Figure 3.2 Network topology of the test bed

Computer QEMU*
GNS3 GUI
server 1

Controller
IOU**
Computer
GNS3 WEB
server 2

* Open source platform for hardware virtualization DAYNAMIPS**

**IOL or IOS On Linux
***An emulator computer program for emulating Cisco router

Figure 3.3 GNS3 architecture

firewalls, etc. As it can be seen in Figure 3.3, GNS3 has a similar architecture to
Linux computers based on internal interfaces (network to device driver) and appli-
cation interfaces (sockets) [11]. All the communications in GNS3 tool are done over
HTTP using JSON; therefore, HTTP basic authentication can be used to securely
access to the application programming interfaces [47]. Additionally, GNS3 enables
packet filtering and raw-packet capturing in the network using its direct interface to
Wireshark application [48]. We installed both GNS3 windows application and GNS3
virtual machine image [49]. As it can be seen in Figure 3.4, we also connected them to
each other by setting the remote main server address of the GNS3 windows application
to the IP address of the GNS3 virtual machine.
66 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 3.4 Connecting GNS3 application to the remote server

3.4.2 Ubuntu
We used the following command to pull GNS3 Ubuntu Docker container on GNS3
VM from Docker registry.

docker pull gns3/Ubuntu: xenial

The Ubuntu Docker container encompassed networking tools such as net-tools,

iproute2, ping and traceroute, curl (data transfer utility), host (DNS lookup utility),
iperf3, mtr (full screen traceroute), socat (utility for reading/writing from/to network
connections), ssh client, tcpdump and telnet [50].

3.4.3 Network interfaces

Virtual machine allows defining and setting of different network adapters. As it can
be seen in Figure 3.5, we created three network interfaces as following [51]:

● NAT (network address translation): The virtual machine does not have an IP
address on the external network. Therefore, it translates the addresses of virtual
machines in a private VMnet network to that of the host machine. Subsequently,
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 67

Figure 3.5 Host-only, NAT and custom virtual network interfaces

VMnet1
10.5.6.x

VMnet8 Internet
10.5.5.x

VMnet2
10.5.7.x
VMware

Figure 3.6 Virtual machine–adapter setting

it uses the host computer network connection in order to connect to the Inter-
net. VMware virtual DHCP server assigns an address to the virtual machine.
It provides a transparent and easy-to-configure method to access to network
resources.
● Host-only: It provides a network connection between the virtual machine and the
host computer. The virtual machine is connected to the host-operating system
using a virtual Ethernet adapter that is visible to the host-operating system on a
virtual private network. It is not visible to the outside host.
● Custom: It is a more complicated networking configuration option which provides
customized setup for virtual network adapters. After selecting “Custom” option,
the user should choose a virtual switch to connect the virtual machine’s adapter
to that switch.
Accordingly, we created three corresponding network adapters for the GNS3
virtual machine like Figure 3.6. We also assigned IP addresses for each of the interfaces
of GNS3 virtual machine. Figure 3.7 demonstrates the assignment of IP addresses to
interfaces of VMnet8.
68 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

VMnet8

10.5.5.2

PfSense_Firewall
Switch
10.5.5.3

Figure 3.7 IP address assignment for VMnet8

3.5 Simulated environment for network anomaly detection

researches

As a simplest topology, we required an attacker, a target, a firewall, normal and attack

traffic generators, a log collector and a data repository.

3.5.1 Victim machine

As a victim machine, we installed the Apache2 server on an Ubuntu Docker container
and made a new container called Victim_Machine_Template.

3.5.2 Attacker machine

As the attacker machine, we installed the attack tool BoNeSi [52] on an Ubuntu
Docker container and made a new container called Attacker_Machine_Template.
1. We were able to add any penetration testing or attack simulation tool on the
attacker machine based on our needs. We needed to simulate a DDoS attack;
therefore, we used BoNeSi botnet simulator tool with 50k bots to simulate DDoS
attack.
2. BoNeSi is able to generate different types of flooding attacks using ICMP,
UDP and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocols using different 50k
IP addresses. BoNeSi empowers users to configure rates, data volume, source
IP addresses, URLs, target port, time to live, etc. It also supports the simulation
of the HTTP-GET floods attacks. As cited in [52], BoNeSi can generate up to
150,000 packets per second on an AMD Opteron with 2 GHz. Its rate can be
duplicated using recent AMD Phenom II X6 1100T with 3.3 GHz. We simulated
the following DDoS attacks:
Bonesi -r 3000 -p tcp -d eth0 10.5.5.50:80 (Sends 3,000
packets per second to port 80 of victim machines)
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 69

VMnet2

Attacker

10.5.7.70

10.5.7.3
PfSense_Firewall
10.5.6.3 10.5.5.3

Figure 3.8 IP address assignment for WAN and LAN interfaces of pfSense

Bonesi -r 3000 -s 320 -p tcp -d eth0 10.5.5.50:80

(Sends 3,000 packets with size of 320 byes per second to port 80 of victim
machines)
Bonesi -r 3000 -i ip_list -p tcp -d eth0 10.5.5.50:80
(Sends 3,000 packets per second to port 80 of victim machine using source IPs
in the ip_list text8 file)
Bonesi -r 3000 -i ip_list -p tcp d eth0 10.5.5.80.80
(Sends 3,000 packets per second to port 80 of the victim machines using source
IPs in the ip_list text file)
Bonesi -i ip_list -p tcp -d eth0 10.5.5.80.80 (Floods as
much as packets it can to port 80 of the victim machines using source IPs in
the ip_list text file)

3.5.3 pfSense firewall

We added the pfSense appliance of GNS3 to this project. Consequently, we assigned
the WAN and LAN interfaces of pfSense and their correspondent IP addresses such
as shown in Figure 3.8.
3.5.3.1 Firewall configuration
We accessed the web configurator of the firewall using the http://10.5.6.3
URL as it has been applied in the LAN interface setting of the firewall. Sub-
sequently, we defined rules for floating, WLAN, LAN and attacker zone. For
instance, we allowed and logged all of traffic between victim zone and attacker zone.
We also blocked all traffic from/to real-outside, because the virtualized environment

8
The list of source IP addresses to participate in the DDoS attack can be provided by a text file and then
pass to BoNeSi using ‘-i’ parameter.
70 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

VMnet1

Service_Machine
Switch(MirroringFunction)
10.5.6.60

10.5.6.70
Ostinato

10.5.6.50 10.5.6.90 10.5.6.40

Victim NTOPNG Data_Repository

Figure 3.9 IP address assignment for victim zone

is vulnerable to all the traditional attacks and exploits worse than normal environ-
ments [52]. Moreover, we wanted an isolated environment to create and test attacks
without affecting the real systems.

3.5.4 NAT and VMware host-only networks

The network interfaces of the real outside, attacker zone and victim zone in our project
were mapped to corresponding network interfaces adapters. Figure 3.9 demonstrates
the IP address assignment of interfaces in the victim zone.

3.5.5 Traffic generator machine

Ostinato is a packet crafter, network traffic generator and analyzer which is supported
with a user friendly graphical user interface (GUI) [26]. Ostinato allows users to create
desired data streams by manually configuring each packet at different layers of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Ostinato uses a client/server architecture.
The GUI is used to create desired packets and then send them out of the traffic
interfaces using Ostinato’s server (drone) [26]. The Ostinato GUI can be used to
configure IP and MAC addresses of the interfaces (eth1, eth2, eth3, etc.). By default,
the interface eth0 is used to connect to the local machine. Figure 3.10 demonstrates
the main user interface of Ostinato tool.
We added the Ostinato appliance of GNS3 to this project in order to fabricate
and send packets of several streams. Ostinato generates stateless streams which are
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 71

Figure 3.10 GUI of Ostinato

dropped by pfSense firewall. Therefore, we placed it behind the firewall. In order to

use the GUI of the Ostinato, we set the console type to virtual network computing
(VNC) in the node configuration window of GNS3. GNS3 supports ThightVNC [53]
viewer, so we installed ThightVNC9 viewer on our local machine. The IP address of
the remote host in ThightVNC was set to the IP address of GNS3 virtual machine
(10.5.5.5). We set the several parameters at different OSI layers when a new stream
was created as following:
1. Configuring protocols in different layers (MAC, Ethernet, IPv4, TCP and Text
for physical, data link, network, transport and application layer correspondingly).
2. Configuring MAC address of the sender and receiver to MAC address of attacker
and victim machines, respectively.
3. Configuring source and destination IP addresses to 10.5.7.70 (attacker machine)
and 10.5.6.50 (victim machine).
4. Configuring destination port number to 80.
5. Writing “Network Traffic Generation” in payload of the data.
6. Configuring the number of packets to 10,000 and the transmission rate to 200 pps.
Ostinato also allows to set checksum and different packet flags including URG,
ACK, PSH, RST, SYN and FIN. Figure 3.11 demonstrates the properties of the crafted
stream in detail.

3.5.6 NTOPNG tool

We added the Docker image of the NTOPNG as an appliance to our GNS3 project.
We utilized NTOPNG tool to collect the processed network traffic data in our GNS3

9
VNC is a graphical desktop sharing system based on the Remote Frame Buffer protocol to remotely access
and control another computer [54].
72 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 3.11 Detailed packet view in Ostinato

environment. NTOPNG is a network traffic probe that monitors network usage.

NTOPNG is based on libpcap and has a capability to virtually run on every Unix
platform, MacOSX and on Windows as well.
Tools like TCPdump and Wireshark collect raw data. It means that when a packet
is received and sent, data is captured and logged. On the other hand, NTOPNG is able
to collect data in a connection-based format. It enabled us to capture main features
of network traffic including source IP address, destination IP address, source port,
destination port, duration, number of bytes and packets which are sent and received.
It also provides an extra feature to geographical information of the IP addresses [55].
Figure 3.12 show the summary of active hosts in non-attack period, and Figure
3.13 shows the time-based graph of traffic follows in the NTOPNG interface (eth0)
which is connected to the victim host during the simulated DDoS attack period.
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 73

Figure 3.12 Sent/Received traffics in interface of NTOPNG (eth0 ) during attack

Timeseries Timeframe: 1m 5m 10m 1h 3h 6h 12h 1d 1w 2w 1M 6M 1Y

Traffic (eth0)
4.76 Mbit/s
4.50 Mbit/s Network link saturated
4 Mbit/s

3.50 Mbit/s

3 Mbit/s

2.50 Mbit/s

2 Mbit/s

1.50 Mbit/s

1 Mbit/s

500 Kbit/s

0
14:47:57 14:50:00 14:51:40 14:53:20 14:55:00 14:56:40 14:57:56

910.82 Kbps Uptime: 8 min, 55 sec

927.74 Kbps 1 Alert 407 Hosts 129,716 Flows

Figure 3.13 Active network hosts during non-attack time period

Figure 3.14 shows the summary of a time-based graph of the packets’ arriving
rate during simulated DDoS attack in NTOPNG.

3.5.6.1 NTOPNG configuration

As Figure 3.12 shows, we attached NTOPNG to the same switch which the victim
machine was also connected. In addition, we configured port mirroring and copied
all traffic on the switch port which was connected to the victim to the mirror port.
We used this technique in order to send all network traffic to the victim machine to
NTOPNG [56].

3.5.6.2 NTOPNG configuration to dump logs to Mysql machine

We set a start command of the NTOPNG machine using its configuration interface
by typing the following connection string.

(mysql;<host>;<dbname>;<table name>; <user>; <pw>)

74 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

TCP (rcvd)
TCP (sent)

2 Mbits

1 Mbits

500 Kbit/s

Figure 3.14 Sent/Received traffics in victim host during attack

Table 3.1 Fields of NTOPNG logs and their corresponding data types

Field Type Key

idx Int Yesa

VLAN_ID Small Int No
L7_Protocol Small Int No
Source IP address Int No
Source port number Small Int No
Destination IP address Int No
Destination port number Small Int No
Protocol Tiny Int No
Bytes Int No
Packets Int No
First_Switched Int No
Last_Switched Int No
Info Int No
Json Blob No
Profile Varchar No
NTOPNG_Instance_Name Varchar No
Interface_ID Small Int No

a
Auto incremental.

Consequently, NTOPNG created a database and table on the Data_Repository

machine as Table 3.1 displays.

3.5.7 Repository machine

As NTOPNG supports the exportation of the monitor data to MySQL, Elasticsearch
and Logstash, we installed MYSQL on an Ubuntu Docker container and made a
 A simulation environment for cybersecurity attack analysis 75

new container called Data_Repository_Template. We connected it to the NTOPNG

machine to collect network traffic from NTOPNG. As Figure 3.9 demonstrates, the
Data_Repository machine has been placed in the same network with NTOPNG and
the victim machine (10.5.6.0/24).

3.5.7.1 Repository machine configuration

We altered the configuration of Data_Repository machine for the listening port. By
default, MYSQL listening port is port 3306 from the local host. If the “dump traf-
fic data” option of the NTOPNG is set, it automatically will send the log data to
MYSQL. In this situation, MYSQL should receive data (listen) out of local host. We
set bind_address variable to the IP address of the NTOPNG machine, then stop and
restart the Data_Repository machine.

3.5.7.2 Give a remote root access to Data_Repository machine

By default, the remote root access to MYSQL is disabled for security reasons. We
locally enabled it using the following SQL query in order to authorize NTOPNG for
writing network follow logs in data repository machine.

GRANT ALL ON *.* TO root@’10.5.6.90’ IDENTIFIED BY

’test’; FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

3.6 Discussion and results

To best of our knowledge, there is no comprehensive study in the literature which
merely concentrates on step-by-step implementation of the simulated lab, based on
virtual machines and Docker containers to produce directional (sent/received) DDoS
attack data and collect these data according to many criteria including IP address,
port, L7 protocol, throughput, RTT, TCP statistics (retransmissions, out of order
packets, packet lost), bytes/packets transmitted, etc. We think this chapter fills in
the gap by providing guidelines for cybersecurity researchers and practitioners to
develop an isolated simulation environment. Usage of open-source tools ensure the
repeatability and comparability of results among studies which will apply the proposed
simulated environment in their research. The simulate environment is suitable to create
normal and malicious network traffics and collect flow-based traffic logs for network
anomaly detection analyses. Minor changes might be required based on different
attack scenarios. For example, different attack tools can be installed on attacker
machine to launch variety of exploits toward victim machine.

3.7 Summary

In this chapter, we provided information on some key concepts of network sim-

ulation and virtualization and their differences. Subsequently, we have presented
a network simulation environment with a focus on network attack and anomaly
76 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

detection scenarios. We took advantages of both hypervisor and Docker-based vir-

tual environments. We utilized preconfigured GNS3, NTOPNG, Docker containers,
Ostinato and pfSense virtual image to realize our network topology. On the other
hand, we made our own containers including Data_Repository, Victim_template and
Attacker_template which can be used in future industry and academic studies. Virtu-
alization and simulation play a significant role not only in reducing the operational
costs but also in keeping operational environments safe from threats. Therefore, they
provide an intrinsic potential to be used in the field of network security, attack and
anomaly detection. In this study, we almost opted open source tools to encourage
adoption, modification and improvement of this simulated environment by future
researchers. This is an example of using GNS3 and computer virtualization for net-
work simulation for the investigation of network security and attack scenarios. Based
on this example, several different simulation scenarios can be realized.
The simulation results depend strongly on the performance of the used hard-
ware.10,11 The same simulation with slower/faster hardware could deliver divergent
results. This is also depending on bus speed, NIC speed, etc. This has to be taken into
account for performance testing purposes. But the fundamental results concerning
security investigation using this simulation method are not infected.

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Part II
Surveys and reviews
 Chapter 4
Demand–response management in smart grid:
a survey and future directions
Waseem Akram1 and Muaz A. Niazi1

Nowadays, one of the key areas of research in smart grid (SG) is demand–response
management (DRM). DRM assists in simplifying interactions between the customers
and the utility-service providers. It also helps in the improvement of energy efficiency
as well as effects on load balancing. Studies on DRM have brought a number of
interesting, technical discussions and research contributions. Many of these studies
work toward making energy-efficient systems. However, there is a need to work
in the domain of customer satisfaction; this area needs considerable new advances.
From past few decades, a number of studies have been carried out in SG regarding
DRM. However, there is no such work that presents a comprehensive analysis of these
works. There is a need to investigate different techniques, their advantages, as well
as limitations. By focusing on DRM from a customer satisfaction perspective, in this
chapter, we present a detailed overview of different solutions for developing DRM.
We also group existing solutions and identify trends and challenges in an SG domain
from DRM perspective.

4.1 Overview

We first start by giving an introduction of SG. Then background and basic concepts are
given. Next, we present a detailed review of different literature from DRM perspective
in SG. Then open-research problems are given. Finally, we present conclusion at the
end of this chapter.

4.2 Introduction
The traditional power system provides one-way power flow to the consumers. On
the other side, the energy demands are continuously growing from consumer sides.
This makes the traditional power system difficult to respond to the ever-changing and

1
Computer Science Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
84 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

rising energy demand of consumers. Due to this issue, the energy sector has started
working for efficient and sustainable energy system. This effort introduced the SG
concept in the energy domain.
The SG introduced a two-way dialog where electricity and information can be
exchanged between utility and consumers. It integrates advanced information and
communication technology (ICT), smart meters, smart appliances, and other sensing
mechanisms [1]. It is a developing network of distributed nodes, where all operations
of the system are controlled by an intelligent and autonomous system [2]. The SG
involves the transmission of energy to the consumers in a controlled and smart way,
which benefices both utility and end users [3].
DRM plays an important role in SG environment. It enables the dynamic adjust-
ment of energy demand from consumers in response to the price signals and incentives.
This process shifts higher demand to lower demand, thus reducing energy cost [4,5].
It assists in the interaction between end users, appliances, and utility service provider
which minimizes end-user effort in controlling power usage devices [6,7]. It also
helps in fault detection and prevention in the system, thus improves system reliability
and sustainability [2].
There are several research challenges related to the DRM. The deployment of ICT,
smart meters, and renewable energy resources is a challenging task [1]. Renewable
energy resources have unpredictable fluctuation in power generation. It is difficult to
predict energy for the day ahead [8]. Another big challenge is decision-making for
demand and consumption at consumer side. Consumers are making a decision about
how much energy is required for a certain type of appliance in a particular time period.
This makes the consumer decision more complex. The users’ demand for energy
changes with time (variable demand), this needs an adaptive strategy of grid unit
that can modify their capacity according to the user demand [9]. Reliability is another
issue in an SG environment [10]. Some naturally accruing events lead to the cascading
failure of SG [6,11–14], where supervisory control and data-acquisition system is
used to detect and prevent a fault in the system [3]. The SG presents heterogeneous
structures composed of distributed nodes. All operations are controlled through a
communication network. The current communication techniques are inefficient due
to the large and complex systems.
The deployment of renewable energy resources needs more coordination and
controlling techniques to achieve reliable and efficient system. A multi-agent system
(MAS) is a useful tool for coordination and controlling all operations within the SG,
due to its distributed and autonomous property. MAS is widely used in SG appli-
cations. In articles [13,15–17], MAS is adopted for DRM [18], fault handling [14],
and voltage and storage control [17], [19]. In the last couple of decades, researchers
have made a number of contributions to the DRM and have made the efficient system
in the SG environment. However, there is still a need for improvement in consumer
satisfaction domain.
From past few decades, a number of studies have been carried out in SG regarding
DRM. However, there is no such work that presents a comprehensive analysis of
these works. There is a need to investigate different techniques, their advantages, and
limitations. So here in this part, we present a comprehensive and detailed review of
 Demand–response management in smart grid 85

DRM techniques. We review different scientific publications and investigate their

features as well as open-research problems.
Our expected contributions are listed as follows:
1. To review large number of literature in the domain of SG from DRM perspective.
2. To propose a classification of DRM techniques used in previous literature.
3. To highlight their key features as well as open-research problems.

4.3 Backgrounds

In this section, we are going to present basic background and concepts for
understanding DRM in the SG.
4.3.1 Smart grid
The traditional power system is responsible for generation and transmission of energy
to end users. However, the user demand changes with time (variable demand), so the
static approach cannot deal with variable demand. This problem gained the attention
of researchers and introduced SG technology. SG is a complex system that is being
formed from the traditional power system [20]. This integrates advanced communi-
cation and control technology that enables the system to perform the automated oper-
ation. It also consists of other various technologies like smart meters, smart homes,
generators, storage devices, appliances, load, etc. This presents a network composed
of distributed nodes; all operations of the system are controlled intelligently and
autonomously. The key benefit of an SG is to achieve an efficient energy system [2].
NIST [21] presented a conceptual model for SG domain called NIST SG frame-
work 1.0 in the National Institute of Standards and Technology, US Department of
Commerce. This model represents seven different actors/applications that are inter-
acting with each other. The conceptual model for SG has been shown in Figure 4.1.
Each actor in this model is described below:
1. Customer: Represent end users that consume and store energy. They may be
residential, industrial or commercial.
2. Market: Operators in the electricity market.
3. Operation: They manage all energy transmissions.
4. Service provider: They provide services and facility to the utility and customer.
5. Generation: They generate and store energy.
6. Transmission: They carry energy over large distances.
7. Distribution: They carry energy to and from customers.
The model components:
1. Social components: Electricity consumers, producers, grid operators.
2. Technical components: Loads (consuming devices), generators, power lines,
buses.
The interaction and behavior of these actors will influence and be influenced by
the technical system. The changes in the configuration of the technical system will
86 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Service
Market Operation
provider

Generation Transmission Distribution Customer

Figure 4.1 SG conceptual model adapted from [21]

affect the actors’ behavior, and changes in actors’ behaviors will affect the technical
system configuration. Therefore, there is a need to consider coupled social-technical
system in order to achieve reliable, sustainable, and resilient power system.

4.3.2 Demand–response management

DRM plays an important role in the SG environment. This refers to the process
in which end users reduce energy consumption in response to the incentives [22].
This results in scalability and efficiency of the system. It also provides different
strategies such as time-of-use (TOU) price, real-time pricing (RTP), critical peak
pricing, incentives based, pricing and capacity market [23]. The authors of articles
[24,25] defined these strategies as follows:

1. TOU: It uses different unit prices for different time periods.

2. RTP: It involves changing the energy cost on hourly bases.
3. Critical peak price: Combines both TOU and RTP strategy.
4. Incentive-based: This strategy involves three different pricing schemes. Direct
load control, in which different power usage devices are directly controlled
(on/off). Interruptible service, in which service provider offers a discount rate to
the end users. Biding strategy, in which end users bid for consumption pattern.
5. Capacity market: In which end users have to send back energy to the grid unit.

DRM is an important resource for the SG system. It integrates modern technology

like sensor, ICT, smart meter, appliances, etc. These technologies enable end users to
interact with the power system. They also allow users to reduce energy consumption,
which has a considerable impact on energy-cost reduction [26].
The integration of modern technology and renewable energy resources faces great
challenges in SG system. Recently, DRM has gained a great deal of attention from the
research community and brought a number of research contributions and technical
 Demand–response management in smart grid 87

discussions on DRM. During our literature study, we found two types of literature;
learning-based techniques and complex system to address DRM in the SG.

4.3.3 Complex systems

The complex system represents an object with many interconnected elements or
agents. There exist relatively many relations among each element or agent. The behav-
ior of each element depends on the behavior of others. Another term, emergence, is
also used to describe complex system [27]. The complex adaptive system is a type
of complex system that concerns with agent’s behaviors in complex systems. These
agents are capable of learning and adapting in response to interaction with other
agents. They have nonlinear and hierarchy properties and behaviors. The complex
adaptive system represents a set of natural and artificial complex systems like market
environment [28], cell organism, the internet with user and servers, a power system
with consumers and grid unit, etc.
Recently, a number of studies have been carried out on the topic “DRM in power
system environment from a complex system perspective.” In articles [4,16,29,30],
complex system approach was adopted and developed complex models by integrating
consumers feedback, agents behavior, generation unit, a distribution unit, storage, and
consumption devices.

4.3.4 Learning-based approaches

Learning-based approach is one of the major domain of artificial intelligence (AI)
in which agents learn from past experience [31]. Agents can act according to the
situation, hence they are able to have dynamic behavior against the dynamic situation.
Experience gained through previous action state pair for existing event and training
data. Learning-based approach is used in agent-based modeling for optimization and
predictive analysis [32].
Reinforcement learning (RL) is a type of machine-learning approach and also a
branch of AI. It concerns with agents’ behaviors and actions in the environment. These
agents learn the states and available actions as well as other agent’s action and state.
It perceives the input from the environment and performs a specific action and gets
a reward corresponding to that action for any state. In articles [32–34], RL approach
is adopted to train agents to get an optimal policy to make demand–supply balance
in the power-system environment.

4.4 A review of demand–response management in SG

In this section, we are going to present a detailed overview of surveyed work about
DRM in the SG. We have grouped DRM into three main categories which are learning-
based approaches, complex system, and other techniques. Figure 4.2 shows the
classification of the reviewed work on the SG from DRM perspective. In learning-
based approach, different learning techniques are used like artificial neural network
(ANN) and RL. While complex system consists of collaborative, adaptive, particle
88 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

ANN
Learningbased
RL

Collaboration

CAS

DRM Complex system Demand integration

PSO

Game theory

Security management

HEM

Other techniques EVs

Renewable energy
resources

Energy market

Microgrid

Figure 4.2 Classification of literature for DRM in smart grid

swarm optimization (PSO) and game-theory approaches, other techniques comprise

communication management, home-energy management (HEM), renewable energy
sources, electric vehicles (EVs), energy market, and microgrid.

4.4.1 Learning-based approaches

In learning-based approach, agents learn and adapt their behavior against the
dynamic environment. The learning-based approach is categorized into ANN and
RL techniques.

4.4.1.1 Artificial neural network

Hernandez et al. [35] proposed a MAS for the virtual power plant. The virtual power
plant consists of small elements or a single unit. ANN is applied for efficient control
and management of operations in a virtual power plant. The experimental results
showed 1.5% error rate. This model works on a small level, and it needs enough
information for predicting the future state of the system.
 Demand–response management in smart grid 89

4.4.1.2 Reinforcement learning approach

There needs an intelligent and accurate model for prediction of energy consumption
in an SG environment. In [36], Mocanu et al. presented a model for energy prediction
based on RL without using any historical data. This model integrates the RL with
the deep belief network. It estimates the state space and then finds optimal policy by
using the RL technique. Experimental results showed 91.42% accuracy of the system.
However, this model is not implemented for the different level in the SG.
In [10], Lakić et al. presented an agent-based model using SA-Q learning tech-
nique. It learns how much the system reserves to offer power at the different time.
It also increases the ratio between economic cost and its benefits. The results showed
an improvement in performance and economic outcome to users. However, this
method is not applied to the multi-agent framework.
In [37], Dusparic et al. proposed a multi-agent scheme based on RL for demand–
response problem in the SG. This method uses current load information and predicts
load for the next one day by using load forecasting approach. The agents learn how to
fulfill user demands from available energy. The results showed peak usage reduction is
33% and off-peak increased by 50%. However, in this method, there is no collaboration
and communication among agents.
Wen et al. [38] addressed demand–response problem in SG and proposed frame-
work base on RL technique. In this method, demand–response problem is decomposed
over each device. This technique performs the self-initiation job and handles many
flexible requests. The complexity of the proposed algorithm is linear. The results
showed that for a broad range of trade-off parameters, it outperforms. However, this
technique focuses on the demand–response problem of a single unit or building.
In [33] by Ruelens et al., research work is carried out on demand–response
problem using a batch RL technique. The batch RL technique covers the inefficient
information problem of RL method. This method uses a batch of experiences to find
out optimal policy. In this work, two agents, water and residential building agent, are
used. For dynamic pricing, to minimize cost, a closed loop policy and for the day
ahead scheduling, open-loop policy is followed. The results showed that energy cost
is reduced by 19%, and consumption rate is increased by 4%.
When economic dispatch and demand response are treated as separate and
sequential operation, energy efficiency decreases. Zhang et al. [39] presented opti-
mal energy-management strategy in order to maximize social welfare. This method
operates through coordination of demand response and economic dispatch. Economic
dispatch is provided by generator and demand response by the customers. This method
is also used for the discovery of power demand–supply mismatch. The simulation
results showed convergence rate of 40 iterations.
Another approach for demand response is studied by O’Neill et al. [40] and pro-
posed consumer-automated energy system. This technique reduces residential energy
cost and usage. This method uses online energy-cost estimation and user decision
policy. This is the independent approach to energy price and system behavior. In this
method, users decide which device will use energy and how much. The results showed
40% cost reduction by using price unaware of energy scheduling.
90 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

4.4.2 Complex system

In this section, we present related work carried out in SG domain from a complex
system perspective. We grouped the existing techniques into collaborative, complex
adaptive system, demand-side integration, PSO, and game-theory approach.

4.4.2.1 Collaborative approach

MASs are widely used for controlling and managing in an SG. In [41], Manick-
avasagam proposed and developed intelligent energy control center (ECC) mechanism
for the SG. This technique consists of two layers, the one is DER which serves as a
client and the other is ECC as a server. ECC is controlled and monitored by a fuzzy
logic controller (FLC). Communication and negotiation between client servers take
place through internet protocol. The simulation results are stored in an excel database
acting as a monitoring agent. ECC used these results for decision-making in DERs.
However, communication between results and FLC is not taken into account.
The mismatch between supply and demand reduces system performance. Paral-
lel Monte Carlo tree search (P-MCTS) can produce an optimal solution for power
balancing, but it has no coordination support. In [18], Golpayegani et al. extended
the P-MCTS work by introducing collaborative and coordination concept. Agents
negotiate with each other and present their proposal. This method resolves prob-
lems of agent’s conflict, load-shifting, and charging capacity. The results showed that
charge capacity increased from 33% to 50%. However, this model does not deal with
prediction of data.
In [42], Le Cadre and Bedo worked on uncertainty in an SG environment and
present decentralized hierarchy based on the learning-game approach. It is composed
of supplier, generator, and consumer agents. Agents forecast demand and production
of the grid in a collaborative manner. It determines the price that balance power and
demand. The results showed that in a shared information network, faster convergence
rate is achieved using cooperative learning as compared with an individual learning.
In [43], Huang et al. presented a novel model for the demand–response problem
with the conjunction of the elastic dispatch process. In the study system, the elastic
economic dispatch process is used as a feedback controller and flexible load cost as
a control signal. The control signal balances demand and response. In this method,
max-min and interval mathematic technique is used for boundary calculation. This
estimates the uncertainty which is the difference between the present and the target
value. Simulation results showed that the interval mathematic technique is efficient as
compared to Monte Carlo approach. Its convergence time is also 1% less than Monte
Carlo approach. However, this technique does not handle probability distribution.

4.4.2.2 Complex adaptive system

In [44], Kremers et al. presented a bottom-up approach for the SG. It consists of two
layers: physical layer for electrical power transmission and logical layer for commu-
nication. This model has the ability to integrate new devices in an SG environment.
It provides dynamic load management, power, and communication controlling and
 Demand–response management in smart grid 91

monitoring. Experiment results showed 40% reduction factor in energy consumption.

However, this model is not capable of handling high-load management.
In [4], Thimmapuram and Kim proposed an agent-based model using elasticity
market complex adoption system to an SG domain. This technique handles user elastic
demand and lower cost. This method reduced peak load in the range of 8%–5%.
However, the cost of energy for some user is increased.

4.4.2.3 Demand-side integration

Demand-side integration in SG results in security, quality, efficiency, and reduction
in cost. In [45], Mocci et al. proposed a MAS for integration of demand and EVs. The
load agents calculate power demand and act as master agents. The master agents with
cooperative agents send power load and global data to the demand side. Its demand–
response rate is 85%, and it also reduced the flow of data. However, this technique is
not able to calculate the state of batteries of different storage at the different time.
In [22], Nunna et al. proposed a priority banking scheme, its concerns with
user’s demands. This method gives some share to the users from available resources;
it monitors user’s demand and updates their priority. This method reduced network
loss by 50% and also reduced dependency on overall grid. However, this technique
provides fewer shares to users.

4.4.2.4 Particle swarm optimization

Advance power-grid shifting from vertical to a horizontal structure which requires
efficient management system. In [46], Hurtado et al. proposed biding energy man-
agement system. This technique provides interaction between different environments.
It used PSO approach for maximizing comfort level and energy efficiency. In this hier-
archical infrastructure, lower level agents abstract information and provide to higher
level agents. Performance is described by weight factor; fair scenario showed 0.5
weight while bias scenario results in 0.3 weight. However, this technique generates
some unbalance situation.

4.4.2.5 Game-theory approach

The retailer and market-price management in SG gained great attention in research
work. In [47], Wei et al. focused on energy price and dispatch problem in an SG
environment. This study proposed a two-stage two-level model. Customer demand and
price is considered as the first stage using the Stackelberg game approach, while the
operation of storage devices is considered as the second stage using linear max–min
problem. Then the model is translated into mixed integer linear problem (MILP). The
results showed 5% improvement in system performance, and it also increased retailer
profit. However, this method is very sensitive and knowledge gathering process is
very difficult.
In [48], Chai et al. addressed demand–response issue and present two-level game
approach. This technique handles multiple utility company and users. The utility com-
pany is modeled as noncooperative and communication between users as evolutionary.
The results showed that the proposed technique reduced cost payment from 3,197.7
92 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

to 2,425.6 and the energy demand is increased from 1,224.9 to 1,478.4. However, this
work does not handle constraint on power consumption.
In [49] by Song et al., another framework for optimal nonstationary demand-side
management in an SG environment is proposed. In this method, the user selects their
energy usage pattern according to their priority and needs. They used a repeated game
approach which provides interaction among foresighted price anticipating users. This
method showed 50% reduction in energy cost and robustness in error. However, higher
threshold value results in a trade-off between cost and peak average ratio.
In [50], Nunna and Doolla carried out research work on management of demand
response in multiple microgrid networks. In this work, customers participate in
demand–response strategy. This study proposed a priority index approach through
which customers participate in the market. This method reduced peak demand. It is
found that customers with high priority index get power at low cost.
In [51], O’Brien et al. focused on DRM in SG application. In this work, demand
response is modeled as the game-theoretic environment, and Shapley-value (SV) is
used for payment distribution process. RL technique is used to estimate SV. Simulation
results showed that for random sampling, 1,000,000 samples take 58.2 s execution
time, while for sigmoid sample, 51,129 samples take 6.5 s. The results also showed
that uniform sample balances demand and response. However, this method is not
suitable for distribution scheme and its direct estimation is difficult. The literature
summary of DRM has been shown in Table 4.1.

4.4.3 Other techniques

Apart from learning-based and complex-system approaches, there are also several
other studies that have carried out in the SG domain. We grouped these studies into
security management, HEM, EVs charging, energy market, and microgrid.
4.4.3.1 Security management
In demand–response (DR) process, communication occurs between consumers and
suppliers in order to balance demand and supply. During communication process,
sensitive information is exchanged between consumers and suppliers. This commu-
nication process needs to be secure from unauthorized users. To address this issue,
Rahman et al. [52] have proposed a private secure bidding protocol for DR using
incentive-based strategy. This proposed technique uses cryptographic primitives. It
comprises three entities that are a supplier as a registration manager, DR automa-
tion server as bidding manager and bidder. The proposed protocol is implemented in
Java by using primitive operations. The empirical results showed the feasibility of the
protocol in terms of computation cost and a number of primitives. However, in the
proposed scheme, RM and BM are assumed as secure.
There are some issues with existing communication framework in SG, i.e., there
is no currently available ideal communication architecture and no such work which
analyze and investigate bit error rate during the communication process. In this regard,
in [53], Moghaddam et al. proposed a cloud-based DR in an SG environment. In this
work, a communication model is developed for the smart distributed system. The eval-
uation criteria are considered as cloud DR and distributed DR. The simulation results
 Demand–response management in smart grid 93

Table 4.1 Literature summary of demand–response management

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Hernandez Energy Forecasting in 1.5% Error rate Works on single unit

et al. [35] VPP, ANN
Mocanu [36] Energy prediction for 91.42% accuracy Not implemented on
building, RL + belief different level
neural network
Lakić [10] Learning how much Ratio between cost Not implemented on
system reserve to offer and benefit increased MAS framework
at different time, SA-Q
learning
Dusparic Energy prediction of next 33% usage reduced No communication
[37] day-ahead for EVs,
RL+ load forecasting
Wen [38] Segmentation of each Linear complexity Single unit
device, RL
Ruelens [33] Thermostatic load 19% cost reduction Single unit
controlling, batch RL
Zhang [39] Finding mismatch Convergence rate Only local
between demand and 40 iteration communication
supply, economic
dispatch
Golpayegani Conflict management Battery capacity No prediction
[18] between Evs, increased 17%
CP-MCTS
Kremers [44] Agent-based model of 40% consumption Not handle high load
simple smart grid, CAS reduced, and peak
load lies in the range
5%–8%
Mocci [45] Controlling of integrated Response rate achieved No calculation of
demand and EVs, DSI 85%, network loss rate battery state
reduced 50%
Hurtado [46] Controlling of Performance in the Unbalance situation
interoperation of smart form of weight factor,
building, PSO which is achieved 0.5
Wei [47] Management of energy 5% performance Difficult to gather
price and dispatch improved information
problem, MILP
Chai[48] Controlling multiple Cost reduced from No constraints on
utility centers and end 3,197.0 to 2,425.6 RS power consumption
users, two-level game
O’Brien [51] Payment distribution Converge in 58.2 s Not suitable for energy
process, Shapley value distribution
distribution

showed that on clusters creation, the bit error is very large. It has been shown that by
using UDP protocol for communication, the broadcast showed no optimal solution,
while the TCP protocol showed a high bandwidth capacity. However, the convergence
rate is increased. With high DR usage, effective communication is achieved at a high
94 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 4.2 Literature summary of DR security management

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Rahman [52] Secure communication Computation cost is Some entities are

process, incentive-based DR reduced assumed pre-secure
Moghaddam Investigation of bit error TCP protocol showed No local
[53] rate during communication, high bandwidth communication
cloud-based DR capacity
Tsai [54] Large-scale communication 50% balance state is Not handle
network, randomized achieved corrupt data
alternative technique
Wada [55] Privacy management in Balance state of the Not tested on other
distributed system, RTP system is achieved DR scheme
scheme

cost. Another disadvantage of this study is that the distributed DR is applied on huge
distance; there is no local communication among neighbor’s channels.
In [54], Tsai et al. have worked on distributed DR for large-scale consumers
load with the conjunction of renewable energy resources. In this work, a neighbor-
communication strategy is applied. This results in low communication cost. They
used a randomized alternative direct technique of multipliers for distributed DR. In
this method, there is no need for communication synchronization. With few mes-
sages, the balance state can be achieved by the system. The results showed 50%
balance state is achieved. It showed outperformance by using a RTP scheme over the
existing distributed DR. However, they assumed that all consumers involved in com-
munication process are trustable. The proposed scheme cannot handle wrong data
transmission.
Although DR creates an energy-efficient system by reducing energy demand
from peak-hour to off-peak. In this process, consumers and utility service providers
always communicate with each other. Consumers transmit their energy demand profile
to the grid unit, while from grid side, the energy-cost information is routed to the
consumers. In this communication process, this information can be accessible to
unauthorized users. So there is a need to make the communication system secure. In
this regard, Wada et al. [55] worked on privacy management and proposed masking
method to secure the privacy of each individual in a smart distributed energy system.
In this scheme, every agent uses a mask signal along with their states. Then, during
the communication process, each agent exchanges their mask with other agents. To
obtain the correct signal, agents subtract the obtained signal from their own state.
The RTP scheme of DR is applied. The results showed that this method can protect
information of each agent along with a balanced state of the system. The literature
summary of security management in SG has been shown in Table 4.2.

4.4.3.2 Home-energy management system

Nowadays, DR is getting more importance in-HEM systems (HEMSs). However,
dynamic pricing scheme is not useful without a combination of DR and HEM. In [56],
 Demand–response management in smart grid 95

Ghazvini et al. have proposed a new HEM algorithm. The proposed scheme schedule
appliances, EVs, and electric water heater (EWH) with a combination of energy
storage. EV is considered as a dispatchable energy source. In this work, renewable
energy resource such as photovoltaic voltage (PV) is also used. They used simple
rule-based algorithm under different pricing scheme which schedules EV charging
and EWH heating process. The simulation results showed 29.5%–31.5% energy-cost
reduction.
In [57], Luo et al. have worked on large scale ice-thermal storage system with
the investigation to find out how to use it for fast voltage-control strategy with the
conjunction of renewable energy resources. The work presents a modified version
of the conventional system for thermal load management. In this work, a refrigera-
tor is used for the ice-thermal load. This work showed that the proposed technique
can effectively reduce the ratio of power imbalance in smart homes. The proposed
technique is implemented on computer-simulation tool. The results showed the total
fluctuation in voltage frequency reduced. The possible extension of this work can be
the use of the proposed scheme on the large-scale distributed power system.
In smart homes, a smart meter is used that monitors the user load and demand
profiles. However, the load forecasting of individuals at large scale is a challenging
task due to stochastic nature of the individual demand. In this regard, in [58], Yu et al.
have worked on this issue and proposed the use of the sparse coding technique to
model individual loads at a large scale of the distributed power system. In this work,
data of 5,000 homes based on a project with the collaboration of electrical power
board in Chattanooga (2011–13) was used. The objective function was to forecast
and predict next-day and next-week total load. The results showed that 10% accuracy
of the system improved. However, the proposed scheme needs to be tested on others
sparse methods like change point detection in a distributed system for getting a more
accurate system.
In most previous studies, the game theoretic approach has been used for DRM.
However, their computation cost is very large for finding Nash equilibrium. In [59],
Li et al. have proposed a sparse load-shifting based DRM that schedule different smart
home appliances. In this work, bidirectional communication is used that improve the
searching process for Nash equilibrium. The objective function to minimize peak to
average ratio (PAR) was used. The proposed algorithm showed the linear cost for
finding Nash equilibrium. The results showed convergence rate of 500 iterations.
The deployment of DR needs appropriate policy design and new technology. In this
regard [60], a MAS is developed for residential DR in a distributed energy network.
In this work, two agents, i.e., home agent and retailer agent, are used. The home agent
predicts the load profile of consumers. The RTP scheme of DR is used in this work.
The convex programming is used to model the consumption pattern of consumers.
They used two objective functions, i.e., energy-cost minimization and users’ waiting
time. In this work, two case studies were considered. The simulation results showed
that in Case 1, PAR and cost are reduced by 2.32$ and 62.7$, respectively. For case
2, PAR and cost are reduced by 1.54$ and 51.82$, respectively.
In [61], Huang et al. have introduced the use of the smart-gateway network in
the SG. In this work, a single home with multiple rooms is considered along with a
96 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 4.3 Literature summary of HEM

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Ghazvini HEM with EWH scheduling, Cost reduced Single home

[56] rule-based algorithm 29.5%
Luo [57] Voltage management of Reduced voltage Not implemented for
large-scale, ice-thermal fluctuation distributed system
energy scheduling
Yu [58] Load forecasting of Improved 10% Not used other sparse
appliances on large scale, accuracy methods like change point
sparse coding technique detection and clustering
making for distributed system
Li [59] Scheduling load of Linear computation Energy cost was ignored
different smart homes, cost, convergence
sparse load shifting rate 500 iterations
technique
Wang Designing appropriate PAR reduced 2.32, Single home is
[60] policy for DR, RTP cost reduced 62.7$ considered
scheme
Huang Appliances scheduling of Peak load reduced Single home is
[61] multiple rooms, 38.5% considered
minority-game based DR

single power grid and one PV. They used the multi-agent framework. First, energy-
demand pattern of each room is extracted with some uncertainties assumptions. Each
room is considered an agent. In this work, a dataset of a single building is used. A
minority-game-based DR is used for peak demand reduction. The simulation results
showed that peak load is reduced 38.5% in summer and 5.8% in winter. The literature
summary of HEM in SG has been shown in Table 4.3.

4.4.3.3 Electric vehicles charging

In SG, EVs are used to store energy and then to use this energy later. In this regard,
in [62], Yao et al. have proposed a real-time charging scheme for EVs with the
conjunction of DR. The scenario of parking station is considered. The charging and
discharging of EVs is modeled as a binary optimization problem. The binary (on, off)
optimization fasts the charging and discharging process, while the exhaustive search
is expensive in terms of computational cost. Therefore, a convex relaxation technique
is applied that searches and schedules the charging and discharging periods. The
simulation results demonstrate satisfactory results for charging EVs. With maximum
numbers of EV, minimization of total energy cost is achieved. The computation time
is noted as 0.19 s.
Regarding EVs charging, in [63], Le Floch et al. worked on two types of EV load
management. The one is fixed power load that can be changed, while the second is
flexible load but always remain fixed. They used a hierarchal control scheme with the
objective function of minimizing cost. This technique comprises two steps. First of
 Demand–response management in smart grid 97

Table 4.4 Literature summary of EVs

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Yao [62] EVs charging, binary Computation time Energy cost is ignored
optimization 0.19 s is achieved
Le Floch Two type of EV load PAR reduced 40% Only feasible under
[63] management, price-based DR limited threshold voltage
Jannati Optimal management of EV Operational cost Not tested on other DR
[64] with parking plots, time-of- reduced 4.30% strategies
use DR

all, it computes voltage capacity of the system. Then customizes load profile of the
consumers by using a price-based DR. The proposed scheme showed feasibility for
some specific cases like if the voltage remains within fixed limits, the flexible load is
achieved. The work is implemented on IEEE 55-bus radial distribution network. The
results showed 40% reduction in PAR.
The main benefit of renewable energy resources is to reduce air pollution pro-
duced by fuel consumption in power grid. In this context, a number of EVs, as well
as their parking plots, also increase to reduce the burden on the power grid. However,
there needs an optimal operation of these EVs with the conjunction of parking plots.
In this regard, in [64], Jannati and Nazarpour proposed an optimal management sys-
tem for EVs and their parking plots. They integrated the model with the wind, PV,
and local generators. They also used hydrogen and fuel cell storage system. The TOU
DR strategy is applied to schedule charging and discharging process of EVs. The
objective function to minimize operational cost along with charging and discharging
of EVs cost is considered. Then mixed integer linear programming is used in four case
studies. In Case 1, hydrogen storage and DR was not applied. In Case 2, hydrogen
storage was integrated with the model. In Case 3, DR strategy was integrated, and in
Case 4, both hydrogen storage and DR strategy were used. The simulation results of
Case 2, Case 3, and Case 4 were compared with Case 1. The obtained results showed
that Case 2, Case 3, and Case 4 reduced operation cost by 1.79%, 4.07%, and 4.30%,
respectively. The literature summary of electric vehicles has been shown in Table 4.4.

4.4.3.4 Renewable energy sources

Nowadays, DERs such as PV play an important role in the SG. Therefore, there is a
need to promote the use of PV in urban as well as ruler areas. In [65], Wang et al.
have worked on PV promotion by using a game theoretic approach. The proposed
scheme was analyzed from a different level of DR with RTP along with a different
number of PV and batteries. In this work, 5 levels of consumers and 32 PV were
considered. The optimization problem was modeled as a mixed compliment problem.
The simulation results showed that consumers using high response get larger PV; they
need less battery, meet energy demand at the real time, and also with less cost.
98 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

With the advent of smart homes, electrical sector encourages users to use renew-
able energy which benefits both users and grid as the total energy cost can be reduced.
A buy-back strategy encourages users to generate more power from renewable energy
resources that reduce the load on the main power grid. In [66], Chiu et al. worked
on buy-back scheme with dynamic pricing technique. Dynamic pricing is modeled
as a convex optimization dual problem. In this work, a day-ahead time-dependent
pricing scheme is used. It also integrates wind, PV, and battery storage in the system.
The objective function to achieve maximum user and company benefit was used. The
simulation results showed that 1.28 PAR was achieved and peak load was reduced
from 881.11 to 754.18/kW h.
Nowadays, the uses of wind energy resource are increasing. However, due to
the stochastic nature of it, the mismatch of energy demand and power generation is
also increasing. This introduced micro-combined heat power (CHP)—a hybrid energy
system. However, there is a need to analyze the impact of DR with the conjunction
of CHP at large scale with wind-energy resources. In [67], Jiang et al. addressed
this issue and proposed an operation model representing the residential hybrid energy
system. The proposed scheme uses price response, micro-CHP, smart appliances, and
also load aggregator. The load aggregator is used to centralize different consumers
load. The scheme is implemented on IEEE 118-bus. The simulation results showed that
wind power curtailment is reduced 78% in 6-buses. It also reduced energy cost 10.7%
and operation cost 11.7% on 118 buses. HEMS use DR to schedule home appliances.
However, currently, there is no accurate method that predicts load consumption of
appliances within a residential building. In [68], Hu and Xiao have worked on load
prediction within the residential sector. In this work, the air conditioner appliance is
used to train the thermal model. The historical data of indoor and outdoor temperature
was used. The optimization algorithms like trust region algorithm, genetic algorithm
(GA), and PSO were used to schedule the load of the air conditioner. They also used
two strategies for the temperature which are set point and precooling. The simulation
results showed power reduction 26%. However, they used single speed compressor.
The proposed methodology should be tested on the inverter-driven air conditioner.
In [69], Amrollahi and Bathaee have worked on modeling a stand-alone microgrid
that is far from the main power grid. This work investigates DR in the component size
of optimization of the microgrid. They considered only wind and solar energy system.
In this work, component size optimization and cost reduction are done by time-
shift and load scheduling. The simulation results showed that a number of batteries,
inverters, PV capacity, and energy cost reduced to 35.6%, 35%, 1.8%, and 17.1%,
respectively.
In SG, a thermostatic load such as heat and air conditioner also help in reducing
energy cost. In [82], Behboodi et al. have worked on thermostatic load control with
controlling the real-time energy market by using transactive control paradigm. In this
work, an ABM is developed that models DR for thermostatic loads. The proposed
scheme can control thermostatic load under heating and cooling condition. The sim-
ulation results showed 10% energy cost reduction. However, this work ignored other
appliances and just focused on the heater and air conditioner. The proposed work can
be extended to integrate others appliances as well as renewable energy resources.
 Demand–response management in smart grid 99

Table 4.5 Literature summary of EVs

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Wang Promotion the use of PV, Energy cost is reduced, Not implemented on
[65] game-theoretic approach, fewer batteries, other DR strategies
RTP scheme of DR consumers with high
response get larger PV
Chiu [66] Modeling renewable PAR achieved 1.28 Maintain centralize
energy as buy-back communication
scheme, dynamic pricing infrastructure, not
technique of DR useful in the case
of blackout
Jiang [67] Modeling large-scale CHP Reduced energy PAR is ignored
with DR. Price response DR cost 10.7%
Hu [68] Load profile prediction trust Power reduction 26% Only modeled single
region algorithm, GA, PSO speed compressor
Amrollahi Modeled stand-alone Energy cost Only wind and solar
[69] microgrid time-shift, reduced 35.6% energy is considered
DR scheme
Behboodi Optimization of thermostatic Energy cost Only focused on heater
[82] load, transactive control reduced 10% and air conditioner
scheme, agent-based model
Shakeri Control scheme for thermal Energy cost Demand and PV
[70] energy storage novel reduced 20% capacity prediction
optimization algorithm was ignored

Regarding HEMS, in [70], Shakeri et al. have proposed a new control strategy for
thermal and storage-management system. The working of the proposed algorithm is
that it receives price information in advance and purchases energy at an off-peak hour.
This work also integrated batteries and PV in a residential home. Total 26 appliances
are used. Results showed 20% energy cost reduction. However, the proposed scheme
was not tested for demand forecasting and prediction of PV capacity. The literature
summary of renewable energy sources has been shown in Table 4.5.

4.4.3.5 Energy market

Samimi et al. [71] have proposed a stochastic framework for coupling active and
reactive market in SG application. Active and reactive power is provided by distributed
energy resources (DERs). A distributor company buys active and reactive power. The
whole seller sells this power via the market environment. Demand buyback program
(DBP) is used in which aggregators participate in the market. The scheduling process
is modeled by optimization problem using mixed integer linear programming. In this
work, evaluation criteria are set as the cost of energy, reactive power from DER, CO2
emission, cost of DBP, and minimization of total cost. The simulation results showed
the effectiveness of the DBP scheme, and also it reduced energy cost. However,
aggregators only offer load reduction at a price they want to be reduced.
100 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Dynamic pricing strategy is used to implement DRM for optimization of energy

consumption pattern. It also helps in reduction of peak load. In [72], Srinivasan et al.
proposed a game theoretic approach for dynamic pricing scheme using a special case
of the Singapore energy market. They focused on the residential and industrial sector.
In this work, five different loads along with price dataset were used. The pricing
strategies half-hourly, RTP, TOU, and day–night pricing were used. The simulation
results showed the RTP scheme that demonstrated high reduction of peak load. The
peak load of residential and commercial was noted as 10% and 5%, respectively.
However, in this work, the dataset used was not sufficient.
In some cases, there may be power transmission from generation unit to con-
sumers at large scale. For this type of scenarios, there needs a dynamic behavior of
transmission system. So whenever, a new consumer enters in the system, the system
must be compatible with this new addition. However, in this area, the research focus
is very less. DR strategy can be applied to control the whole system from short to
the large-scale power system. Regarding this issue, in [73] have proposed a nonlinear
economic model of consumers load. In this method, the price elasticity of demand and
customer benefit is used. A multi-objective function consists of transmission plan-
ning, DR program is used. The power model is integrated with wind energy resource.
The proposed scheme is implemented on IEEE reliability test system and Iran 400-
kV. The simulation results showed that the total energy cost has successfully reduced
with the proposed scheme. The future direction of this work can be the testing of other
DR programs.
Although in previous literature a number of studies have been carried out in SG
regarding DR, there still exist some challenges like the selection of optimal buses
in power system using DR strategy. Regarding this issue, in [74], Dehnavi and Abdi
have worked on selection and searching of optimal locations for the distrusted power
system. In this work, IEEE-39 bus dataset is used. The optimization technique power
transfer distribution factor (PTDF) is applied. This technique also searches for avail-
able power transmission capacity and optimal flow on the network. The simulation
results showed congestion and the number of clusters is reduced. It also prevents
black-out events. The computation time of the proposed technique is noted as 6.7 s.
Previous studies showed how to effectively model the stochastic process of appli-
ances load. However, there is no such work to schedule online consumer demand as
they may not be aware of energy cost before time. In this regard, in [75], Bahrami
et al. have worked on long-term scheduling problem of appliances along with the
varying behavior of energy. The energy price is modeled as Markov decision prob-
lem. This enables the model to observe the behavior of each interactive entity. The
Markov perfect equilibrium technique is applied for optimal load scheduling. They
also developed an online load scheduling learning (LSL) technique to find out user’s
equilibrium policy. The LSL showed cost and PAR reduction 28% and 13%, respec-
tively. However, this work is only applied to a single home. This work can be extended
to multiple homes along with multiple electricity markets. The literature summary of
energy market has been shown in Table 4.6.

4.4.3.6 Mircorgrid
From past few decades, it confirms that network microgrid plays an important role
in making an energy-efficient and reliable system. However, due to the unpredictable
 Demand–response management in smart grid 101

Table 4.6 Literature summary of energy

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Samimi Stochastic model for active and Reduced Load reduction at

[71] reactive energy market MILP, energy cost specific time
demand buy-back DR
Srinivasan Optimization for Singapore energy Peak load Small dataset
[72] market game-theoretic approach, reduced 10%
dynamic pricing scheme
Hajebrahimi Energy transmission at large scale Reduced Not implemented
et al. nonlinear economic model, price energy cost on other DR
2017 [73] elasticity DR schemes
Dehnavi Selection of optimal buses, PTDF Computation time
[74] is 6.7 s
Bahrami Online long-term appliances PAR reduced 28%, Single home was
[75] scheduling, online LSL cost reduced 13% considered

nature of renewable energy resources, they impose new challenges on the smart
distributed energy system. To address this issue, in some papers, stochastic technique
is used. In [76], Nikmehr et al. have proposed another scheme for network microgrid to
schedule consumers load. In this work, intermittent nature of load and generation unit
is considered. They used time-of-use and real-time pricing of DRM. The optimization
technique PSO is used for scheduling consumer load under uncertainty scenario. The
simulation results showed the execution time of PSO is 241 s, while other stochastic
technique showed 2,763 s. The operational cost is reduced to 17.3%, 30.6% with TOU
and RTP, respectively.
In [77], a peer-to-peer network consists of consumers generation unit, i.e., PV
is considered. They used priced-based DR strategy. The energy-sharing problem is
modeled as a dynamic internal pricing scheme which provides supply and demand
ratio. In this work, the flexibility of consumer’s consumption is considered. The
objective function economic cost and user’s willingness is used. The performance
of the system is evaluated in terms of prosumers cost and sharing of energy. The
simulation results showed that total power loss is reduced from 3,321 to 3,187/kW h.
The convergence rate is noted as 60 iterations. However, this work was not tested on
a distributed network.
In [78], work is done on the smart microgrid and proposed stochastic optimization
problem model with an objective function to minimize operational cost and CO2
emission along with renewable energy resources. In this work, probability density
function is used to predict wind speed and solar irradiance. Three types of consumers
were considered, i.e., residential, industrial, and commercial. The incentive-based
DR strategy is applied with three different case studies, i.e., (1) operational cost
and emission; (2) operational cost, emission, and DR; (3) multi-objective function,
operational cost, and emission. The simulation results showed that by using DR, the
operational cost is reduced by 21% and emission by 14%. The literature summary of
microgrid has been shown in Table 4.7.
102 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 4.7 Literature summary of microgrid

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Nikmehr Load scheduling of network-based Cost reduced PAR was ignored

[76] microgrid, PSO, real-time, and 17.3%
TOU DR
Liu [77] Peer-to-peer network based Power loss Not tested on
microgrid, dynamic pricing scheme reduced 4% distributed network
Aghajani Stochastic optimization problem for Operational cost PAR was ignored
[78] smart microgrid, probability density reduced 21%
function, incentive-based DR

4.5 Open-research problems and discussion

In this section, we are going to discuss different methodologies and techniques on
DRM to SG application and their open-research problems. The SG brings many
facilities to users, e.g., energy efficiency, customer satisfaction, reduction in energy
cost, and load balancing as a few to mention. However, there exist a number of
challenges to be researched.
How to handle demand response in SG environment? To address this question,
different approaches have been applied to SG applications. We surveyed three types
of literature (learning-based approach, complex system, and other techniques) that
are applied to handle demand response in SG applications.

4.5.1 Open-research problems in learning system

Learning-based approach involves ANN and RL. ANN is applied to the virtual power
plant by Lloret and Valencia in article [35]. This showed 1.5% error rate. However, this
needs enough information for prediction of future demand. RL with the combination
of a deep belief network is applied by Mocanu et al. in article [36] for energy prediction
and showed 91.42% accuracy rate. However, this model showed poor performance
in different scenarios. Lakić et al. [10] applied SA-Q to learn system reservation to
offer power at different times. This has increased cost-benefit rate. In article [37],
demand response was addressed by Dusparic et al. to predict load for next day. This
reduced 33% peak usage; however, there is no collaboration among agents. Wen
et al. [38] worked on DRM for single unit or building. The proposed technique
by Zhang et al. [39] maximizes social welfare and shows that it converged in 40
iterations.

4.5.2 Open-research problems in complex system

Complex system literature is involved in collaborative CAS, demand-side integration,
PSO, and game-theory approach. A collaborative approach was adopted in different
 Demand–response management in smart grid 103

literature such as Manickavasagam in article [41], proposed ECC mechanism that

consists of the layer-based model. The FLC is used for ECC controlling. However,
there is no defined link or relation between monitoring and fuzzy logic. Golpayegani
et al. in article [18] extends the previous work done on P-MCTS by integrating
negotiation and collaboration among agents in P-MCTS. This study resolved the
agent conflict issue. However, this model is not able to predict available energy. In
an article [42], the authors addressed the prediction of energy issue discussed in the
previous literature.
CAS approach is used in articles [4,44]. Kremers et al. in article [44] presented
a layer-based model for energy transmission and communication. This model offers
dynamic load management. The simulation results showed 40% energy consumption.
Another approach from the CAS perspective was studied by Thimmapuram et al. in
article [4] that deals with the elastic demand of the consumers. This work reduced peak
load. However, energy cost increased for some end users. Mocci et al. in article [45]
worked on integrating EVs into the SG. This technique achieved 85% response rate.
However, this model was unable to predict the state of the battery. In article [79],
authors presented priority banking scheme and offers energy shares to the users.
In this work, network loss is reduced by 50%. However, this offers small share to
the users. Hurtado et al. in article [46] proposed bidding energy management system
technique that maximizes the user comfort level. However, this creates an unbalanced
situation between energy cost and consumption. Wei et al. in article [47] proposed the
two-stage two-level model. The simulation results showed that performance has been
raised up to 5%. However, this model is not robust to error. Song et al. in article [49]
proposed non-stationary demand scheme and achieved 50% energy cost reduction.
However, there exists a trade-off between cost and PAR. Nunna and Doolla [50] deal
with multiple microgrids which allow the user to participate in the market through a
priority index number. Simulation results showed that with higher priority, users get
energy with low cost.

4.5.3 Open-research problems in other techniques

The other technique category comprises security management, HEM, renewable
energy resources, EVs, energy market, and microgrid. We have seen that a num-
ber of studies have been carried out to address different problems like minimization
of energy cost, user discomfort, peak load, etc. Next, we discuss each work lies under
the other technique category.
Regarding security management, different approaches have been presented in the
domain of SG to protect user’s confidential data from unauthorized users. However,
there are still some issues that exist in the current security management approaches
like some part of the system is ignored; sometimes corrupt data is not addressed, etc.
The security in SG is a critical issue. This needs to be addressed to obtain sustainable
and secure smart power system. The data and information transmission within the SG
is very large, there is a need for advanced and new enhancement in communication
infrastructure of the SG.
104 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

In the context of HEM, different smart appliances consume energy. However, the
demand patterns and available power are not remaining same at all time. Their value
changes with time. This fluctuation always tends to create an unbalance situation
between energy demand and available energy. To some extent, this issue is addressed
by a number of research works. A study such as presented in [57] worked on the ice-
thermal storage system. The main purpose of the work was to control voltage with
the conjunction of renewable energy resource. The possible extension of this work
can be to use the proposed scheme on the large-scale distributed power system. As in
real world, power system presents a complex system. So it needs to work on a large
scale to observe the behavior of each component in the system.
In [80][81], the authors have presented work on appliances scheduling. These
studies present how scheduling the power demand of different appliances by using
different heuristic approaches can be effective. However, these current studies only
focused on a single home. The possible extension of the current work may be to
test the proposed technique on multiple homes along with different DR strategies to
investigate the load as well as energy cost pattern.
Nowadays, the concept of EVs has been introduced in SG domain. The EVs
have the capability to store and transmit energy. These EVs are used to store energy
whenever energy cost is low from grid unit. Then they sell energy at low cost when
the load on the main grid is high. So this reduces load burden on the grid as well as
high energy cost. In this context, a number of studies such as in papers [62–64] have
proposed different models that show how to effectively use EVs in SG scenarios for
load and energy-cost reduction. However, there are still open-researches issues like
sometime they ignore energy cost, only feasible under limited voltage, some schemes
are not tested on different DR.
Renewable energy resources offer alternate energy resource in the form of wind
and PV energy. Users can fulfill their energy demands from these resources. How-
ever, their energy production is unpredictable. They only depend on weather condition.
From past few decades, different heuristic optimization techniques are used for han-
dling the unpredictable nature of these renewable energy resources. A study presented
in [65] worked on PV promotion. However, they just focused on RTP scheme and
ignored other DR strategies. They need to study the effectiveness of the current work
on other DR strategies. A study in the paper [66] proposed a buy-back scheme for
renewable energy resource. In this work, they used a centralized communication
infrastructure which is not useful in the case of a blackout. Fault in one part can
tend to create disturbance in the whole system. Other studies such as presented in
papers [67–69], [82] also worked on renewable energy resources and demonstrated the
energy cost reduction. However, they just focused on cost reduction; other parameters
like user discomfort and PAR reduction is ignored.
The energy market is responsible for buying energy from power sources and then
selling to the consumers. This area of research also studied different literature. They
demonstrated the peak load and energy-cost reduction. However, the current work
was presented on a small level. Studies such as in papers [76–78] worked on the
microgrid. By using optimization techniques, energy cost is successfully reduced.
However, they ignored the PAR parameters as well as users comfort level.
 Demand–response management in smart grid 105

4.6 Conclusions
The DRM plays an important role in the SG environment. It offers a broad range of
advantages on system operation by reducing energy cost as well as effects on load
balancing. In this part, we covered the different approaches applied for DRM in SG and
proposed a classification of DRM models according to the techniques used for their
implementation. The current literature in SG from DRM aspect is categorized into
three main research directions. These research directions are learning-based approach,
complex system, and some other different techniques. We finally described each
technique and its model in detail. We also highlighted open-research problems exist
in each solution.

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 Chapter 5
Applications of multi-agent systems in smart
grid: a survey and taxonomy
Waseem Akram1 and Muaz A. Niazi1

Multi-agent systems (MASs) in the smart-grid area have received a great deal of
attention from the research community in recent years. Studies on MAS to the smart
grid have brought a number of interesting technical discussions on simulation and
modeling of the smart grid and research contributions. Researchers are trying to
bring energy efficiency and load balancing in the smart grid. Many of these research
works have achieved efficiency in power-system domain, while the social system
and consumer satisfaction still need improvement. By focusing on the MAS in smart
grid, in this part, we survey the body of knowledge and discuss the challenges of
simulation and modeling of MAS in the smart grid. We investigate and group the
existing solutions and highlight open-research problems.

5.1 Overview

We first start by giving an overview of the smart-grid concept. Next, we present a

detailed review of different literature in the smart-grid domain. This is followed by
open research problems and discussions. The chapter ends with a conclusion.

5.2 Introduction

The traditional power system provides one-way power flow, which is responsible for
generation and transmission of energy to end users. However, the user demand changes
with time (variable demand). The one-way power flow could not deal with variable
demand. This problem gained the attention of researchers and introduced smart-
grid technology by integrating information and communication technology with the
traditional system. The smart grid is a power system consisting of various technologies
like a smart meter, ICT, smart homes, generators, storage devices appliances, load, etc.

1
Computer Science Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
112 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

The smart grid is a network composed of distributed nodes, all operations of the
system are controlled intelligently and autonomously, in order to achieve efficient
energy system [1].
Fuel consumption changes the climate. This change attracted the researchers
to introduce renewable energy resources like solar and wind. However, the out-
come of these resources is unpredictable due to its fluctuation behavior. To achieve
future sustainability, reliability, and resilience features of the smart grid, the research
community is attracted to deploy renewable energy resources in power system. The
structure of the power system is now shifted to more bottom-up approach. This
means that all decisions related to power generation and transmission are taken by
various actors (agents) in generation unit in a distributed manner. Various actors
interact with the technical system (power system) and they are dependent on each
other.
The smart-grid system is made up of two main components, e.g., technical sys-
tem and social system. The technical system consists of power plants, power lines,
load, transformers, and busses. The social system consists of consumers, operators,
and electricity retailers. Each component of the social system interacts with each
component of the technical system.
The deployment of renewable energy resources needs more coordination, man-
agement, and controlling techniques to achieve reliable and efficient system.
A MAS is a useful tool for coordination and management of all operations within
the smart grid, due to its distributed and autonomous property. MAS is widely used
for smart-grid application. They are responsible for the management and control of all
smart-grid activities. They can perform various tasks like communication among dif-
ferent agents, fault detection and prevention, power scheduling, voltage controlling,
and storing energy.
In previous literature, a number research works have been carried out in the smart-
grid domain. However, currently, there is no such work that investigates and analyzes
these works. There is a need to find out which technique is feasible in what scenario.
In this chapter, we provide a detailed survey and comparison of different techniques
available for smart-grid system over the period 2010–16. The aim of this study is
to present a comprehensive understanding of the smart-grid domain, its application,
as well as the open-research problems that need to be addressed to gain sustainable
and reliable system. We have cited a large number of scientific publications round
about 100 papers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive
survey on MAS in the smart grid. While during our literature review, we found one
paper [2] that presents a survey on a specific aspect of MAS in the smart grid.
In [2], the author focuses on demand-side management, generation and transmission
management. Although the author discussed important issues in the domain. However,
there is no discussion about other relevant aspects such as communication, self-
healing, power scheduling, and storage management.
In this part, we aim to present more comprehensive and concise overview up
to date by targeting five aspects such as communication, demand-side manage-
ment, fault detection and prevention, power scheduling, and storage and voltage
management.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 113

5.3 A review of multi-agent system to smart-grid application

In this section, we are going to discuss briefly different approaches and solutions in
the smart grid from MAS perspective. We grouped existing literature into five cate-
gories that are communication management, demand–response management, faults
controlling, power scheduling, and storage management. The proposed taxonomy is
shown in Figure 5.1.

5.3.1 Communication management

In a smart-grid environment, different agents communicate with each other to share
information about power demand and capacity. This process is categorized into group
communication and learning-based communication.

5.3.1.1 Group communication

In group communication, different entities are connected through a common purpose
and interact with each other. In this section, we present some of the previous studies
carried out in the smart grid that make use of group communication paradigm. This
paradigm is categorized into subcategories according to the techniques used in the
study. Next, we discuss each of these techniques.

Hierarchal framework
Li et al. [3] presented an agent-based decentralized control scheme for distributed
smart-grid network. It consists of two layers. One is the bottom layer that represents
a communication network composed of agents that act as controllers and collect
information about grid status. Second is the top layer representing a distribution
process of the power grid network. The agents at bottom layer control the power
produced by distributor grids. This study achieved balance state between power and
demand. It also reduced communication complexity and voltage variation.
One-way power communication in smart grid is considered to be slow in response.
In [4], Al-Agtash presented a novel agent-based model for two-way power commu-
nication in the smart grid. This model provides two-way power flow between user’s
demand and power generators. This architecture consists of three layers: power gen-
erators, middle-ware, and electricity agents. Agents operate in an integrated manner
within smart grid. They control and monitor demand variations and selling of power
at customer side. These agents provide reliability, security, and stability of the system.
Simulation results showed that market price decreased from 80 to 50/mW h. How-
ever, there are still some design issues, i.e., API, integrity, and consistency of agents
operation.
The decentralized management system in a smart grid makes each part of the
system intelligent and autonomous. Palicot et al. [5] have presented hierarchal cog-
nitive radio network architecture for the smart grid. The framework focuses on the
hierarchal position of each element of the system. The results showed that peak power
55,000 W reduced to 900 W. This method reduced pressure on the system and also
reduced the risk of failure.
114 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Hierarchal
Coalition formation
Group communication
Census

PSO
Communication
RL

Learning ANN

Bayesian

Collaborative
CAS
Demand integration
Complex model
PSO

Demand response Game theory

ANN
Learning
RL

Adaptive program

Self-organizing MAF
WPH
MAS-SG Fault control
Fuzzy-rule
Algorithm Census

Sweep technique
Spanning tree

Self-organizing

Hierarchal
Complex model
Census

Power scheduling Cognitive

RL
Learning
ANN

RL
Learning
ANN

Volt/Var
Storage/Voltage Monitoring Census

State monitoring

Self-organizing

Normality analysis
Search
Hill-climbing

Swarm-intelligence

Figure 5.1 Proposed taxonomy of literature review in smart grid

 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 115

In a smart-grid environment, power demand and supply balance can be achieved

by enabling agents to share information. In [6], Larsen et al. proposed an information
sharing model of imbalance power in the smart grid. In this model, agents commu-
nicate with their neighbors and exchange information about the imbalance of power.
By comparing this model with the centralized algorithm, it showed that centralized
algorithm requires 29 times more time for 150 households than the proposed method.
However, in this method, agents keep information about their own imbalance power.
They also only communicate directly with their neighbors.
For communication management, in [7], another framework is proposed by Yan
et al. based on zero correlation zones. In this technique, communication between
machine-to-machine was initiated through mutual authentication. This technique
maintains physical layer security and reduces traffic overhead. The performance of
the system is described in terms of time–efficiency ratio. The results showed that
the proposed technique is better in larger nodes and low load impedance scenario.
However, with small nodes scenario, it gives worse results.
Coalition formation
Power scheduling and transmission are challenging tasks as the structure of smart
grid become complex. In [8], Ye et al. presented a multi-agent coalition formation–
based dispatch technique. This technique has decentralized behavior, and it does not
require any global information. Each node acts as an autonomous agent, negotiates
with each other (agents), and takes part in the decision-making process. Agents work
in the group, generating outstanding output. This model requires a large time for
negotiation between agents. Results demonstrate good average utility.
In [9], Dagdougui and Sacile addressed the issue regarding the optimization
of cost and power exchange among the smart microgrid network. They proposed a
decentralized control and monitoring strategy of the smart microgrid network. In the
study system, each microgrid is able to generate, store, and transmit energy to other
microgrids and main grid. This method allows storage devices to operate around a
reference value through cooperatively sharing power information among microgrids.
For a fixed number of network, this method makes low iteration, but the iteration
no. is influenced by the size of the network. It also does not handle the stochastic
scenario.
In [10], Nguyen and Flueck addressed the communication latency problem in
smart-grid application. Communication latency has a great impact on system per-
formance. In this technique, the system is modeled as a random parameter with
probability density function, and sending/receiving messages are generated randomly.
The results showed restoration time is 3.983 s. However, this method does not focus
on individual communication and communication bandwidth.
Census
As the environment of smart grid becomes complex, it is difficult to manage it using
census-based approach due to its lack of information. In [11], Zhang presented a
robust incremental cost estimation scheme for power dispatch in the smart grid. It
consists of two layers that are executed in parallel. One layer is a gossip update rule
that calculates average power mismatch. The second layer is consensus incremental
116 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

cost estimation that calculates the system incremental cost. This method enhanced
the system vulnerability and it requires less information. The results showed that
information loss and iteration have a direct relationship. This method gives better
results when information loss is 5%.

Particle swarm optimization

Integrating smart grid and smart green have attained great research interest recently.
In such area, communication is bidirectional. In [12] by Wang, work is carried out
on the communication protocol and proposed a negotiation-based agent adaptive
attitude bidding strategy. The agents adjust their behavior in response to the variation
in the communication process. This work presents particle swarm optimization agent
adaptive bidding strategy (PSO-AABS) used by trader agents for decision in response
to opponent behavior. It handles bidirectional communication between smart grid and
green building. This method maximizes trader’s payoff and negation time. The results
showed that the cost of buying reduced 7% and their negation time 27%, while the
cost of selling reduced 17% and their negation time 9%. However, customer comfort
level is also reduced.

5.3.1.2 Learning-based approach

In this section, we discuss some of the learning techniques that were presented in smart
grid in the past for addressing communication aspects of the smart-grid system. These
techniques are reinforcement, neural, and Bayesian-learning approach.

Reinforcement learning approach

In [13], Yu et al. studied the smart generation control of multi-agent multi-area dis-
tributed smart-grid system. This paper presents a novel scheme named correlated
equilibrium Q(λ) to produce an optimal equilibrium solution for the load control in a
distributed network of the power system. In this work, a formulated equilibrium selec-
tion function is presented. This technique enhances the overall long-run performance
of the system. The results demonstrate fast convergence rate.
In smart-grid infrastructure, each node needs to maintain same frequency and
voltage to prevent failures. In [14], Giraldo et al. focused on frequency synchroniza-
tion. It enables the microgrid to remain synchronized even in unknown changes. It
showed that the stability of the system is improved with an energy storage system
(ESS). This model works with linear time invariant; it does not address nonlinear
time invariant.

Artificial neural network

In [15], Saraiva et al. focused on the classification of load power in the smart grid. In
this work, a classification of the nonlinear load in the smart grid is presented using
the artificial neural network (ANN) and MAS. They used smart meter agents in the
classification process. The smart meter measures voltage and sends the result to other
agents at the substation. Experimental results showed that system accuracy achieved
98.7% and also the overall cost is less. However, this approach is not robust to error.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 117

Table 5.1 Literature summary of communication

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Li [3] Decentralized controlled Reduced Agents only

scheme, system dynamic communication communicate with
modeling complexity its neighbors
Palicot [5] Cognitive radio network Peak power The retailers are
architecture, hierarchal reduced ignored
framework
Larsen [6] Sharing information about Balance of power Only communication
imbalance power, network and demand between neighbors
topology achieved
Yan [7] Machine-to-machine Maintain security Worse results in case
communication, zero of physical of small system
correlation zone system
communication protocol
Dagdougui Optimization of cost and Low convergence Not handle stochastic
and power in microgrid, rate scenario
Sacile [9] network theory
Nguyen Communication latency in Restoration time Not handle individual
and smart grid, coalition is 3.9 s communication and
Flueck [10] formation communication bandwidth
Zhang [11] Cost estimation scheme, Worse results in the case
census of large information loss
Wang [12] Adaptive biding Reduced power User comfort also reduced
communication strategy, PSO cost 7%
Giraldo [14] Frequency synchronization Stability of the Not handle nonlinear
in smart grid, census system increased time invariant
Saraiva [15] Classification of 98.7% accuracy Not robust to error
load, ANN
Misra [16] Energy trading with Utility Not control packet loss
incomplete information, increased 40%
Bayesian learning

Bayesian learning
Information about prices and demands may be lost during the communication process.
The incomplete information affects the performance of smart grid. In [16], Misra et
al. addressed this issue regarding smart grid. In this work, the agent-based model is
proposed using Bayesian learning approach. It consists two types of agents: customer
and grid agents. Customer’s agents calculate the price given by the grid. Grid’s agents
calculate demand given by customers based on the probability of their belief. Simu-
lation results showed that utility is increased by 40%. However, this method ignored
control packet loss rate. The literature summary of communication management has
been shown in Table 5.1.

5.3.2 Demand–response management

Demand–response management is the process of shifting consumer demand from high
demand to low demand by giving incentives to the users. This approach is categorized
into two approaches which are learning based and complex system approach.
118 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

5.3.2.1 Learning-based approach

In smart grid, we found two types of learning-based approaches: neural network
and reinforcement learning (RL). These techniques have been applied to address
demand–response problem. Next, we discuss these learning-based studies.

Artificial neural network

Hernández et al. in [17] proposed a MAS for the virtual power plant. The virtual
power plant consists of small elements or a single unit. ANN is applied for efficient
control and management of operations in a virtual power plant. The experimental
results showed 1.5% error rate. This model works on a small level. It also needs more
information for predicting the future state of the system.

Reinforcement learning approach

There needs an intelligent and accurate model for prediction of energy consumption
in a smart-grid environment. In [18], Mocanu et al. presented a model for energy
prediction based on RL. The RL technique works without using any historical data.
This model integrates the RL with the deep belief network. It estimates the state space
and then finds optimal policy by using the RL. Experimental results showed 91.42%
accuracy of the system. However, this model is not implemented for the different
level in the smart grid.
In [19], Lakić et al. presented an agent-based model using SA-Q learning tech-
nique. It learns how much system reserve to offer power at the different time. It also
increases the ratio between economic cost and its benefits. The results showed an
improvement in performance and economic outcome to users. However, this method
is not applied to the multi-agent framework.
In [20], Dusparic et al. proposed a multi-agent scheme based on RL for demand–
response problem in the smart grid. This method uses current load information and
predicts load for the next one day by using load forecasting approach. The agents learn
how to fulfill user demands from available energy. The results showed peak usage
reduction is 33% and off-peak increased by 50%. However, in this method, there is
no collaboration and communication among agents.
Wen et al. [21] addressed demand–response problem in smart grid and proposed
framework based on RL technique. In this method, demand–response problem is
decomposed over each device. This technique performs the self-initiation job and
handles many flexible requests. The complexity of the proposed algorithm is linear.
The results showed that for a broad range of trade-off parameters, it outperforms.
However, this technique focuses on the demand–response problem of a single unit or
building.
In [22] by Ruelens et al., research work is carried out on the demand–response
problem using a batch RL technique. The batch RL technique covers the inefficient
information problem of RL method. This method uses a batch of experiences to find
out optimal policy. In this work, two agents, water and residential building agents,
are used. For dynamic pricing, to minimize cost a closed loop policy and for the
day ahead scheduling open-loop policy is followed. The result showed a reduction in
energy cost by 19%, and consumption rate is increased by 4%.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 119

When an economic dispatch and demand response are treated as separate and
sequential operation, energy efficiency decreases. Zhang et al. [23] presented opti-
mal energy-management strategy in order to maximize social welfare. This method
operates through coordination of demand response and economic dispatch. Economic
dispatch is provided by generator and demand response by the customers. This method
is also used for discovery of the power demand–supply mismatch. The simulation
results showed convergence rate of 40 iterations.
Another approach for demand response is studied by O’Neill et al. [24] and
proposed consumer automated energy system. This technique reduces residential
energy cost and usage. This method uses online energy cost estimation and user
decision policy. This is the independent approach to energy price and system behavior.
In this method, users decide which device will use energy and how much. The results
showed 40% cost reduction by using price unaware energy scheduling.

5.3.2.2 Complex system

In this section, we present related work carried out for demand–response manage-
ment from a complex system perspective. We grouped the existing techniques into
collaborative, complex adaptive system, demand-side integration, particle swarm
optimization, and game theory approach.

Collaborative approach
MASs are widely used for controlling and managing a smart grid. In [1], Manick-
avasagam proposed and developed intelligent energy control center (ECC) mechanism
for the smart grid. This technique consists of two layers. The one is DER serve as a
client and the other is ECC as a server. ECC is controlled and monitored by a fuzzy
logic controller (FLC). Communication and negotiation between client servers take
place through internet protocol. The simulation results are stored in an excel database
acting as a monitoring agent. ECC uses these results for decision-making in DERs.
However, communication between results and FLC is not taken into account.
The mismatch between supply and demand reduces system performance. Paral-
lel Monte Carlo tree search (P-MCTS) can produce an optimal solution for power
balancing, but it has no coordination support. In [25], Golpayegani et al. extended
the P-MCTS work by introducing collaborative and coordination concept. Agents
negotiate with each other and present their proposal. This method resolves prob-
lems of agent’s conflict, load-shifting, and charging capacity. The results showed that
charge capacity increased from 33% to 50%. However, this model does not deal with
prediction of data.
In [26], Le Cadre and Bedo worked on uncertainty in a smart-grid environ-
ment and present decentralized hierarchal based on the learning game approach. It
is composed of supplier, generator, and consumer agents. Agents forecast demand
and production of the grid in a collaborative manner. It determines the price that
balance power and demand. The results showed that in a shared information network,
faster convergence rate is achieved using cooperative learning as compared with an
individual learning.
120 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

In [27], Huang et al. addressed demand–response issue in a smart-grid envi-

ronment. This study proposed another approach in which elastic economic dispatch
process is modeled. The flexible load cost is used as a control signal. The control signal
balances demand and response. In this method, Monte Carlo and interval mathematic
technique is used for boundary calculation. This estimates the uncertainty which is
the difference between the present and the target value. Simulation results showed
that the interval mathematic technique is efficient as compared to Monte Carlo. It also
showed less convergence time, e.g., 1% as compared with Monte Carlo technique.
However, this technique does not handle probability distribution.

Complex adaptive system

In [28], Kremers et al. presented a bottom-up approach for the smart grid. It consists
of two layers: physical layer for electrical power transmission and logical layer for
communication. This model has the ability to integrate new devices in a smart-grid
environment. It provides dynamic load management, power, and communication con-
trolling and monitoring. Experiment results showed 40% reduction factor in energy
consumption. However, this model is not capable of handling high-load management.
In [29], Thimmapuram and Kim proposed an agent-based model using elasticity
market complex adoption system to a smart-grid domain. This technique handles
user elastic demand and lower cost. This method reduced peak load in the range of
8%–5%. However, the cost of energy for some users has increased.

Demand-side integration
Demand-side integration in smart grid results in security, quality, efficiency, and
reduction in cost. In [30], Mocci et al. proposed a MAS for integration of demand
and electric vehicles (EVs). The load agents calculate power demand and act as master
agents. The master agents with cooperative agents send power load and global data
to the demand side. It achieved demand–response rate of 85%. It also reduced the
flow of data. However, this technique is not able to calculate the state of batteries of
different storage at the different time.
In [31], Nunna et al. proposed a priority banking scheme. It concerns with
users’ demands. This method gives some share to the users from available resources.
It monitors user demand and updates their priority. This method reduced network
loss by 50% and also reduced dependency on overall grid. However, this technique
provides fewer shares to users.

Particle swarm optimization

Advance power grid shifting from vertical to a horizontal structure which requires
efficient management system. In [32], Hurtado et al. proposed building energy
management system (BEMS). This technique provides interaction between different
environments. It uses PSO approach to maximize comfort level and energy efficiency.
In this hierarchical infrastructure, lower level agents abstract information and pro-
vide to higher level agents. Performance is described by weight factor; fair scenario
showed 0.5 weight while bias scenario results in 0.3 weight. However, this technique
generates some unbalanced situation.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 121

Game theory approach

The retailer and market price management in smart grid gained great attention in
research work. In [33], Wei et al. focused on energy price and dispatch problem in
a smart-grid environment. This study proposed a two-stage two-level model. Cus-
tomer demand and price is considered as the first stage using the Stackelberg game
approach, while the operation of storage devices is considered as the second stage
using linear max–min problem. Then the model is translated into mixed integer linear
problem (MILP). The results showed 5% improvement in system performance, and it
also increased retailer profit. However, this method is very sensitive and knowledge
gathering process is very difficult.
In [34], Chai et al. addressed demand–response issue and presented a two-level
game approach. This technique handles multiple utility company and users. The
utility company is modeled as noncooperative and communication between users as
evolutionary. The results showed that proposed technique reduced cost payment from
3,197.7 to 2,425.6 and energy demand is increased from 1,224.9 to 1,478.4. However,
this work does not employ constraint on power consumption.
In [35] by Song et al., another framework for optimal nonstationary demand-side
management in a smart-grid environment is proposed. In this method, the user selects
their energy usage pattern according to their priority and needs. They used a repeated
game approach which provides interaction among foresighted price anticipating users.
This method showed 50% reduction in energy cost and robustness in error. However,
higher threshold value results in a trade-off between cost and peak average ratio.
In [36], Nunna and Doolla carried out research work on management of demand
response in multiple microgrid networks. In this work, customers participate in
demand–response strategy. This study proposed a priority index approach through
which customers participate in the market. This method reduced peak demand. It is
found that customers with high priority index get power at low cost.
In [37], O’Brien et al. focused on demand–response management in smart-grid
application. In this work, demand response is modeled as the game-theoretic environ-
ment, and Shapley-value (SV) is used for payment distribution process. RL technique
is used to estimate SV. Simulation results showed that for random sampling, 1,000,000
samples take 58.2 s execution time, while for sigmoid sample, 51,129 samples take
6.5 s, this showed that uniform sample balances demand and response. However, this
method is not suitable for distribution scheme and its direct estimation is difficult. The
literature summary of demand-response management has been shown in Table 5.2.

5.3.3 Fault monitoring

Fault-monitoring process involves the detection and prevention of any fault that occurs
in a smart-grid environment. This approach is categorized into self-organizing and
algorithm approach.

5.3.3.1 Self-organizing
Self-organization is an activity of the system in which each or some parts of the
system arrange themselves based on the local interaction among each component of
122 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 5.2 Literature summary of demand–response management

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Hernández Energy forecasting in 1.5% error rate Works on single unit

et al. [17] VPP, ANN
Mocanu Energy prediction for 91.42% accuracy Not implemented on
[18] building, RL + belief different level
neural network
E. Lakić Learning how much system Ration between cost Not implemented on
[19] reserve to offer at different and benefit increased MAS framework
time, SA-Q learning
I. Dusparic Energy prediction of next 33% usage reduced No communication
[20] day-ahead for EVs, RL+
load forecasting
Wen [21] Segmentation of each Linear complexity Single unit
device, RL
Ruelens Thermostatic load 19% cost reduction Single unit
[22] controlling, batch RL
Zhang [23] Finding mismatch between Convergence rate 40 Only local
demand and supply, iterations communication
economic dispatch
Golpayegani Conflict management Battery capacity No prediction
[25] between Evs, CP-MCTS increased 17%
Kremers Agent-based model of 40% consumption Not handling
[28] simple smart grid, CAS reduced, and peak high load
load lies in the
range of 5%–8%
Mocci [30] Controlling of integrated Response rate achieved No calculation of
demand and EVs, DSI 85%, network loss rate battery state
reduced 50%
Hurtado Controlling of Performance in the Unbalance situation
[32] interoperation of smart form of weight factor,
building, PSO which is achieved 0.5
Wei [33] Management of energy price 5% performance Difficult to gather
and dispatch problem, MILP improved information
Chai [34] Controlling multiple utility Cost reduced from No constraints on
centers and end users, 3,197.0 to 2,425.6 RS power consumption
two-level game
O’Brien Payment distribution Converge in 58.2 s Not suitable for
[37] process, Shapley value energy distribution
distribution

the system. In this section, we discuss some of the self-organization approaches that
have been carried out for addressing fault-monitoring problem.

Adaptive programming scheme

Some naturally accruing events lead to the cascading failure and loss in a smart-grid
system. In [38], Babalola et al. proposed an adaptive MAS for prevention of cascading
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 123

failure and loss in the smart grid. The proposed model searches for overloaded trans-
mission lines and then redistribute power to that line. The system decreases the
transmitted power in the overloaded lines and brings the lines to in working state.
This process successfully halts the cascading failure without load shedding. How-
ever, this approach needs major hardware requirement and efficient dispatch power
history. Additionally, the algorithm also consists of a large number of constraints.
In [39], Nassar and Salama introduced the dynamic microgrid concept having
flexible boundaries. With this feature, the size of the grid can be reduced or extended
according to the need. It uses forward–backward sweep technique for power flow.
In an emergency situation, self-healing feature is achieved. The result showed good
performance when compared with fixed boundary system. However, the computation
time of this technique is very large which is 15.106/h.
In [40] by Chen et al., work is done on restoration of the power flow after a
natural disaster. In this work, multi-agent coordination control scheme based on a
mixed-integer linear program is presented. The proposed system controls on and off
status of switched devices. A local communication technique is used for discovery
of global information. The global information is used for the optimal decision. The
results showed the computation time of this technique 0.265 s. However, this work
does not focus on communication range, battery capacity, and the requirement for
global information discovery.
Multi-agent framework
Fault detection and its diagnosis avoid loss of synchronous operation in power sys-
tem. In [41], Rahman et al. presented an intelligent agent-based model for system
protection in critical time. This model has the ability of autonomous decision-making
for circuit breakers and detects a fault in critical time. Simulation results showed the
flexibility and stability of the system. However, this model cannot be implemented in
the large and complex power system.
Wolf-pack hunting
In [42], Xi et al. presented multi-agent wolf-pack hunting approach for the smart-
grid system. The wolf-pack idea is derived from a hunting group of a wild wolf
pack. The basic idea is to ensure survival in the harsh environment. This model can
handle optimal management of power distribution and can operate in load disturbance
condition. Experimental results showed that the convergence rate is 51.37%–57.4%
and the error rate is 0.5%. The agents exchange information so rapidly and calculate
the optimal policy. It increased utilization cost with reduction of generation cost.
5.3.3.2 Algorithmic approach
In the past, studies based on algorithmic approaches such as a fuzzy-rule, census,
sweep technique, and spanning tree approach are also presented in the smart-grid
domain. Next, we discuss these studies.

Fuzzy-rule
In [43], Elmitwally et al. proposed distributed system based on fuzzy rule-based multi-
agent approach. Its work mainly focuses on eliminating congestion of smart-grid
124 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

components, voltage violation, and cooperative operations. During the experiment,

congestion is eliminated in 2.17 s. Voltage is controlled by keeping the operation
in the limit. This approach performs voltage adjustment task in 28 s. However, its
performance decreased in the case of communication failure.

Census scheme
In [44], Teng et al. proposed a restoration framework for an emergency situation in a
smart-grid environment. In this method, a dynamic leader agent is used for operation
in emergency and disaster situation, and bus agents operate in a normal situation. This
method reduced communication time, and communication bandwidth is kept saved
during a disaster.

Sweep technique
In [45], Nguyen and Flueck proposed another decentralized distributed agent-based
model for power flow problem. It consists of multi-agents having autonomous, local
view, and decentralized behavior. Agents use back and forward sweep iteration
technique for power flow solving. The results showed computation time 81.96 s.

Spanning tree approach

In [46], Eriksson et al. presented a multi-agent distributed algorithm for integrated
volt/var control in the smart grid. Agents are collaboratively controlling and managing
voltage and capacitor. This method deals with the optimization of voltage profile,
reducing system loss, and switching of the capacitor. Two types of agents are used: a
switching agent who detects and solves system fault and volt/var control agent who
controls power flow. This technique controls voltage above the lower limit but does not
handle the voltage below the high limit. The results showed that the average time for
solving power flow is 9.4405 s, which demonstrates an efficient technique. However,
the solution does not lead to optimum. The literature summary of fault control has
been shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Literature summary of fault control

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Babalola Prevention of cascading Needs large information

[38] failure, adaptive programming about system states
Nassar Dynamic boundaries, forward Self-healing Computation time
[39] and backward sweep techniques is achieved increased
Chen [40] Coordination control Convergence Not focused on
scheme, MILP rate 0.265 s communication range
Rahman Fault location in System stability Complex system not
[41] critical time, MAF is achieved handled
Elmitwally Elimination of Restoration Performance decreased
[43] congestion, fuzzy-rule time 2.17 s in the case of
communication failure
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 125

5.3.4 Power scheduling

Power-scheduling process involves in setting power consumption and production at
the specific time period. This process is categorized into complex and learning-based
approach.

5.3.4.1 Complex system

As we know that the complex system comprises many interconnected objects in the
system, these objects interact with each other in a nonlinear manner. Next, we discuss
different techniques that have been carried from a complex system perspective to
address power-scheduling problem.

Self-organizing
Smart grid requires real-time monitoring to provide reliable services for end users.
In [47], Colson and Nehrir proposed a decentralized MAS for real-time power man-
agement in smart grid. MAS controls the grid assists based on price, resources, and
users’ demand. The experimental results show that decentralized MAS are reliable
for real-time monitoring in the smart grid. It is also shown that as time continues, the
performance of storage degrades due to discharging.

Hierarchal approach
In [48], Hu et al. proposed a hierarchal approach based on a MAS for smart-grid
operation. This approach integrates the EVs and addresses grid congestion and voltage
violation problems. The results showed good performance for power scheduling and
control. However, the communication between agents is too complex.
There have been several designs proposed for smart-grid architecture but still
facing feasibility and economy problems. In [49], Chao and Hsiung proposed fair
energy resource allocation algorithm for electricity trading among smart grid. This
technique prevents starvation situation and fatal problem. It also reduces power cost. It
achieved 96.25% fairness index even in the high worst case. However, this technique
does not take power transmission into account.
Rahman et al. [50] have proposed an agent-based model to address voltage stabil-
ity problem. In this model, agents manage their activities through online information
and power flow. They estimate voltage variation by using distributed synchronous
compensator. Simulation experiments showed robustness performance of the system.
However, communication time delay is observed 15 ms, while voltage stability has
improved.
In a smart-grid environment, there need to achieve stability and reduction in
operation cost. In [51], Radhakrishnan proposed smart-grid framework based on
the multi-agent distributed energy management system. It performs optimal energy
allocation and management in smart grid. This model consists of renewable energy
sources, storage devices, and generators. It controls power balance by the state of
charge of the batteries. Simulation results showed a reduction of total cost from 662.2
to 658.4. However, the performance of the proposed algorithm degrades under some
uncertain condition.
126 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Census-based approach
A centralized system is not able to handle flexible power loads to maintain the power
balance in a smart-grid environment. In [52], Li et al. proposed a look-ahead schedul-
ing model for flexible loads in a smart-grid environment. This model consists of three
layers: centralized, distributed, and cooperative control. Load agents perform coor-
dination among agents, and cooperative control strategy is used for communication
protocol. This model provides flexible strategies to handle the large flexible load.
However, this model is not able to handle uncertainty.
In [53], Guo et al. proposed an economic dispatch scheme based on projected
gradient concerns with economic dispatch problem. It decomposes centralize opti-
mization into local optimal agents. It deals with the stochastic environment. This
scheme presents a finite time average census algorithm. In this method, agents itera-
tively calculate the solution of the optimal problem. Its communication with agents is
limited. This method achieved plug-in-play, and it does not require any private infor-
mation. It can handle quadratic and non-quadratic cost function. The results showed
that overall cost of the system reduced.
Kahrobaee et al. in [54] presented the concept of smart home within a smart-
grid environment. In this work, home is considered an agent who can buy, sell, and
store energy and interact with the grid. This framework consists of home agent based
on distributed multi-agent network. The home agent makes autonomous decisions to
buy, sell and store energy, it takes a decision based on maximum utility. The home
agent decision affects the market price. The results showed home agent decision
reduced their energy cost as it buys, sells and generate energy at the same time.
However, this method is simple and does not address all issue related to demand and
supply.
In [55], Samadi et al. addressed uncertainty issues in smart grid and present
an optimized algorithm based on the central unit. This technique only needs future
demand estimation and minimizing energy cost for each user. The results showed
that the peak to average load is 25.5% achieved. It also reduced energy expenses.
However, the complexity of the system is increased.
In [56], Gregoratti and Matamoros presented another approach for power flow
in a smart-grid environment. The proposed technique controls and manages power
flow among multiple microgrids. This technique focuses on protecting private local
information, and it is based on sub-gradient cost minimization approach. The results
showed limited iteration and faster convergence rate. However, in this work, the
communication with the main grid was not considered.

Cognitive-based approach
In [57], Bu and Yu studied green cognitive network in smart-grid application. Cogni-
tive network monitors smart-grid operation and provides information to the control
unit. The power allocation is performed based on collected information. Power allo-
cation, price, and efficiency are modeled as three-stage Stackelberg game. Results
demonstrated 31.09% cost reduction. However, this technique does not handle the
incomplete scenario.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 127

5.3.4.2 Learning-based approach

In the past, power scheduling problem has been addressed by using two types of
learning techniques that are reinforcement and neural network.

Reinforcement learning
RL technique is an essential tool for computation and estimation of payoff to achieve
game equilibrium in a smart-grid environment. Wang et al. [58] presented a scheme
based on RL technique for energy trading in the smart grid. This method chooses a
random strategy and maximizes the average utility and revenue. The proposed scheme
is able to achieve Nash equilibrium. This technique handles incomplete information
available and stochastic environment. Information is exchanged through the central
unit and protects private information. However, implementation of the finite action
learning algorithm is a challenging task in real value action environment.
In [59], Samadi et al. worked on load scheduling and power trading in a smart-
grid environment. The study considered high penetration renewable resources. They
adopt the game theory approach. In this method, users can sell their extra power to
their neighbors locally. This method handles the reverse power flow problem. This
increases the revenue and decreases energy expenses of the users. The results showed
that average energy imported is reduced to 820.2 kW from 1,360.9 kW, and energy
cost is reduced to 40.37$ from 60.91$.
Energy hub provides interaction between energy carriers in supply requiring
loads. In [60], Sheikhi et al. extended the energy hub system. This study proposed
cloud-computing concept which consists of a utility provider and customer interaction
through the cloud. The cloud takes the input of utility power and produces output to
the users. This model provides two-way communications between utility companies
and energy hub. The results showed that energy cost is reduced to 33%. However, the
proposed system is unable to predict consumer’s future demands.
In [61], by Ghorbani et al., fault-detection technique based on the MAS is
presented in a smart-grid environment. This technique combines centralize and decen-
tralize features that demonstrate the hierarchal coordination scheme. It consists of
zone agents, feeder agents, and substation agents. Zone agents provide services
to detect and locate the fault and help feeder agents to restore services using the
q-learning technique. This method needs fewer messages for communication and
reduced computation time. The results showed that 16 messages are required for
communication for 21 agents, while centralized and decentralized scheme required 20
and 38 messages, respectively. However, the number of zone agents and feeder agents
remain fixed with the system size which results in more burden and computational
time in the complex system.
Venayagamoorthy et al. [62] proposed intelligent dynamic energy management
system (I-DEMS) based on neural network and RL. They used Bellman equation
for the optimal control signal and calculate min and max cost-to-go function. They
compared this technique with DEMS based on Decision Tree method, DT is inefficient
because it supplies energy based on available power. The result shows that I-DEMS
is reliable and it extends battery life, but this technique does not predict battery sate.
128 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

In [63], Li and Jayaweera presented a hierarchical architecture for communication

between utility company and customers. The proposed technique consists of two
stages: initial and real-time interaction. At initial interaction, demand response is
controlled which proved load remains flat. However, it also showed that by increasing
training period, performance of the studied system decreased.
In [64], Rayati et al. proposed smart energy hub concept in smart-grid applica-
tion. Smart energy hub is used for multipurpose transmission of generator energy,
information, and user-demand scheduling. In this method, RL is used for optimal
solution and the result demonstrates 26% cost reduction.
There are some implementation challenges in the smart grid due to uncertainty
and dynamic price. Kim et al. in [65] focused on dynamic price management and
proposed agent-based RL technique. In this framework, each customer is considered
as an agent and learns policy without any advance knowledge. Utility company moni-
tors customer behavior and schedule power on demand. This method increased system
and customer cost. However, error in estimation of cost effects system performance.
It also does not handle multiple energy resources and bidirectional communication.
In [66], Wang et al. presented broker concept in a smart-grid environment. In
this framework, the broker is responsible for predicting user demand and then buys
energy from utility company using auction strategy. Each customer is distributed as
cluster network. The broker uses MDP and RL technique to predict customer demand.
This technique balances energy supply–demand and achieved 24.6% imbalance rate.
However, due to broker’s involvement, computation time is increased.
Load shedding is used to balance power supply and demand. Central controller
allocates power to users using bidding process. Lim and Kim [67] presented a bidding
scheme based on q-learning technique. It makes policy when power is less than
demand. It starts bidding process and identifies those who want to buy power and
submit their bid price and quantity. The results showed that power balance is achieved
by the repetitive interaction between agents. It also showed that period of exploration
increased as trivial interaction decreased.
It is impractical to have complete information in advance about cost and demand
for energy in a smart-grid environment. Zhang et al. [68] focused on this issue
and proposed price-dependent load-scheduling technique. This technique uses post-
decision state (PDS) and Markov decision process (MDP). This method can provide an
optimal solution in an unknown environment. In this method, consumers can buy and
store energy during peak hours. Energy cost and demand are taken as variable entities.
Load-scheduling process is considered as MDP using RL PDS technique. This method
needs less information to converge into an optimal solution. The results showed that
algorithm converges into optimal solution in 1,122 time slot giving 90% average
utility. However, this method does not handle load scheduling in a collaborative
environment.
Wu and Liao [69] focused on power-dispatch problem and presented function
optimal RL scheme for power-dispatch problem in complex and multidimensional
space of smart-grid application. This technique searches in sequence result showed
that 32.31% reduction of computation time and voltage stability also increased.
However, this technique showed the conflict between energy cost and voltage stability.
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 129

Table 5.4 Literature summary of power scheduling

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

Colson and Real-time power Reliable system Performance of storage

Nehrir [47] management, devices decreased
self-organizing
Chao and Electricity trading, fair Reduced Ignored power
Hsiung [49] energy resource allocation power cost transmission
Rahman Voltage stability in SG, Robust Communication time
[50] hierarchal approach performance increased
Li [52] Look ahead scheduling, Handle large Not handle uncertainty
census flexible load
Kahrobaee Smart home concept, Cost reduced Not address all issues
[54] census related to demand
and supply
Gregoratti Power flow in multiple Fast No communication
[56] microgrid, census convergence rate with main grid
Sheikhi Cloud computing Energy cost No prediction of
[60] concept in E-hub, RL reduced by 33% energy demands
Kim [65] Dynamic price Monitor customer Not handle multiple
management, RL behaviors energy resources
Wu and Power dispatch in Computation time Conflict between energy
Liao [69] complex scenario, RL reduced by 32.31% cost and voltage stability

In [70], Shirzeh et al. worked on management of renewable energy resources

and storage devices in a smart-grid environment. They proposed a MAS based on a
plug-and-play technique for managing and controlling resources in the smart grid.
Plug-in-play technique used RL method based on distributed value function to adjust
power balance of demand and supply. Results showed 81% reduction in fluctuation by
using plug-and-play. The number of iterations is also reduced. However, this method
does not deal with the stochastic environment.

Artificial neural network

Integrating wind energy resources with other distributed energy resources is a chal-
lenging task. In [71], Motevasel and Seifi addressed this issue and proposed an
expert energy-management system. This technique finds optimal set points of energy
resources and storage devices. This technique controls forecasting, optimizing, and
storage module. ANN is used for forecasting process. Results showed that conver-
gence is achieved in 445 iterations. The literature summary of power scheduling has
been shown in Table 5.4.

5.3.5 Storage and voltage management

Storage and voltage management scheme handles storage devices and voltage vari-
ation. This scheme is categorized into learning, monitoring, and search-based
approach.
130 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

5.3.5.1 Learning
Storage and voltage-management problem are addressed by using RL and neural
network approach. Next, we discuss these learning techniques and try to explain how
different studies addressed the storage and voltage problem in smart-grid domain.

Reinforcement learning
In [72] by Li et al., research work is concerned with the implementation of RL
technique for load-balancing problem in the smart grid. The proposed scheme is
based on dynamic hierarchal approach. It finds an optimal policy to balance power
demand and supply. It handles curse dimensionality problem. It is a fast-learning
technique in an unknown environment.
In [73], Salehizadeh and Soltaniyan proposed a fuzzy q-learning technique. It
handles multidimensional renewable power in less iteration. With this method, 40%
iterations decreased as compared to other techniques. It models electricity in continues
range.
Wind energy is uncertain and is a variable energy resource; this effects smart-
grid performance. In [74], de Montigny et al. addressed this issue and proposed
multi-agent architecture. This method calculates import and export losses. It also
calculates global-demand forecasting using minute-to-minute strategy. Additionally,
it also estimates system performance from historical data. Results obtained through
minute-to-minute strategy and showed that number of generating unit start and stop
increased by 5%. However, computational time of this method is very large.
Load frequency managing and controlling is a hot topic for research in a smart-
grid environment. The linear model is not capable of handling dynamic behavior of
the system. In [75], Daneshfar et al. addressed this issue and proposed multi-agent
RL technique which consists of two agents: estimator and controller. Estimator agent
finds frequency error, and controller agent uses genetic optimization for frequency
control. This technique showed frequency variation fall to zero through the optimal
solution. However, load disturbance is generated by reaching to maximum frequency.
In [76], Wei et al. addressed battery-management issues in a smart-grid envi-
ronment. This study proposed a dual iterative q-learning technique based on adaptive
dynamic programming for managing and controlling storage devices. In this method,
dual iteration, internal iteration for minimizing power cost, and external iteration for
finding Q function to converge into optimum is used. This algorithm converged into
optimal solution in 20 iterations. However, the proposed algorithm finds optimal solu-
tion indirectly. Initial interaction handles demand response at customer side, and the
load is considered as a flat point. Real-time interaction is used for decision-making.
This technique used hidden mode MDP. This technique outperforms as training period
is increasing. However, in the studied system, a smart home was not considered.
Integrating different types of energy storage devices in smart grid produces
implementation challenges. In [77], Qiu et al. focused on controlling and manag-
ing different types of energy-storage devices. This study proposed RL-based scheme
to optimize coordination of energy-storage devices. The results showed that system
gradually learns with time and results in an optimal solution. This study also showed
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 131

that system losses decreased. However, it required large computational time, and it
does not support power-sharing feature.
Integrating photoelectric energy with smart grid decreases fossil fuel consump-
tion as well as electricity bill. In [78], Wang et al. proposed near-optimal control
algorithm for the residential storage system which controls power generation, predicts
power consumption, and accounts for various loss components during operation. They
applied RL technique for prediction amount of energy in ESS. This technique per-
forms optimization on energy price and energy demand price. Experimental results
show that the proposed algorithm outperforms and achieves up to 72% enhance-
ment in electricity-cost reduction compared with baseline storage control algorithm.
Limitation of this system is that PV generation system only works in sunlight.
Battery management plays a key role in a smart-grid environment. In [79],
Kuznetsova et al. presented a two step-ahead RL algorithm for battery scheduling
within microgrid architecture. It is composed of local consumers, generator, and stor-
age devices connected to the external grid. This technique predicts and forecasts power
demand. It finds optimal actions for battery scheduling. Simulation results showed
3.94% improvement in battery. However, the simulation running is very large.
In [80], Vandael et al. addressed day-ahead power scheduling problem for EVs
in a smart-grid environment. In this method, charging process is performed by the
heuristic scheme. The heuristic scheme is controlling and managing each EV. The
system collectively learns cost-effective scheduling strategy for EV charging through
RL technique. The results showed that average cost increased by 10%. However, this
method has some overloading and over constraint issues.
In [81], Guan et al. focused on minimizing energy cost in a smart-grid envi-
ronment. In this work, RL technique is applied to find an optimal policy to storage
devices. This method does not require any future prediction about energy generation
and consumption but the partial observable environment. The TD-lambda algorithm
is used for convergence to the optimal solution in the non-Markovian environment.
Simulation results showed 59.8% reduction in energy cost.
Artificial neural network
Battery management plays a key role in smart grid; it is important to measure the
health of batteries during operation. In [82], Landi and Gross proposed two different
techniques for estimating battery health in smart-grid application. First one is based on
fuzzy logic and the second one is a neural network. These techniques use temperature,
charging/discharging, and a number of the cycle as parameters. Results showed 5%
error rate.

5.3.5.2 Monitoring
In this section, we discuss different approaches presented for storage and voltage
monitoring.
Volt/Var control
In [83], Zhang et al. presented a multi-agent distributed algorithm for integrated
volt/var control in the smart grid. Agents are collaboratively controlling voltage and
capacitor. This method deals with the optimization of voltage profile, reducing system
132 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

loss, and switching of the capacitor. Two types of agents are used: switching agents
who detect and solve system fault and volt/var control agents who control power flow.
This technique controls voltage above the lower limit but does not handle voltage
below high limit. The results showed that the average time for solving power flow is
9.4405 s, which demonstrates an efficient technique. However, the solution does not
lead to optimum.
Census approach
Researchers are also interested in reducing high-power consumption and demand to
reduce cost. In [84], Sharma et al. proposed agent-based distributed control model
to address this issues. In this model, power-storage devices are used as agents. It
achieves convergence in agreement of power consumption. It prevents overcharging
and discharging of batteries. Results showed 95% and 85% charging and discharging
efficiency, respectively. However, the communication between agents is limited, and
it does not predict the state of batteries only its maximum/minimum state.
State monitoring
For dynamic state estimator, in [85], Srivastava et al. proposed a MAS for the
multi-area power system. This method divides the whole network into subsystem
and algorithm executes in parallel. This use two unit’s: field and phasor unit run
separately. At last, center controller integrates their results. The algorithm follows
cubature Kalman filter. Results showed 2.4(10−2 ) voltage error. It has been showed
that extended Kalman filter is not feasible.
In [86], Teleke et al. focused on battery management and proposed rule-based
control strategy. This technique monitors and controls charge/discharge limit and
battery lifetime. It also utilizes 70% battery capacity. The results showed voltage
deviation reduction from 24% to 4%. However, this required high-capacity batteries.
Integrating solar energy in a smart grid make it an active system which required
cyber-physical management system. In [87], the author presents a goal-based Holonic
MAS. This technique uses nested agent concept and controls power strategy and
state estimation. The results showed execution time 93 s and absolute error 0.038%.
However, the complexity of the system increased by nested agents.
In [88], Klaimi and Merghem-Boulahia focused on energy-management system
and proposed a multi-agent intelligent model for smart-grid application. In this tech-
nique, intelligent storage devices are used for storing surplus power. This technique
reduced energy cost and access to the grid. Results showed 60% cost reduction.

5.3.5.3 Searching
The searching techniques used for addressing storage and voltage problems include
self-organizing, normality analysis, hill-climbing, and swarm intelligence. Next,
these search-based techniques are discussed.
Self-organizing
The integrating and monitoring of smart microgrid is at the initial stage, and it needs
more research studies. In [89], Vaccaro et al. proposed and developed a self-organized
standalone smart microgrid framework for solving and controlling smart microgrid
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 133

operations. They focused on synchronizing and controlling of smart applications

involved in the system. Results and experiments show that dynamic agents are useful
in power flow problems. It also helps estimation of state in the smart microgrid.
However, this approach does not address the computation and estimation of semantic
representation of data.
Integrating EVs with the smart grid is a challenging task for the researcher.
In [90], Hu et al. presented hierarchal control method that coordinates self-
interconnected nodes. In operation constraint, marked-based control is used. In this
framework, two level are used: upper bound and lower bound. Upper bound controls
power scheduling, and lower bound provides power to EVs. Implementation showed
that this method is feasible and there is no power loss.
Normality analysis
In [91], Vallejo et al. extended the previous work of intelligent monitoring of substa-
tions in the smart grid. They used knowledge-based software agents which are used
for data collection and decision-making. This model integrates new agents that can
be used in different environment condition. They used web services for results mon-
itoring. The experimental results showed 75% absolute normal voltage. This model
improves robustness and provides reconfiguration as well as replication of services.
However, this model requires more data and information for intensity control.
Hill climbing
In [92], Xi et al. presented win/loss fast policy hill-climbing approach for optimal
averaging policy learning for the MAS in the smart grid. This model is applicable
in stochastic non-Markov environments. This technique is an independent self-play
game and can achieve fast convergence learning rate. Simulation results showed 68%
faster learning rate than previous techniques used in literature that are q-learning,
q-lambda, etc. However, this model has some challenges to real implementation; it
faces security and stability problems.
Modeling of the smart grid is a complex task due to its complex nature, multi-
agent behavior, and distributed resources. In [93], de Durana et al. presented a model
for local multi-carrier energy network in the smart grid. This model allows trans-
mitting of different type energy in the smart-grid network. The simulation results
showed rebalancing between energy networks. This model only focuses on smart-grid
operation, not on energy generation and load management.
Swarm intelligence
In smart grid, it needs to manage and control frequency around reference value in
order to get secure and quality power flow. Unbalance frequency produces unbal-
ance power distribution to the consumers. In [94], Evora et al. presented a swarm
intelligence agent-based system for frequency management in the smart grid. It used
decentralize independent agents and can exchange information in the shared environ-
ment. It evaluates three policies: detection, communication, and stability. However,
increasing microlevel results non-desire effect.
Direct load control (DLC) is used for control and management of demand at con-
sumer side. In [95], Hernandez et al. presented DLC method based on multi-objective
134 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 5.5 Literature summary of storage and voltage control

Ref Technique Strength Limitations

de Montigny Minute-to-minute System efficiency Complexity increased

[74] forecasting, RL improved by 5%
Bevrani [75] Dynamic behavior of Zero frequency at Load disturbance at
the system, RL optimal solution high frequency
Qiu [77] Management of different Energy loss Complexity increased
type storage, RL decreased
Landi and Battery health Error rate 5% High-error rate
Gross [82] estimation, ANN
Sharma [84] Disturbance control Charging Only estimates
model, census efficiency 95% maximum and minimum
state of the storage
Pahwa [87] Nested agent concept for 93 s execution time Complexity increased
the state estimation,
goal-based holonic MAS
Vaccaro [89] Controlling and Estimates state of Not handles semantic
monitoring microgrid, microgrid representation of data
self-organize
Vallejo [91] Substation monitoring, 75% absolute Required large data
normality-analysis normal voltage
Evora [94] Frequency management, System stability Increasing microlevel
swarm intelligence is achieved result non-desire effects
on the system

particle swarm optimization for smart-grid environment. Appliances operate when

constraints are satisfying at system side. The operation of appliances was obtained
by distributing constraints among neighbor nodes. This method reduced user energy
demand by 20%. However, this method was applied only to three appliances: refrig-
erator, light, and freezer. Another drawback of this method is that it must generate
a result in a fraction of second, otherwise system stability will effect. The literature
summary of storage control has been shown in Table 5.5.

5.4 Open research problems and discussion

In this section, we are going to discuss different methodologies and techniques
on MAS in smart grid and their open-research problems. The smart grid brings
many facilities to users and energy efficiency, customer satisfaction, reduction in
energy cost, and load balancing. However, there exists a number of challenges to be
researched and resolved. These challenges involve communication protocols, fault
detection, prevention, power scheduling, load balancing, and storage/voltage control.
How to handle communication among multi-agent in smart grid? To address
this question, a number of research efforts have been carried in the domain of
smart-grid domain. We reviewed two approaches that are group communication and
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 135

learning-based approach used to address communication challenges in the smart grid.

Group communication approach involves hierarchal, coalition formation, census
and PSO methods. In [3–5], the hierarchal scheme is used to handle communica-
tion among multi-agent. In [3], the layer-based framework was proposed, and this
framework reduced communication complexity and voltage variation. In [4], two-
way communication scheme was proposed and energy cost decreased from 80 to 50.
However, this scheme faces some design issues. In [5], the cognitive-based scheme
is used which reduced peak power from 55,000 to 900 W. In [6], another scheme
based on information sharing about imbalance power is proposed. However, in this
scheme, agents only keep information about their own status. In [7], zero correlation
schemes were proposed for the machine-to-machine communication. This scheme
maintains security and reduces traffic overhead. However, this approach gives worst
result in the case of small scenario. In [8,9], coalition formation approach was used.
In [8], decentralize dispatch scheme was proposed. In this scheme, agents perform
the task in a group or teamwork. However, this scheme showed large communication
time. In [9], the proposed technique does not handle stochastic scenarios. In [10],
the author addressed communication latency problem, and the result showed 3.983 s
restoration time. However, this scheme does not handle individual communication.
The census-based scheme was proposed for cost estimation in [11], this scheme
increased system vulnerability. PSO scheme based on adaptive biding technique was
proposed in [12,96], this reduced buying cost. However, this also reduced customer
comfort level. Learning-based approaches involve RL, ANN, and Bayesian learning
approaches in [13–16]. RL technique showed fast convergence rate. However, this
only handles linear time-invariant. In [15], ANN learning is used for power classifica-
tion, and this showed 98.7% accuracy in system performance. However, this technique
is not robust to error. Bayesian learning is used in [16] for price and demand calcula-
tion in the case of incomplete information. This showed 40% increase in total utility.
However, this technique does not control packet loss rate.
How to handle demand response in smart-grid environment? To address this
question, different approaches also have been applied in the domain of smart grid. We
reviewed two types of approaches that are learning-based and complex system-based
approach adapted to handle demand response in smart-grid application. Learning-
based approach involves ANN and RL. ANN is applied to a virtual power plant in [17],
this showed 1.5% error rate. However, this needs enough information for prediction
of future demand. RL is applied in [18] for energy prediction and showed 91.42%
accuracy rate. However, this method was not applied on a different level. In [19],
SA-Q learning was applied to learn system reservation to offer power at the different
time. This increased cost-benefit rate. In [20], demand response was addressed to
predict load for the next day. This reduced 33% peak usage; however, there is no
collaboration among agents. In [21], demand–response management for a single unit
or building was proposed. The proposed technique in [22] maximize social welfare
and converged in 40 iterations. In [24], online energy cost estimation is proposed and
the result showed 40% energy cost reduction.
The complex system comprises collaborative, complex adaptive system, demand-
side integration, PSO, and game-theory approaches. The collaborative-based scheme
136 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

was discussed in [25–27]. This scheme has open issues regarding communication, pre-
diction, and probability distribution. Complex adaptive system approach was applied
in [28,29]. This reduced 40% energy cost and also peak load to 8%–5% range. How-
ever, this approach does not handle high load and also the cost of energy increased
for some users. Demand-side integration was discussed in [30,31]. The open research
issues existing in this scheme are as follows: it does not estimate the state of bat-
teries and offers fewer energy shares to the users. In [32], PSO technique based on
BEMS framework has unbalanced situation issue. The game theory approach was
also applied to address demand–response problem. This approach has open issues
related to sensitivity, information gathering, and the trade-off between cost and PAR.
It also not suitable for distribution scheme.
How to detect and prevent a fault in the system? To address this challenge, a
number of research efforts have been done and cited in our review work. We grouped
these studies into two categories, i.e., self-organizing and algorithmic approach. The
self-organizing approach consists of adaptive programming, MAF, and WPH. These
approaches can perform self-healing task in an efficient manner. However, there exist
some open research problems that are as follows: these required major hardware for
implementation, unable to address complex model, cannot address battery capacity,
there is no global information discovery.
Algorithmic approaches consist of fuzzy-rule, census, sweep and spanning tree
techniques. These studies successfully reduced congestion and communication time.
However, there still exist some open research problems that to be addressed. In this
scheme, the system performance degrades in the case of failure and no guarantee of
an optimal solution.
How to perform power scheduling? We surveyed research work and grouped
these work into two categories, i.e., complex system and learning-based model.
The complex system consists of self-organizing, hierarchal, census, and cognitive-
based approaches. The self-organizing approach is discussed in [47]. This technique
showed good performance in term of monitoring; however, performance degrades in
discharging periods. The hierarchal scheme is discussed in [48–50], this approach
has the ability to handle the starvation problem and achieved 96.5% fairness index.
However, this scheme increased complexity and computational time. Census-based
approaches are also reviewed in this part for power-scheduling task. In [52], flex-
ibility concept is introduced and provides flexible strategy to perform flexible
power transmission. In [53], the central unit is introduced and achieved 25.5%
peak to the average rate. In [54], the subgradient concept was used for cost
minimization. This showed fast convergence rate; however, there is no commu-
nication with the main grid. Pruning strategy was discussed in [56] that prune
those agents which are not participating in the communication. This reduced search
space size; however, this method is unable to prune those agents which are close to
each other.
Learning-based approaches (RL and ANN) adopted to address power scheduling
problem in the smart grid. With the adaptation of RL-based approaches, private
information was protected from external users. It provides reverse power flow facility,
where the user can send extra power back to the main grid. Cloud interaction concept
was introduced in [60], where user and utility can interact with each other through the
 Applications of multi-agent systems in smart grid 137

cloud. This reduced energy cost to 33%. ANN-based approach is presented in [71],
which integrates wind energy resource with other resources. However, learning-based
approaches are still facing open-research problems that are as follows: there is no
collaborative learning, the conflict between cost and voltage, and there is no procedure
to predict system state.
How to manage and handle storage devices and voltage? To address this prob-
lem, a number of research works are discussed and reviewed in this part. We grouped
these work into three categories, i.e., learning-based, monitoring, and search-based
approaches. Regarding learning-based approach, in [74], minute-to-minute forecast-
ing strategy was applied. This increased the number of generating units. However,
the computational time is also increased. Different types of energy storage devices
was integrated with the system in [77], this decreased energy loss. In [81], two-step
ahead forecasting strategy was applied which showed 3.94% improvement in battery
life. ANN-based learning scheme was used in [83] for state estimation and showed
5% error rate.
Monitoring-based techniques consist of volt/var, census, and state monitoring.
These techniques control voltage and monitor system state. Agent-based distributed
control (ABDC) based on monitoring approach prevents overcharging and discharg-
ing of the battery. This method achieved 95% and 85% efficiency in charging and
discharging, respectively.
Search-based techniques consist of self-organizing, normality analysis, hill
climbing, and swarm intelligence. Self-organizing technique addressed application
synchronization problem in [91]. However, this technique is unable to handle semantic
data. Normality analysis is used in [92] which integrate EVs. In [93], the knowledge-
based scheme was used which provide integration of new agents, reconfiguration, and
replication services. However, this scheme requires large data for intensity control.

5.5 Conclusions
As a simulation and modeling perspective, the MAS in smart grid has recently been
attracting an increasing attention from the research community. The growing domains
of interest in MAS in the domain of smart grid are communication protocols, demand
response, self-healing, power scheduling, load balancing and storage-device manage-
ment. A number of research works have been carried out and developed multi-agent
based models for smart grid in abovementioned domains.
In this part, we covered the different approaches adopted in MAS for smart-grid
modeling and proposed a classification of MAS models according to the techniques
used for their implementation. We finally described each technique and its model.
We also highlighted open research problems exist in each solution.
The basic objective of MAS in smart-grid modeling is load balancing, to bring
balance or equilibrium between users demand and generation capacity. In another
word, MAS in smart-grid modeling deals with energy-optimization process. As for
the authors are concerned, this is the first article which clearly highlights open research
problem in MAS in the smart grid that covers a large number of different research
studies.
138 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

The aim of this survey was to allow a comprehensive understanding of the various
emerging development in the field of the smart grid, the different approaches, their
advantages, and limitations. We hope it will be a good guideline and a starting point
to those researchers coming to this field and desiring to increase their knowledge in
smart-grid domain from MAS perspective.

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 Chapter 6
Shortest path models for scale-free network
topologies: literature review and cross
comparisons
Agnese V. Ventrella1,2 , Giuseppe Piro1,2 ,
and Luigi Alfredo Grieco1,2

The term Internet refers to the global network infrastructure, connecting more than
15 billions of devices around the world. At the time of this writing, it supports a
massive distribution of information, which reaches around 1.5 ZB per year. These
estimates, however, are continuously growing: by 2021, the annual global traffic will
grow to 3.3 ZB per year [1,2]. Therefore, the Internet appears as a complex system
that is continuously evolving during the time.
The knowledge about the Internet topology has always been considered an impor-
tant aspect for researchers, industries, and service providers. It, in fact, is extremely
useful to evaluate network resilience [3], analyze topological properties and their
evolution [4], predict and improve the performance of communication protocols and
the effectiveness of routing algorithms [5], solve specific problems involving a par-
ticular topological structure (i.e., how to distribute storage across routers in order to
obtain an optimal caching allocation) [6], and so on. Thus, analytical models showing
Internet characteristics (like average shortest path and shortest path distribution) and
simulation tools able to reproduce Internet-like topologies are key instruments for
most of the research activities in this context.
Nevertheless, the complexity and the dynamism of the overall Internet architec-
ture make the study of the Internet topology as one of the hottest and hardest research
topic to solve [7]. First of all, it is important to have a clear definition of topology.
According to the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, a topology represents a
simplified way to depict the interconnections among communication entities [8]. But,
what communication entities refers to, is not completely clear a priori. The scientific
literature, for instance, considers three main levels of granularity, namely interface
level, router level, and Autonomous System (AS)-level [9–11]. Thus, a network topol-
ogy may expose different information according to the level of granularity taken into
account. Second, differently from other large networks, like public switched telephone

1
Department of Electrical and Information Engineering (DEI), Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy
2
CNIT, Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni, Italy
146 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

network, the Internet did not grow according to a topological design developed by
some central authority or administration [12]. Hence, huge dimension, rapid change,
and lack of publicly available information inevitably make hard to capture a complete
snapshot of the overall network infrastructure [13].
To solve this issue, several methodologies were introduced to infer topology
information, based on both active and passive approaches. These mechanisms must
be properly configured and adapted when applied to interface router and AS levels
of granularity. At the same time, however, it is also important to consider the set of
limitations they introduce, thus being able to better estimate the level of accuracy of
retrieved data [10,14–17].
Starting from inferred data, it is possible to formulate mathematical models able
to capture statistical characteristics of the Internet. Graph theory is widely used to
reach this goal [18]. In fact, many models were already developed, which refer to
regular, random, small world, and the most recent power-law and scale-free graphs
[11,19–22]. Among them, however, the scale-free graph is widely accepted as the
best model able to represent Internet-like topologies. A number of network simulators
already implement these models and are able to reproduce Internet-like topologies
that can be used in a variety of research activities.
Another important step forward in the study of the Internet topology is the model-
ing of the shortest path connecting any peers attached to the communication systems.
The scientific literature already provides models for both average shortest path and
distribution of the shortest path length [23–26].
Based on these premises, the present book chapter aims at providing an overview
of Internet-like topologies, by covering a broad set of aspects, including the level of
granularity, methodologies useful to retrieve topology information, simulation tools,
and analytical models. Then, the accuracy of reference models for the distribution
of the shortest path length (i.e., Gamma, Lognormal, and Weibull distributions) is
evaluated through a massive simulation campaign, carried out by using the Boston
university Representative Internet Topology gEnerator (BRITE) tool [27]. From one
side, obtained results demonstrate that the available models are able to catch the
average value and the distribution of the shortest path over a very broad set of condi-
tions. But, from another side, they also highlight an unresolved issue: they require a
case-by-case tuning of model parameters.
The rest of this chapter is organized as in the following. Section 6.1 presents the
main levels of granularity of the Internet topology and reviews active and passive
methodologies useful to collect data. Section 6.2 discusses Internet topology models
based on the graph theory and provides an overview of topology generator tools.
Section 6.3 investigates, through computer simulations, the accuracy of analytical
models developed for scale-free networks and identifies useful applications of the
shortest path distribution. Finally, Section 6.4 draws the conclusions.

6.1 Mapping the Internet topology

The scientific literature generally describes the Internet topology through different
levels of granularity. In all the cases, however, the graph theory is deeply adopted
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 147

as a key instrument that captures well the required details of the overall network
architecture [10,28]. Such a consideration is also valid for Internet-like topologies,
like restricted portion of the Internet handled by a single Internet Service Provider
(ISP). In fact, at the time of this writing, it is common to represent the Internet topology
as an undirected graph, G. More specifically, this graph is further characterized by
the ordered pair G = (N , E), where N refers to a set of vertices (also called nodes or
points), connected by a set of E edges (also called arcs or lines) [29–31]. Without loss
of generality, it is possible to assume that devices belonging to the global network
infrastructure establish a bidirectional relationship. Therefore, the graph is considered
undirected because edges do not have any orientation.
The roles covered by both nodes and edges belonging to an Internet-like topol-
ogy strictly depends on the level of granularity selected to model the network itself.
Conventional approaches include interface level, router level, and Autonomous Sys-
tem (AS) level [9–11] (see the preliminary overview depicted in Figure 6.1). It
is important to note that details about network topology, routing policies, peer-
ing relationships, and resilience are commercially sensitive, could expose potential
vulnerability to attackers, and reveal resilience planning. Accordingly, they are not
publicly available. At the same time, the network is dynamic and constantly evolv-
ing because of failures, maintenance, and upgrades. For these reasons, information
regarding both global structure and local properties of the Internet cannot be retrieved
in an easy way. Nevertheless, dedicated approaches can be used to partially solve this
problem. They can be divided into two kinds of methodologies, namely, passive and
active [32]. The passive method learns the presence of nodes and their interactions by
simply collecting the information flowing over a wire and generated by other commu-
nication protocols (which work for different purposes). The active method, instead,
supposes to send dedicated packets (i.e., probe messages) to target devices into the
network and to collect the related responses.
The following paragraphs describe the three levels of granularity introduced
above. At the same time, they also present the most important passive and active
methodologies used to retrieve and study Internet or Internet-like network topologies.
For each single strategy, pros and cons are evaluated too (see the summary reported
in Table 6.1). Finally, they also provide an overview regarding geographic network
topologies.

6.1.1 Interface level

The current Internet is based on the host-centric communication paradigm, and the
data exchange is handled through the well-known Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) stack. In particular, the IP protocol implements net-
working functionalities. Among its other specifications, it identifies any network
interface of hosts, servers, and routers, through an IP address. Today, for instance,
two versions of the IP protocol can be used: IPv4 and IPv6. The former uses a 32-bit
address scheme. The latter adopts a 128-bit address scheme [33].
The interface level of granularity depicts the Internet topology by paying attention
to network interfaces having an IP address, as well as to their peer-to-peer connec-
tions (see Figure 6.1(a)). In this way, a node of the graph describing the considered
148 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Interface level
Nodes
edges

(a)

Router level
Nodes
edges

(b)

AS level
Nodes
edges

(c)

Figure 6.1 Internet topology at three main levels of granularity: (a) Interface level,
(b) Router level, and (c) AS level
topology maps a given network interface and edges refer to direct connections between
nodes [10]. Routers with multiple configured network interfaces are mapped to
multiple logical nodes. Thus, the resulting interface-level topology embraces a num-
ber of nodes equal to the number of active network interfaces with an IP address
and a number of edges equal to the amount of direct connections established at
the network layer.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 149

Table 6.1 Methodologies used to retrieve and study Internet-like topologies and
their related issues

Level of granularity Learning technique Related issues

Interface level Active: Traceroute Absence of ICMP enabled routers;

presence of load-balancing strategies
Active: IP options Absence of routers supporting
IP options
Active: Subnet Possibility to have incomplete data
discovery
Router level Active: Alias resolution Possibility to have incomplete data
Passive: Internet Limited access to the database; absence
Routing Registry of routers supporting IPv4 multicast
AS level Passive: BGP Limited capabilities of monitors
Passive: Internet Stale or incomplete data
Routing Registry
Active: Traceroute Absence of ICMP enabled routers;
presence of load balancing strategies

Interface-level topologies are generally learned through active methodologies,

based on the traceroute tool, the usage of IP options, and subnet discovery.

6.1.1.1 Active methodology based on traceroute

At the time of this writing, traceroute is one of the most popular tool adopted to acquire
topology details [34]. It was originally written to detect communication problems
present within a network, such as routing loops and black holes, as well as to locate
where those failures occur. Subsequently, it has been used to pursue other purposes,
including the active discovery of Internet-like topologies. This tool is available for
most of the operating systems, including Apple macOS, Unix systems, and Microsoft
Windows. In the latter case, however, it is generally known by a different name, that
is, tracert. As default, traceroute works with IPv4. But an updated version for IPv6 is
also available: traceroute6 for Apple macOS and Unix systems; tracert6 for Microsoft
Windows [33].
From a technical point of view, traceroute relies on the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) [35,36], which represents a messaging protocol working alongside
the IP protocol and offering the support for routing operations, network diagnostic,
and error notification. With traceroute, ICMP is used to calculate the forwarding
path and the communication delay between a source node (i.e., who runs the tool)
and a target network interface (i.e., an interface belonging to the studied network).
To this end, a train of messages is delivered through the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) with a variable value of the time-to-live (TTL) field of the IP header. To ease
the comprehension to a broader set of readers, it is important to point out that the
TTL field of the IP header is used to limit the lifetime of an IP datagram within the
network. For example, if the TTL value is equal to x, it means that the corresponding
150 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

IP datagram can pass, at most, through x consecutive routers before being discarded.
This is because, every intermediate router decrements the TTL value by 1 unit before
triggering the forwarding process. Therefore, as soon as the TTL value reaches the
value 0, the corresponding IP datagram is no more forwarded toward the destination
interface, but an ICMP Time Exceeded message is sent back to the source node for
notification purposes.
Starting from these premises, traceroute works as follows. At the beginning, the
device that runs the tool issues a group of ICMP messages, whose TTL value is set
to 1. Note that more than one message is sent at each step because the procedure
intends to collect statistical information related to communication delays (such as
minimum, maximum, and average value of the round trip time, generally expressed
in milliseconds). These initial packets reach only the node directly connected to the
sender, before being discarded. The ICMP Time Exceeded messages generated by
this node are used by the sender to infer details about the first network interface of
the forwarding path. Then, a new set of ICMP messages is sent with a TTL value set
to 2. In line with the process described above, the sender can now learn information
about the second hop of the forwarding path toward the destination. This process is
repeated until the destination node is reached. At the end, the sender collects some
details of the network topology, on a hop-by-hop basis [11].
It is important to remark that two main limitations affect traceroute [14]. First, if
some routers do not implement ICMP, the acquired forwarding path will not consider
some of the intermediate network interfaces. Second, in the event that a intermediate
router implements a load-balancing strategy, traceroute will generate results referring
to multiple paths through which packets are sent. Thus, the acquired forwarding path
will include additional network interfaces and the learned network topology could
not exactly capture the reality.

6.1.1.2 IP options and subnet discovery

Two further measurement techniques exploit IP packet options field and subnet
discovery [10].
The options available within the IP header could be useful to support additional
functionalities, such as the packet routing toward a path that is different from the
usual one or the registration of specific information related to the network topology.
For instance, the source routing option allows the discovery of new paths. When
it is enabled, in fact, the sender can choose at most nine routers that the packet
is supposed to go through before reaching the destination. Additionally, the record
route option can be used to allow routers involved in the forwarding process to store
their IP addresses within a dedicated list available in another option field of the IP
header. These information are used by the destination node to learn a multi-hop path
connecting it to the sender. A drawback is that these options are not supported by all
routers.
The subnet discovery technique is based on the subnetting concept. A subnet is
a layer 2 subdivision of an IP network, where all the devices are addressed with a
common most significant bit-group (e.g., IP prefix). This technique exploits the IP
prefix to detect the subnet boundaries and reveals the pingable IP addresses avail-
able in the subnet. Achieved results are then used to build the network topology.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 151

This technique can suffer from incomplete data because of relationship policies and
routing preferences that make the packet observe only some paths and missing other
ones.

6.1.2 Router level

Differently from the interface level of granularity, when the router-level approach is
chosen, each router is mapped to only one node of the graph, without considering the
possibility that more network interfaces with different IP address can coexist in the
same device (see Figure 6.1(b)). In other words, a node is viewed as an aggregation
of network interfaces that belong to a single device. Therefore, the router level of
granularity describes how routers are connected to each other within an Internet-like
topology. In the resulting graph, nodes represent routers and edges indicate networking
connectivity among them [10,11].
The details about router-level topologies could be achieved by means of alias
resolution and recursive router discovery techniques.
6.1.2.1 Alias resolution techniques
Alias resolution is an active method, still based on the traceroute tool. While traceroute
is used to infer the forwarding path on a hop-by-hop basis (as previously discussed),
additional methods are implemented for properly mapping network interfaces to the
right nodes of the topology.
One possibility is based on the fingerprint technique [17]. Here, a device inter-
ested to build a router-level representation of a network focuses the attention on a
remote network interface, having a known IP address. Such a device issues fake UDP
or TCP packets to that IP address, by setting the destination port address to unused
values. As expected, the remote network interface replies with an ICMP Port Unreach-
able error message. In the case that the received error message contains an IP source
address that is different from the contacted one, the device performing the alias
resolution technique recognizes that these IP addresses refer to network interfaces
configured in the same router. Therefore, according to the router level of granularity,
these interfaces will be aggregated into the resulting topology representation.
Another approach is referred to as IP-identification fingerprint method. During
this learning procedure, a device identifies two potential aliases of IP addresses.
Then, it sends to both interfaces a UDP probe packet, by setting the destination port
number to a high (and unused) value. In both cases, the two destination interfaces
reply with an ICMP Port Unreachable error message. The device collects the IDs
of the received messages, that are, for instance, id1 and id2 . A third fake packet is
sent to the destination IP address from which it has received the first ICMP Port
Unreachable error message. Again, the remote destination interface answers with
a new ICMP Port Unreachable error message with ID equal to id3 . Now, in the
case that id 1 < id 2 < id 3 and the difference id 3 − id 1 is below a given threshold,
the IP-identification fingerprint method assumes that the contacted IP addresses are
aliased. Thus, their related network interfaces are aggregated in the resulting topology
representation [37].
Finally, analytical techniques could also be introduced for further solving alias
resolution. Here, the common IP address assignment scheme to infer IP aliases, that
152 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

belong to two opposite paths, is used. After having identified the subnets, aliases are
inferred by analyzing path segments [11].
It is possible to conclude that alias resolution techniques are generally considered
accurate. But, sometimes retrieved data could be incomplete. The reason is that
traceroute can fail when nodes are disconnected, turned off, or configured to not
respond to probe packets [17].

6.1.2.2 Recursive router discovery

Recursive router discovery is a passive method that exploits the capability of routers
to be queried in order to retrieve information about their neighbors.
In Local Area Networks (LANs), the Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) is frequently used for handling network monitoring and for storing collected
data in a dedicated Management Information Base (MIB). In particular, SNMP-
enabled routers store the list of neighbor interfaces within the ipRoute table of the
MIB. Information collected through SNMP could be useful to build a router-level
description of an Internet-like topology. From one side, this approach may provide
accurate data. But, from another side, its usage is highly restricted because the MIB
is accessible only by network administrators [10].
Another solution implementing the recursive router discovery approach is
MRINFO, which is based on the Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). IGMP
was initially standardized to allow hosts and adjacent routers to establish multicast
group memberships. With MRINFO, an IGMP Ask Neighbors message is issued in
order to receive the list of all the router’s interfaces and their related neighbors. The
answer is reported in the IGMP Neighbors Reply message [16]. Unfortunately, this
technique can only be used with IPv4 multicast enabled routers.

6.1.3 AS level
Before introducing the latest level of granularity useful to describe Internet-like
topologies, it is important to remark that the global network infrastructure appears as
a connection of several autonomous systems (ASs). Each AS is made up by a group
of routers deployed by one or more network operators, on behalf of a single admin-
istrative entity [38]. For instance, an AS can refer to the network of a large company,
a university, a network service provider, and so on. Typically, individual users, small
enterprise networks, and ASs located at the edge of the Internet can join the global
network through other ASs, namely, ISP. In turn, ISPs may obtain the same service
from one or more upstream ISPs. Each AS is uniquely identified by an AS number
(ASN). Originally, it was defined as a 16-bit integer (by admitting a maximum of
65.536 assignments). Then a 32-bit ASN has been introduced in order to uniquely
identify a higher number of ASs [39]. In addition, ASs are divided into two categories:
transit and stub. A transit AS is part of the core network and usually carries traffic
between isolated domains, managed by different administrative entities. A stub AS,
instead, provides Internet connectivity to end users. Thus, from one side, it is con-
nected to end users. From another side, it is connected to the rest of the Internet
through one or more transit ASs. Sometimes, the administrator of a given AS can
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 153

change its own traffic relationship with other providers, thus modifying the overall
network architecture and making the resulting topology constantly evolving.
The AS level of granularity, also known as inter-domain description, depicts the
Internet architecture as a group of interconnected ASs. Accordingly, it brings to an
undirected graph where each node identifies one AS and edges represent the logi-
cal peering relationship between two adjacent ASs (see Figure 6.1(c)). Despite its
coarse level of details, the AS level of granularity is frequently leveraged to study,
control, optimize, and implement inter-domain routing, mechanisms for the provi-
sioning of the quality of service, and customer-provider and peering relationships
between ISPs.
Also in this case, both passive and active mechanisms can be used to infer infor-
mation related to the AS level topology. The first mechanism basically collects data
generated by the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) [40] or provided by the Inter-
net Routing Registry [41]. The second one investigates forwarding paths through
traceroute.

6.1.3.1 Passive methodology based on BGP and Internet

Routing Registry
BGP is the current de-facto standard for inter-domain routing. It allows the exchange
of routing information between ASs without revealing detailed and internal infor-
mation about their own networks. In particular, a BGP-compliant router obtains
information about existing routes from its BGP neighbors. The obtained routes are
processed and shared with to other BGP-compliant router according to specific rout-
ing policies. Routes selection generally preserves system scalability. At the end of
the process, if the protocol converges, a stable routing solution is found. But, identi-
fied routes are generally far from the shortest path. BGP data are gathered by route
monitors or collectors, that are specific devices deployed around the globe by some
international projects such as University of Oregon’s Route-Views [42] or RIPE Rout-
ing Information Service [43]. These projects were originally used by ISPs to debug
and optimize their networks [44].
Anyway, it is important to note that BGP cannot provide a complete view of ASs
because significant information could be missed [8]. This is due to the following
motivations: (1) monitors can only see what the connected routers choose to send;
(2) monitors are not present in each location; (3) the location of these monitors is not
randomly distributed across the Internet; (4) the connections between BGP monitors
and routers are not completely reliable because of session resets, collector down time,
and missing updates [15].
Another passive method to infer an AS level topology refers to the look up of the
Routing Assets Database provided by the Internet Routing Registry, stored in dedi-
cated File Transfer Protocol servers. This database includes information about routing
policies, regulation, and peering provided by the ASs themselves. Specifically, the
whois command can be used to retrieve these information [11,15]. Some limitations
that characterize this approach are due to the fact that the stored information can be
stale or incomplete.
154 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.1.3.2 Active methodology based on traceroute

Also for the AS level of granularity, traceroute can be used to retrieve details about for-
warding paths. Data retrieved through traceroute, however, must be further processed
in order to map network interfaces to the corresponding ASs. In fact, consecutive IP
addresses that belong to two different adjacent ASs reveal the connectivity between
ASs. The issues associated to traceroute and discussed in the previous paragraphs are
valid also in this context.

6.1.4 Geographic network topologies

All the methodologies discussed above do not provide any reference to the physical
location of nodes on the map. Without any doubt, such information can be added
to the network topologies, obtained through any level of granularity, in order to
increase their usability. For instance, geographical information allows one to (1)
simplify the network troubleshooting and the detection of attacks and congestions,
(2) guarantee resilience of interconnections in case of disaster scenario, (3) provide
location information to Internet services that require them, and (4) provide a visual
representation of the Internet [11,45].
For sure, the definition of a geographic network topology depends on the selected
level of granularity. Network interfaces and routers can be immediately mapped to a
precise location on a map, i.e., to a pair of coordinates. Instead, nodes belonging to
the AS level topology do not refer to a single entity and to a unique location, because
an AS gathers routers under a common administrator. Therefore, when a geographical
information is assigned to an AS, it is just used to coarsely identify the geographic
region covered by the AS.
To achieve this further level of detail, active or passive measurement methods
can be exploited. Active IP geolocation techniques are typically based on delay mea-
surements that offer good levels of accuracy. But their drawbacks include scalability,
high measurement overhead, and very high response time. Passive approaches, such
as database-driven geolocation, are faster. They usually consist of a database-engine,
e.g., Structured Query Language (SQL)/MySQL, containing records for a range of
IP addresses. Nevertheless, this database is difficult to manage and update, and its
accuracy is not so high because of the lack of information about the operations used
to build it [46].

6.2 Internet models based on the graph theory

Nowadays all the techniques described in the previous section are continuously used
to experimentally collect useful data related to Internet or Internet-like networks,
as well as to study their characteristics. Some results are publicly available. For
instance, reference datasets are provided by Centre for Applied Internet Data Analysis
(CAIDA) [47] and Internet Topology Zoo [48]. Starting from these data, it is possible
to formulate mathematical models based on graph theory that capture the main facets
of Internet-like topologies (from one side) and allow users to reproduce them through
computer simulations (from another side).
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 155

The following paragraphs introduce fundamental notions inherited from graph

theory that are at the basis of the aforementioned models. Then, they present the
most important analytical models describing the Internet or restricted portion of it.
Finally, they provide an overview of topology generators that are able to reproduce
Internet-like topologies based on the aforementioned models.
6.2.1 Fundamental notions from the graph theory
As already anticipated in the Introduction, the Internet topology can be described
through an undirected graph, G = (N , E), where N refers to a set of vertices connected
by a set of E edges. Nevertheless, such a graph can be further characterized by
additional parameters that include [29,49] the following:
● Node degree, k: It represents the number of edges incident to a vertex. This
parameter allows one to capture the connectivity characteristics of the topology.
In particular, networks with higher k register an average better connection that
results in a higher robustness to failures.
● Shortest path, d(u, v): It identifies the shortest distance between two vertices u
and v. More details about shortest path characteristics will be provided in the
following sections.
● Diameter, δ: It defines the longest shortest path between any node pair u and v,
and it is expressed as
δ = sup d(u, v) (6.1)
(u,v)

● Clustering coefficient: It is a measure of the degree to which nodes in a graph tend

to cluster together. Two measurements of clustering coefficient can be considered:
global and local. Moreover, two definitions of global clustering coefficient are
possible. The first one is based on triplets of nodes: three connected nodes form
a triplet and three triplets form a triangle. Therefore, the global clustering coeffi-
cient is the number of closed triplets over the total number of triplets (both open
and closed). The alternative definition evaluates the global clustering coefficient
as the mean of the local clustering coefficients related to all the vertices. The local
clustering coefficient is defined as the ratio between the number of existing edges
within the neighborhood of a vertex and the number of possible edges within the
neighborhood of the same vertex. The higher the local clustering of a node, the
more interconnected are its neighbors.
● Betweenness: It is a measure of the node centrality, calculated as the fraction
of shortest paths between node pairs that pass through the node of interest. It is
inversely related to the robustness of the graph when a node is removed. In fact,
the higher the number of paths that pass through a node, the higher is the damage
that will be done when that node is removed. Moreover, it can provide a measure
of the traffic load that a node must handle or the influence that an individual node
has in the spread of information within the network.
● Spectrum: It represents the set of eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix of the
graph. It allows a user to measure the overall characteristics of the network and
its robustness.
156 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.2.2 Topology models

The most important Internet topology models proposed in the literature include reg-
ular and well-known topologies, random and small-world topologies, power-law and
scale-free topologies, and hierarchical topologies.

6.2.2.1 Regular and well-known topology models

According to [11], regular and well-known topologies represent the simplest model
used to describe a network. It cannot be applied to the overall Internet architecture.
But it only serves to investigate a restricted part of a network (as described below).
The term regular topology refers to elementary network architectures, including
mesh, rings, trees, stars, and lattice. Therefore, resulting models only support the
simulation of a very limited portion of the Internet network (like a LAN) or other
basic infrastructures. Thanks to the simplicity of these topologies, they do not require
complex generator tools.
The term well-known topology refers to specific real networks, such as GÉANT
or National Science Foundation Network (NSFnet) backbone. In particular, GÉANT
interconnects the European National Research and Educational Network and provides
research data communication across the continent [50]. NSFnet backbone intercon-
nected six supercomputer sites, several regional networks, and ARPANET [51].

6.2.2.2 Random and small-world topology model

Looking at the overall Internet, it was originally described through the random graph
theory developed by Erdős and Rènyi [19]. Let N , E, and k be the number of nodes,
the number of edges, and the average degree of a given network. The random topology
model assumes that an average degree k, is equal to:
2E
k= , (6.2)
N
It is kept constant and it is assumed that every pair of nodes is connected with a
probability p equal to
k
p= . (6.3)
N
The resulting model generates network topologies having a small average shortest
path length and a small clustering coefficient. Moreover, it does not capture all the
characteristics of a real Internet-like topology, such as the presence of hubs.
The limitations of Erdős and Rènyi model were overcome by Watts and Strogatz
model [20]. It still allows the generation of network models with a small average
shortest path length. But, differently from the previous one, it registers a large clus-
tering coefficient. Among its limitations, the Watts and Strogatz model generates
network topologies with an unrealistic degree distribution. It is possible to generate
a Watts–Strogatz network by starting from a regular ring lattice with N nodes. Each
node is connected to the same number of 2m nearest neighbors. Then, each edge
has to be removed according to a uniform and independent probability p. This edge
has to be rewired in order to connect a pair of nodes uniformly and randomly chosen.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 157

There is also a the Newman–Watts variant of the Watts–Strogatz network that does not
include the removal of the edges from the underlying lattice in the building process.
In this model, edges are only added between pairs of nodes in the same way as in a
Watts–Strogatz network [52].

6.2.2.3 Power-law topology models

The work presented in [21] demonstrated for the first time a new set of properties of
the Internet. Specifically, the work considered three different snapshots of the Internet
referring to an AS level representation of 1997, an AS level representation of 1998,
and a router level representation of 1995. All the topology details were inferred from
RouteViews BGP tables. The conducted study identified three specific power laws:
● Rank exponent: the out-degree of a node is proportional to its rank to the power
of a constant. Let kv and rv be the out-degree and the rank of a node v, then the
following relation exists: kv ∝ rvR . The exponent R is obtained by performing a
linear regression on kv , by plotting a log–log graph.
● Out-degree exponent: the frequency of an out-degree is proportional to the out-
degree to the power of a constant. Let f (k) be the fraction of nodes with degree
k, then f (k) ∝ k O . The exponent O is obtained by performing a linear regression
on f (k) when plotted on a log–log graph.
● Eigen-exponent: the eigenvalues λi of the adjacency graph, sorted in a decreasing
order, are proportional to the order i to the power of a constant, according to the
relation λi ∝ iE . The exponent E is obtained by performing a linear regression on
λi when plotted on a log–log graph.

Moreover, [21] studied the neighborhood size within some distances. Also in
this case, the relation follows a power law, but it was considered an approximation
because of the small number of samples. In particular, let P(h) be the total number
of pairs of nodes within h hops. P(h) is proportional to the number of hops to the
power of a constant H , according to the relation P(h) ∝ cH when h  δ, where δ is
the diameter of the network and c = N + 2E.
After [21], several researchers supported these findings and tried to further under-
stand the origin of the power law [53,54]. A very important contribution was provided
by the Barabasi–Albert model [22]. At the same time, the literature also proposes
opposing theories. For instance, Chen et al. [55] argued that an AS level topology
does not include all the Internet connectivity. In fact, at least 20%–50% of the physi-
cal links are missing. Therefore, the node degree distribution does not follow a strict
power-law relationship.

6.2.2.4 Scale-free topology model

Barabasi–Albert formulated the scale-free model, which follows three main proper-
ties [22]. First, the network is not static, but it evolves over the time. Second, any
new added node will be connected to an existing vertex with a probability depend-
ing on the connectivity of the vertex (specifically, the higher the connectivity of the
vertex, the higher the chances that the node will be chosen as attachment point by
the joining node). This mechanism is known as preferential attachment or rich get
158 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

richer phenomenon [56,57]. Finally, node degree distribution asymptotically settles

to a power law.
This means that the node degree has a heavy-tailed distribution. The coexistence
in the same network of nodes with widely different degrees is expressed by the term
scale-free that suggests the lack of an internal scale. This feature distinguishes scale-
free networks from lattices, in which all nodes have the same degree, or from random
networks, whose degrees vary in a narrow range.
Moreover, another important characteristic of scale-free networks concerns the
average shortest path between two vertices of the topology. Its value is small, such as
in the small-word models, and it will be discussed in the following section.
The process to generate a scale-free topology entails an evolving network over a
discrete time domain: at every timestep, a new vertex is added with m ≤ m0 edges,
where m0 is the initial small number of vertices deployed in the system.
Note that power-law random graphs (PLRGs) and scale-free networks are not
synonym: while the former is static, the latter evolves during time. Moreover,
a PLRG has a pre-given number of nodes and edges which follow a power-law
degree sequence. Instead, in the Albert–Barabasi scale-free network, nodes and
edges are self-organized in order to asymptotically reach the power-law degree
distribution [58].

6.2.2.5 Hierarchical methods

The N -level hierarchical method envisages the generation of the Internet topology by
iteratively expanding individual nodes into other graphs [11]. First of all, a connected
graph is generated, then each node is substituted by a connected graph. The edges
belonging to the original graph are connected to the nodes of the new graphs. This
process continues N times. The scale of the final graph is the product of the scales of
the individual levels.

6.2.3 Topology generator tools

Many tools implement the aforementioned models. They can be used to reproduce
Internet-like topologies for computer simulations. In fact, they are extremely impor-
tant because several times research activities cannot be carried out on real networks
because of dimension, control, and permissions issues. Topology generators should
fulfill the following characteristics [11]:

● Representativeness: the input arguments should produce accurate topologies.

● Inclusiveness: the generator should include different methods and models because
of the lack of a universally accepted model.
● Flexibility: topologies should not have a limitation on the size (i.e., maximum
number of nodes).
● Extensibility: users should be able to extend the tool with additional features.
● Interoperability: generated topologies should be in a format that is able to be
processed by other simulator tools.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 159

● Efficiency: the tool should be able to generate large topologies by preserving the
required statistical characteristics and by using a reasonable CPU and memory
consumption.
● User friendliness: the usage of the tool should be easy to learn.

6.2.3.1 Random topology generator tools

Waxman developed one of the first topology generators [59]. It implements an
extended version of the Erdős and Rènyi random model, where nodes are randomly
located on the Cartesian plane and connectivity among a node pair is generated accord-
ing to a probability that is a function of the Euclidean distance that separates them in
the plane.

6.2.3.2 Power-law topology generator tools

Inet [60] and PLRG [61] are two generators that produce power-law topologies. Both
of them start the generation process assigning a degree from a power-law distribution
to nodes. Then, they interconnect nodes by using different approaches [54]. Inet, first,
creates a spanning tree with the nodes that have a degree greater than one. Then, it
connects the remaining nodes with degree one to the spanning tree according to a linear
preference, i.e., preferentially to nodes that have a higher degree. Instead, PLRG, first,
increases the number of nodes by duplicating each one for a value equal to the degree
assigned to it. Then, it interconnects all the clones in a uniform and random way. Note
that graphs generated by PLRG can be disconnected and can contain self-loops and
duplicate links. Therefore, the actual graph used for research purposes is obtained by
extracting the giant connected component (that is always present according to [61]),
and eliminating self-loops and merging duplicate links.

6.2.3.3 Scale-free topology generator tools

BRITE is one of the most widespread Internet topology generator [27,62]. It jointly
supports Barabasi–Albert, Waxman, and hierarchical topology models. With ref-
erence to the Barabasi–Albert topology model, BRITE reproduces the incremental
growth and preferential connectivity that characterize the scale-free approach. In par-
ticular, it allows the user to choose the parameter m, i.e., the number of neighbors
of each new node that is added to the graph during the topology generation pro-
cess. Higher values of m produce denser topology. The new node v will connect to a
potential neighbor node i with a probability  ki kj , where ki is the current out-degree
j∈C
of node i and C is the set of candidate neighbor nodes. This means that a new node
added to the network will select with higher probability those nodes that have a higher
number of connections.
Moreover, BRITE places nodes on the plane in a random or heavy-tailed way. In
the first case, nodes are simply randomly distributed on the plane. When the heavy-
tailed distribution is used, the plane is divided into HS×HS high-level squares. Then,
each square is further subdivided into smaller LS×LS low-level squares. A number
of nodes, drawn from a heavy-tailed distribution (bounded Pareto distribution), is
attributed to each high-level square; then, these nodes are randomly located in each
160 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

low-level square. BRITE also provides a bandwidth value to each link according to
four distributions:
● Constant: All links have the same value.
● Uniform: Bandwidth values are assigned according to a uniform distribution
between two input values.
● Exponential: Bandwidth values are assigned according to an exponential distri-
bution with mean equal to an input value.
● Heavy-tailed: Bandwidth values are assigned according to a heavy-tailed distri-
bution (Pareto with shape 1.2) with minimum and maximum values equal to two
input values.

Finally, BRITE assigns geographical coordinates to each node.

6.2.3.4 Hierarchical topology generator tools

The Georgia Tech Internetwork Topology Model (GT-ITM) topology generator can
be used to produce a two-level method, also known as transit-stub model [63,64].
GT-ITM first creates a connected random graph by using the Waxman method or
a variant of it. Each generated node represents a transit domain. Then, these nodes
are expanded in order to form another connected random graph that represents the
backbone topology of the transit domain. For each node of the transit domain, stub
domains are attached by generating a certain number of random graphs.

6.3 Shortest path models

Topology models are very relevant to the Internet performance evaluation. In this
context, it is essential to characterize the distribution of shortest paths in order to gain
precious insights on the network behavior. In reality, the communication between
two peers is not the shortest path offered by the network topology. Actual multi-
hop paths are generally longer than the shortest. This phenomenon is known as path
inflation. It can be due to routing policies and to traffic engineering techniques that
spread the load among more links in the topology [65,66]. But, because of the lack
of more accurate models that are able to provide multi-hop communication paths, the
shortest path model is still considered as a reference approach for estimating network
performances [67].
This section proposes a cross-comparison of shortest path models currently avail-
able in the literature, while focusing the attention to scale-free networks. The study
highlights pros and cons of these models, which emerge when they are applied to
different networks.

6.3.1 Parameters definition

The distribution of shortest path lengths indicates the number of shortest paths among
all node pairs. It allows a statistical characterization of the network by using average
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 161

path length and graph diameter. For scale-free networks, the average shortest path
length, d̄, is approximately equal to

d̄ ≈ logN , (6.4)

where N represents the number of nodes in the topology. In particular, this formula
refers to the scale-free network that are built by adding each new vertex to m other
nodes with m = 1. Otherwise, if m > 1, the average shortest path, d̄, is asymptotically
equal to

log N
d̄ ∼ (6.5)
log log N

6.3.2 Shortest path models

The definition of analytical models, that are able to describe the shortest path lengths,
is still an open issue. Models proposed in the literature include Gamma distribution,
Weibull distribution, and Lognormal distribution.

6.3.2.1 Gamma distribution

According to [24–26], the shortest path distribution can be modeled through a
Gamma distribution. The probability density function, that describes the shortest
path distribution according to the Gamma distribution model, is

1 1 η−1 x/θ
f (x; θ, η) = x e (6.6)
θ η (η)

where (·) is the gamma function and θ > 0 and η > 0 are scale and shape parameters,
respectively. This model indicates that the distance distribution of all nodes consists
of two regimes. The former is characterized by a rapid growth. The latter refers to an
exponential decay.

6.3.2.2 Weibull distribution

The work [23] applies the extreme value theory [68] to find the most appropriate model
to describe the shortest path distribution. Starting from the Fisher–Tippett–Gnedenko
theorem, three distributions were found: Gumbel, Frechet, and Weibull [69]. Among
them, the Weibull distribution emerged as the most suitable one because the sampled
distribution has to have a finite lower limit. This is the case of path lengths with a
lower bound equal to zero. The probability density function describing the shortest
path distribution according to the Weibull model is
κ κ−1 −(x/λ)κ
f (x; λ, κ) = x e (6.7)
λκ
where λ > 0 and κ > 0 are scale and shape parameters, respectively.
162 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.3.2.3 Lognormal distribution

The Lognormal distribution model was presented in [23]. It uses a probability density
function defined as in the following:

1 2 2
f (x; μ, σ ) = √ e(logx−μ) /2σ , (6.8)
xσ 2π

where − inf < μ < + inf is the logarithm of the mean and σ > 0 is the logarithm of
the standard deviation.

6.3.3 Cross-comparison among shortest path models

The accuracy of the reference models for the distribution of the shortest path length
(i.e., Gamma, Lognormal, and Weibull distributions) is evaluated through a massive
simulation campaign, carried out by using the BRITE tool [27]. The study focuses
on scale-free network topologies with different number of nodes and different values
of the node degree. Specifically, the number of nodes N is set to 5,000, 10,000, and
20,000. The node degree m is set to 1, 2, and 3. For each set of parameters, 30 different
topology realizations are generated and evaluated to produce final results.
For each distribution, related parameters are estimated through curve fitting. The
resulting probability density function (pdf) and cumulative distribution function (cdf)
are shown in Figures 6.2–6.4. Obtained results demonstrate that the average shortest
path and the network diameter increase with the number of nodes of the topology.
This behavior reflects the theoretical formulation reported in both Eqs. (6.4) and (6.5).
When m increases, the average shortest path and the diameter decreases. In this case, in
fact, each node added to the topology will be connected to a higher number of existing
nodes. Therefore, the overall path lengths will be reduced. Moreover, the probability
of the average shortest path becomes higher. These behaviors are further confirmed by
results reported in Table 6.2, showing the theoretical and simulated average shortest
path and the average diameter obtained through computer simulations.
More in general, however, all the curves seem to well describe what is provided
by computer simulations. But, to better study and compare the accuracy of the con-
sidered models, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is used [70]. It evaluates the maximum
absolute difference between the cumulative distribution functions generated through
simulations and the cumulative distribution functions of the theoretical models. The
results reported in Table 6.3 clearly demonstrate that all the models provide a good
fitting. In particular, the Gamma distribution shows the lowest error when m = 1, and
the Weibull distribution reaches the best results when m = 2 and m = 3. In all cases,
the lognormal distribution registers the worst behavior.
It is possible to conclude that the conducted study clearly demonstrate that the
available models are able to catch the average value and the distribution of the shortest
path distribution over a very broad set of conditions. Unfortunately, the parameters of
each distribution must be properly set through curve fitting. Accordingly, the models
require a case-by-case tuning of parameters.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 163

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf
0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(a) N = 5,000 (b) N = 5,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf
0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(c) N = 10,000 (d) N = 10,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf

0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(e) N = 20,000 (f) N = 20,000

Figure 6.2 Probability density function and cumulative distribution function of the
shortest path length, obtained for m = 1 and different values of N :
(a) N = 5,000, (b) N = 5,000, (c) N = 10,000, (d) N = 10,000,
(e) N = 20,000, and ( f ) N = 20,000

6.3.4 Shortest path models applications

The knowledge of the shortest path distribution is useful for the evaluation of end-
to-end communication performance. In particular, it can be used in the following
applications:
● Hop-count filtering: Techniques, such as [71,72], exploit the hop-count distribu-
tion to detect and discard spoofed IP packets. In detail, the detection is effective
164 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf
0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(a) N = 5,000 (b) N = 5,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf

0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(c) N = 10,000 (d) N = 10,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf

0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(e) N = 20,000 (f) N = 20,000

Figure 6.3 Probability density function and cumulative distribution function of the
shortest path length, obtained for m = 2 and different values of N :
(a) N = 5,000, (b) N = 5,000, (c) N = 10,000, (d) N = 10,000,
(e) N = 20,000, ( f ) N = 20,000

if the source IP addresses have the same hop-count value as that of an attacker.
Therefore, it is important to check if the hop-count distributions are not clustered
around a single value at various locations of the network. The hop count will be
more effective if the standard deviation is high.
● Epidemic spreading: Shortest path distribution can be exploited in the study of
epidemic spreading models [26,73]. In particular, path-length statistics are closely
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 165

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf
0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(a) N = 5,000 (b) N = 5,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf

0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(c) N = 10,000 (d) N = 10,000

0.6 1
Weibull
Gamma 0.8
Lognormal
0.4
Simulation 0.6
pdf

cdf

0.4 Weibull
0.2
Gamma
0.2 Lognormal
Simulation
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
h hops h hops
(e) N = 20,000 (f) N = 20,000

Figure 6.4 Probability density function and cumulative distribution function of the
shortest path length, obtained for m = 3 and different values of N :
(a) N = 5,000, (b) N = 5,000, (c) N = 10,000, (d) N = 10,000,
(e) N = 20,000, and ( f ) N = 20,000

related to velocities or durations of network-spreading processes. Moreover, the

host position in the routing path influences whether the host will be susceptible
to the epidemic effects or actually infected.
● Triangular routing: The hop-count distribution is a useful tool to study net-
work performance in scenarios that require the so-called triangular routing. This
mechanism is used when a direct path between source and destination cannot
166 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 6.2 Theoretical and simulated average shortest path and average diameter
obtained through computer simulations for different values of m

m=1

N = 5,000 N = 10,000 N = 20,000

Theoretical d̄ 8.5172 9.2103 9.9035

Simulated d̄ 8.5062 9.0178 10.0380
Simulated δ̄ 22.0000 24.3667 26.6667
m=2
Theoretical d̄ 3.9761 4.1482 4.3192
Simulated d̄ 4.7476 5.0263 5.3117
Simulated δ̄ 8.4000 9.0000 9.0667
m=3
Theoretical d̄ 3.9761 4.1482 4.3192
Simulated d̄ 4.0454 4.2780 4.5037
Simulated δ̄ 7.0000 7.0333 7.1000

Table 6.3 Goodness of fit obtained through the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for the
three shortest path distribution models, for different values of N and m

m=1

N = 5,000 N = 10,000 N = 20,000

Weibull 0.0209 0.0277 0.0322

Gamma 0.0143 0.0102 0.0105
Lognormal 0.0546 0.0433 0.0416
m=2
Weibull 0.0049 0.0125 0.0015
Gamma 0.0876 0.0677 0.0562
Lognormal 0.1687 0.1196 0.0928
m=3
Weibull 0.0103 0.0308 0.0035
Gamma 0.0572 0.0476 0.1309
Lognormal 0.0943 0.0791 0.2563

be established, thus requiring a gateway. Examples of triangular routing are the

following:
1. MQ Telemetry Transport (MQTT) : In the MQTT protocol [74], the gateway
is identified by the broker that acts as intermediary between publishers and
subscribers. It receives topics produced by publishers and relays them to the
subscribers that are interested to them.
 Shortest path models for scale-free network topologies 167

2. Information centric networks (ICN): ICN architectures, such as Publish-

Subscribe Internet Technology (PURSUIT) [75], use rendezvous nodes as
relaying nodes. Producers that want to advertise a content, or consumers
that want to subscribe to a content, do not issue messages directly to the
rendezvous nodes responsible of that content but to their local rendezvous
nodes that act as a gateway.
3. Cloud of Things: In the Cloud of Things [76], the cloud acts as a relay
node between Internet of Things sensors and applications. Data collected
by sensors are pushed to the remote data center, where they are stored and
processed. When a consumer application is interested in some resources, it
retrieves the contents from the cloud.
4. Network Address Translation (NAT): To overcome problems due to NAT,
peer-to-peer (P2P) networks and Voice over IP (VoIP) applications use a
communication-relaying protocol called Traversal Using Relays around NAT
(TURN) [33]. According to this protocol, a client asks a server that resides on
the public Internet to act as a packet relay by using public address and port.
5. Mobile IPv4: In Mobile IPv4 [77], the home agent fills the role of the gate-
way. It intercepts datagrams addressed to the mobile node and delivers them
through the care-of address that is the temporary IP address of the mobile
device.

6.4 Conclusion
The chapter focuses on Internet topology models. First, it investigated topology rep-
resentations provided at different levels of granularity. Second, it reviewed topology
models based on the graph theory and related topology generator tools. Third, it stud-
ied analytical models showing average shortest path and distribution of the shortest
path length for scale-free networks. In fact, starting from these concepts, the accuracy
of reference models for the shortest path are studied and compared through computer
simulations. Obtained results demonstrate that available models are able to catch the
average value and the distribution of the shortest path distribution over a very broad
set of conditions. More specifically, when m = 1, the Gamma distribution shows the
lowest distance for all N values. When m = 2 and m = 3, instead, the Weibull distri-
bution provides the lowest error. The lognormal distribution always registers the worst
behavior. On the contrary, all the evaluated models require a case-by-case tuning of
their parameters, which represents an important limit to be solved in future research
activities.

Acknowledgment
This work was partially founded by PON projects founded by the Italian MIUR, includ-
ing Pico&Pro (code: ARS01_01061) AGREED (code: ARS01_00254), FURTHER
(code: ARS01_01283), and RAFAEL (code: ARS01_00305), and by the research
project E-SHELF (code: OSW3NO1) founded by the Apulia Region – Italy.
168 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

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Part III
Case studies and more
 Chapter 7
Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern
communication
Homero Toral-Cruz1 , Al-Sakib Khan Pathan2 ,
and Julio C. Ramírez Pacheco3

7.1 Introduction
In the recent years, voice has become one of the most attractive and important ser-
vices in telecommunication networks which can be transmitted via circuit-switched
and packet-switched networks. The most common examples of circuit-switched and
packet-switched networks are the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and
Internet, respectively [1]. Compared to traditional resource-dedicated PSTN, the
Internet is resource-shared. Therefore, the conditions in the PSTN are totally dif-
ferent from those in the Internet. There are several advantages in the case of voice
transmission using internet protocol (IP) technology, also called voice over IP (VoIP)
[2]: the reduced communication cost, the use of joined IP infrastructure, the use in
multimedia applications, etc. It is also an interesting fact that sending wireless phone
calls over IP networks is considerably less expensive than that of sending over cellular
voice networks. However, such types of communications must ensure good perfor-
mance and quality of voice transmissions. Faster wireless networking technologies
and more powerful mobile telephones promise to help solve these problems [3,4].
With the currently available technologies, VoIP over mobile networks has not yet got
that much popularity. However, the advantage of such technology is that keeping the
wireless network as it is, with a higher quality of service (QoS) facility, the existing
infrastructure of IP networks could be used for serving the users. If a company owns
the Wi-Fi connection, such VoIP communication could be provided at a very low
cost. Either Wi-Fi or WiMAX network or even if any of these is unavailable, cellular
technologies could be used to pass the voice traffic to the Internet. This is known as
mobile VoIP (mVoIP). mVoIP via cellular services could achieve QoS by prioritizing
voice packets over those used for data and other traffic types [2].

1
NETCOM Laboratory, Department of Sciences and Engineering, University of Quintana Roo, Mexico
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Bangladesh
3
Department of Basic Sciences and Engineering, Universidad Del Caribe, Mexico
176 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

The emergence of new real-time services, such as VoIP and mVoIP, has allowed
the growth and evolution of the Internet as a modern communication network, char-
acterized by its complex nature. The main reason for its complex nature is the result
of the convergence of information and media transmission (voice, video, and data)
through the same communication channel. As there are a very high (and increasing)
number of nodes (i.e., devices) connected to the network, and these are being added
in a random and decentralized manner, the network has the property of scale-free,
meaning that the node degree distribution follows a power-law distribution [5]. With
the increase in number of nodes and connections, the traffic load in the network
increases and congestions occur accordingly.
Congestion is a cause of the QoS impairment, which consists of delay issues
(i.e., delay and jitter) and packet loss. For real-time communications, such as VoIP
and mVoIP, jitter and packet loss can have high impact on the QoS. To achieve a
satisfactory level of voice quality, theVoIP networks must be designed by using correct
traffic models [2]. Traffic modeling in classical and modern communication networks
mainly comprise the following steps [6]: (1) Selection of one or more models that
may provide a good description of the statistical properties of packet traffic. In order
to select an adequate traffic model, it is necessary to study the traffic characteristics.
The main characteristics of a traffic source are its average data rate, burstiness, and
correlation. The average data rate gives an indication of the expected traffic volume
for a given period of time. Burstiness describes the tendency of traffic to occur in
clusters. Data burstiness is manifested by the correlation function which describes the
relationship between packet arrivals at different times and is an important factor in
packet losses due to buffer and bandwidth limitations. (2) Estimation of parameters
for the selected model. Parameter estimation is based on a set of statistics (e.g.,
mean, variance, density function or autocovariance function (ACV), and multifractal
characteristics) that are measured or calculated from observed data traces. The set
of statistics used in the inference process depends on the impact they may have in
the main QoS parameters of interest. (3) Statistical testing for election of one of the
considered models and analysis of its suitability to describe the traffic type under
analysis.
Previously, the statistical properties of the IP traffic were described by Poisson
model, where the autocorrelation decays exponentially fast; this is because in the
early stages, the size of the Internet was small and its structure was simple (simple
packet network). However, the explosive growth in the number of users and the
growing diversity of real-time traffic have allowed to discover complex behaviors
in the IP traffic, where the Poisson model is not able to capture all their statistical
properties [5,7]. Such behaviors can have significant impact on network performance
and can be well described by long-range dependence (LRD), self-similarity, and
multifractality [6]. The LRD behavior manifests itself along a communication channel
as a bursty activity in the packet rate, which produces a wide range of traffic volume
away from the average rate and persists strongly on all relevant time scales [5]. In the
LRD traffic, the autocorrelation decays slowly as a power-law function. This great
variation in the traffic volume leads to buffer overflow and network congestion that
result in packet loss and jitter, which directly impact the quality of VoIP applications.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 177

This chapter presents the jitter and packet-loss modeling on VoIP traffic by means
of network measurements. We basically modeled the main QoS parameters of VoIP
traffic which could be related with regular VoIP communications over regular-wired
networks as well as for mVoIP (which functions as an application that runs over any
wireless network technology that provides data access to the Internet). Hence, our
modeling work is basically relevant to both regular VoIP and mVoIP technologies.

7.2 Modern communication networks: from simple packet

network to multiservice network

A simple packet network is an infrastructure consisting of a collection of network

resources: terminals (hosts), nodes (routers), and links (copper wire), which are con-
nected together to enable communication between users via their terminals, intended
for transportation of some type of data (flow) in a way as to meet a supply and
demand pattern between the nodes [1,8]. The hosts are connected together by a subnet.
The subnet consists of two components [9]: communication links and routers, as is
depicted in Figure 7.1.
The main function of the subnet is to transport data flows from host to host. The
way that the network elements are connected to each other is known as topology. The
supply and demand pattern, together with the topology type, induces data flows in
the network, which in the case of packet network is known as traffic [8].
The communication networks have seen a tremendous development in the recent
decades, and this historical development can be summarized in the following main
events [10]: the introduction of automatic telephone exchange, the digitalization
of telecommunications systems, the integration of circuit-switched technology and
packet-switched technology, and the evolution of the mobile systems (1G, 2G, 3G,
4G, and beyond).
The development of network technology and the enhanced services that can be
offered to the end users have been captured in the concept of a modern communication

Hosts Subnet Hosts

Links

Routers

Hosts Hosts

Figure 7.1 Simple packet network

178 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

network. This concept encapsulates the convergence of network processes where the
convergent network is called multiservice network and is based on IP technology. In
the multiservice network, packets should be transported transparently from host to
host without excessive protocol conversion through an IP network core (Internet) [11].
However, with this convergence, a new technical challenge has emerged. The IP
network core provides best-effort services in most of the cases and cannot guarantee
the QoS of real-time multimedia applications, such as VoIP [12].
The efficient design of modern communication networks is a complex task and it
involves complex mathematical topics. An efficient network design can be achieved by
using accurate models and that ensures that the network has the necessary capabilities
of providing services with a certain standard QoS [8].
In the abovementioned context, the connectivity of a communication network is
modeled by using concepts from graph theory, i.e., a packet network can be modeled
by means of a graph G = (V , E), where V is the set of nodes, E is the set of links
and the degree of a node is the number of nearest neighbors. The degree of a node
is a local quantity; however, an interesting study is the node degree distribution of
the entire network, because it gives important information about the global properties
of a network and can be used to characterize different network topologies. From the
perspective of node degree, the main topologies used in communication networks are
the following [5]:
● Regular-symmetric networks: The regular-symmetric network has the same
degree for all nodes, e.g., the ring network, rectangular toroidal network,
triangular toroidal network, hexagonal toroidal network.
● Random networks: In the random network, the node degree distribution is well
approximated by a binomial distribution.
● Scale-free networks: In the scale-free network, the node degree distribution is
described by a power-law.
Recent studies have shown that the real topology of the modern communication net-
works is neither completely random nor completely regular-symmetric but it basically
shows a prominent characteristic of self-organization, with which the node degree dis-
tribution is described by a power-law [5]. This scale-free network model was proposed
by Barabási and Albert in [13] and it involves one of the following three operations
for each time step: add new links between the existing nodes, rewire links, and add
new nodes.
Often, we have a communication network with a particular topology and we seek
traffic models to measure or predict the network performance as a function of some
QoS parameters, such as delay and packet loss. This activity mainly involves the
probabilistic relations between traffic, network resources, and QoS and it is better
known as traffic theory [8].
At the early stage of the packet networks, the traffic and congestions were rather
sparse, and one of the models which were widely applied for the traffic modeling was
the Poisson model. However, with the evolution from the simple packet network to
multiservice network, the classical Poisson model fails to model the new aggregated
traffic. Besides, recent studies in modern communication networks have shown that
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 179

IP traffic exhibits self-similar, LRD, and multifractal behaviors. The abovementioned

behaviors are presented in modern communication networks due to the following
issues [8]:
● They transport a mixture of multiple traffic types, such as voice, video, and data
traffic.
● They are growing in size continuously (becoming larger), and various transport
technologies are becoming available.
● They are increasingly dynamic, i.e., new services are frequently introduced which
change the network behavior.

7.3 Voice over IP (VoIP) and quality of service (QoS)

7.3.1 Basic structure of a VoIP system

VoIP is the real-time transmission of voice between two or more parties, by using IP
technologies. A basic VoIP system mainly consists of three parts: the source terminal
(sender), the multiservice network, and the destination terminal (receiver) [1].
Figure 7.2 represents the source terminal diagram from a typical VoIP sys-
tem [14]. The shown blocks indicate the positions of measurement points and system
components.
The A/D converter of the source terminal transforms the voice waveform into its
digital version. In order to reduce the quantization error, a nonuniform quantifica-
tion (either A-law or μ-law) is applied in its internal quantization block. The source
encoding consists of compressing the digital signal in order to reduce redundancy
and improve bandwidth utilization. The channel coding is a viable method to reduce
information rate by increasing reliability. This goal is achieved by adding redundancy

Mount reference point

Send electrical reference point

A/D Source Channel

Mic Packetization
converter encoding encoding

Lower Physical
RTP/UDP IP
layers interface

Waveform
Terminal output reference point
Continuous digital
Asynchronous packets

Figure 7.2 Source terminal diagram from a VoIP system. Adopted, with permission,
from Reference [14]
180 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

to the information so that it is more distinguishable at the output of the channel

(receiver).
The voice packetization protocols use a sequence number field in the transmit
packet stream to maintain temporal integrity of voice, allowing the receiver to detect
lost packets and to properly reproduce silence intervals during play out. The pack-
etized voice stream traverses to lower layers, i.e., RTP/UDP (Real-time Transport
Protocol/User Datagram Protocol), IP, etc., and it is sent asynchronously into the
network [15]. The main impairment for the source terminal is named source terminal
delay, which is defined as the sum of all delays of the system components belonging
to the source, i.e., those between the mouth reference point and the terminal out-
put reference point; more specifically, it is defined as the interval defined by the
time that a signal enters the mouth reference point and the time that the first bit of
the correspondence-encoded, packetized signal exits the terminal output reference
point [15].
Then, the voice packets are introduced to the multiservice network with the aim
of being routed to the destination terminal. In this network, numerous types of access
networks with different types of terminals are integrated, e.g., they must interwork
with legacy networks through gateways (GWs). Access networks can use a variety
of Layer 1 and 2 protocols. In the multiservice transport network, packets should be
transported transparently between endpoints without excessive protocol conversion
and adaption. Also, all terminals should use the same network layer protocol to give a
uniform end-to-end routing method [1]. However, the multiservice network is based
on IP technology. As the current IP technology offers the best effort service and does
not guarantee the QoS, voice traffic over IP networks is susceptible to suffer packet
loss and delays, which results in voice-quality degradations.
Figure 7.3 represents the destination terminal diagram of a typical VoIP
system [14]. The components and the positions of measurement points are indi-
cated. The input bit stream that contains the asynchronous voice packets arrives at

Terminal input reference point

Physical Lower IP RTP/UDP

interface layers

De-jitter D/A
De-packetization Decoder Spkr
buffer converter

Waveform Receive electrical reference point

Continuous digital Ear reference point

Asynchronous packets

Figure 7.3 Destination terminal diagram from a VoIP system. Adopted, with
permission, from Reference [14]
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 181

the terminal input reference point. Then it passes through the lower layers and then
through the IP and RTP/UDP blocks. After that, the sequence of voice datagrams is
passed to the de-jitter buffer, which performs very important tasks, in the sense of
QoS because it is used to compensate the network jitter at the cost of further delay
(buffer delay) and loss (late arrival loss). Therefore, the de-jitter buffer defines the
relationship between jitter and loss on the receiver side.
At this point, voice stream is already impaired by the delay and loss due to the
traversed network. Additional impairments occur due to the additional delay of the
remaining blocks and the additional loss caused by the discarding of highly delayed
packets, compared to de-jitter buffer size which is desirably optimized [16]. Therefore,
an important design parameter at the receiver side is the de-jitter buffer size, because
this parameter becomes the essential descriptor of intrinsic quality that supplants
jitter. The packet headers are stripped off and voice samples are extracted in the de-
packetization block. Finally, the de-jittered voice samples are decoded to recover the
original voice signal.

7.3.2 VoIP frameworks: H.323 and SIP

Current implementations of VoIP have two main types of architectures, which are
based on H.323 and session initiation protocol (SIP) frameworks, respectively [17].
H.323, which was ratified by International Telecommunication Union (ITU), is a set
of protocols for voice, video, and data conferencing over packet-based network [18].
SIP, which is defined in Request For Comments 2543 (RFC 2543) of the Multi-
party Multimedia Session Control working group of Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF), is an application-layer control signaling protocol for creating, modifying, and
terminating sessions with one or more participants [19,20]. Regardless of their differ-
ences, the fundamental architectures of these two implementations are the same. They
consist of three main logical components: terminal, signaling server, and GW. They
differ in specific definitions of voice coding, transport protocols, control signaling,
GW control, and call management.

7.3.2.1 H.323
ITU-T (ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector) H.323 is a set of protocols of
voice, video, and data conferencing over packet-switched networks such as Ethernet
Local Area Networks (LANs) and the Internet that do not provide a guaranteed QoS
[18,17]. The H.323 protocol stack is designed to operate above the transport layer of
the underlying network. H.323 was originally developed as one of the several video-
conferencing recommendations issued by the ITU-T. The H.323 standard is designed
to allow clients on H.323 networks to communicate with clients on other videocon-
ferencing networks. The first version of H.323 was issued in 1996, designed for use
with Ethernet LANs and borrowed much of its multimedia conferencing aspects from
other H.32.x series recommendations. H.323 is part of a large series of communica-
tion standards that enable videoconferencing across a range of networks. This series
also includes H.320 and H.324, which address the ISDN and PSTN communications,
respectively. H.323 is known as a broad and flexible recommendation. Although H.323
182 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

specifies protocols for real-time point-to-point communication between two terminals

on a packet-switched network, it also includes support for multipoint conferencing
among terminals that support not only voice but also video and data communications.
This recommendation describes the components of H.323 architecture. This includes
terminals, GWs, Gatekeepers (GK), Multipoint Control Units (MCU), Multipoint
Controller (MC), and Multipoint Processors (MP).

● Terminal: An H.323 terminal is an endpoint on the network that provides for

real-time, two-way communications with another H.323 terminal, GW, or MCU.
This communication consists of control, indications, audio, moving color video
pictures, and/or data between the two terminals. A terminal may provide speech
only; speech and data; speech and video; or speech, data, and video.
● GW: The GW is an H.323 entity on the network which allows intercommunica-
tion between IP networks and legacy circuit-switched networks, such as ISDN
and PSTN. They provide signaling mapping as well as transcoding facilities.
Transcoding is basically the ability to adapt digital files so that content can be
viewed on different playback devices. For example, GWs receive an H.320 stream
from an ISDN line and convert it to an H.323 stream and then send it to the IP
network.
● GK: The GK is an H.323 entity on the network which performs the role of the
central manager of VoIP services to the endpoints. This entity provides address
translation and control access to the network for H.323 terminals, GWs, and
MCUs. The GK may also provide other services to the terminals, GWs, and
MCUs such as bandwidth management and locating GWs.
● MCU: The MCU is an H.323 entity on the network which provides the capability
for three or more terminals and GW to participate in a multipoint conference. It
may also connect two terminals in a point-to-point conference which may later
develop into a multipoint conference. The MCU consists of two parts: a mandatory
MC and an optional MP. In the simplest case, an MCU may consist only of an
MC with no MPs. An MCU may also be brought into a conference by the GK
without being explicitly called by one of the endpoints. The MC is an H.323
entity on the network which provides for the control of three or more terminals
participating in a multipoint conference. It may also connect two terminals in a
point-to-point conference which may later develop into a multipoint conference.
The MC provides for capability negotiation with all terminals to achieve common
levels of communications. It may also control conference resources such as who
is multicasting video. The MC does not perform mixing or switching of audio,
video, and data. The MP is an H.323 entity on the network which provides for
the centralized processing of audio, video, and/or data streams in a multipoint
conference. The MP provides for the mixing, switching, or other processing of
media streams under the control of the MC. The MP may process a single media
stream or multiple media streams depending on the type of conference supported.

The H.323 architecture is partitioned into zones. Each zone comprises the collection
of all terminals, GW and MCU managed by a single GK. H.323 is an umbrella
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 183

recommendation which depends on several other standards and recommendations to

enable real-time multimedia communications. The main ones are
● Call Signaling and Control: Call control protocol (H.225), media control pro-
tocol (H.245), security (H.235), digital subscriber signaling (Q.931), generic
functional protocol for the support of supplementary services in H.323 (H.450.1),
supplemental features (H.450.2–H.450.11).
● H.323 Annexes: Real-time facsimile over H.323 (Annex D), framework and wire-
protocol for multiplexed call signaling transport (Annex E), simple endpoint
types—SET (Annex F), text conversation and Text SET (Annex G), Security
for annex F (Annex J), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)-based service control
transport channel (Annex K), stimulus control protocol (Annex L), and tunneling
of signaling protocols (Annex M).
● Audio CODECs: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) audio CODEC 56/64 kbps
(G.711), audio CODEC for 7 kHz at 48/56/64 kbps (G.722), speech CODEC
for 5.3 and 6.4 kbps (G.723), speech CODEC for 16 kbps (G.728), and speech
CODEC for 8/13 kbps (G.729).
● Video CODECs: Video CODEC for ≥64 kbps (H.261) and video CODEC for
≤64 kbps (H.263).
The H.323 protocol is implemented by exchanging messages between the protocol
endpoints and intervening entities. These messages are all encoded using Abstract
Syntax Notation (ASN.1) which is a binary format for defining the syntax of infor-
mation data. Even though an H.323 is a packet-based protocol, it remains tightly
coupled with most traditional communication standards. As such, it defines vari-
ous communication channels, each using its own subprotocol for the communication
between the various H.323 entities. Specifically, the protocol distinguishes between
three communication channels:
● The RAS channel: Is an unreliable channel between the H.323 endpoint and the
GK. It is used to exchange registration, admission, bandwidth change, and status
messages. The messages exchanged in this channel follow the recommendation
in H.225.
● The call signaling channel: Is a reliable channel between H.323 endpoints (direct
or routed through GKs). It is used to perform the call setup and teardown phases.
The messages exchanged in this channel follow the recommendation in H.225.
● The H.245 control channel: Is a reliable channel between H.323 endpoints (direct
or routed through GKs). It is used to exchange the H.245 call-control messages.
The messages exchanged in this channel follow the recommendation in H.245.
The signaling of the whole call session is performed through messages exchanged
on these three channels. H.323 defines one additional type of channel, the logical
media channel. This channel carries the media content (voice, video, and/or data)
and each session can have one or more channels established through the H.245 con-
trol channel. In H.323, a call session is perceived as consisting of five phases: call
setup, initial communication and capability exchange, establishment of audio–visual
communication, call services, and call termination.
184 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

7.3.2.2 Session initiation protocol

SIP was developed by IETF in reaction to the ITU-T H.323 recommendation. The
IETF believed that H.323 was inadequate for evolving IP telephony, because its com-
mand structure is complex and its architecture is centralized and monolithic. SIP
is an application layer–control protocol that can establish, modify, and terminate
multimedia sessions or calls [19,20]. SIP transparently supports name mapping and
redirection services, allowing the implementation of ISDN and intelligent network
telephony subscriber services. The early implementations of SIP have been in network
carrier IP-Centrex trials. SIP was designed as part of the overall IETF multimedia data
and control architecture that supports protocols such as resource reservation protocol
(RSVP), RTP, real-time streaming protocol (RTSP), session announcement protocol
(SAP), and session description protocol (SDP). SIP establishes, modifies, and ter-
minates multimedia sessions. It can be used to invite new members to an existing
session or to create new sessions. The two major components in a SIP network are
user agents (UAs) and network servers (registrar server, location server, proxy server,
and redirect server).
● UAs: Is an application that interacts with the user and contains both a UA client
(UAC) and UA server (UAS). A UAC initiates SIP requests, and a UAS receives
SIP requests and returns responses on the user’s behalf.
● Registrar server: Is a SIP server that accepts only registration requests issued by
UAs for the purpose of updating a location database with the contact information
of the user specified in the request.
● Proxy server: Is an intermediary entity that acts both as a server to UAs by
forwarding SIP requests and as a client to other SIP servers by submitting the
forwarded requests to them on behalf of UAs or proxy servers.
● Redirect server: Is a SIP server that helps locate UA by providing alternative
locations where the user can be reachable, i.e., provides address-mapping services.
It responds to a SIP request destined to an address with a list of new addresses.
A redirect server does not accept call, does not forward request, and does not
initiate any of its own.
The SIP protocol follows a web-based approach for call signaling, contrary to tradi-
tional communication protocols. It resembles a client/server model where SIP clients
issue requests and SIP servers return one or more responses. The signaling protocol is
built on this exchange of requests and responses, which are grouped into transactions.
All the messages of a transaction share a common unique identifier and traverse the
same set of hosts. There are two types of messages in SIP—requests and responses.
Both of them use the textual representation of the ISO 10646 character set with UTF-8
encoding. The message syntax follows HTTP/1.1, but it should be noted that SIP is
not an extension to HTTP.
● SIP responses: Upon reception of a request, a server issues one or several
responses. Every response has a code that indicates the status of the transac-
tion. Status codes are integers ranging from 100 to 699 and are grouped into six
classes. A response can be either final or provisional. A response with a status
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 185

code from 100 to 199 is considered provisional. Responses from 200 to 699 are
final responses.
– 1xx informational: Request received, continuing to process request. The client
should wait for further responses from the server.
– 2xx success: The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted.
The client must terminate any search.
– 3xx redirection: Further action must be taken in order to complete the request.
The client must terminate any existing search but may initiate a new one.
– 4xx client error: The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at this
server. The client should try another server or alter the request and retry with
the same server.
– 5xx server error: The request cannot be fulfilled at this server because of
server error. The client should try with another server.
– 6xx global failure: The request is invalid at any server. The client must
abandon search.

The first digit of the status code defines the class of response. The last two digits
do not have any categorization role. For this reason, any response with a status code
between 100 and 199 is referred to as a “1xx response,” any response with a status
code between 200 and 299 as a “2xx response,” and so on.
● SIP requests: The core SIP specification defines six types of SIP requests, each
of them with a different purpose. Every SIP request contains a field, called a
method, which denotes its purpose.
– INVITE: INVITE requests invite users to participate in a session. The body
of INVITE requests contains the description of the session. Significantly,
SIP only handles the invitation to the user and the user’s acceptance of the
invitation. All of the session particulars are handled by the SDP used. Thus,
with a different session description, SIP can invite users to any type of session.
– ACK: ACK requests are used to acknowledge the reception of a final response
to an INVITE. Thus, a client originating an INVITE request issues an ACK
request when it receives a final response for the INVITE.
– CANCEL: CANCEL requests cancel pending transactions. If a SIP server
has received an INVITE but not yet returned a final response, it will stop
processing the INVITE upon receipt of a CANCEL request. If, however, it
has already returned a final response for the INVITE, the CANCEL request
will have no effect on the transaction.
– BYE: BYE requests are used to abandon sessions. In two-party sessions,
abandonment by one of the parties implies that the session is terminated.
– REGISTER: Users send REGISTER requests to inform a server (in this case,
referred to as a registrar server) about their current location.
– OPTIONS: OPTIONS requests query a server about its capabilities, including
which methods and which SDPs it supports.
SIP is independent of the type of multimedia session handled and of the mechanism
used to describe the session. Sessions consisting of RTP streams carrying audio and
186 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

video are usually described using SDP, but some types of sessions can be described
with other description protocols. In short, SIP is used to distribute session descriptions
among potential participants. Once the session description is distributed, SIP can be
used to negotiate and modify the parameters of the session and terminate the session.

7.3.3 Basic concepts of QoS

VoIP is one of the most sensitive services to ensure good QoS, and to compete with the
traditional voice service like PSTN, we need a specific level of QoS. The QoS in VoIP
applications depends on many parameters, such as bandwidth, one way delay (OWD),
jitter, packet-loss rate (PLR), CODEC type, voice data length, and de-jitter buffer size.
Particularly, jitter and PLR have an important impact on the voice quality. QoS is an
important subject that takes a central place in the IP technology; it is a complex
subject and its analysis involves mathematical disciplines such as probability theory
and stochastic processes [21].
QoS can be defined from three different points of views [1]: QoS experienced by
the end user, the QoS from the point of view of the application, and from the network.
From the end user’s perspective, QoS is the end user’s perception of the quality
that he receives from the VoIP services provider. The end-user perception of the voice
quality is determined by subjective (MOS—mean opinion score)/objective (E-Model)
testing as a function of the some impairments (OWD, PLR, CODEC type).
From the point of view of the application, the QoS refers to the application’s
capabilities to reconfigure some parameters (voice data length, CODEC type, size of
FEC (forward error correction) redundancy, de-jitter buffer size, etc.) to values based
on network conditions in order to meet good levels of voice quality.
From the network’s perspective, the term QoS refers to the network’s capabilities
to provide the QoS perceived by the end user as defined above. A QoS mechanism has
the capability to provide resource assurance and service differentiation in the IP net-
work. Without a QoS mechanism, an IP network provides the best effort service. The
IETF has proposed many QoS mechanisms, such as [22] integrated services (IntServ)
[23,24], differentiated services (DiffServ) [25], multiprotocol label switching [26,27],
and traffic engineering [27].

7.3.4 QoS assessment

One of the most employed metrics for the QoS assessment is the MOS [28], which
can be estimated using the E-Model’s R factor (elaborated later) [29,30].
The MOS method is derived from the absolute category rating method for assess-
ing voice-transmission systems. The MOS requires that some people (listeners)
appraise the general quality of voice samples submitted to vocoders. This numer-
ical method is based on averaging the scores provided by many listeners where the
scores 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 imply “bad,” “poor,” “fair,” “good,” and “excellent” ratings,
respectively. Although the method seems very clear, the MOS grading is a hard proce-
dure to be performed. Objective methods (such as the E-model) have been developed
and implemented to estimate this punctuation in VoIP systems.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 187

CODEC Ie
Ie Model
PLR

R
E-Model MOS

Id
Delay Id Model

Figure 7.4 Prediction of voice quality by the E-Model

The E-Model is a computational model designed to produce the MOS without

conducting subjective testing. The subjective testing is impractical because it is time-
consuming and can be substituted for the E-Model.
In the E-Model, the effects of delay, packet loss, and other relevant impairments
are combined into a total value called “Transmission Rating Factor” (R factor) that
varies from 0 (worst case) to 100 (excellent). The factor is expressed as the sum of
four terms as

R = R0 − Is − Id − Ie + A (7.1)

where R0 represents the basic signal-to-noise ratio, Is represents the combination of

all impairments which occur (more or less) simultaneously with the voice signal, Id
represents the impairments caused by delay, Ie represents impairments caused by low
bit rate CODECs, and A is the advantage factor that corresponds to the user allowance
due to the convenience in using a given technology. Once the used CODEC is well-
known, only network statistics (i.e. delay and loss) is needed for estimating the voice
quality by means of the reduced R factor expression [29]:

R = 93.2 − Id (T) − Ie (CODEC, PLR) (7.2)

Id = 0.024(T ) + 0.11(T − 177.3)y(T − 177.3)


1 0, x < 0
T = OWD = RTT, y (x) = (7.3)
2 1, x > 0

Ie (G.711) ∼ 0 + 30 ln(1 + 15PLR)

Ie (G.729) ∼ 11 + 40 ln(1 + 10PLR) (7.4)

where Id is a function of the delay T and Ie is a function of the used CODEC type
(G.711 or G.729) and PLR . The delay components within the function Id are OWD
and round trip time delay. In order to simplify the expression for Id , we used (7.3).
Figure 7.4 illustrates how the E-Model may be used to predict the voice quality in
VoIP applications.
188 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 7.1 R-Factor, quality ratings, and the associated MOS

R-Factor MOS User’s satisfaction

90 ≤ R < 100 4.34–4.50 Very satisfied

80 ≤ R < 90 4.03–4.34 Satisfied
70 ≤ R < 80 3.60–4.03 Some users are dissatisfied
60 ≤ R < 70 3.10–3.60 Many users are dissatisfied
0 ≤ R < 60 1.00–3.10 Nearly all users are dissatisfied

Besides, the relationship between the R factor and MOS is given by the next
expression:
MOS = 1; R<0
MOS = 1 + 0.035R + 7 · 10−6 R(R − 60)(100 − R); 0 ≤ R ≤ 100 (7.5)
MOS = 4.5; R > 100
Typically, the R factor values are categorized as shown in Table 7.1 [29]:

7.3.5 Oneway delay

The delay experienced by a packet across a path consists of several components:
propagation, processing, transmission, and queuing delays [31]. The OWD [32] is the
time needed for a packet to traverse the network from source to destination terminal
and is described analytically by the following equation:
 s  
L
D(K) = δ + σ + + Xh (t) (7.6)
h=1
Ch

where D(K) is the OWD of a packet K of size L δ represents the propagation delay,
σ is the processing delay, s is the number of hops, L/Ch is the transmission delay and
Xh (t) is the queuing delay of a packet Kof size L at hop h(h = 1, . . . , s) with capacity
Ch [33].

7.3.6 Jitter
When voice packets are transmitted from source terminal (sender) to destination
terminal (receiver) over IP networks, packets may experience variable delay, called
jitter. The packet inter-arrival time (IAT) on the receiver side is not constant even if the
packet inter-departure time (IDT) on the sender side is constant. As a result, packets
arrive at the destination terminal with varying delays (between packets) referred to
as jitter [34]. The difference between arrival times of successive voice packets that
arrive on the receiver side is measured according to RFC 3550 [35]—this is illustrated
in Figure 7.5. This figure shows the jitter measurement between the sending packets
and the receiving packets.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 189

Sender Receiver
SK –3 SK –2 SK –1 SK RK –3 RK –2 RK –1 RK

K–3 K–2 K–1 K Internet K–3 K–2 K–1 K

IDT(K,K–3)=SK – SK –1 IAT(K,K–1)=RK – RK –1

Figure 7.5 Jitter experienced across IP network

Let SK be the RTP timestamp and RK be the arrival time in RTP timestamp units
for packet K. Then, for two packets K and K − 1, the OWD difference between two
successive packets, K and K − 1 is given by the following equation [34]:
J (K) = (RK − SK ) − (RK−1 − SK−1 ) = (RK − RK−1 ) − (SK − SK−1 )
= IAT(K) − IDT(K) (7.7)
IAT(K) = J (K) + IDT(K) (7.8)
where IDT(K, K − 1) = (SK − SK−1 ) is the IDT and IAT(K, K − 1) = (RK − RK−1 )
is the IAT or arrival jitter for the packets K and K − 1. In the current context,
IAT(K, K − 1) is referred to as jitter [34]
On the other hand, when voice packets are transported over IP networks, they
may experience delay variations and packet loss. From (7.8), a relationship between
jitter and packet loss can be established using the following equations [34]:
If packet K − 1 is lost,
IAT(K) = J (K) + (2) · IDT(K) (7.9)
Therefore, if n consecutive packets are lost,
IAT(K) = J (K) + (n + 1) · IDT(K) (7.10)
Therefore, (7.10) describes the packetloss effects in the VoIP jitter.

7.3.7 Packetloss rate

There are two main transport protocols used on IP networks, UDP and transmission
control protocol (TCP). While UDP protocol does not allow any recovery of transmis-
sion errors, TCP includes an error recovery process. However, the voice transmission
over TCP connections is not very realistic. This is due to the requirement for real-
time (or near real-time) operations in most voicerelated applications. As a result, the
choice is limited to the use of UDP which involves packetloss problems. Packet loss
can occur in the network or at the receiver side, for example, due to excessive network
delay in the case of network congestion [2].
Owing to the dynamic, timevarying behavior of packet networks, packet loss can
show a variety of distributions. The loss distribution most often studied in speech
190 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Found

S2

p21 p12

S1
Lost

Figure 7.6 Two-state Markov chain

quality tests is random or Bernoulli-like packet loss. Random loss here means inde-
pendent loss, implying that the loss of a particular packet is independent of whether
or not previous packets were lost. However, random loss does not represent the loss
distributions typically encountered in real networks. For example, losses are often
related to periods of network congestion. Hence, losses may extend over several pack-
ets, showing a dependency between individual loss events. In this chapter, dependent
packet loss is often referred to as bursty. The packet loss is bursty in nature and
exhibits temporal dependency [36]. As noted earlier in the introduction section, if
packet n is lost then normally there is a high probability that packet n + 1 will also be
lost. Consequently, there is a strong correlation between consecutive packet losses,
resulting in a bursty packetloss behavior. Hence, this temporal dependency can be
effectively modeled by a finite Markov chain [3637].
Let S = S1 , S2 , . . . , Sm be the m states of an m-state Markov chain and let pij be
the probability of the chain to pass from state Si to the state Sj . The probabilities of
transitions between states can be represented by the transition matrix P[2]:
⎡ ⎤
S1 S2 · · · Sm
⎢ S1 S2 · · · S m ⎥
⎢ ⎥
P=⎢ . .. . . .. ⎥ (7.11)
⎣ .. . . .⎦
S1 S2 · · · Sm
such that S1 + S2 + · · · + Sm = 1
In the twostate Markov chain (see Figure 7.6), one of the states (S1 ) represents
a packet loss and the other state (S2 ) represents the case where packets are correctly
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 191

Found in bad
S4
state

p43 Bad p34

state

S3 Lost in bad
state

p32 p23

S2 Found in good
state
Good
p21 p12
state

S1 Lost in good
state

Figure 7.7 Four-state Markov chain

transmitted or received. The transition probabilities in this model are represented by

p21 and p12 . In other words, p21 is the probability of going from S1 to S2 , and p12 is
the probability of going from S1 to S2 . Different values of p21 and p12 define different
packetloss conditions that can occur on the Internet [2].
The steady-state probability of the chain to be in the state S1 , namely the PLR, is
given by the following equation [30]:
p21
S1 = (7.12)
p21 + p12
and clearly S2 = 1 − S1
The collected data traces in real IP networks can be modeled accurately with a
higher number of states, i.e., n-state Markov chains. However, for network planning, a
trade-off is desirable between very accurate modeling of data traces and a low number
of model input parameters in order to yield a model still usable for network planners
with reasonable effort. Therefore, we used a simplification of an n-state chain, i.e.,
the four-state Markov chain. Figure 7.7 shows the state diagram of this four-state
Markov chain. In this model, a “good” and a “bad” state are distinguished, which
represent periods of lower and higher packet loss, respectively. Both for the “bad”
and the “good” state, an individual two-state Markov chain represents the dependency
between consecutively lost or found packets [2]
192 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

The two two-state chains can be described by four independent transition prob-
abilities (two for each one). Two further probabilities characterize the transitions
between the two two-state chains leading to a total of six independent parameters for
this particular four-state Markov chain [2].
In the four-state Markov chain, states S1 and S3 represent packets lost, S2 and S4
packets found, and six parameters (p21 , p12 , p43 , p34 , p23 , p32 ∈ (0, 1)) are necessary to
define all the transition probabilities. The four steady-state probabilities of this chain
are [38]
1
S1 = (7.13)
1 + (p12 /p21 ) + (p12 p23 /p21 p32 ) + (p12 p23 p34 /p21 p32 p43 )
1
S2 = (7.14)
1 + (p21 /p12 ) + (p23 /p32 ) + (p23 p34 /p32 p43 )
1
S3 = (7.15)
1 + (p34 /p43 ) + (p32 /p23 ) + (p21 p32 /p12 p23 )
1
S4 = (7.16)
1 + (p43 /p34 ) + (p32 p43 /p23 p34 ) + (p21 p32 p43 /p12 p23 p34 )
The probability of the chain to be either in S1 or in S3 , which corresponds to PLR, is
then r = S1 + S3 [38].

7.4 Self-similarity processes in modern communication networks

Modern investigations of traffic measurements suggest that the IP traffic is self-similar

[7,39–41]. The fact that IP traffic often has self-similar behavior means that it shows
noticeable bursts at a wide range of time scales. One characteristic of this self-similar
traffic is that it has LRD, i.e. the traffic is strongly correlated at all time scales of
engineering interest [5]. Some consequences of LRD traffic are that it increases queue
lengths and latency dramatically [5].

7.4.1 Self-similar processes

Certain processes are said to be self-similar if certain property of the processes is
preserved with respect to scaling in space and/or time. An attractive property of the
self-similar processes for modeling a time series of IP traffic is the degree of self-
similarity, which is expressed with a single parameter called Hurst parameter. This
parameter expresses the speed of decay of the autocorrelation function of the time
series. In this section, a brief overview of self-similar processes is given from [42–44].
Continuous self-similarity: A real-valued continuous time series {X (t), t ∈ } is self-
similar with the exponent 0 < H < 1 if, for any a > 0, the finite-dimensional
distributions of {X (at), t ∈ } are identical to the finite-dimensional distributions
d d
{aH X (t), t ∈ }, i.e., {X (at), t ∈ }={aH X (t), t ∈ }, where = denotes equality
in distribution.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 193

Discrete self-similarity: Let Xt = (Xt ; t ∈ N) denote a discrete time series with mean
μX , variance σX2 , autocorrelation function r (k), and ACV γ (k), k ≥ 0, where Xt
can be interpreted as the jitter, at time instance t.
When considering discrete time series, the definition of self-similarity is given
in terms of the aggregated processes, as following:
(m) (m)
Xk = (Xk ; k ∈ N ) (7.17)
(m)
where m represents the aggregation level and Xk
is obtained by averaging the
(m)
original series Xt over nonoverlapping blocks of size m, and each term Xk is
given by
1 
km
(m)
Xk = Xi ; k = 1, 2, 3, . . . (7.18)
m i=(k−1)m+1

Then it is said that Xt is self-similar (H − ss) with self-similarity parameter

(0 < H < 1) if
Xk =mH −1 Xt
(m) d
(7.19)
Second-order discrete self-similarity: Xt is called exactly second order self-similar
with Hurst parameter H if the variance and covariance of the aggregated time
series are defined by (7.20) and (7.21), respectively:
= σX2 · m2H −2
(m)
var Xk (7.20)

σX2
γXm (k) = ((k + 1)2H − 2k 2H + (k − 1)2H )k ≥ 1 (7.21)
2
The time series Xt is called asymptotically second-order self-similar if
σX2
lim γ m (k) = ((k + 1)2H − 2k 2H + (k − 1)2H ) (7.22)
m→∞ 2
Second-order self-similarity (in the exact or asymptotic sense) has been a dominant
framework for modeling IP traffic.
So far, the role of second-order self-similarity has been discussed but not much
has been mentioned about the role of H and limiting values. The definition of LRD
and its interconnection with the correlation factor r(k) will now be discussed.
Let r(k) = γ (k)/σX2 be the autocorrelation function of Xt with self-similarity
parameter 0 < H < 1, H = 1/2, then the asymptotic behavior of r(k) is given by the
following equation:
r(k) ∼ H (2H − 1)k 2H −2 k → ∞ (7.23)
−η
In particular, if 1/2 < H < 1, r(k) asymptotically behaves as ck for 0 < η < 1,
where c > 0 is a constant,
 η = 2 − 2H and this also means that the correlations
are nonsummable: ∞ k=−∞ r(k) = ∞. That is, the autocorrelation function decays
slowly. When r(k) obeys a power-law, the corresponding stationary process Xt is
calledlong-range dependent. On the other hand, Xt is short-range dependent if the
sum ∞ k=−∞ r(k) < ∞ does not diverge.
194 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Generally speaking, time series with LRD has a Hurst parameter 0.5 < H < 1; on
the other hand, time series with shortrange dependence (SRD) has a Hurst parameter
0 < H < 0.5
Following are some simple facts regarding the value of H and its impact on
γ (k) [45].

1, k = 0
1. γ (k) = for H = 0.5. This is the well-known property of white
0, k = 0
Gaussian noise.
2. γ (1) < 0 for 0 < H < 0.5
3. γ (1) > 0 for 0.5 < H < 1

7.4.2 Haar wavelet-based decomposition and Hurst index estimation

The time series Xt can be decomposed into a set of time series [24], each defined by
(2i−1 E) (2i E)
CX2,i,t = Xt − Xt i∈N (7.24)
(2i E)
where Xt is the time series Xt after two operations, which are
Aggregation at level 2i , as defined by (7.17) and (7.18), i.e., m = 2i
Expansion of level 2i , which consists in “repeat” each element of a time series 2i
times.
(2i E) (2i )
That is, Xj = Xk for k = 1 + (j − 1)/2i and j ∈ N
2,i
These zero mean components CX ,t have three important properties:
They synthesize the original time series without loss, i.e.,
 2,i
Xt = CX ,t (7.25)
i

They are pair-wise orthogonal:

CX2,i,t1 , CX2,i,t2 = 0; for i1 = i2 (7.26)
If Xt is exactly self-similar, then the variance of the components comply:
var(CX2,i,t ) = 22H −2 · var(CX2,i−1
,t ) (7.27)
Properties 1, 2, and 3 imply the following equations:

σX2 = var(CX2,i,t ) (7.28)
i

1
σX2 = · var(CX2,1,t ) (7.29)
1 − 22H −2
Then, the variance of the ith component is related to the variance of Xt as follows:
var(CX2,i,t ) = (1 − r) · r i−1 · σX2 (7.30)
where
r = 22H −2 (7.31)
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 195

The plot log2 [var(CX2,i,t )] vs. i is equivalent to the wavelet-based diagram proposed
in [46], the logscale diagram (LD); i.e., var(CX2,i,t ) = (E|dX (j, ·)|2 /2j ) when using the
Haar family of wavelet basis functions ψj,k (t) = 2−j/2 ψ0 (2−j t − k) (see [47]) where:
⎧
⎨ +1 0 ≤ t < 1/2
ψ0 (t) = −1 1/2 ≤ t < 1 (7.32)
⎩
0 otherwise
For a finite-length time series with “L” octaves, the number of octaves (j) of the LD
is related to index i of (7.24), according to (7.33).
j=i (7.33)
The LD of an exactly self-similar time series is a straight line. Hence, a linear
regression can be applied in order to estimate the Hurst index.

7.5 QoS parameters modeling on VoIP traffic

This section presents a case study to illustrate the jitter and packet-loss modeling on
VoIP traffic by means of network measurements. In order to accomplish the above-
mentioned study, extensive jitter and packetloss measurements were collected as
follows [2]:
● Test calls were established by a VoIP application called “Alliance Foreign
eXchange Station” [48].
● The jitter and packet loss were measured by Wireshark [49] to obtain a set of data
traces.
● The measurement scenario was based on a typical H.323 architecture [18] see
Figure 7.8.
● The parameter configuration employed in the test calls is shown in Table 7.2:
– Four simultaneous test calls were established between A1/B1, A2/B2, A3/B3
and A4/B4 endpoints, see Figure 7.8 and Table 7.2.
– The configurations used in the test calls are based on two parameters: CODEC
type (G.711 and G.729) and voice data length (10, 20, 40 and 60 ms), see
Table 7.2.
– The measurement periods were 1 h for each test call (call duration time).
– For each measurement period (1 h), four jitter and packetloss data traces were
obtained.
– The four configuration sets contain more than 113 million voice packets
corresponding to 710 jitter and 710 packetloss data traces, measured during
typical working hours [50].

7.5.1 Jitter modeling by self-similar and multifractal processes

Time-dependent statistics (e.g., correlation) is important for performance evalua-
tion of IP networks. The statistics can be used to measure the impact of specific
196 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

LAN A LAN B
Local cable ISP network (link speed –3MB) CINVESTAV GDL network (link speed–2MB)

Edge MDF switch IDF switch

IDF switch 10.0.0.X/24 10.0.9.X/24
router
Internet

Gatekeeper

Gatekeeper

Alliance Alliance Alliance Alliance Alliance Alliance Alliance Alliance

FXS FXS FXS FXS FXS FXS FXS FXS

A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 B4

Figure 7.8 Measurement scenario [2]

Table 7.2 Parameter configuration employed in the test calls [2]

Set A1/B1 (ms) A2/B2 (ms) A3/B3 (ms) A4/B4 (ms)

1 G.711-10 G.711-20 G.711-40 G.711-60

2 G.729-10 G.729-20 G.729-40 G.729-60
3 G.711-10 G.711-20 G.729-10 G.729-20
4 G.711-40 G.711-60 G.729-40 G.729-60

impairments. Several studies have found that self-similarity and LRD can have a neg-
ative impact on the IP traffic, because they give rise to great losses and/or delays. For
this reason, it is important to analyze the correlation structures (SRD and LRD)
of the VoIP traffic. The Hurst parameter is used to measure the degree of self-
similarity and LRD. Generally speaking, time series with LRD has a Hurst parameter
of 0.5 < H < 1; on the other hand, time series with SRD has a Hurst parameter of
0 < H < 0.5
Unlike other statistics, the Hurst parameter, although mathematically well
defined, cannot be estimated unambiguously from real-world samples. Therefore,
several methods have been developed in order to estimate the Hurst parameter. Exam-
ples of classical estimators are those based on the R/S statistics [51] (and its unbiased
version [52]), detrended fluctuation analysis [52,53], maximum likelihood (ML) [54],
aggregated variance (VAR) [51], wavelet analysis [46], etc. In [55], Clegg developed
an empirical comparison of estimators for data in raw form and corrupted in various
ways. An important observation is that the estimation of the Hurst parameter may
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 197

0.8

0.7

0.6
Hurst parameter (H)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Aggregation level (m)
G.711_10 ms G.711_20 ms G.711_40 ms G.711_60 ms

Figure 7.9 Hurst parameter for VoIP jitter data traces with SRD

differ from one estimator to another, which makes the selection of the most adequate
estimator a difficult task. It seems to depend on how well the data sample meets the
assumptions the estimator is based on. However, through analytical and empirical
studies, it has been discovered that the estimators, that have the best performance in
bias and standard deviation, and, consequently, in mean squared error (MSE), are the
Whittle ML and the wavelet-based estimator proposed by Veitch and Abry in [46].
From these two estimators, the wavelet-based one is computationally simpler and
faster [46,51].
Motivated by the above inferences, and following the methodology proposed in
[56] to find correlations and LRD, the Hurst parameter is estimated by the wavelet-
based estimator [46] of jitter data traces as a function of the aggregation level m
(m = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128}). Figures 7.9 and 7.10 show the Hurst parameter of
representative jitter data traces to different aggregation levels m. Generally, Hurst
parameters larger than 0.5 for all aggregation levels are a strong indication of LRD.
It can be observed from Figure 7.9 that a set of jitter data traces has Hurst parameters
larger than 0.5 for all aggregation levels. This indicates a high degree of LRD. In
contrast, the other sets of jitter data traces shown in Figure 7.10 have Hurst parameters
lower than 0.5. These results are thus not a strong indication of LRD. This indicates
that the ACVs decay quickly to zero, indicating no memory property (SRD).
These results show that VoIP jitter exhibits self-similar characteristics with SRD
or LRD; therefore, a self-similar process can be used to model the jitter behavior.
The discovery of LRD and weak self-similarity in the VoIP jitter data traces
was followed by a further work that shows the evidence for multifractal behavior.
198 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

1.2

1.1

1
Hurst parameter (H)

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Aggregation level (m)
G.711_10 ms G.711_20 ms G.711_40 ms G.711_60 ms

Figure 7.10 Hurst parameter for VoIP jitter data traces with LRD

The discovery of evidence for multifractal behavior is a richer form of scaling behavior
associated with nonuniform local variability, which could lead to a complete and
robust model of VoIP traffic over all time scales of engineering interest.
In order to accomplish this analysis, we decomposed the time series of VoIP jitter
into a set of time series or components CX2,i,t as it is defined in (7.24). The behavior
of these components is used to determine the kind of asymptotic fractal scaling. If
the variance of the components of a time series is modeled by a straight line, the
time series exhibits monofractal behavior. Then, a linear regression can be applied
in order to estimate the Hurst parameter. On the other hand, if the variance of the
components cannot be adequately modeled with a linear model, the scaling behavior
should be described with more than one scaling parameter, i.e., the time series exhibits
multifractal behavior [57]. In Figures 7.11 and 7.12, we show the component behavior
of the collected VoIP jitter data traces.
Figure 7.11 shows the component behavior of VoIP jitter data traces that belong to
the data sets with SRD. It is observed that the variance of the components of this time
series is modeled by a straight line; therefore, the time series exhibits monofractal
behavior.
Figure 7.12 shows the component behavior of VoIP jitter data traces that belong to
the data sets with LRD. It is observed that the variance of the components of this time
series cannot be adequately modeled with a linear model, and the scaling behavior
should be described with multiple scaling parameters (biscaling). Therefore, this time
series exhibits multifractal behavior.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 199

4
LD-diagram
H=0.43
2

–2
log2[var(Ci)]

–4

–6

–8

–10

–12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
i

Figure 7.11 Component behavior of VoIP jitter data traces: monofractal behavior

8
LD-diagram
H1=0.43
H2=1.11
6

4
log2[var(Ci)]

–2

–4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
i

Figure 7.12 Component behavior of VoIP jitter data traces: multifractal behavior
200 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

PLR [%]
Macroscopic packet loss behavior
PLR3

PLR1

PLRT
PLR5

PLR4

PLR2
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 Time [s]

WT

Periods of different microscopic packet loss behavior

Figure 7.13 Microscopic and macroscopic behavior

These results show that VoIP jitter with SRD and LRD exhibit monofractal and
multifractal behavior, respectively. This phenomenon explains the behavior of the
data traces with SRD and high degree of self-similarity (scale invariance), because
the self-similarity is defined for a single-scale parameter. On the other hand, the data
traces with LRD exhibit weak self-similarity because of having associated nonuniform
local variability (multifractal behavior).

7.5.2 Packet-loss modeling by Markov models

In this chapter, a description of VoIP packet loss based on narrow and wide time
windows is used. The packet-loss behavior over a narrow time window is called
microscopic, and the packet-loss behavior over wide time windows is called macro-
scopic [58]. Microscopic behavior refers to a packet-loss period observed on a “time
window” W1 of the packet-loss data trace where this packet-loss period has a spe-
cific PLR1 . On the other hand, macroscopic behavior refers to a set of microscopic
periods (W1 , W2 , W3 , . . ., Wn ) that are observed on all packet-loss data traces, where
each microscopic period has a particular (PLR1 , PLR2 , PLR3 , . . ., PLRn ) as shown
in Figure 7.13. Figure 7.13 illustrates different levels of PLR for each microscopic
period. Therefore, the packet losses do not occur homogeneously. Instead, they are
concentrated in some time intervals (i.e., the packet loss is bursty).
Microscopic behavior can be effectively modeled by a Markov chain with a low
number of states [58]. On the other hand, macroscopic behavior can be effectively
modeled by a Markov chain with a higher number of states [58]. Here, substates
represent phases of a given microscopic behavior. Ideally, an n-state Markov chain
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 201

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) Samples ×104

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
×104
(b) Samples

Figure 7.14 Packet-loss patterns from VoIP test calls: (a) homogeneous PLR and
(b) nonhomogeneous PLR

is required to capture the macroscopic behavior. Especially for network planning, a

trade-off is desirable between very accurate modeling of data traces and a low number
of model input parameters in order to yield a model still usable for network planners
with reasonable effort. Therefore, we used the two-state and four-state Markov chains
proposed in Section 7.3.7 for modeling the microscopic and macroscopic periods,
respectively.
Figure 7.14(a) and (b) shows some packet-loss patterns extracted from VoIP test
calls. In Figure 7.14(a), we can see that packet-loss behavior is homogeneous, i.e., the
packet-loss pattern is represented by a microscopic period with a low level of PLR.
Therefore, this packet-loss pattern can be modeled by a two-state Markov chain.
On the other hand, in Figure 7.14(b), the packet loss is nonhomogeneous, i.e.,
the packet-loss pattern is represented by a concatenation of two microscopic periods.
In order to simplify this packet-loss description, the microscopic periods can be
classified into two sets, one for low and one for high PLRs. Therefore, this packet-loss
pattern can be modeled by a four-state Markov chain, where the microscopic period
with lower PLR is represented by the good state (see Figure 7.6), and the microscopic
period with higher PLR is represented by the bad state (see Figure 7.7).
202 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

The threshold used to delimit between a good state (low level of packet loss) or
bad state (high level of packet loss) is a function of the perceived quality, good or
poor, respectively, according to the computed MOS values.
In Figure 7.14(a) and (b), the microscopic period with lower PLR is delimited by
the solid square, while the microscopic period with higher PLR is delimited by the
dashed square.

7.5.3 Packet-loss simulation and proposed model

The current methodologies for simulating packet loss consist only of generating
packet-loss patterns by Markov chains of different orders [58]. Therefore, the studies
based on this methodology are limited, because the impact of this parameter is ana-
lyzed separately from the others. A new methodology to simulate packet loss in two
stages is proposed: first, by generating packet-loss pattern by a four-state Markov
chain, and second, by applying this packet-loss pattern to a VoIP jitter data trace,
i.e., the simulation of the effect of this packet-loss pattern in the VoIP jitter by the
relationship between packet loss and jitter, as shown in (7.10).
In order to simplify this methodology and achieve the trade-off between very
accurate modeling of data traces and a low number of model input parameters, we
consider the following:

● The relationship between PLR and jitter, summarized by (7.10).

● The description of VoIP packet loss based on microscopic and macroscopic
behaviors.
● A set of real jitter and packet-loss data traces, where the jitter data traces exhibit
self-similar characteristics and the packet-loss data traces are homogeneous, as
shown in Figure 7.14(a). Then, these packet-loss patterns can be represented by
only one microscopic period with a low level of PLR, PLR 0 (near zero).
● In order to incorporate n microscopic packet-loss periods with high level of PLR,
as it is shown in Figure 7.14(b), we generated packet-loss patterns by means of a
four-state Markov chain.

Let X = {Xt : t = 1, . . . , N } be a VoIP jitter data trace with a length of N , self-

similar (H parameter 0 < H0 < 0.5), and with a low PLR, PLR 0 . The packet-loss
patterns are generated by means of a four-state Markov chain and are represented as
the binary sequences P = {Ptτ : t = 1, . . . , N ; τ = 0, 1, 2, . . . , T − 1}, where Ptτ = 1
means a packet loss, Ptτ = 0 means a success or received packet, N is the length of the
packet-loss pattern, and T is the number of packet-loss patterns used. The relationship
between jitter and packet loss from (7.10) is used to apply the packet-loss patterns to
Xt by the algorithm shown in Table 7.3.
As a result of using the above algorithms, the new time series X̂tτ was obtained,
for t = 1, . . . , N and τ = 0, 1, 2, . . . , T − 1. For each X̂tτ , the H and parameter were
calculated, and the functions f (PLRτ , Hτ ) were generated.
The simulations are accomplished over the measured VoIP jitter data traces.
Figure 7.15 illustrates the relationships between the PLR and the Hurst parameter.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 203

Table 7.3 Algorithm for applying the

packet-loss patterns [2]

FOR n = 2 to N
IF (P[n] = 1)
X [n] = X [n] + X [n − 1]
END IF
END FOR
i=1
FOR n = 2 to N
IF (P[n] = 1)
X̂ [i] = X [n − 1]
i =i+1
END IF
END FOR

0.9
Hurst parameter (H)

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Packet-loss rate (%)

REAL G.711 G.729

Figure 7.15 Relationship between PLR and H parameter: f (PLR τ , Hτ ) vs.

fREAL (PLR ε , Hε )

The figure shows the empirical functions f (PLR τ , Hτ ) that were obtained from
simulation results and the function fREAL (PLR ε , Hε ).
The functions f (PLR τ , Hτ ) resulted from applying T packet-loss patterns to rep-
resentative VoIP jitter data traces Xt . In these functions, each point represents the
PLR τ and Hτ of a particular new time series X̂tτ .
The function fREAL (PLR ε , Hε ) is generated by “E” jitter data traces. In this func-
tion, each point represents the PLR ε and Hε of a particular jitter data trace Xtε , where
t = 1, . . . , N , ε = 1, 2, . . . , E, and “E” is the number of representative jitter data
traces used.
204 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 7.4 Fitted parameters of Figure 7.15 [2]

f (PLRτ ,Hτ ) Ĥ0 â b̂ MSE

G.711 0.0428 0.5659 0.2760 0.001474

G.729 0.0430 0.5716 0.2805 0.002305
fREAL (PLR ε , Hε ) 0.0429 0.5471 0.2475

The respective differences between the functions corresponding to simulation

results f (PLR τ , Hτ ) and the function fREAL (PLR ε , Hε ) were quantified in terms
of MSE.
Table 7.4 shows the fitted parameters and MSE between f (PLR τ , Hτ ) and
fREAL (PLR ε , Hε ). The results are summarized in Figure 7.15 and Table 7.4. As a
result of this analysis, we conclude that the presented methodology for simulating
packet loss has achieved the trade-off between a very accurate modeling and a low
number of model input parameters. Based on these simulation results, it is proposed
that the relationships found between PLR and Hurst parameter can be modeled by a
power-law function, characterized by three fitted parameters, as follows:

HM = Ĥ0 + â(PLR)b̂ (7.34)

where HM is the H parameter of the model found; Ĥ0 , â, and b̂ are the fitted parameters;
Ĥ0 is the H parameter when PLR = 0. The fitted parameters are estimated by linear
regression. The strategy to find Ĥ0 , â, and b̂ is such that it minimizes the MSE, i.e.,

MSE = r (Ĥ0 + âr b̂ − Hτ )2 dr, and the validity of the proposed model corresponds
to those ranges of r = PLR (e.g., 0%–4%).

7.6 Conclusions
The fast development and evolution of communication networks and the emergence of
enhanced services (e.g., VoIP) that can be offered to the end users have been captured
in the concept of modern communication network. Modern communication networks
are complex in nature and have the property of scale-free, meaning that the numbers
of nodes and connections increases continuously and congestions occur accordingly.
Congestion is a cause of impairment in real-time multimedia applications, such as
VoIP. The QoS level for a VoIP application depends on many parameters; however,
jitter and packet loss have an important impact on the QoS. However, an efficient
network design can be achieved by using accurate models.
The current chapter presents the jitter and packet-loss modeling of VoIP traffic
by means of network measurements and could be useful both for today’s networks
and future networks supporting VoIP/mVoIP technologies.
 Accurate modeling of VoIP traffic in modern communication 205

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 Chapter 8
Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling
levels case study: Internet of Things
Komal Batool1 and Muaz A. Niazi2

This book chapter discusses two of the agent-based modeling (ABM) levels, i.e.
exploratory agent-based modeling (EABM) and validated agent-based modeling
(VABM). In first part of this chapter, we shall briefly explain EABM with the help of
a case study of 5G networks modeled in an agent-based simulator called NetLogo [1]
of the use cases of 5G networks is Internet of Things (IoT). We designed, implemented
and experimented this case study to explore the futuristic approaches to ease the imple-
mentation of this under-developing 5G network which still needs to be explored. Next,
we discuss another important level of modeling, i.e., VABM. Since ABM approach
has turned into an attractive and efficient way for displaying large-scale complex sys-
tems, verification and validation (V&V) of these models have become questionable.
Here, we shall briefly explain VABM with the help of the same case study of 5G
networks modeled as in EABM. Using VABM, we shall validate the case study if it
is a credible solution.

8.1 Introduction
We have entered into a world of Big Data where several devices communicate with
each other. They generate their own data in large quantity when communicating with
each other. Today’s devices generate and accumulate huge amounts of data to their
databases. ABM is a powerful way to put that data to work. An agent-based model
featuring individuals can use real properties and behaviors taken from their databases.
The results deliver refined optimization by providing a precise, easy, and up-to-date
way to model, forecast and compare scenarios. One of uprising issues is modeling
and understanding new network domains such as 5G networks. 5G networks is still
a naive domain as it lacks standards and needs more exploration. Here, ABM can be
of great help especially for complex networks where the dynamics of a system are
nonlinear. In this chapter, first, we discuss ABM framework. ABM framework assists
complex adaptive system (CAS) modeling in four levels. We discuss a brief definition

1
Riphah Institute of System Engineering, Riphah International University, Pakistan
2
COMSATS Institute of IT, Pakistan
210 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

of each level. Next, we discuss one of the levels of ABM: EABM in detail. We evaluate
EABM on one of the case studies of 5G networks, i.e., IoT using ABM simulator.
In the next section, we highlight the importance of modeling in agent-based simulator.
We also provide a brief comparison between different simulators commonly used by
researchers. For modeling our 5G case study of IoTs, we have used NetLogo [1]. We
evaluate different research queries to provide a proof of concept. Next, we discuss
the case study in depth, its modeling approach, design and implementation. We shall
then discuss the results. Lastly, we conclude this section of EABM.

8.1.1 Agent-based modeling framework

Recent work on the modeling and simulation of CASs has demonstrated the need
for combining agent-based and complex network–based models [2], [3] and so. [4]
describes a framework consisting of four levels of developing models of CASs. Refer-
ence [4] describes these levels using several example multidisciplinary case studies.
These modeling levels are briefly discussed as follows:

1. Complex network modeling (CoNeM) level is for developing models using inter-
active data of various system components. This level of the framework involves
the use of complex networks to model, visualize, simulate and analyze any CAS.
2. EABM level is for developing agent-based models for assessing the feasibil-
ity to model for further research. This can, e.g., be useful for developing
proof-of-concept models such as for funding applications without requiring an
extensive learning curve for the researchers. The EABM modeling paradigm
allows researchers to experiment and develop proof-of-concept models of CAS
with the goal of performing experimentation for improving understanding about a
particular real-world complex system. Section 8.1.1.1 discusses EABM in detail.
3. Descriptive agent-based modeling (DREAM) is for developing descriptions of
agent-based models by means of using templates and complex network-based
models. Building DREAM models allows model comparison across scientific
disciplines. DREAM allows researchers to develop semi formal, formal or
pseudo-code-based specifications coupled with complex network representations
of agent-based models allowing models to be better described for communication
across disciplines without requiring the same usage of terminology.
4. VABM using virtual overlay multi-agent system (VOMAS) is for developing a
verified and validated model in a formal manner. VOMAS involves the creation
of a VOMAS for ensuring the validity of the simulation model by checking its
conformance with the real world. Section 8.1.5 discusses VABM and VOMAS
in detail.

8.1.1.1 Exploratory agent-based level

EABM uses some simple rules and play them out to see what patterns develop. Unlike
traditional modeling schemes and paradigms, EABM helps in exploring a model
possibilities for future research, its applicability, validity and parameters. Hence,
providing a proof of concept for developing a model more dynamically. Figure 8.1
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 211

Exploring a particular problem

Type of data for Exploratory agent-based Proof of concept for

validation modeling future research

Applicability of a model design

Figure 8.1 Exploratory agent-based modeling features

gives a brief overview of EABM features. Most agent-based models start out as
exploratory in nature. Some examples of EABM studies include work by Palmer
et al. for modeling artificial economic life [5], Becu et al. for modeling catchment
water management [6], work by Holland [7] and by Premo for ethnoarchaeology [8] to
work using ABM for modeling AIDS spread [9]. Other examples of exploratory agent-
based modeling include a simulation of how research is considered as an emergent
phenomenon as presented earlier in [10]. EABM explores wide range of possible
explanations. It uses an understanding of pattern found in a case study data, collected
from control, repeatable experiments that can be tested. With EABM, more testing
and experiments can be done to explore the behavior of a system. A nonlinear system
dynamic is studied and analyzed to evolve a model created. This will help in making
new discoveries.

8.1.2 Agent-based simulator

Modeling and simulation is done before the actual implementation of large and com-
plex systems. We design a model of an actual or theoretical physical system to analyze
its execution. Simulation is a cost-effective solution as we can easily visualize the
complete structure of a model in it. There are several network simulation tools for the
demanding applications, e.g., NetLogo, NS2, OmNeT++, Opnet, NetLogo, Matlab,
Tossim, J-Sim, Prowler, etc. [11]. But for evaluating exploratory agent-based model,
we have chosen the NetLogo (v6.0.2 / August 10, 2017) [1] tool to implement the
algorithm on complex networks for this reason being that it has proven its value in
the modeling and simulation field of complex systems.
212 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 8.1 Simulators comparison

Features NetLogo NS2/NS3 Omnet++ Opnet

License GPL GPL Academic Academic

commercial commercial
Installation Easy Hard Fair Fair
Learning Good Good Fair Fair
Scalability n > 100 Excellent fair Good Excellent
Real time execution Yes No No No
modeling
3D radio modeling Yes No No No

8.1.2.1 Simulator: NetLogo

NetLogo [1] is a multi-agent-based programming language which has an organized
developed interface. Unlike conventional simulators, modeling wireless networks as
complex systems, this agent-based simulator is used. It helps in simulating models
for sensor and actuator networks as well as adhoc networks. When using netlogo, a
programmer is more focused on real problems. Rather, he needs not to worry about the
transmission or communication of messages. NetLogo has been designed particularly
for the research and development of the complex systems. Since from the start of Net-
Logo, it is been used for the modeling and simulation of complex systems, including
multi-agent systems, social simulations and biological systems [12]. NetLogo has the
capability to simulate the issues particularly on human abstractions rather than purely
technical aspects. Moreover, this provides the facility of direct addressability to one
or more types or agents of objects/entities/nodes of the system. For example, we can
address agents or turtles (in NetLogo language) just by their names and can tell them
to change their characteristics, such as colors, or create links with other agents or
turtles without taking care of the low-level inside information about the animation
or how actual structure is going to be done. Thus, NetLogo provides several strong
features such as:

● Direct addressability of nodes

● Ease of implementation
● Evaluation of self-organization and bio inspired algorithms
● The capability of providing user friendly interface
● Ability to perform on human abstractions
● User friendly interface
● 3D view
● Supports scalability

Another important feature of NetLogo is that it is not limited to the simulation of

networks alone but can also be used to model human users, intelligent agents, mobile
robots interacting with the system or virtually any concept (ABM tools). Table 8.1
provides a brief comparison of NetLogo with other simulating tools.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 213

8.1.2.2 Research questions

While evaluating EABM, we focus on the following research queries by analyzing
the impact of implementing a proposed algorithm [4] on a case study of 5G networks,
i.e., IoT.

● It is difficult to actualize and test all situations for large-scale and complex net-
works. Can EABM be used to analyze such networks with such a huge number
of devices?
● How metrics impact such large-scaled networks especially on new domain
networks?
● Can we use EABM for providing a proof of concept for such domains?
● How a particular problem can be addressed with such networks?
● How can we investigate the impact of an algorithm on communication
performance?
● Can we implement EABM on more of such case studies?

8.1.3 Case study: 5G networks and Internet of Things

Fifth generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems, abbreviated
5G, are the proposed next telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-
advanced standards. 5G [13] planning aims at higher capacity than current 4G,
allowing a higher density of mobile broadband users and supporting device-to-device,
more reliable and massive machine communications. 5G research and development
aims to provide lower latency than 4G equipment and lower battery consumption.
These features shall aid in better implementation of the IoT [14], [15], [16]. These
next-generation networks and standards will need to solve a more complex chal-
lenge of combining communications and computing together so that intelligence
is at your fingertips [17] and readily available to machines that make up the IoT.
With 5G, we will see computing capabilities getting fused with communications
everywhere, so trillions of things like wearable devices do not have to worry about
computing power because network can do any processing needed. The IoT is chang-
ing the world. This is transforming how organizations, governments, buyers and
sellers connect with the world. The global IoT market shall grow to $457B by year
2020 [18], and the proliferation of connected devices as shown in Figure 8.2 and mas-
sive increase in data has already started an analytical revolution. These IoT devices
will generate a massive amount of data that can be used to provide better insight
for the given application, as well as drive tremendous opportunities for data cen-
ters and network operators to create new value and new revenue sources. 5G will
deliver new capabilities and efficiencies not possible with today’s wireless networks.
Furthermore, 5G is being designed to be future-proof, providing forward compat-
ibility with services and devices that are not yet known as today. Connecting the
IoT will be an integral part of 5G, and we are excited by the boundless potential
it will bring in taking us one step closer to the vision of a totally interconnected
world.
214 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 8.2 5G network: Internet of Things

8.1.3.1 Modeling approach and design

IoT is about connecting different devices within their communication range via a gate-
way. To demonstrate and address our research queries. we shall use EABM approach
to provide a proof-of-concept for future research; for this use case of 5G networks,
i.e., IoT. We design our model to implement a proposed algorithm by [4]. This algo-
rithm is called self-advertising content sources (SACS).This algorithm works to locate
content sources by putting flags in a network. These content source sends message to
other devices present in their communication range. This process is called gradient
establishment process as shown in Figure 8.3. Here, a node with red flag represents
a content source. This can be any device such as cell phone, laptop, tablet or any
other device. The other squares represent other computing devices. Once the message
reaches these devices, being the first in the communication range, these devices keep
the counter of the message and are shown by a 1 in the Figure 8.3. These devices next
search for other devices and send the messages but with a lower SACS value. This
process is continued until message time-to-live (TTL) expires or there is no device
in their communication range. TTL is to avoid the redundancy of messages in the
network.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 215

1
1
1

Figure 8.3 Gradient establishment process

As mentioned in [4], this simulation exploration has two types of agents:

1. Computing devices.
2. Message agents ((a) query message agents and (b) SACS setup message agents).
Computing device agents
The detailed design description of these agents is given below: Computing device
agents. These agents are designed to simulate various types of computing devices. The
devices can range from mobile phones, handheld games as well as laptop computers
to stationary computers. As such, there are the basic design requirements for these
agents that can be listed as follows:
1. The agents must have a certain amount of memory to hold certain information.
2. In addition, these agents must be able to communicate with other agents in a
certain communication radius.
3. The agents must be able to perform basic computations (such as retrieval of data
from storage or using data structures).
The idea of gateway agents is the intermediate devices to connect one device to
other if that device is out of its communication range. The second type of computing
device agents is the SACS source agents. The key idea is that each content source
self-organizes its surroundings by putting flags for enticing query agents. The way it
actually would be implemented in physical devices can be described as follows:
1. First, the device sends a message within its communication radius to see devices
which are up and ready to respond.
2. Devices in range send back their IDs which are stored by the sending device.
3. Next, the sender device broadcasts the SACS setup message agent after assigning
a TTL value to it.
216 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 8.4 Query algorithm

4. On receiving the message agent, the neighbor devices can subsequently forward
the message based on the policy of the message agent, which will be described
below. Next, we discuss the design of the message agents.
Message agents
Message agents are of two types:
1. SACS setup message agents
2. Query message agents
Message agents forward messages to other devices. We describe both types of message
agents as the following: (1) They help in establishing gradient value. SACS setup
agents have a simple task to perform. Once they are on a specific device, they use the
algorithm described in Figure 8.4 to hop from one device to the next. This is done by
means of counting the distance (radius) by means of a hop count. As a result when
the hop value reaches the end of the SACS radius, it implies the end of the line for
the SACS setup process. However, during each hop, the agents also communicate
their respective hop count value to the computing device agent, on which they are
currently located. As such, the computing device agent stores this information locally
for future queries. It is important to note here that SACS gradient can be established
from a smaller radius to a large radius, where the radius here would be used in
terms of communication hop counts. In the case of smaller radii, there are chances
that subsequently when queries are looking for a particular content source, they might
spend a long time hopping randomly before they can locate a particular SACS gradient
“scent,” i.e., the hop value flags left over by the SACS setup message agent in the
initial phase. (2) The second type of message agents is the query agent type. The
goals of the query message agents are different from the SACS setup message agents.
The query agents are initiated by a user logged on to one of the computing devices.
As such, the goal of the query agent is to look for information. Now, the interesting
thing to note here is that according to the small world complex network theory, a large
number of real-world networks have nodes which can locate most other nodes using
a small number of hops. As such, when an owner of a set of devices is looking for
specific information, chances are that the query would be able to locate this content
on one of the computers locally or within a few hops away from the person. Query
agents are thus responsible for content location discovery based on the “smell” of the
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 217

prob 48 sacs-radius 50
Probability SACS Range
Setup

n-gw 10 sens-radius 50
Searches
Number of Gateway nodes Devices Communication Range

Content Sources
ttl? 12 gw-cost 51

Setup SACS Time to live for Message Gateway Cost

Move Move n-srchs 102 k 9

Number of Searches Number of Query Agents
Move Devices
ncs 25
Number Source Contents

On trace? On sacs? No. of Queries No. of Successful Queries

Off Off 0 0

policy Total Communication Cost

rw 0

Figure 8.5 Internet of Things network: NetLogo model configurations

content discovered by means of the flag values dropped by the previous SACS setup
messages during the initial setup phase.

8.1.3.2 Implementation
We simulate this model in NetLogo. Below, we describe all the functions and com-
ponents of the implemented model. For implementing this model, we need to declare
(1) global variables that is metrics declared for all the procedures and can be called
by any procedure or breed. Then we define (2) breeds, i.e., agentsets, which can be
assigned procedures, e.g., in our models, it can be devices, messages. Next we shall
explain the (3) procedures or functions assigned to the defined breeds.

Global variables
We have several globally declared variables which include many input (from sliders)
and output variables such as counters as shown in Figure 8.5.

Breeds
We have created two main breeds, computing devices (i.e., breed devices device) and
message agents (i.e., breed messages message).
218 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 8.6 Setup algorithm

Procedures
1. Setup: Setup procedure first clears the older simulation. Creates new and gate-
way devices and adjust the location of the devices. Setup algorithm is shown in
Figure 8.6.
2. Setup-devices: This function invokes the patches in the simulation. First of all,
each patch creates a random number between 0 and 100. Next, this number is
compared with the probability assigned via a global input variable. Based on a
comparison of these two numbers, the patch might sprout a device at this location.
Next, the device is initialized with certain values. Initially, the agent is given an
unexplored status. The SACS distance is assigned equal to the SACS radius
input global variable. Initially, all nodes are given “false” as the Boolean value
for both the start as well as the goal and the gateway variables. The shapes of the
computing devices are next adjusted to be random (one-of shapes), and they are
slightly randomly moved to ensure that most devices will not overlap previous
devices.
3. Setup-gateway: This function is concerned with creating the gateway nodes from
the previously created computing device node agents. The working is based on a
random selection of agents from these devices. The number of agents which are to
be created as the gateway nodes is based on a global input variable. After making
the node as gateway, it changes its color. To show it here, we have encircled the
gateways in Figure 8.7.
4. No-overlapping: This function adjusts each device location so that they do not
overlap each other.
5. Searches: This function calls Do-Search function and the input is taken from the
slider “Number of Searches.”
6. Do-Search: This function selects a device and checks it should not be a gateway.
Then it calls “Create-Search-Node” function.
7. Create-Search-Node: This function creates a search device. It sets the Boolean
variable to 1 which means start. This device becomes the starting point of the
query. It is then set to blue color. the location is saved in a temporary value.
It then executes the hatching of k-number of query agents taken as input from
slider. For each of the query agents, it calls a “Setup Query” function.
8. Setup query: This assigns values to the query agents. Setups the query agents
shape to circle and color green. This increments the total query count global
variable.
9. Content sources: This function creates the content sources, taking the number
from the slider “Number of Content Sources.”
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 219

Figure 8.7 IoT Model: Initial Setup

10. Create content sources: This function selects a device node that is neither a
gateway nor has a query, then it calls “Create Content Source Node” function.
11. Create content source node: Selected device node is set to true and color is set to
red.
After calling setup, searches and goals functions, the screen now looks as shown
in Figure 8.7.
12. Setup SACS: It locates all the content sources nodes. Next it calls “Setup-SACS-
d” function.
13. Setup-SACS-d: This function is repeatedly called on agents until the gradient is
established. It stops if there are no devices in its range. Otherwise, it will also stop
if the calling argument “d” is greater than the global variable “SACS-radius.” If
the SACS-distance is non-zero, it changes the color of the node to gray as shown
in Figure 8.8. To highlight the connections, we show it with links. This way, the
content sources are the only ones which will visually stand out from the other
nodes. After setting these basic attributes, it compares the current argument “d”
with the SACS-radius global variable. If d is less than or equal to this value, it
creates a new agent set. This agent set is formed of all other nodes in a certain
communication radius but is based on a condition of being unexplored till now.
The communication radius is again a configurable value “sens-radius.” Now,
this agent set is not guaranteed to be non-empty so it is tested for emptiness. If
non-empty, each of these agents is asked to execute the same function again but
with an incremented “d” value. Thus, this process can continue till the SACS
gradient is properly setup around all SACS content sources reflecting how the
content sources can be self-advertising their contents. Afterwards, the simulation
screen can be observed to reflect this setup as shown in Figure 8.9.
 220 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 8.8 SACS Distance

Figure 8.9 After Simulation

14. Move and move (forever): If any queries are there, it will continue by asking
them to execute move-RW function, otherwise it will terminate. Move is for one
tick and move (forever) is for continuous ticks.
15. Move-RW: The function executes by first creating a list of all nodes in the given
sensing radius. This radius is basically equal in physical terms to the communi-
cation radius. In case there are no other devices in range, the query agent will
simply die. If there are other devices, the next step is choosing one of the nodes
as the next location. This is performed differently based on what is the selected
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 221

mode of movement of queries from the user interface. Based on the Boolean vari-
able “SACS?”, the next node is either a random node in the case of a false value
for this variable, or else one of the nodes with minimum of “SACS-dist” variable.
Note that this represents the gradient previously established by the SACS nodes.
As such, once this node is selected, the query agent can first move to the selected
node. Next, it can update its internal variables such as TTL value by decrement-
ing it and also storing the tagged location node inside the “loc” variable. After
moving and updating these values, it needs to calculate the cost associated with
this move. If the location is a gateway node, then the move will incur cost equal
to “gw-cost,” a user input configurable variable, otherwise the cost will simply
be incremented by 1. Finally, before this function terminates, a call is made to
the CheckCS function, which is explained next.
16. CheckCS: This function is primarily for goal verification for queries. In this
function, the query checks whether it has reached either one of a gateway node
or else a content source. If the current location agent satisfies either of these
conditions, then the overall number of successful queries is incremented and
then the query agent terminates itself. If it has not reached the goal nodes, then
again it checks its TTL value. In case, the TTL value has reached zero, then again
it dies.
17. Move devices: This function is to test the effects of mobility of devices on SACS.
It randomly moves a percentage of the devices over time, and when the devices
are out of range, it calls setup-SACS again to reset the SACS setup messages.

8.1.4 Results and discussion

We experimented the IoT network for the explained algorithm proposed by [4]. We
used behavior space of NetLogo to perform experiments by changing the given input
metrics. This shall give us a proof of concept for our designed model for how it
behaves under different parameters.

8.1.4.1 Simulation parameters

The input metrics to the simulation are as follows:
1. The number of devices used in the simulation
2. The number of content sources, NCS
3. The number of gateway nodes, N-GW
4. The number of query source nodes, NSRC
5. Number of random walkers per source node, KRW
6. Cost in terms of hop counts for using a gateway node for locating a content
source: CGW.
Output metrics: The output parameters that are of interest in the evaluation of
SACS are as follows:
1. Number of successful queries
2. Total communication cost
3. Total number of queries
222 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 8.2 Simulation experiments parameters

Parameters Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4

Gateway cost, GW-cost 20 20 20 20

Number of searches, 200 200 200 200
N-SRCHS
Device communication 4 4 4 4
range, sens-radius
Number of gateway, 20 20 20 20
N-GW
Number of content 20 20 20 20
sources, NCS
Time to live, TTL 20 [10 10 40] 20 [10 10 40]
SACS range, SACS-radius [0 10 40] [0 10 40] [0 10 40] [0 10 40]
Number of query agents, k 5 5 5 5
Static Static Mobility Mobility

Table 8.3 Experiment 1 statistics

Parameters N Min Max Mean Std. deviation

No. of runs 250 1 250 125.50 72.313

TTL 250 20 20 20 0
SACS-radius 250 0 40 20 11.54
No. of successful queries 250 32 798 439.02 221.27
Total communication cost 250 1,000 1,000 1,000 .000
No. of queries 250 6,388 10,110 7,941.54 1,119.19

However, here the total number of queries will be constant and instead the cost
of communication as well as the number of successful queries will be evaluated in
depth.

8.1.4.2 Behavior space experiments

We have formulated our experiments as shown in Table 8.2. We conducted four experi-
ments. We shall vary two parameters: (1) TTL and (2) SACS-radius while other remain
constant. Also we conduct these experiments to evaluate the mobility of devices.

8.1.4.3 Descriptive statistics

Experiment 1
We vary the SACS value while TTL is kept constant. We repeat these simulation for
250 while repeated each simulation for 50 times. Table 8.3 shows the statistics.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 223

Table 8.4 Experiment 2 statistics

Parameters N Min Max Mean Std. deviation

No. of runs 1,000 1 1,000 500.50 288.819

TTL value 1,000 10 40 25 8.66
sacs-radius 1,000 0 40 20 11.54
No. of successful queries 1,000 32 798 439.02 221.27
Total communication cost 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 0
No. of queries 1,000 6,388 10,110 7,941.54 1,119.19

Table 8.5 Experiment 3 statistics

Parameters N Min Max Mean Std. deviation

No. of runs 250 1 250 125.50 72.313

TTL 250 20 20 20 0
SACS-radius 250 0 40 20 11.54
No. of successful queries 250 16 698 357 196.87
Total communication cost 250 1,000 1,000 1,000 0
No. of queries 250 6,738 10,152 8,445 985.53

Table 8.6 Experiment statistics

Parameters N Min Max Mean Std. deviation

No. of runs 1,000 1 1,000 500.50 288.819

TTL value 1,000 10 40 25 8.66
SACS-radius 1,000 0 40 20 11.54
No. of successful queries 1,000 12 860 436 424
Total communication cost 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 0
No. of queries 1,000 3,912 19,766 11,839 7,927

Experiment 2
We vary the both SACS value and TTL value. We repeat these simulation for 1,000
while repeated each simulation for 50 times. Table 8.4 shows the statistics.

Experiment 3
We vary the SACS value while TTL is kept constant. We repeat these simulation for
250 while repeated each simulation for 50 times. Table 8.5 shows the statistics.

Experiment 4
We vary the both SACS value and TTL value. We repeat these simulation for 1,000
while repeated each simulation for 50 times. Table 8.6 shows the statistics.
224 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Successful queries with SACS radius

798
800
750
700 680
650
600
95% CI No. of successful queries

550
520
500
450
400 400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50 32
0
0 10 20 30 40
SACS-radius

Figure 8.10 Successful queries vs SACS radius for static network

8.1.4.4 Discussion
The first set of results is the details of variation of SACS-radius and its effects on the
successful queries. In Figure 8.10, there are five values for the SACS-radius ranging
from 0 to 40. Here, the value 0 implies that the SACS is not used. As SACS radius is
20, the number of successful queries increase drastically and keeps on increasing as
the SACS radius increases.
In next experiment, the results are covered in Figure 8.11. Here, we increase
SACS radius and see the effect on cost of execution of the queries. Number of queries
is extremely too much when SACS is not used but decreases as we start using it and
keeps on decreasing as the SACS radius increases.
Next, in Figure 8.12, we experimented TTL value against Number of queries
cost. We experiment to see if TTL causes the rise in the number. of successful queries
or not and also we want to see the effect of this. The data is color coded based on
the SACS radius. We see the number of queries/cost is high when no SACS is used.
Higher TTL values give more SACS radius values.
We plot a graph Figure 8.13 using mean successful queries vs. TTL value. Now,
we can note here that for TTL = 10, SACS appears to have the best possible successful
query values. The differences between all SACS values are initially very small for
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 225

Number of queries (cost) vs SACS radius

10500
10,110
10000

9500

9000
95% CI Number of queries

8500

8000
7,768
7500
7,134
7000
6,500
6500 6,388

6000

5500

5000
0 10 20 30 40
SACS-Radius

Figure 8.11 No. of Queries vs SACS Radius for Static Network

Number of queries vs TTL value

20000

SACS radius
16000 0
10
Number of queries

20
30
12000 40

8000

4000

0 10 20 30 40
TTL value

Figure 8.12 Number of queries vs TTL value for static network

226 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Successful queries with TTL value

650
600
568
550 530
500
Mean number of successful queries

477 470
450
400 383 389
358
350 327 335
298
300
270
254
250
200 190 195

150

100
70
50 32
0
10 20 30 40
TTL value

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

Figure 8.13 Number of queries vs TTL value for static network

TTL of 10. Subsequently, however, for an increase in SACS-radius values, there is a

corresponding increase in the successful queries.
The first plot using mobility is for the evaluation of the effects of changing the
SACS radius by measuring the number of successful queries. Here, in Figure 8.14,
a drastic change is seen when using SACS, otherwise number of successful queries
is low.
In next experiment, the results are covered in Figure 8.15. Here we increase SACS
radius and see the effect on cost of execution of the queries. Number of queries is
extremely high when SACS is not used but decreases as we start using it and keeps
on decreasing as the SACS radius increases.
Next, in Figure 8.16, we experimented TTL value against number of queries cost.
We experiment to see if TTL causes the rise in number. of successful queries or not
and also we want to see the effect of this. The data is color coded based on the SACS
radius. We see the number of queries/cost is high when no SACS is used. Higher TTL
values give more SACS radius values.
We plot a graph Figure 8.17 using mean successful queries vs TTL value. Now,
we can note here that for TTL = 10, SACS appears to have the best possible successful
query values. The differences between all SACS values are initially very small for
TTL of 10. Subsequently, however, for an increase in SACS-radius values, there is a
corresponding increase in the successful queries.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 227

Number of successful queries vs SACS radius

800
768
750
700
90% CI Number of successful queries 650 643
600
550 527
500
465
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50 16
0
0 10 20 30 40
SACS-radius

Figure 8.14 Number of queries vs TTL value for static network

Number of queries vs SACS radius

11000
10152
10000

9000 8765

8000 7568
95% CI number of queries

7034
7000 6700

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 10 20 30 40
SACS-radius

Figure 8.15 Number of queries vs SACS radius for mobility

228 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Number of queries VS TTL value

20000

SACS radius
16000 0
10
20
Number of queries

30
40
12000

8000

4000

0 10 20 30 40
TTL value

Figure 8.16 Number of queries vs TTL value for mobility

Successful queries with TTL value

650
611
600
550
521 521
500 498
Mean number of successful queries

457
450 442
404
399 392
400 376 381
368
350

300
250

200
150
114
100 98
78
57
50
0
10 20 30 40
TTL value
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

Figure 8.17 Number of queries vs TTL value for static network

 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 229

8.1.5 Conclusion
This section gives an in-depth detail of exploratory agent-based model with a case
study of 5G network modeled over ABM simulating tool: NetLogo. We discussed
exploratory ABM and defined how it can be used for exploring new domains. Using
EABM, we provided a proof of concept, identified problems and analyzed on agent-
based model. We used IoT 5G network as a use case. We used this network case
study which to the best of our knowledge cannot otherwise be modeled using any
other simulator easily because this particular domain is still unexplored in various
ways. We saw it is easy to actualize and test all situations for large-scale and complex
networks using ABM. Our EABM of the SACS algorithm clearly demonstrates how
different CAS researchers can use ABM to perform extensive simulation experiments
using parameter sweeping to come up with comprehensive hypotheses. Our results
demonstrated the effective testing and validation of various exploratory hypothe-
ses. We demonstrated how one hypothesis can lead to the next and how simulation
experiments can be designed to test these hypotheses.

8.2 Validated agent-based modeling level case study:

Internet of Things

We next discuss another important level of modeling framework, i.e., VABM. For
EABM, we designed, implemented and experimented a case study of 5G networks
to explore the futuristic approaches and its ease to implement this under developing
network. Since ABM approach has turned into an attractive and efficient way for
displaying large-scale complex systems, V&V of these models have become ques-
tionable. Here, we shall briefly explain VABM with the help of a case study of 5G
networks modeled in an agent-based simulator called NetLogo [1]. We have already
discussed NetLogo simulator in Section 8.1.2.1. One of the use cases of 5G net-
works is IoT, see section 8.1.3 for further details. Using Validated ABM, we shall
validate a modeled case study if it is a credible solution or not. Simulation provides
lots advantages for modeling complex systems but once they are simulated, question
arises if these simulated models can be trusted. A reliable simulated model which
has a random behavior must correlate with the real world or what it is expected to
behave. Therefore, a simulated modeled is first required to be verified if it is working
as expected and then it is required to be validated according to the requirements of
assigned parameters.

8.2.1 Introduction
ABM has become a significant and efficient way of modeling systems especially
complex systems. Modeling explains and makes it easy to understand real world
networks which are costly to explain or larger in scale. A successful simulation that
is able to produce a sufficiently credible solution can be used for prediction. Since it
is not possible in terms of execution concern and unnecessary (counting components
that do not have much impact on the framework) to construct a simulation model that
230 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Verification

System
Model input Process Model output System
requirements

Validation

Figure 8.18 Validation and verification of a system

caters all the detail and behavior of the real system, a few presumptions must be made
about the framework to build a simulation model. Therefore, a simulation model is
an abstract representation of a physical system and intended to enhance our ability to
understand, predict or control the behavior of the system. However, the abstractions
and assumptions introduce inaccuracies to the simulation model. One of the important
tasks after simulating a system is determining how accurate a simulation model is
with respect to the real system. There are no set rules or models to validate a simulated
system although researchers and industrial people use various techniques to verify
and validate their simulated systems. In the previous section, EABM, we discussed
ABM frameworks levels. We discussed EABM in depth and explored underdeveloping
network case study, i.e., IoT of 5G networks. Also, we highlighted the importance
and purpose of using simulator, NetLogo and provided a brief comparison between
different ABM simulators. We used NetLogo to simulate the IoT case study and
evaluated different research queries to provide a proof of concept. In this section, we
shall validate the similar simulated 5G network and see if the model is feasible or not.
We shall validate one of the use cases of 5G networks, i.e., IoT. Next, we discuss the
case study in depth, its modeling approach and design. We shall then discuss results.
Lastly, we conclude this section of VABM.

8.2.2 Validated agent-based level

Model verification involves verifying if a model is being building correctly or deter-
mines whether the programming implementation of the abstract or conceptual model
is correct. This process includes debugging model, finding incorrect conceptual
implementations, and checking calculations. Where as validation process validates
a model’s credibility. As shown in Figure 8.18, the process of validation of a model
could be defined as the process of verifying that the model produces outputs in line
with the design objectives and also with empirical observations. Through the valida-
tion against empirical data, it is possible to verify if the stylized representation of the
real-world implemented in the model is accurate enough to generate emergent behav-
iors that are similar to the real world system. The ABM outputs have been validated
against the observed SOCA algorithm implementation. To validate the ABM, a simple
strategy was followed. The set of parameters in the model for which empirical data
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 231

are not known was selected as elements of what is called the parameters. Parameter
were changed and observed over networks. Then simulated. There are many princi-
ples and techniques of model V&V that have been presented, e.g., in [20]. However,
it is difficult and time-consuming to use all possible techniques for validating every
model that is developed. Modelers depend upon choosing the appropriate techniques.
Choosing an appropriate techniques assures the acceptable accuracy and credibility
of their model. We shall use VOMAS as proposed by [4]. This scheme is designed
in a manner which can be implemented on any kind of agent-based model. VOMAS
has the capability to monitor position-based (spatial) as well as non-position-based
agents. Subject matter experts (SMEs), are individuals who can provide validity to a
model. SME is who can give the accurate specification as well as analyze the outputs
and simulations runs of a model. VOMAS approach allows experts to be involved in
the design of the agent-based model as well as the custom-built VOMAS from scratch.
By involving SMEs from the start of the project, which are essentially equivalent to
clients in the software engineering domain, VOMAS approach allows the simulation
study to be a stronger candidate for success. “The Virtual Overlay Multi-agent System
is created for each simulation model separately by a discussion between the simulation
specialist as well as the SMEs. When the actual simulation is executed, the VOMAS
agents perform monitoring as well as logging tasks and can even validate constraints
given by the system designer at design time. VOMAS has been designed to cater
for both face validity as well as model assumptions and IO-transformations. Model
assumptions are ensured by the use of invariants. Face validation is ensured by means
of various techniques based on spatial and non-spatial validation and animation-based
validation. IO-transformations are ensured by means of essential logging components.
Thus, in other words VOMAS provides the complete validation package” [21]. It has
the following features:

● Maximizes the value of a model

● Complete optimization of a system
● Reduce cost by enhancing employee efficiency and effectiveness
● Effective management
● Save money and time by discovering defects at early stage.
● Reduces risk, legal liability, not regulatory, is often the most important reason to
perform validation.
● Promotes continual process improvement

8.2.2.1 Validation techniques

There are diverse measurements in which a model might be assessed. One way
researchers check models is to utilize greatest probability estimation. Since more com-
plicated models with more degrees of freedom result in better fits, some researchers
use a penalty for the complexity of the model. Especially, the use of minimum descrip-
tion length might be a promising tool. Increasingly experimental researchers andABM
start to be combined. Traditionally, experiments where used to challenge the standard
model of rational choice; nowadays alternative models are tested in more complicated
dynamic and spatial settings, in the lab and in the field. This may prompt better tried
232 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

elective models that one can use in ABMS. Different approaches to assess models
are the participatory model advancement with partners, or the utilization of Turing
tests. Here [22] presents several unique validation and verification techniques that are
being widely used in industrial and research models of manufacturing, engineering,
and business processes. These models are mostly discrete event simulation models
and are aimed to lower the cost of the system, its process and efficiency of working.
Face validity is asking the concerning experts if the models output is accurate to the
system. [4] explains validation methods, taxonomy in detail. The VOMAS technique
is considered to be an extension of the Companion Modeling [5] that involves both
SME as well as Simulation Specialists in developing of an overlay multi-agent system
for the purpose of validation. Any good modeled simulation should not be considered
as a full depiction of a real system. There can be different reasons ranging from non-
availability of complete data sets, weather conditions, complex and costly parameters,
etc. which can only be tested in real situations. Some level of abstraction is always
involved in simulating a model. There is no set or defined way of verifying and vali-
dating a model. Particular techniques may be chosen depending upon the pertaining
paradigm of a model.

8.2.2.2 Virtual overlay multi-agent system

For V&V of this simulation model, we have followed a formal methodological
approach based on Companion modeling, termed as VOMAS. This methodology
has been described in detail in [21]. In a VOMAS approach, a set of simulation agents
are built in the form of a multi-agent system as a companion to the agent-based sim-
ulation model. The idea of building a VOMAS is based on the need for a formal
model of V&V of agent-based models. VOMAS uses an Object-Oriented software
engineering approach. In a VOMAS, the system designers work on the design of a
Virtual Multi-Agent System starting alongside the design of the original agent-based
simulation model. In a VOMAS simulation model, agents act together in the form of
a cooperative multi-agent system and assist in data collection (e.g., logs) in addition
to being available as a formal framework for SME to provide feedback to the Simula-
tion Engineers and vice versa. The VOMAS approach helps bridge the gap between
simulations and real world by enforcing interactions between the SME and the Sim-
ulation Engineers from the start of the project. Virtual overlay agents are created for
run-time communication with the agents in the agent-based model. The design of the
two models is thus influenced by a discussion between the simulation specialists as
well as the SME. This entire exercise results in two models; one model is the actual
ABM. And the second one, is the VOMAS agents model which monitor the ABM and
validate various design requirements. The main duties of the VOMAS-based agents
can be summarized as following:

1. To monitor various parameters specified by the SME during the design process,
during actual execution of the simulation experiments.
2. To report generation of any extraordinary values or violations of invariants again
specified on the basis of interactions with the SME.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 233

3. To log activities of agents during simulation experiments. These logs are provided
to SMEs for post-simulation data analysis.
Thus, in other words, VOMAS is based on an interactive process going back
and forth between the simulation experiments and analysis of logs by SMEs and
simulation specialists.

8.2.2.3 Research questions

We focus on the following research queries by using VOMAS [4] validating technique
for validating 5G networks.
● What process parameters and controls are necessary to be determined for
validating a model?
● Can the process design reproducible?
● Determining the set of conditions encompassing upper and lower limits of a
model for recognizing system behaviors in different situations including those
parameters which can cause big change or failure of a system.
● Can this model remain in a state of control while performing other communication
activities?
● Can validation process be used for qualitative variability of a process and its
control?
● Can validation be used for scrutinizing a process performance for development
and deployment of process controls for a system?
● Can a scientific study performed prior to implementing a change to a process can
support the implementation of a change without revalidation?
● Can validation process cause reduction of cost?

8.2.3 Case study: 5G networks and Internet of Things

This section has already been explained in EABM (Section 8.1.3).

8.2.3.1 Modeling approach and design

5G networks are upcoming networks. The validity of these networks is very important
due to various factors such as scalability, cost, effectiveness and usage in daily lives. In
this section, we present the overview, experimental design and implementation details
for 5G networks case study of IoT to demonstrate the generalized applicability of the
proposed validation methodology and framework proposed in [4].

8.2.3.2 Basic simulation model

We start by developing a 5G network. In the real world, IoT is one of the case studies
of this network. A message is spread in the network on different parameters such as:
1. The cause of message in network.
2. The message TTL, energy of device, communication power.
3. The amount of congestion of other messages in the past.
4. The devices mobility.
5. The current rate power consumption of devices to send and receive messages.
234 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6. The particular type of devices.

7. The structural aspects of the IoT network.
To develop the basic IoT model, we thus need to develop several modules
incrementally as given in the next subsections.

8.2.3.3 IoT creation module

In this module, our goal is to develop the IoT network. Our basic model extends upon
the SACS implemented model created in exploratory agent-based model. We imple-
mented several parameters for configuring a simulated network. We first develop an
IoT network made up of devices covering a random set of locations. However, to
ensure we can control number of devices, we set a slider for this. Based on slider
value and location set, we can build an environment model with devices. Please see
the model description in EABM chapter.

8.2.3.4 Basic IoT module

After the network has been created, we can develop a baseline model. The way the
SACS module works is that at a given source node, message can start at a random
device. Now, the message has three distinct states:
1. Started
2. Spreading
3. Dying
In the “started” state, message is initiated. After formation, the message next moves
to the “Spreading” stage. In the spreading stage, message hatches to the next device/s
in the communication range. TTL parameter is set, but as message hops to next, it
decreases. TTL value is time to live. Thus depending upon the parameter, the message
keeps going until it reaches the destination or ends its life which serves as a threshold
to stopping the communication. The “Dying stage” gradually serves as a means of
stopping the message. The effects of a communicating devices can be seen in Figure
8.19.
Up until now, we have developed the IoT model with different parameters and
simulations modules. The goal of this section is to demonstrate how this model can
subsequently be validated by means of building an associated VOMAS model. As
described earlier in the VOMAS Methodology, we shall start by first writing our
validation question in the model. Our key validation question can thus be stated as
follows:
Question
How can we validate that the developed IoT model is representative of actual net-
works? We see a standard network. By analyzing the other factor affecting the network,
it becomes clear that while there is message such as either the other messages, it is
very difficult to get any message of the exact structural aspects of IoT over time. In
other words, the message availability is limited to Geographical Information Systems
based data visible via satellites. This data does not demonstrate the micro-dynamics
of the IoT. As such, instead of this approach, which would not have guaranteed model
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 235

1
1
1

Figure 8.19 IoT initial setup for message

validity, we have to use a different approach. One possible approach in the absence
of real data is thus to perform cross-model validation or “docking” of the models.
8.2.3.5 VOMAS agent design
A naïve way of designing a VOMAS could be to have each device calculate SACS
value over time. We have previously described how the algorithm works.

8.2.4 Results and discussion

VOMAS forms a virtual overlay system over the agent-based model. In the previous
section, we developed a 5G case study. Here, our goal is to present the results of the
experimentation involved in the validation of the simulations. It is pertinent to note
here that while we can perform considerably more experimentation here similar to
previously done in earlier chapters in each of these case studies, we shall however
only focus on V&V of the effects of the case study to demonstrate the effectiveness of
the proposed generalized methodology by [4]. Our focus here will be on the different
effects of the simulation execution as well as the resultant effects on the VOMAS vali-
dation. Here, we shall demonstrate how VOMAS-based validation builds on empirical
validation methods while adding value addition in the form of being a customizable
software engineering modeling scheme. Some of the parameters of the experiments
are similar to the previous case study. While others are new, being related to the
devices nodes are given below.
8.2.4.1 Simulation parameters
The input metrics to the simulation are as follows:
1. The number of devices used in the simulation
2. The number of content sources, NCS
236 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

3. The number of gateway nodes, N-GW

4. The number of query source nodes, NSRC
5. Number of random walkers per source node, KRW
6. Cost in terms of hop counts for using a gateway node for locating a content
source: CGW.

Output metrics: The output parameters that are of interest in the evaluation of
SACS are as follows:

1. Number of successful queries

2. Total communication cost
3. Total number of queries

However, here the total number of queries will be constant, and instead the cost of
communication as well as the number of successful queries will be evaluated in depth.

8.2.5 Validation discussion

Here, our basic simulation model can be viewed in Figure 8.7. As can be noted from the
simulation output, the sensors are all connected with each other; however, not every
sensor will be directly accessible from each other sensor using a single hop. Thus, the
information in this network needs to be aggregated and confirmed with local sensors
before it is forwarded to the remote sink. When the simulation is actually executed,
each of the nodes measure local parameters and display them. Thus, in this case study,
we have demonstrated the effectiveness of using VOMAS to verify and validate the
simulation model.

8.2.6 Conclusion
In this part of the chapter, we applied one of the techniques for validation of an agent-
based model. We validated a case study of 5G networks using VOMAS methodology,
i.e., VOMAS. This VABM level of the framework builds upon previous framework
levels such as EABM allowing for VABM. As a means of unification of all ideas and
concepts, the methods and case studies extensively involve both the use of agent-based
models and complex network models and methods in different scientific disciplines.
We presented a case study of IoT demonstrating the broad applicability of the proposed
methods involving building customized validation schemes based on the particular
case study. We presented a case study of IoT of 5G network which has a complex
structure of communication. This network involves several devices communicating
with each other while taking care of several other parameters. Unlike traditional
validation exercises, VOMAS validation involves in-simulation agents, which observe
and, if needed, interact with the simulation environment. The individual virtual agents
validate the communicating devices as the messages proceeds in the network. Also,
we verified how the network evolves when the message agents are given specific TTL
or reach flagged devices.
 Exploratory and validated agent-based modeling levels case study 237

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 Chapter 9
Descriptive agent-based modeling of the
“Chord” P2P protocol
Hasina Attaullah1 , Urva Latif 1 , and Kashif Ali1

9.1 Introduction

Chord [1,2] is a structured peer-to-peer (P2P) distributed protocol designed as a

scalable lookup service to overcome the flaws of previously defined protocols like
Gnutella, Napster [3], and Freenet [4,5]. Napster uses centralized directory to maintain
indexes of files to be shared, so the main drawback of it is single point of failure and
denial of service attack. Although Gnutella is decentralized, it uses flooding scheme
to lookup for files that generate high volume of traffic in a network which causes
scalability issue, and queries may not necessarily be resolved. Chord is scalable as
it requires O(log n) lookup messages to resolve a query, and for its scalability, it is
used in different approaches [6–8]. Chord is fault tolerance and it balances the load
by exploiting functionality of distributed hash keys [9].
In Chord, thousands of peers linearly interact with each other to form a complex
P2P network. In Chord, many peers independently self-organize and adapt itself as a
client (downloading) or server (uploading). Like complex adaptive systems (CASs)
[10] in Chord, downloading is the emergent phenomenon.
We have two different techniques for modeling of CAS. It is either agent-based
modeling [11] or complex network–based modeling [12]. In the case of Chord, the
number of query events increases with the increase of number of nodes, so it is
difficult for discrete event simulations to analyze and handle such a large number
of events. Agent-based modeling provides better understanding of CASs, so Chord
being a complex in nature is also modeled in agent based model (ABM) to get the
higher level of abstraction of a system.
In this chapter, we have modeled Chord in DescRiptivE Agent-based Models
(DREAM) [13] for higher level of abstraction. For textual description of Chord,
Overview, design concepts and details (ODD) [14] is used. To best of our knowledge,
Chord is not yet modeled in DREAM and ODD in the literature.
The main contributions of our works are as follows:
● We have replicated the results of PeerSim-Chord [15] in NetLogo [16].
● We have modeled Chord in ODD for its textual description.

1
Cosmose Research Group, COMSATS University, Pakistan
240 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

● For pseudo-code-based specification and centralities measure, we have modeled

Chord in DREAM.
● We have compared and discussed the results of PeerSim and NetLogo.
Rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Second section covers background and lit-
erature review, and in the third section we have modeled Chord in ODD and DREAM.
Fourth section discusses the results, and the last section concludes the chapter.

9.2 Background and literature review

9.2.1 CAS literature

The systems have multiple agents connected with each other and interact nonlinearly.
Each agent has certain state variables associated with it. Change in state variables
of agents effects the whole system. Such systems are referred as CASs [10]. CAS
can be natural or artificial in nature; social network and growing plants are exam-
ples of natural CAS, while complex adaption communication networks, i.e., P2P,
ad-hoc or wireless network are examples of artificial CAS [13]. Niazi et al. pro-
posed a framework formal agent-based simulation framework that can be used for
sensing complex wireless networks as well as an environment [17]. Later, they
extended their work and proposed a model for sensing emergent behavior in complex
networks [18].

9.2.2 Modeling and simulation of CACOONS

As the network size increases with advancement of technology, the nonlinear inter-
actions of the agents increase complexity and the complex emergent behavior is
observed [19]. Usefulness of the agent-based models to develop complex networks
is demonstrated in literature. Agent-based modeling is useful for modeling of CASs .
It is also useful for the P2P networks Complex Adaptive COmmunicatiOn Networks
and eNvironmentS (CACOONS) [20]. Niazi et al. [21] evaluated and demonstrated
the usefulness of agent-based tools for modeling of P2P and complex communication
networks. Modeling of complex network of chord as agent based helps in simulating
different scenarios of node adding, leaving and maintenance of network. It also helps
to understand the problems of complex network when the system receives a lot of
updates and congestion occurs. Deep insight of complex network scenario modeling
can be achieved through it.
9.2.2.1 Agent-based modeling
Thomas Schelling’s (1971) [22] pioneering work urban residential segregation model
was a basic concept of ABMs. Thomas’ model was not computational, but agents
were interacting with environment. ABM share their origins with cellular automata
(CA) in the work of Von Neumann, Ulam, and Conway. Agent-based models
(ABM) emphasize on individual component. Agents can be humans, vehicles, prod-
ucts, equipment, or companies, whatever is appropriate for the specific system.
It is a computational model for simulating the actions of agent, their interaction with
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 241

environment, their behavior, and studying their behavior and influence of agent on
the system as a whole. An ABM consists of agents and their specific model measures
and types:

● decision-making rules in the real-world learning rules;

● a method for agent movement, e.g., move and interact; and
● an environment variable sets that can be impacted by the agents.

Agent-based modeling of network protocols can help understanding intricate sce-

narios of complex networks. Agent-based simulation tools, i.e., NetLogo can
simulate P2P networks better than many network simulation tools [23]. Batool
et al. [24] give guidelines for developing wireless sensor networks using agent-based
modeling.

CABC framework levels

There are four levels of ABM framework depending upon the available data, interest
of researcher and time spend on research. CAS research can be conducted by using
one of the following level.

1. Complex network model is designed when the data of interaction is available and
analysis is done to observe emergent pattern in CAS.
2. Exploratory agent-based modeling is done when interaction data is not available.
It is used for exploring previous concepts, authenticate concept, and predict future
research dimension.
3. Descriptive agent-based modeling to compare interdisciplinary models to learn
and enhance knowledge.
4. Validation-based modeling to predict simulation results according to the case.

9.2.2.2 Complex network modeling

Complex networking model is adapted from graphs. It has nodes and links. Once
the data for modeling is captured, there are many network tools that can be used
for analyzing the network. Centrality measures can be used for quantitative analysis
of network. Degree centrality simply defines number of connections of nodes with
other nodes. For direction, there is in degree and out degree. High degree centrality
value nodes will be more important, and any fault in its working will affect the
whole network working. Eccentricity is the measure of distance from a node to all
other nodes. Node that is near to other nodes will get high value. Betweenness is the
measure of nodes ability to observe communication in network.

9.2.3 Chord P2P protocol

9.2.3.1 Architecture and working
Chord has different functions for node joining, leaving, mapping the keys and recovery
from failures. Each of these is explained in detail in below sections.
242 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.1 Hashes for nodes

Hash Key

H(192.168.23.1) N0
H(192.167.1.1) N3
H(192.168.22.2) N4
H(192.169.23.4) N6
H(191.167.1.3) N8

Table 9.2 Example hash keys

for data items

Hash Key

H(A) K0
H(B) K3
H(C) K4
H(D) K6
H(E) K8

9.2.4 Hashing and key mapping

It uses the consistent hashing for assigning keys to nodes and objects. Hash function
used in chord is SHA-1 [25]. SHA-1 uses IPs for generating keys for nodes and
generated keys for data item as well. Tables 9.1 and 9.2 depict the example of hash
table for lookup a node and for data item keys. After hash keys are generated, keys
are assigned to their relevant nodes.

9.2.5 Node joining

Successor nodes are nodes in a clockwise direction and predecessor are in counter-
clockwise direction. Predecessor and successor pointers are sustained by every node
in a chord. When any node k wants to join a chord ring, it first calls join (n) function
(n is any node in a ring). Node n finds the successor of k and returns it to k. The node
k starts pointing to relevant node as successor. The rest of the chord nodes are not
aware of the join () operation of k node.

9.2.6 Finger table

To accelerate the lookup process chord uses the finger table. Finger table maintains
the information of some of nodes for efficient retrieval of information. Every node
keeps a finger table with k records (where N = 2k ). First entry in a finger table is a
start which is calculated at any node ‘n’ using (n + 2i − 1) mod N. Then second entry
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 243

Table 9.3 Finger table entries

Finger table

Start Interval Successor Key

(n + 2i−1 ) mod N (finger[i].start, Next node key
finger [i+1].start) in clockwise direction

Finger table N0
Start Interval Successor
1 (1,2) 3
2 (2,4) 3 K 0, K12
4 (4,0) 6

Finger table N3
N0 Start Interval Successor
N12 N1 4 (4,5) 4
K1, K2,
5 (5,7) 6 K3
N11 7 (7,8) 8
N2
Finger table N4
N10 Start Interval Successor
5 (5,6) 6
N3
6 (6,8) 6 K4
N9 8 (8,0) 8
Finger table N8
Start Interval Successor N4
9 (9,10) 0
10 (10,12) 0 K7, K 8 N5 Finger table N6
N8 Start Interval Successor
12 (12,3) 0 N7 7 (7,8) 8
N6
8 (8,10) 8 K5, K 6
10 (10,0) 0

Figure 9.1 Finger table at active nodes. Adapted, with permission, from
Reference [2]

is an interval = (finger[i].start, finger [i + 1].start) and third entry in a finger table is

successor of node n as shown in Table 9.3. Every node maintains its finger table and
updates it regularly after any node join and leave. Figure 9.1 shows finger table for
active nodes in a chord ring.

9.2.7 Stabilization
As nodes frequently join and leave a chord ring which makes chord network dynamic,
the key task of chord is executing these operations to preserve the ability to find
each key in the ring. In chord when node wants to join or leave the ring, the finger
244 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Finger table N0
Start Interval Successor
1 (1,2) 3
2 (2,4) 3 K 0, K12
4 (4,0) 6

Finger table N3
N0 Start Interval Successor
N12 N1 4 (4,5) 4
K1, K2,
5 (5,7) 6 K3
N11 7 (7,8) 8
N2

N10 Finger table N4

Start Interval Successor
N3 5 (5,6) 6
6 (6,8) 7
Finger table N8 N9 K4
8 (8,0) 8
Start Interval Successor
9 (9,10) 0 N4
10 (10,12) 0
K8 N5 Finger table N6
12 (12,3) 0 N8 Start Interval Successor
N7 N6 7 (7,8) 8
Finger table N7
Start Interval Successor 8 (8,10) 8 K5, K 6
8 (8,9) 8 10 (10,0) 0
9 (9,11) 0
11 (11,3) 0 K7

Figure 9.2 Finger table at nodes after stabilization. Adapted, with permission,
from Reference [2]

table should be updated accordingly for up-to-date information. This will ensure the
efficient retrieval of information. To attain this objective, Chord needs to maintain
nodes successor correctly and key should be maintained by node successor. When
joining or leaving a chord ring, node impact the ring by changing successor and
predecessor of previously joined nodes, to maintain the entries correctly. Chord uses
stabilize () function to update the changes in finger tables. And for fast lookup of
entries, it is also necessary for finger table to be accurate.

● In stabilization at first join function is being called and then node’s finger and
predecessor are initialized. Suppose in Figure 9.2, N7 wants to join chord ring,
initially successor of N6 is N8 and predecessor of N8 is N6. When N7 runs
stabilize(), it asks N8 for its predecessor and resolves whether N8 should be
N7 successor instead. Stabilize() then informs node N7 successor of N7 pres-
ence, giving the successor the chance to change its predecessor to N7 depicted in
Figure 9.3.
● Existing nodes finger tables are updated to rationalize the changes. For example,
in Figure 9.2, finger table N4 is updated as node N7 is added to the ring. Successor
of node N6 is now updated as N7 in finger table of node 4.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 245

Succ N6 = N7 Predece N7 = N8

N6 N7 N8

Predece N7 = N6 Predece N8 = N7

Figure 9.3 Successor and predecessor assignment after new node joining

● The last process is shifting of item keys to new joining node. In Figure 9.2, K7
is shifted from N8 to N7 when N7 joined the chord ring. And now N8 has only
responsibility of K8 as K7 is moved to new added node.

9.2.8 Performance of chord

● Load balancing: Consistent hashing provides load balancing by distributing load
on different nodes, and each node is accountable for around K/N keys (K keys,
N nodes).
● Scalable: Chord is scalable as it requires O(log n) lookup messages.
● Fault tolerant: When nodes join or leave a network, only O(log2 N) messages are
necessary to rebuild routing invariants and finger tables.

9.2.9 PeerSim
9.2.10 Literature review
Many variants of chord are proposed in literature. Different Chord-based protocols
are proposed in literature to improve and enhance the functionality of a Chord P2P
protocol. Some of renowned work is investigated and presented below.

9.2.10.1 Security-based chord

Chord protocol is decentralized, scalable, and provides load balancing. Security is an
important aspect in any P2P network. In this paper [26], author proposed distributed
public key–based protocol which is built on Chord called as Chord-PKI. Chord-
PKI exploits the functionality of a Chord lookup function and distributes storage,
retrieval, certification and revocation functionalities between the nodes. In this way
making the protocol self-sufficient and fully distributed. Chord-PKI assured security
under different network conditions. Revocation and trust models are still needed to
be improved for large-scale networks.
When we talk about security in P2P systems, malicious node attacks are the major
concern. One of these attack is Eclipse [27] that adds malicious entries in finger table
of a node which lead to false lookup or lookup latency increases. In this paper [28],
two mitigation technique is proposed to overcome the Eclipse attack. Results show
that it avoids attack, but the approach is not compared with other proposed approach
for verification purpose.
246 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

File distributed P2P systems are vulnerable to attacks. As mostly cryptographic

approaches does not protect these systems from denial of service attack or lookup
query attack. In this paper [29], a layer LocationGuard is proposed which resides above
the chord network layer. It protects files on any P2P systems from attacks by providing
location key of random string, secure algorithm for file protection and location-
inference guards. The results show that the proposed LocationGuard approach is
effective against denial of service attack and peer compromise attack.
In this paper, Sybil attacks [30] are taking into care. Sybil attacks are most
dangerous attacks for P2P systems. Basically, Sybil attack obtains multiple identities
called “sybil” in order to perform different malicious activities in a network. In this
paper [31], the authors proposed a way for attacker to figure out certain number
of node IDs to attack a network. It shows that this technique limits Sybil attack on
network. The limitation of this paper is that it does not consider other attacks if it
happens, i.e., routing attack.
Security is a major issue in P2P systems. When Chord is making its DHT, it is
not resilient to malicious nodes. In this paper [32], the authors proposed a CR-Chord
in which a node maintains cycles in its finger table. This cycle is the path to finger
and return back to original node. Results showed that CR-Chord outperforms chord
in terms of lookup failure and lookup availability. The only limitation of CR-Chord
is that it maintains extra entry in finger table which is overhead.
As a lot of nodes keep joining and leaving the network, so it is necessary to
introduce a trust model to check the credibility of any node. Meng et al. [33] proposed
guarantee-based trust model in chord. So each node that is providing any service will
have a guarantee peer that will rate the service quality of that node. Service demanding
node will check reputation of all the nodes that are providing that service and then
avail service form the node that has best reputation of all. Results show that the
proposed model is efficient than the previous model and reduces the risk of malicious
attacks. Results of model in real world are not discussed.

9.2.10.2 Peer data management-based chord

In the chord protocol data, lookup is not very efficient, so there is need of mechanism
that should be able to query the data as fast as possible. Some variant of chord based
on peer-data management is explained below.
Peer-data management is a major issue in P2P systems. The main problem is
how to efficiently utilize metadata on shared resources and to reduce the search
query time. In ML-Chord [34], resources are distributed into multilayers based on
ontology. Results shows that ML-Chords performs better in the case of failure, average
query cost, node joining cost, and average maintenance cost as compared to Chord.
A limitation of ML-Chord is with the increase of number of nodes, average query
response time increases.
Peer-data management is a promising area in P2P system. In R-Chord [35], a
semantic-based resource organization model is proposed. It integrates three different
models DHT Chord protocol, Resource Space Model, and P2P Semantic Link model
to retrieve resources effectively. It performs better in terms of average query response
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 247

time as compared to chord. Limitation of this approach is that only average query
response time is measured, other parameters like latency and failures are ignored.
The similarity data retrieval is a major issue in P2P systems. In M-Chord [36],
generalized vector technique iDistance [37] is used to map a data into one-dimensional
sphere. The data is divided among the nodes in a ring network. Similarity search
algorithm for query processing is proposed. Results show that it performs better in
query processing as compared to chord. Limitation of this work is while processing
query, maximum hop-count increases with the increase of nodes in a network.
Search for data on node is successful only when exact keyword is given for search
but mostly we only know some features of data. Moreover, the keyword distribution is
mostly skewed which means some keywords occur often and other occur rarely. To deal
with this problem, concept of multi-keyword queries is implemented and every node
is assigned with a keyword to refer the objects that have that keyword [38]. Keyword
feature vector, of size Q, of the data is formed and stored at different nodes in the Q
dimensional feature space. Query efficiency of the system should be improved.
In chord with the passage of time, network gets large and time to query the data
gets high. The existing data query approaches support the key-value based search
which does not support the semantic-based search. A small-world-based overlay for
P2P search is proposed [39] in which author introduced the design of an overlay
network, named semantic small world (SSW). SSW integrates four ideas: semantic
clustering, dimension reduction, the small world network, and the efficient search
algorithm that boost the data search in semantic-based search in P2P system. The
simulation results of the tests are quite reasonable than the traditional chord network.
In the proposed approach, the information of physical network is missing because if
the nodes are far away from each other than the result would be different.

9.2.10.3 Mobility-based chord

Mobile node and wireless-based Chord is presented in literature. Some of the work
is studied and presented in below section.
Mostly P2P protocols does not consider the node’s mobility. Chord also does
not have any mechanism if mobile nodes join the chord ring. In this paper [40],
mobile chord (M-Chord) is presented to accommodate the node’s mobility. M-Chord
implements hierarchical structure to establish network of mobile nodes and it presents
registering mechanism on top of Chord. M-Chord performs well in terms of efficiency
and robustness as compared to chord. M-chord limitations are there in extensive load
on super node.
Mobility of the nodes effects the performance of the protocol. Mobile robust
Chord (MR-Chord) has been introduced that uses modified distribution hash
protocol [41]. The real-time fix scheme is used to fix fingers in the case of query
failure. The detect fix scheme is used to fix fingers in the network initially. Weather
the node is moving or not, MR-Chord performs better than original Chord procedure
in terms of lookup success and delay time.
In [42], the authors of this paper have implemented the chord into wireless mesh
networks. In this approach, they have proposed the visibility of wireless infrastructure,
the 1-hop broadcast nature of wireless communication and MAC layer cross-layering.
248 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Author’s combined these protocol and make a MESH-CHORD to minimize the prob-
lem due to mobility and to achieve better results. Results show that message overhead
reduces for about 40% in static environment and cross layering increases the success-
ful operations to 94%, while in the case of original Chord, it will drop to 70%. If the
traffic is high, MESH-CHORD slows down.

9.2.10.4 Hierarchy-based chord

Chord and other structured protocols considered peers at the same level, which means
they have flat distributed hash table. Practically it is not possible for every peer to
offer same functionalities. In this paper [43], author proposed hierarchical DHT
system to solve the problem of flat DHT. Nodes are assigned different hierarchies
based on calculated load factor of each node. Operation cost of every hierarchy is
also calculated for optimal design. Evaluation results shows that hierarchical P2P
systems performs better than flat DHT in terms of node’s capability. Limitation of
this approach is that it assumes equal group sizes in hierarchy of super-peers.
Chou et al. [44] address the problem of hot spots in networks. Hot spots are points
which are accessed more frequently than other nodes. This results in congestion in that
part of the network. They presented a model named SCALLOP, which is a structured
scalable and loading balancing P2P network. Scalability is achieved using complete
balancing tree such that if the load exceeds certain level, it will be equally distributed
between neighboring sibling nodes. Performance results of SCALLOP are compared
with Chord and Koorde [45] protocols. SCALLOP works fine for small networks,
for extremely large networks an extension of SCALLOP Sparse SCALLOP [46] is
introduced as updating of all lookup tables after adding and removing the node in an
extensive network causing a lot of updating messages. This SCALLOP causes more
bottle neck as compared to SCALLOP but performs better than Chord, so a trade-off
lies here.

9.2.10.5 Routing and latency-based chord

Delay in routing and high latency is the major problem in Chord protocol. Ruben
et al. [47] worked to improve Jain’s Fairness Index from 0.6 to 0.9 by improving
the finger selection algorithm. Different sizes of the zones between the node effect
unfairness in routing. The new algorithm enhanced Chord removes the size of zone
effect on routing. When a query is received for finger, one of the randomly chosen
successor of the node is sent back to improve balancing and there is no extra overhead
added to previous chord algorithm.
Routing in the Chord is inefficient, so in this paper [48] authors have designed
a methodology to improve the routing capability in the Chord network. To make the
routing efficient in the chord networks, they have combined the routing proximity
with the traditional chord algorithm and named it P-Chord. The results show that
P-Chord is 18.52% lower in the case of routing latency than the original Chord. In
the proposed approach, mechanism of node joining and leaving is not discussed.
Due to mismatch between an overlay and its physical network, the routing latency
in existing DHT in chord is relatively high. The ability of IPv6 hierarchical feature
and standard address allocation scheme proposed [49] a method to get incorporate
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 249

topology information (IPv6 address have these information) and use it in the construc-
tion of DHT system that is used in the Chord. It creates many small local chord using
IPv6 hierarchical address prefix and embed them into Global Chord. This approach
does not define node joining mechanism.
In the Chord, the peers are not aware of the underlaying physical path of other
peers which cause end-to-end delay because of the largest path for routing. Apply any-
cast (one-to-nearest-one-of-many) [50] of IPv6 to tell the nodes of the Chord network
more about their underlying network topology to achieve better routing efficiency.
Chord know the physical topology of the network which is done by using any-cast
of IPv6, so it is performed on the 1,740 nodes which join and leave the network
randomly and used the relative plenty delayed and which show that to query data
along the network is 28% efficient than the original chord. The problem they have is
it will work only for ideal any-cast, if it is not the case, it will be failed which is quite
hard to implement in today’s network.

9.2.10.6 Load distribution and resource allocation based Chord

Imbalanced distribution of load along the network nodes is an immense challenge,
but some authors consider it as an opportunity to improve system performance [51].
Skewed data distribution degrades the performance of the system. To tackle this
problem acceleration, nodes are placed in network that are replica nodes of the popular
nodes. A number of replica nodes depend upon the popularity of the nodes. As the
skewness of data increases, system performance increases. There exists a trade-off
between performance improvement and cost paid for the network.
In the original Chord P2P networks, assigning a resource to peers when new
resource is published, this method is quite slow and does not needs to be carried
out. In the following paper [52], the method Self-Chord is proposed. Self-chord
decouples the meaning of resources and peers; this results in two sets of keys that
can have different multiplicity. A key can be assigned to resources depending on
the requirement of a specific domain on the desired roughness of desired resource
categorization. Self-Chord does not place resource keys to specified hosts, as Chord
does; this feature is actually unnecessary and limits the system flexibility. The tests
have been performed on 256 nodes because their linear approach is very slow,
the number of steps needed to reach the target peer is logarithmic with respect to
the number of peers since each step allows the search space to be approximately
halved, as in Chord. This paper has open research for P2P frameworks because
it presents a P2P system that inherits the beneficial characteristics of structured
systems self-organization, adaptivity, scalability, and fast recovery from external
perturbations.

9.2.10.7 Other chord-based approaches

Gao et al. [53] discussed a model for content discovery system that helps to excess
content that is present on other nodes along the network. Previous models like chord
performance is improved by introducing scalability and more features. Scalability is
enhanced by adding rendezvous points, to handle registration and queries, and load
250 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

balancing matrix. Attribute value pairs are used for increasing the ability to search
content without using its canonical name. If the registration rate or data-hosting rate
of a node exceed specified threshold or the handling matrix is in dynamic state, the
registration may fail.
Number of hops (path length) and actual time required for lookup are two
parameters that play role in key lookup. Enhanced bidirectional chord and enhanced
bidirectional chord with lookup-parasitic random sampling are proposed to reduce
lookup path length and latency, respectively [54]. Two finger table approach used
in these will increase robustness. Enhanced bidirectional chord protocol can reduce
path length up to 36% and latency 36%. Other approach can reduce path length and
latency up to 33% and 63%, respectively. System robustness for the proposed model
is not discussed.
Tai et al. [55] proposed a LISP-PChord to increase the scalability and trustwor-
thiness. The users keep on changing theirs IPs, and the routing tables of the system
updating keeps going on. Pointer nodes are introduced and mapping is done with
physical nodes using LP and genetic algorithm. There are three layers: pointer space,
logical space, and physical space. Pointer space meets the routing fairness and desired
load balance through divisibility.
The motivation behind this paper [56] is to propose a WILCO that is not
only aware of the P2P availability but also peer’s location and services as well.
This paper proposes a wireless location-aware Chord-based overlay mechanism for
WMNs (WILCO). The location awareness of the proposed mechanism is achieved
through a novel geographical multilevel Chord-ID assignment to the MRs on grid
WMNs. Also an improved finger table is proposed in the paper to make use of
the geographical multilevel ID assignment to minimize the underlay hop count of
overlay messages. The proposed scheme outperforms the original Chord and the
state-of-the-art MeshChord in terms of lookup efficiency and it significantly reduces
the overlay message overhead. Algorithms efficiently deploy P2P services, content
replication, and update and make use of the location awareness to improve service
quality.
In this paper [57], an improved version of Chord algorithm has been proposed.
The way Chord is initially designed does not consider physical characteristics of a
network. Also, while calculating the optimal path for data query, network latency is
ignored. These issues have been fixed by first analyzing and identifying the redundant
information in the Chord finger table. Then that redundant information is modi-
fied in a way so that it can be utilized in a more efficient manner. There was no
runtime addition or deletion of nodes from the network, and their effects were not
recorded.

9.3 ODD model of a “Chord”

The ODD protocol was first proposed by Grimm et al. [58] and later updated and
standardized in [14]. ODD model is a textual description of any agent-based model
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 251

and individual-based models. The basic principal of ODD was to make models more
descriptive and understandable.

9.3.1 Purpose
The aim of this work is to design and implement agent-based model of P2P network
protocol chord in NetLogo and compare its results with object-based model of chord
in PeerSim. Chord can provide efficient search, data locater and authentication, etc.
Agent-based model of chord helps us in acquiring deep understanding of chord agents
and its procedures. Through this model, we can perform behavioral study for agents
by initializing variables to different values and simulate results.

9.3.2 Entities, state variables, and scales

Following are the entities of chord model:

9.3.2.1 Agents/Individuals
There are four types of agents that are nodes, update-nodes, seeker nodes, and ping.
Node is the most vital agent of the model as it depicts the node of the network.
Basically, all the active nodes have finger tables and data stored in those tables depicts
state variables of that node. State variables of nodes are

Hid: Hash id of the node calculated using HSA-I

Suc: Successor of the node
Pred: Predecessor of the node
Fingers: Finger table of node
In-ring: To depict if the node is part of ring
Next: To point to finger table entry

Update-nodes handle fingers table updates of the network. State variables of update
nodes are

ConnectTo: The point to which finger is to connect

In-ring: To show if the node is part of ring
Dest: Destination node whose finger table is to be updated
Entry: The slot of finger table that is subject of update

Seeker-nodes are the nodes that are in search of successor and predecessor. State
variables of seeker-nodes are

Sender: The node that is seeking for successor

Seeking: The node that is sending messages
Dest: The node to which message is sent
Entry: The slot for which message is sent
In-ring: To check if the node in part of ring
252 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Pings are the messages that are sent by nodes to other nodes in network to find
successor and to connect its fingers to nodes.

Sender: The sender of the message

Dest: The destination of ping message
In-ring: To check if the node is part of ring

9.3.2.2 Spatial units

Total number of nodes traversed for finding a key in the network represents the spatial
units of the model. In our model, total number of links shows total hops.

9.3.2.3 Environment
Environment depicts the hardware on which this chord protocol is working. In our
model, this protocol works on nodes. Nodes can be routers, hubs, or any gateways in
real environment.

9.3.2.4 Collectives
All the nodes combine to form the shape of a ring using function in-ring. All the
nodes in network define their successors, predecessors, and location of their fingers
and links are formed. Any key is looked up in the network using links between the
nodes.

9.3.3 Process overview and scheduling

First of all, setup procedure is called to set the environment for this protocol. Hash id is
assigned to every node. Initially, nodes are defined, their predecessor is set to nobody
and successor are set to itself. The node following the node under consideration on
the identifier ring is the successor, while the previous node from the node under
consideration on the identifier ring is its predecessor. Then for nodes which want
to join their successor, predecessor and finger tables are defined. Successors of the
node are found by calling find-successor procedure. New node is added to the ring and
the maintenance procedure is called. Maintenance procedure stabilizes the network
and fix fingers of nodes. Fingers are placed using formula (n + 2k − 1) mod 2 m,
1 ≤ k ≤ m, where n represents the node number and m represents the number of
digits in node hash id. When a node joins or leaves the network, finger table entries of
all nodes that are connected to it upgrade their finger table as a message is circulated
by the successor of leaving node informing nodes about its departure.

9.3.4 Design concepts

9.3.4.1 Basic principles
To lookup a key in the network, we maintain finger table. Each node in the network
maintains a finger table in which information about the nodes to which the node
is connected through its fingers is stored. Where to put fingers is calculated using
formula where n represents the node number and m represents the number of digits
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 253

in node hash id. Complexity for key lookup is O(log N). Node joining or leaving
the network will create O(log2 N) messages to maintain the finger tables. Scope of
basic principles is of sub-models level. The model will provide insight about the basic
principles as through agents we can relate working of model in real word scenarios
through the agents. The model use previously developed theory of agent-based traits
from which system dynamics emerge. In this model, individuals are represented as
network nodes and their behaviors are tracked with time.

9.3.4.2 Emergence
The nodes connect to form a ring. For look-up key is forwarded through the network
using the links formed between nodes.

9.3.4.3 Adaptation
When a node leaves or joins the network, the finger tables of all nodes associated with
that node gets updated. The updating process ensures successful lookup of keys, as to
achieve success in key lookup, proper data storage at node finger table is necessary.

9.3.4.4 Objectives
The adaptive trait of updating finger tables increase the success of key lookup. The
lookup success is measured on two basics. Number of hops and success in finding
the particular key determines the success of key lookup.

9.3.4.5 Learning
When a node leaves a network, its predecessor and successor update their finger tables
and inform other nodes about it.

9.3.4.6 Sensing
When a node wants to join the network, it send messages to the nearby nodes and
then gets connected to the nearest node. Then its immediate successor is found on the
circle, and rest of the network is updated through stabilization.

9.3.4.7 Stochasticity
The process of node joining or leaving are stochastic. There is no particular frequency
for it.

9.3.4.8 Interaction
There are direct interactions between nodes. These interactions are represented
through links. For looking up a key in the network, these direct links are used.

9.3.4.9 Collectives
All the nodes join to form a ring-shaped structure, and each node effects this collective
work. Each node is connected to its successor, predecessor, and other nodes through
its fingers.
254 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

9.3.4.10 Observation
All the nodes join to form a ring-shaped structure, and each node effect this collective
work. Each node is connected to its successor, predecessor, and other nodes through
its fingers.

9.3.5 Initialization
Hash degree, number of node and add nodes are the state variables. Initially, all nodes
are defined, and but they are not connected to each other. The number of nodes are
there initially and its value can be set through slider. Initialization can be varied among
different simulations.

9.3.6 Input data

Input data is not given by any external source. The values of variables defined are
used by the model.

9.3.7 Sub-models
Sub-models make it easy to understand a code.

9.3.7.1 Set-up
It is called to clear previous variables and set-up environment for new simulation.

9.3.7.2 Init-node
It initializes nodes and sets their state variable values.

9.3.7.3 Create-network
It creates a ring of some nodes, and rest of the nodes keep on joining the network.

9.3.7.4 Go
It is the main procedure that starts the simulation. All other main procedures like start
messages, update messages, and maintenance are called from it.

9.4 DREAM model of a “Chord”

In this section, we will give detail DREAM model of a chord protocol.

9.4.1 Agent design

9.4.1.1 State charts (of agents)
In our system, if a node wants to join a network, it first sends ping message to the
network; the node which sends ping then changes its state and becomes seeker-node.
The seeker-node gets successors and predecessor response from a node in a network.
Then other nodes in the network changes its state to update-node. The finger table is
updated in update-node state. The state diagram of agents is shown in Figure 9.4.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 255

Start

Node wants to join

Node Ping-Node
Sends ping

Update finger table Find successor and predecessor

of existing node when new node join /leave and create finger table

Update-Node

Seeker-Node

Update the successor list and

predecessor list and finger table

Figure 9.4 State diagrams of a node agent when it joins network

9.4.2 Activity diagrams

The overall flow activities of chord network implementation in NetLogo and some
of the descriptions are as follows: procedures are the main cores of chord network
of agent based in NetLogo. Setup activity is used to set default values which are
necessary for the network creation, and this activity is dependent upon global agent
which will provide the values for default parameters. After the network is setup, the
next activity will be the go which will start the network and whole operations almost
happened in this activity, but this activity is dependent upon the agent activity of
seeker-node which is used to help get attributes for the new node which wants to join
the network and the previous node which is the part of the network and the control
will be shifted to go and this agents activity that is seeker-node and update-node will
be calling by the go again and again. This flow of activity is shown in Figure 9.5 and
Figure 9.6.

9.4.3 Flowchart
A flowchart is used to describe the algorithms and processes. A flowchart basi-
cally gives the step-by-step information that is needed for working of any process
or algorithm. The flowchart shown in Figure 9.7 explains the steps of initial network
formation in Chord algorithm. First, it initialize the values of network size, finger size,
node that can join the network and leave the network. The hash function is used to get
the hash value of node IP. After the hash IDs has been assigned to nodes, nodes try to
256 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Start

Procedures Globals

To set up the simulation environment

and set nodes with the
default values and preconditions
Input global
values from
Setup sliders and program

Start the simulation and

create the network

Exit when final

Go
condition meets

Seeker-Node

Calls the update node to get the succor of node

and predecessor of node and to update the finger table

Update-Node
end

Figure 9.5 Activity diagram of Chord protocol

find successors using seeker messages. Fingers of nodes are placed at the respective
nodes in the ring. When a node leaves or join, maintenance procedure is called to
update finger table (Table 9.4).

9.4.4 Pseudo-code based specification

9.4.4.1 Agents and breed
Here we will describe agents and breed. For our model, we have four different types
of agents: agent node, update-node agent, seeker-node agent, and ping-node agent.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 257

Join Node

Send ping Initialize finger

request table

Find successor

Update table

Maintain finger
table

Figure 9.6 Activity diagram of a join node procedure

Node agent
Node agents are the main agents of a chord protocol as depicted in Table 9.5. They rep-
resent nodes in a network. They are placed in a ring network. They can communicate
with each other using messages. Breed Node is the first one to explain in pseudo-code
based specification. It has six variables which are hid, predecessor, successor, fingers,
in-ring, and next. The variable “hid” is Hash id and is identification number assigned
to nodes generated by a hash algorithm SHA [25]. Predecessor is the id of a previous
node of any given node. Successor is the id of next node in a network. Next variable
is fingers, it is fingers of nodes which are linked to any specific node at any given
time in a finger table. The variable in-ring is used to create ring for nodes. The last
variable “next” is next node entry in a finger table.
258 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Network size,
Start number of nodes
added/removed

Assign hashes to
nodes and keys

Find Successor

i <= size of fingers No

Yes

Update finger
Maintenance
table

i++
Yes

Receive update

No

End

Figure 9.7 Flowchart of a Chord network

The next is “seeker-Node.” seeker-Node shown in Table 9.6 is the one who wants
to join ring network. It is used to find successor of a node. Seeker node seeks for a
key in a network. It has five different variables. The “sender” variable is used for the
node who wants to know its successor. The “seeking” is the data key which any node
wants to find, “destination” variable is the successor of node sender. The variable
entry is the entry in a finger table, and last variable “in-ring” is used to join ring.
The next breed is “update-Node” breed. “update-Node” breed is used to respond
to “seeker-Node” breed. It responds to seeker node by sending message to seeker-
Node. Message either contains desired successor address or a closest preceding node
address if desired successor is not found. It has four variables, “connectTonode,”
Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 259

Table 9.4 Table showing nodes connection when

creating network in Pajek

Node from Node to

ABM Agents
ABM Globals
Globals InputGlobals
Globals OutputGlobals
Agents Agent-Attributes
Agents Agent-Breed
ABM BS-Expts
ABM Procedures
BS-Expts network-size
Agent-Breed Node
Agent-Breed Update-Node
Agent-Breed Seeker-Node
Agent-Breed Ping-Node
InputGlobals network-size
InputGlobals stabilize-count
InputGlobals Speed
Node Node-Attributes
Update-Node Update-Node-Attributes
Seeker-Node Seeker-Node-Attributes
Node-Attributes hid
Node-Attributes predecessor
Node-Attributes successor
Node-Attributes fingers
Node-Attributes in-ring
Node-Attributes next
Update-Node-Attributes ConnectToNode
Update-Node-Attributes in-ring
Update-Node-Attributes destination
Update-Node-Attributes entry
Seeker-Node-Attributes sender
Seeker-Node-Attributes seeking
Seeker-Node-Attributes in-ring
Seeker-Node-Attributes destination
Seeker-Node-Attributes entry
Procedure setup
Procedure init-node
Procedure create-network
Procedure start-messages
Procedure lookup-messages
Procedure maintenance
Procedure find-successor
Procedure join-node
Procedure lookup
Procedure stabilize
Procedure notify
Procedure lookup-ping
Procedure fix-fingers
Procedure report
Procedure init-fingers
Procedure receive-update
260 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.5 Agent Breed Node

Breed Node: This breed represents the Node

Internal Variables:<hid predecessor successor fingers in-ring next >

hid: hash ID of a given node
predecessor: previous node in a network
successor: next node of a given node
fingers: fingers (links) of a given node
in-ring: network ring which is made up of nodes
next: next node entry in finger table

Table 9.6 Agent Breed seeker-Node

Breed seeker-Node: This breed represents the seeker Node

Internal Variables:<sender seeking destination entry in-ring >

sender: node which wants to join a ring
seeking: node seeking for a successor
destination: destination node with which nodes want to connect
entry: update entry in finger table
in-ring: ring network

Table 9.7 Agent Breed update-Node

Breed update-Node: This breed represents the update Node

Internal Variables:<connectTonode in-ring destination entry >

connectTonode: creating links which connects nodes.
in-ring: network ring which is made up of nodes
destination: destination of a node.
entry: finger table entry

“in-ring,” “destination,” and “entry.” The variable “connectTonode” is used to con-

nect seeker node to its successor. The variable “in-ring” is used to join ring and
variable “destination” is either address of successor or address of closest preceding
node. The last variable “entry” is used to update entry in finger table. As depicted in
Table 9.7
The agent “ping-Node” is used when a new node wants to join a network, it sends
a ping message to network (Table 9.8).

9.4.4.2 Globals
Next we will explain globals used in our simulation model Chord. We have
four global input variables described in Table 9.9. The variables “network-size,”
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 261

Table 9.8 Agent Breed ping-Node

Breed ping-Node: This breed represents the ping Node

Internal Variables: < sender destination in-ring >

sender: sender which sends ping.
in-ring: network ring which is made up of nodes
destination: node which receive pings

Table 9.9 Input Globals

Input Globals: <network-size,node-join,node-leave,update-frequency speed,stabilize-count,>

Sliders :
network-size : it is used to give total number of nodes in a ring
node-join : no. of nodes want to join the network
node-leave : no. of nodes want to leave the network
update-frequency : time after which stabilize is called to update the finger table.
Switch :
speed : distance between two nodes
stabilize-count : used to count stabilization call

“node-join,” “node-leave,” and “update-frequency” are taken from sliders and are
provided by user. The other two variables “speed” and “stabilize-count” are declared
globally in a program. The variable “stabilize-count” is to count how many times the
procedure stabilize is called, and the last variable “speed” is used to calculate the
distance between two nodes (Table 9.9).

9.4.4.3 Procedures
First procedure to be called is setup. Setup is the key procedure which should be
called at the start of the simulation every time. Purpose of setup is to clear previously
declared environment variables and to prepare the workspace for new simulation. It
clears the output generated by previous simulation and reset ticks as well. The setup
procedure in our case will call init-node procedure which initializes the nodes. After
nodes are initializes, message is sent to each node to set their labels as hash ids and set
their color to given color. Create network procedure is called to create empty chord
network for new nodes. And at the end, nodes are arranged in a ring shape using
layout-circle function (Table 9.10).
Init-node is a function which will create nodes for simulation. It is called from
procedure setup. It creates nodes using global variable network-size from slider. It
sets successor and predecessor to nobody. It sends message to node to set its shape
to circle and calculate hash ids for nodes as their identification key. Hash ids are
calculated using 2HashDegree , where hash degree is taken from slider as global variable.
And it initializes finger table to 160 entries (Table 9.11).
262 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.10 Procedure setup

Procedure setup : setting up the simulation

Input: It Uses global variables and parameters from user interface

Output: All nodes and environment is setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
begin
1. clear the screen
2. clear all nodes
3. clear output
4. reset ticks
5. create nodes
End

Table 9.11 Procedure init-node

Procedure init-node : To initialize nodes and generate hash keys

Input: Uses internal variables of nodes

Output: The nodes are configured according to variables
Execution: Called by setup
Context: Agent
begin
1. initialize successor and predecessor
2. initialize ring
3. generate hash keys
4. initialize finger table
End

The next procedure is “Create-network” procedure. It is called from setup. It cre-

ates an empty chord ring. It sets the ring for nodes to join. Successor and predecessor
are initialized to nobody in this procedure. This procedure also initializes fingers of
nodes by calling procedure “init-fingers” (Table 9.12).
Next we are going to explain procedure “go.” The procedure “go” is for exe-
cuting one step of the simulation. It uses global variables from interface. It is called
repeatedly to run the simulation and to get the results. Other procedures called from
“go” is start-messages, lookup messages, and ring maintenance. All these procedures
are responsible for creating ring, updating finger tables and maintaining chord ring
(Table 9.13).
Here we will explain specification of a procedure “start-messages.” When any
new node wants to join a chord ring, it will send messages to its neighboring node.
It sends messages to agent seeker-node, update-node, and ping to find distance from
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 263

Table 9.12 Procedure create network

Procedure create-network : Creating network of initialize nodes

Input: Uses global variables from interface

Output: The network is configured according to initialize node variables
Execution: Called by setup
Context: Observer
begin
1. set successor to self
2. set predecessor to nobody
3. initialize fingers
4. create ring network
End

Table 9.13 Procedure go

Procedure go : for executing one step of the simulation

Input: Uses global variables from interface

Output: Equates functions and single step of each agent
Execution: Called repeatedly for execution of the simulation
Context: Observer
begin
1. start-messages to nodes
2. lookup messages
3. maintenance of a ring
End

Table 9.14 Procedure start messages

Procedure start-messages : for joining the network node send messages

Input: Uses local variables and agents from interface

Output: Find destination node
Execution: Called from procedure go
Context: Observer
begin
1. find distance from destination
2. start sending messages
End

neighboring node and forward it accordingly to that specified speed. The procedure
“start-messages” is called from procedure go (Table 9.14).
The procedure “lookup-messages” is called from procedure “go.” It sends mes-
sage to agent “Node” to get successor list and then sort it. After that it calls procedure
264 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.15 Procedure maintenance

Procedure maintenance : for maintaining ring network

Input: Uses local variables and global variables from interface

Output: Finger table fixed and updated
Execution: Called from procedure go
Context: Observer
begin
1. call of procedure stabilize
2. call of procedure fix fingers
End

“receive-update” to update the finger table of a node and also ping all the nodes which
are in successor list.

Procedure lookup-messages : to find successor list and ping them

Input: Uses local variables and agents from interface

Output: Successor list
Execution: Called from procedure go
Context: Observer
begin
1. find successor list
2. receive-update
3. ping nodes in successor list
End

The procedure “maintenance” connects all new joining nodes in a ring. Then it
calls procedure “stabilize” and “fix-finger” to update the finger table periodically
(Table 9.15).
The specification of procedure “find-successor” is explained for a given node.
In this procedure, if a given node is in the range of the requesting node, then it will
return successor id to requesting node. If it is not in range, then it will return the id
of closest preceding node (Table 9.16).
The “join-node” procedure is called from “lookup-ping” procedure. It initial-
izes successor and predecessor to “nobody” and initializes fingers by procedure
init-fingers. It generates messages from requesting nodes to destination node. It
flooded messages until link is created between two nodes (Table 9.17).
Next procedure explained here is “init-fingers.” In this procedure, variable next
of agent “Node” is initialized to “0.” It is called from procedure “create-network” and
“join-node” (Table 9.18).
The procedure “stabilize” updates the finger table. It is called periodically for up-
to-date information. Whenever a new node joins a network, the node calls a “stabilize”
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 265

Table 9.16 Procedure find successor

Procedure find-successor : to find successor of a particular node

Input: Uses local variables and messages

Output: Successor node found
Execution: Called from procedure go
Context: Observer
begin
1. If successor is in range or node itself is a successor
2. return successor id
3. else
4. return id of closest preceding node
End

Table 9.17 Procedure Join node

Procedure Join-node : procedure to join a node in the ring

Input: Uses local variables

Output: Node joined the ring
Execution: Called from procedure lookup-ping
Context: Observer
begin
1. initialize fingers in finger table
2. initialize seeker node entries
End

Table 9.18 Procedure init-fingers

Procedure init-fingers: initialize fingers of any given node

Input: Uses local variables

Output: Fingers initialized
Execution: Called from procedure maintenance
Context: Observer
begin
1. initialize fingers in finger table
End

procedure. After procedure is called, node sets its entry of successor node and notifies
its successor node to acknowledge it as a predecessor. All the nodes, which are already
connected in the ring, run “stabilize” periodically and it asks the joining node to set
its predecessor to the nearest node (Tables 9.19–9.21).
266 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.19 Procedure Stabilize

Procedure Stabilize: procedure runs periodically to update finger table

Input: Uses local variables

Output: Node joined the ring
Execution: Called from procedure maintenance
Context: Observer
begin
1. newly joined node sets its successor
2. newly joined node sets its predecessor
End
The next procedure is “notify.” The procedure “notify” is called from procedure
“stabilize.” In “notify” sets its predecessor.

Table 9.20 Procedure notify

Procedure notify: procedure to join node in a ring

Input: Uses local variables

Output: Node joined the ring
Execution: Called from procedure stabilize
Context: Observer
begin
1. notify node to set its predecessor
End

Table 9.21 Procedure fix fingers

Procedure fix-fingers : fix fingers in finger table

Input: Uses local variables

Output: Node joined the ring
Execution: Called from procedure maintenance
Context: Observer
begin
1. update finger table
End

The procedure “fix-fingers” is called from procedure “maintenance.” It peri-

odically runs and update finger table. It generates messages to all those nodes
which will be its fingers. The specification of “receive-update” is explained here.
When a node joins or leaves the network, a “receive-update” message is generated.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 267

Table 9.22 Procedure receive update

Procedure receive-update : update finger table

Input: Uses local variables and message

Output: Finger table updation
Execution: Called from lookup messages
Context: Agent
begin
1. update entries of a finger table
Update network ring End

Table 9.23 Procedure lookup ping

Procedure lookup-ping : new node sends messages on joining, this procedure handles it

Input: Uses local variables and message

Output: Finger table updation
Execution: Called from lookup messages
Context: Agent
begin
1. update entries of a finger table
2. update network ring
End

The “receive-update” procedure is called from procedure “lookup-message.” It

updates finger table at the given entry (Table 9.22).
The specification of procedure “lookup-ping” is explained here. In this procedure,
node sends ping messages to nodes which will be its fingers.

9.4.4.4 Experiments
In this section, we have explained the procedures related to experiments (Tables
9.23–9.25).

9.5 Results and discussion

In this section, we will explain the findings and result we have obtained using PeerSim
and NetLogo.

9.5.1 Metrics (table and description)

The implementation of a Chord is replicated in NetLogo and is validated by matching
our results with the results produced in PeerSim [15]. We have simulated a network
in NetLogo comparable to PeerSim [15] to obtain analogous results.
268 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.24 Experiment to Vary Nodes added/removed

Experiment Vary Nodes added/removed : Experiment for noting the effects

of changing the number of nodes added removed
Input: <network-size,node-join,node-leave>
Setup procedures: <setup>
Go procedures: <go>
Repetition: <40>

Inputs:
Nodes added/removed: [5,10,−5,−10]
network-size: [5,000]
Stop condition: Ticks = 500
Final commands: none

Table 9.25 Experiment to Vary Network size

Experiment Vary network-size: Experiment for noting the effects

of changing the network size
Input: <network-size,node-join,node-leave>
Setup procedures: <setup>
Go procedures: <go>
Repetition: <40>

Inputs:
Network-size: [500,1000,5000,10000]
nodes added/removed: [20,−5]
Stop condition: Ticks = 500
Final commands: none

The interface of a Chord, which is implemented in NetLogo, is shown in

Figure 9.8. The interface design consists of graphical window where the nodes inter-
acts with each other. It also has different type of sliders to select for different input.
The first one on top left is to adjust the network size. Next one is to add further nodes
in a network. Two different buttons are also present on the graphical interface, one
is to set up a simulation and other one to run a simulation. At the left bottom of
the interface, number of links and number of stabilization are plotted. To properly
observe the behavior of Chord in NetLogo, we have used same parameters as given
in PeerSim implementation. Input parameters are
● Varying network size
● Adding and removing number of nodes
And for output
● we are counting number of links (hop count in PeerSim)
● Stabilization count (how many times procedure stabilization is called)
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 269

Figure 9.8 The graphical interface of Chord in NetLogo

Chord-PeerSim
18
16
14
12
10
LOG (network size)
8
Average no of hops
6
4 Maximum no of hops
2
0
500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 50,000
Network size

Figure 9.9 Plot showing maximum number of hops, average number of hops and
log of network size in PeerSim

The results of PeerSim and NetLogo are explained in subsequent sections.

9.5.2 PeerSim results

Plots are presented for hop count, stabilization, and failures by varying network size,
new node joining, and node leaving. In Figure 9.9, average number of hop count,
270 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

800
600
Stabilization

400
200
0

−10 −5 0 5 10
Nodes added/removed

Figure 9.10 Plot showing stabilization of Chord network in PeerSim

maximum number of hop count, and log of network size is plotted. By varying
network size to 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000, we have different values for
hop count. We can see that average number of hop count increases with the increase
of network size. The average hop count for network size 500 is 2, and it increases to
7.36 with the network size 50,000.
In Figure 9.10, the interval graph for stabilization count is plotted by varying
nodes added and removed. The network size in this case is fixed, i.e., 5,000. The
interval graph shows that when nodes are removed, stabilization is called more fre-
quently. Stabilization of maximum value in case when 10 nodes are removed is 881,
whereas mean is 240. But in case when no node is removed but new nodes are added
in the network, there is not any stabilization call.
In Figure 9.11, we have seen that number of failures rises when more nodes are
joining and leaving the network.

9.5.3 ABM results

In NetLogo, we have replicated the results of PeerSim. We have varied network size
and then observed the hop count and stabilization calls. Then we have added and
removed the nodes from the network and observed the results.
We can see in Figure 9.12 the average and maximum hop count with varying
network size. In Figure 9.13, we have plotted interval graph for a number of stabiliza-
tion calls verses nodes added and removed. So we have more stabilization calls when
10 nodes are removed from the network as compared to node added in the network.
When there is not any node joining the network, we still have stabilization call as it
is called after some specific interval.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 271

3.0
2.0
Failure
1.0
0.0

−10 −5 0 5 10
Nodes added/removed

Figure 9.11 Plot showing failure of Chord network in PeerSim

Chord–NetLogo
35

30
25

20
15 Maximum number of hops

10 Average number of hops

0
500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Network size

Figure 9.12 Plot showing maximum hop count and average hop count with varying
network size in NetLogo

9.5.4 Comparison of PeerSim and ABM

In this section, we will compare PeerSim and ABM.
● Simple and easy: It is noticeable that the implementation of Chord in NetLogo is
simple and easy as compared to PeerSim. In NetLogo, we have about 100 lines of
code for Chord, whereas same protocol in PeerSim has several hundreds of lines
of code. It shows that how suitable it is to select NetLogo as compared to other
P2P simulators.
● Graphical user interface (GUI): Mostly P2P simulators are not graphical. To
understand the behavior of network, some additional packages need to be added
272 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

800
600
Stabilization
400
200
0

−10 −5 0 5 10
Nodes added/removed

Figure 9.13 Plot showing stabilization of Chord network in NetLogo

in some simulators to interpret nodes interaction. PeerSim also does not have a
GUI, but NetLogo GUI interface is user friendly, easy to understand and interpret.
One can see the behavior of network and interaction of nodes easily. We can add
sliders in the interface and add any input at any time. In Figure 9.8, we can see that
we can add or remove nodes using sliders. We can give network size according to
scenario requirement.
● Plots visualization: In PeerSim, we cannot visualize the plots while simulation is
running. In the case of NetLogo, we have real-time monitors where we can plot
the behavior of network.
● Results comparison: Comparing the results of PeerSim and NetLogo, we have
observed the similar trends in results. We can see the average number of hop
is greater in NetLogo as compared to PeerSim. Also, maximum hop count is
greater in NetLogo as shown in Figure 9.9. Overall trend is same in both; with the
increasing network size, number of hops increases. But the slight difference in
values is because of different simulation environment. When we compare number
of stabilization calls, in the case of PeerSim when a node joins, there is not any
stabilization call, but in NetLogo, finger table is updated after stabilization call. So
we have more stabilization calls in NetLogo as compared to PeerSim. When there
is not any node joining the network, we still have stabilization call in NetLogo as
it is called after some value.

9.5.5 DREAM network models

In this section, we have calculated centralities of a network which we have explained in
Section 9.2. The three centralities, degree, betweenness and eccentricity, are measured
which are shown in Table 9.26. After calculating degree centrality, the network graph
in Figure 9.14 is manipulated and loaded with degree values, and new network graph
is shown in Figure 9.15. We can see that size of some nodes increases. The size of node
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 273

Table 9.26 Table of eccentricity, betweenness and degree centrality measures of the
Chord network

Id Eccentricity (%) Betweenness (%) Degree (%)

ABM 0.660452 4 0
Agents 0.521469 3 0
Globals 0.238983 3 0
InputGlobals 0.191525 7 15.545455
OutputGlobals 0 1 0
Agent-Attributes 0 1 0
Agent-Breed 0.641243 5 11.075758
BS-Expts 0.098305 4 7
Procedures 0.489831 18 42.232323
node-join 0 1 0
node-leave 0 1 0
network-size 0 1 0
stabilize-count 0 1 0
Speed 0 1 0
update-frequency 0 1 0
network-sizeB 0 1 0
Node 0.209605 2 0
Update-Node 0.155367 2 0
Seeker-Node 0.183051 2 0
ping-Node 0.126554 2 0
Node-Attributes 0.191525 7 14.166667
Update-Node-Attributes 0.129944 5 10
Seeker-Node-Attributes 0.161017 6 12.090909
hid 0 1 0
predecessor 0 1 0
successor 0 1 0
fingers 0 1 0
in-ringn 0 1 0
next 0 1 0
ConnectToNode 0 1 0
in-ringu 0 1 0
destination 0 1 0
entry 0 1 0
sender 0 1 0
seeking 0 1 0
in-rings 0 1 0
destination-s 0 1 0
entry-s 0 1 0
setup 0 1 0
receive-update 0 1 0
init-node 0 1 0
create-network 0 1 0
start-messages 0 1 0
lookup-messages 0 1 0
maintenance 0 1 0
find-successor 0 1 0
(Continued)
274 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 9.27 (Continued)

Id Eccentricity (%) Betweenness (%) Degree (%)

join-node 0 1 0
lookup 0 1 0
stabilize 0 1 0
notify 0 1 0
lookup-ping 0 1 0
fix-fingers 0 1 0
report 0 1 0
leave-network 0 1 0
init-fingers 0 1 0
ping-Node-attributes 0.098305 4 7.888889
sender-p 0 1 0
destination-p 0 1 0
in-ringp 0 1 0
node-join-b 0 1 0
node-leave-b 0 1 0

Procedure is larger from all as node procedure has many others procedures attached
with it. The size of node Input Globals is also larger as it has many input global
variables attached with it. Other nodes which has larger size are agent attributes;
every agent attribute has many attributes attached with it, so their size also increased.

9.5.5.1 Plots of centralities

In this section, we have plotted and analyzed the centralities which we have calculated
in previous section.
In Figure 9.16, degree centrality is plotted . In this plot, we can analyze that the
highest degree is of node Procedure. The second one which has highest value are
agents attributes, i.e., node attributes and input globals. The nodes which do not have
further nodes attached with them has degree value of 1.
Next betweenness centrality is shown in Figure 9.17. Here, we can see that
highest centrality is for node ABM. ABM is the node with which all the main nodes
are attached. Next highest centrality is for node Procedure and agent breed. Nodes
which do not have further nodes attached with them have zero betweenness centrality.
Last centrality is eccentricity centrality. Eccentricity centrality is shown in Figure
9.18. We can note here that like degree centrality, node Procedure has the highest value.
The second highest value is for input-globals followed by node attributes

9.5.5.2 Plots of centralities using power-law

Degree centralities are then plotted in R [59] after applying power-law on sorted
values of centralities. In network, there are a few nodes that have many links and are
playing the most important part in network, while there are many nodes with one or
two links. When we apply power law on the sorted values of centralities, we get a
 in-ringn
hid
next predecessor

Node Attributes successor

fingers
Node

Update-Node Update-Node-Attributes
Agent-Attributes
Seeker-Node

stabilize-count
Connect ToNode
node-join Agent
Agent-Breed in-ringu
entry destination
InputGlobals Globals ABM
node-leave
OutputGlobals ping-Node
network-size
Speed
network-sizeB BS-Expts Seaker-Node-Attributes
ping-Node-attributes
update-frequency node-leave-b
sender
node-join-b Procedures seeking
in-rings

destination-s
init-fingers
entry-s

leave-network setup

report receive-update

fix-fingers init-node
create-network
lookup-ping
notify lookup-messages
stabilize start-messages
lookup join-node maintenance
find-successor

Figure 9.14 Network model of a chord

 entry
in-ringu ConnectToNode

sender-p in-ringp destination

Update-Node-Attributes
destination-p
ping-Node-attributes Update-Node

successor
ping-Node
next hid
Node
in-ringn
Agent-Breed
predecessor

Node-Attributes fingers
Seeker-Node-Attributes

Agent-Attributes
sender seeking
receive-update
entry-s in-ringsdestination-s Speed stabilize-count
Agents
notify setup node-join
network-size

fix-fingers node-leave
Procedures ABM Globals
start-messages InputGlobals update-frequency
leave-network
lookup

init-node maintenance
OutputGlobals
stabilize node-join-b
BS-Expts
lookup-ping
report
create-network
network-sizeB
join-node node-leave-b
init-fingers
lookup-messages
find-successor

Figure 9.15 Complex network model of Chord nodes resized according to degree centrality
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 277

Degree (%)
20
18
Degree (%)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ABM
InputGlobals
Agent-Breed
node-join
stabilize-count
network-sizeB
Seeker-Node
Update-Node-
predecessor
in-ringn
in-ringu
sender
destinations-s
receive-up date

find-successor
stabilize
fix-fingers
start-messages

init-fingers
destination-p
node-leave-b
Figure 9.16 Plot showing the degree centrality

Betweenness (%)
0.7
0.6 Betweenness (%)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
ABM
InputGlobals
Agent-Breed
node-join
stabilize-count
network-sizeB
Seeker-Node
Update-Node-
predecessor
in-ringn
in-ringu
sender
destinations-s
receive-up date

find-successor
stabilize
fix-fingers
start-messages

init-fingers
destination-p
node-leave-b

Figure 9.17 Plot showing the betweenness centrality

decaying curve that shows that there are a few nodes with more links as compared to
other nodes.
In Figure 9.19, degree centrality is plotted which shows a cumulative curve in
decreasing order. In Figures 9.20 and 9.21, eccentricity centrality and betweenness
centrality are shown, both of which showing the same curve behavior like degree
centrality.
278 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Eccentricity (%)
45
40
35 Eccentricity (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
ABM
InputGlobals
Agent-Breed
node-join
stabilize-count
network-sizeB
Seeker-Node
Update-Node-
predecessor
in-ringn
in-ringu
sender
destinations-s
receive-up date

find-successor
stabilize
fix-fingers
start-messages

init-fingers
destination-p
node-leave-b
Figure 9.18 Plot showing the eccentricity centrality
1.00
Fraction of vertices having degree x or greater

0.50
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.02

1 2 5 10 20
Degree centrality

Figure 9.19 Plot showing the degree centrality

9.5.6 Discussion (ODD vs. DREAM pros and cons of both) and
which is more useful for modeling the chosen P2P protocol
ODD protocols give the overview, design concepts, and details of the CHORD and
explains all the main elements, i.e., emergence, adaptation, objectives, prediction,
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of the “Chord” P2P protocol 279

1.0
Fraction of vertices having eccentricity x or greater

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eccentricity centrality

Figure 9.20 Plot showing the eccentricity centrality

1.0
Fraction of vertices having betweenness x or greater

0.5
0.2
0.1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Betweenness centrality

Figure 9.21 Plot showing the betweenness centrality

280 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

sensing, interaction, stochasticity, collectives and observation, required for model-

ing of Chord. Using ODD CHORD protocol, working can be implemented in any
language, but its working may not be that much evident. DREAM explains CHORD
protocol using its procedure pseudo code. It explains model working as well as its
procedures in details. It shows the close correlation of all the sub-models. Using
it CHORD can be easily understood, evaluated, compared and implemented in any
language. So, for the modeling of CHORD protocol, DREAM model is the best.

9.5.7 Chord and theory of computation

In the theory of computation, we have three different branches, the complexity theory,
the computability theory and the automata theory. Here we are relating the Chord
protocol with the theory of complexity.

9.5.7.1 Complexity theory

The theory of complexity is the measure of an efficiency of a system in terms of its
working. In a Chord protocol, we measure complexity based on its different func-
tionalities. The measure of scalability (how scalable the Chord network is), to what
extent it balances the load among different peers and if it is fault tolerant, then what
will be its efficiency measure.
● Load balancing: Consistent hashing provides load balancing by distributing the
load on different nodes and each node is accountable for around K/N keys
(K keys, N nodes).
● Scalable: Chord is scalable as it requires O (log n) lookup messages.
● Fault tolerant: When nodes join or leave a network, only O (log 2 N) messages are
necessary to rebuild routing invariants and finger tables.

9.6 Conclusions and future work

In this chapter, we have modeled P2P protocol Chord in DREAM for descriptive agent-
based modeling and in ODD for textual description. We have seen that using DREAM
and ODD, now it is easy to use and understand Chord and it can be implemented
in any simulator using these models. The protocol Chord is then implemented in
NetLogo to replicate the results of PeerSim. We have shown that NetLogo provides
user with better GUI, easy, and simple implementation and good visualization tools
for analysis as compared to PeerSim. Future work may include implementations of
Chord enhancements in NetLogo and to improve Chord in terms of lookup latency.

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 Chapter 10
Descriptive agent-based modeling of
Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol
Hammad-Ur-Rehman1∗ and
Muhammad Qasim Mehboob1∗

10.1 Introduction
Kademlia, a peer-to-peer (P2P) protocol based on DHTs (Distributed Hash Tables),
offers desirable features which are not offered by other protocols simultaneously.
One notable feature is, in other protocols a large number of messages were needed to
know about other nodes. Kademlia minimizes these number of messages [1]. While
doing so, the key lookups configuration information automatically spreads among
neighboring nodes. The nodes have all the desirable knowledge needed to route the
specific query through the paths which have low latency. Another benefit of this
protocol is the algorithm [1] which is used to find other node’s existence and can also
resist attacks by which basic service denial occurs.
Being a P2P system, Kademlia can be modeled in form of either complex
network-based [2,3] or agent-based models. Models represent the complex system
in term of its multiple components, behavior and communication among them for
management and other tasks. Communication between nodes in a P2P system like
Kademlia is complex in nature. Finding a node, Joining and Store adds complex-
ity to Kademlia protocol. So, due to all these complex natures of Kademlia, we
can confidently consider Kademlia a complex system. In CAS (Complex Adaptive
Systems) [4], multiple nonlinear components interact with each other which leads
to emergent behavior. So this emergent behavior requires modeling Kademlia as
CAS, or fully as CACOONS (Complex Adaptive COmmunicatiOn Networks and
environmentS) [5].
To thoroughly understand the complex system, system modeling is must [6].
Modeling CAS through traditional solutions is impossible because CAS are highly
robust [4] and have many variables. The emergent behavior for each entity which is
involved in a system can be better understood by complex system modeling. A system

1
COSMOSE Research Group Computer Science Department, COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan
∗
Both authors contributed equally.
286 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

can be logically represented by a “Model” with complexity having different levels

(normally real systems are more complex).
In lieu of complex systems, hybrid modeling approach has been proposed by
Batool and Niazi [7] for the Internet of Things (IoT). They used the combination
of complex-network based and agent-based approaches for modeling of complex
scenarios in IoT. A normal way of modeling a P2P system is to include its different
components like seeders or leechers (peers) as nodes and communication between
them can be described as edges or links. After completing complex network model,
different tools can be used to compute centrality measures and other metrics on P2P
networks. Then by using the analysis from above, global behavior of components can
be better understood.
In the past, a number of works have been done to implement Kademlia protocol in
Object Oriented domain and other domains. But to the best of our knowledge, nobody
has developed theABM (agent-based modeling), DREAM (DescRiptivEAgent-based
Modeling) and ODD (overview, design concepts and details) specification for Kadem-
lia protocol. In this chapter, we will be implementing Kademlia protocol in NetLogo.
And then, we will be presenting ODD and DREAM specification for Kademlia.
The objective of writing this chapter is twofold. First, ABM model for the Kadem-
lia is being proposed using complex networks-based and agent-based approaches
combination. While developing the model of Kademlia, we will use the already devel-
oped complex networks like Line-walking Turtles, Communication-T-T network and
Random Network. For validation purpose, we will present a hybrid routing algorithm
based on centrality. By this, we can say that a communication has taken place end
to end between users. Second, ODD [8] and DREAM [3] are two techniques that we
have used for ABM specification. Then, we will also give a comparative analysis of
ODD and DREAM.
Some of our main contributions are as follows:

● To model and simulate Kademlia, an agent-based and complex network modeling

approach is proposed.
● ODD specification technique for Kademlia’s ABM model.
● DREAM specification technique for Kademlia’s ABM model.
● An algorithm based on hybrid centrality measure.
● A comparative analysis of ODD and DREAM specification techniques.

Rest of the chapter is structured as follows: Section 10.2 presents background and
literature review; in Section 10.3, the model design is given; Section 10.4 describes
results and discussion, and Section 10.5 describes the conclusion and future work.

10.2 Background and literature review

In this section, we will be presenting CAS overview, basic concept of cognitive

agent-based computing, architecture and the basic working principle of Kademlia.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 287

10.2.1 Complex adaptive systems

CAS consist of agents interacting with each other which are inhomogeneous, can
adapt any environment and evolve with that. The important point to note here is that
there is no such defined line between systems and environment. Instead, the main
concept is, the system is linked with other making an echo system. Based on complex
behaviors, artificial systems, natural (biological, ecological and societal) [2] systems
and other complex systems can be characterized as “CAS.” CAS analysis is done by
combining theoretical, applied and experimental methods. In experimental methods,
computer simulations and mathematical modeling are done.

10.2.2 Cognitive agent-based computing

Back in 2011, a unified cognitive agent-based computation framework was presented
by Niazi and Hussain [9] for complex network and ABM. The proposed framework
follows different levels of modeling like
● the exploratory ABM
● the DREAM
● model validation
● complex-network model
The exploratory approach involves the use of agents for exploring the complex sys-
tems, identifying the best suited agent-based model for the required problem, then
developing concept’s proof and data required for verifying and validating the model.
The descriptive agent–based model comprises pseudocode, the complex network of
model and social network analysis. There are some other levels like verification and/or
validation of model, etc.

10.2.3 Complex network modeling

Complex network modeling is the initial level of framework used for complex systems
modeling [10]. It is useful when data required for communication between nodes is
available. So, along with classification of network, this framework level helps in
building the complex models of networks. Also, this framework level helps in getting
precious network information by determining local and global quantitative measures.
All other models (mathematical and statistical) have no such ability for providing
details about complex network patterns and emergent behavior but we can achieve
this by using complex network modeling.

10.2.4 Architecture of the “Kademlia” protocol

10.2.4.1 Introduction
Each participating node has a node Id which is opaque 160 bits long random number.
The node Id is not only used to identify the node by using some algorithms but also
to locate the resources. Hash function is used to compute the Key from value which
usually is a 160-bit wide number. Using this, any node can retrieve the value which
is associated with the given key. Node IDs which are close to key are used to store
288 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

the particular <Key, Value> pair. If algorithm has to search for the particular value,
the algorithm has to know the key for that value and iterate the network in multiple
steps. Every step will be used to find the nodes which are closer to key unless nodes
return the needed value or no more nodes closer to keys are found. Near any target,
key servers can also be located using the route ID–based algorithm. Kademlia uses
XOR metric to calculate the distance—a reason for many benefits which we get by
using Kademlia. Due to symmetry property of XOR metric members of Kademlia
get queries from same distribution of nodes containing in the routing tables.
Systems like Chord do not gain information like routing from the queries received
because they do not use the XOR metric property [1]. This asymmetry leads to
inflexible routing tables. Within an interval, Kademlia can send query or asynchronous
parallel queries to get any node routes which are based on latency. In Kademlia nodes
that are near to some particular ID are located using one routing algorithm from end
to end. Whereas old systems use separate algorithms to go near the particular ID
and for last hops another algorithm is used. Of all the existing systems, Kademlia
resembles the most with Pastry’s first phase. But Pastry in the second phase switch
toward the difference between IDs in numeric terms. Pastry nodes that are closer to
second metric are fairly distant from the first, which creates discontinuity at node IDs
and creating negative effect on performance.

10.2.4.2 System description

Approach explained in this section is general which all other DHTs use. As explained
earlier, node IDs are 160 bit wide random numbers [1]. In the context of this chapter,
it is only assumed that node Ids are random numbers. Binary tree leaf is equivalent
to node ID in Kademlia, every node id’s position can be found out by exclusive ID
prefix which is shortest.
In Figure 10.1, in example tree node position with prefix “0011” is shown. For
each node, we have divided the main binary tree into series of subtrees which have
no nodes. So the tree at the highest position contains binary tree’s half portion which
does not contain any node. And the next successive subtree contains the remaining
subtree which does not have any node and that process goes on, on the other subtrees.
So the example which is explained below for the node 0011, all the subtrees are shown
in circles and have nodes that have prefixes 1, 01, 000 and 0010 in this order.
In Kademlia protocol, it is ensured that each node should know of at least one
node from every subtree but the condition here is that subtree should have at least
one node. Now it is explained that any node can be located by some else node using
node ID. In Figure 10.2, we have shown the example of node 0011 trying to locate
the 1110 node by querying fairest node from its connections for finding the contacts
from the lower and other lower subtrees; due to all these efforts, it finds the node
which was needed.
In the remaining section, we will be explaining and presenting the techniques
for making the lookup algorithm good. In the first section, we described the ID and
its closeness notion to the key, then we spoke for looking and storing <Key, Value>
pair on closest k nodes. Then, a lookup protocol was presented which works even
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 289

Space of 160-bit numbers 00...00

11...11

1 0

1 1 0

0
1

1
1

0
0
0
1

1
1

1
0

0
0
0
0
1

1
1
0

0
Figure 10.1 Kademlia Binary Tree. 0011 is represented by black dot. All subtrees
where 0011 have contact are shown by Gray Dots. Adapted, with
permission, from Reference [1]

Space of 160-bit numbers

11...11 00...00

1 0

1 0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1

1
0

0
0

0
0
1

1
1

0
0

2
4
3

Figure 10.2 Node locating by ID. 0011 prefix node finds 1110 by learning and
querying. Line space on top shows 160-bit Ids. RPC messages made
by 1110 are shown below. Say first RPC is at 101 known to 1110
already. Next RPCs are to nodes returned by RPCs. Adapted, with
permission, from Reference [1]
290 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

when there is no node which shares a unique/particular prefix with the key. Also, in
situation when some of the given node’s subtrees are empty.

10.2.4.3 Distance calculation

Kademlia’s particularity was using XOR metric to calculate the points of distance in
the keys space [1]. In this section, we will be explaining how pairs of <Key, Value>
are assigned to distinct nodes. Suppose, we have two identifiers x and y, each 160 bit
wide. In terms of Kademlia, the distance between these two identifiers is calculated
as XOR ⊕ between them.
d(x, y) = x ⊕ y (10.1)
Here the point to note is the reason why XOR is chosen [11]. It is because of its
following common properties with geometric distance formula:
● Distance will be zero between node and itself. d(x, x) = 0, d(x, y) > 0 if x  = y
● Distance from x and y will be the same as distance from y and x. d(x, y) = d(y, x)
● XOR also obliges the triangle property. Let’s suppose three points are given
then distance between z and x will be ≥ to sum of distance from x to y to z.
d(x, y) + d(y, z) ≥ d(x, z)
In binary tree’s system’s sketch XOR has distance implicit notion. In completely filled
binary tree having 160-bit wide IDs, the distance from one ID to other will be smallest
subtree height which has both of those IDs. In case when tree is not completely filled,
then the closest leaf to an ID x will share the largest prefix which is common from x.
There may exist more than one leaf with common longest prefix if the tree has empty
branches. This is a case where leaf closest to “x” is also the nearest leaf to “x” (ID)
which is generated by bits (similar to tree’ s null branches) flipping in x.
XOR is unidirectional like Chord’s clockwise circle metric. For a point x and the
distance  > 0, there exists one point y where d(x, y) = . Unidirectionality ensures
that all the lookups being performed should coincide on same path irrespective of
node from where they originated. Hot spots are being alleviated by caching the <Key,
Value> pairs. So dissimilar to Chord but same to Pastry, XOR is balanced
d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x and y (10.2)

10.2.4.4 Node
For routing query messages or contacting other nodes, nodes store information about
every other node. For each 0 ≤ i < 160, every node have <IP address, UDP port,
Node Id> triplets for each node which is in between distance of 2i and 2i + 1. Here
these set of lists is called K-Buckets. k-buckets always have sorted output. Buckets
are sorted with respect to time seen. Tail has the most recently seen node, whereas
head has the least recently seen node. At time when node receives any message, it
updates particular K-bucket for sender’s Node ID. Also for small value of i, kBuckets
are generally empty. List grows up to k size for large i values.
Assume a case when a node which is sending exists in a receiver’s bucket, then
the receiver changes its position to list’s tail. Assume a case when a sending node
does not exist in particular K-bucket and there are also fewer than k-entries in bucket,
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 291

then new sender is just inserted at list’s tail. If a particular K-bucket is full, then the
recipient just pings the least recently seen node and if it fails to pong, then the node
is evicted and the new node is inserted at the tail of the list, and in contrast, if least
recently seen that node responds in time, then that node is shifted to the end of the list
and received node is abandoned. All these nodes which are live are never removed
from the list.

10.2.4.5 Protocol
Four (RPCs), namely, PING, STORE, FIND_NODE, FIND_VALUE constitute
Kademlia protocol.
● PING
In this RPC, a node sends a message to another and if gets reply from that, both
the nodes have to update the particular k-buckets. Basically, this RPC is used to
check is node is live.
● STORE
Recipient node have to store a <Key, Value> pair received from sender. So that
it can be used later for retrieval.
● FIND_NODE
In this RPC, sender node sends a 160-bit key and recipient has to return K-triples
that are closest to the received key. In the best case, it has to return k triples but
it can send less if it has knowledge of few triples.
● FIND_VALUE
This RPC is equivalent to FIND_NODE if the corresponding value is not present.
If it is present then only the value is returned.

10.2.4.6 Node Look up

To locate node, algorithm which Kademlia protocol performs is called “Node Look
up.” Members of Kademlia perform a recursive operation to locate k closest nodes.
Look up starts from picking non-empty k-bucket’s α (global concurrency parameter)
nodes. Asynchronous parallel requests are sent to chosen nodes. In recursive step,
requests are again sent to nodes which are found out live by previous RPCs and nodes
who fail to reply are dropped. After every parallel search, the closest node is updated.
This process continues until returned node is no longer than the closest already found
or node initiating has accumulated k probed nodes. If FIND_NODE process fails,
then it sends the request to closer nodes which are already not queried.

10.2.4.7 Routing table

The structure of basic routing table given the protocol is fairly straight forward, but
for unbalanced trees, a minor refinement is needed. Routing table can be represented
by a tree which is binary, here k-buckets are represented by leaves. The position of
kBucket in a binary tree is the prefix, and the nodes that k-bucket contains have
common prefix in their IDs. So, in this way, every k-bucket at least covers a part of
the 160-bit ID space. All k-buckets with no overlap cover the whole range of 160-bit
space [1].
292 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Routing table for a node whose ID is 00..00

11...11 Space of 160-bit ID numbers 00...00

1 0

1 0

1 0

1 0

1 0

1
Figure 10.3 Routing table evolution. Initially, it was single k-bucket for node.
Bucket whose range cover Node Id splits as the k-bucket fills. Adapted,
with permission, from Reference [1]

Allocation of nodes in routing tree are dynamic. The process is shown in

Figure 10.3. For example, we take a node u, at start routing table of u will contain
only one node that is covering whole 160-bit ID space. When a new node contacts
with u or u itself find out a new node, then u tries to add new node into a suitable
k-bucket. Assume k-bucket has space; then for adding brand-new node, a simple
insert operation is performed else-if k-bucket range is big enough to include ID of
u then we divide the bucket into two brand-new sub buckets and also the previous
content is divided between them. After division, the insert operation is performed to
add new node. In the scenario where different range of k-bucket is full, new coming
node is simply discarded.

10.2.5 Literature review

Due to security problems [13] and privacy [14], we cannot use P2P systems for
commercial applications. Bottleneck problem occurs if few CAs have to distribute
CRL to network users (Figure 10.4). The proposed solution, as discussed in [15], is to
distribute segmented CRL using overlay (just another Peer), without compromising
the peer’s storage. The results achieved show that in segmented CRL, Peak Request
rate is not reduced, but file size is less which nodes store. I think proposed system’s
execution time will be higher due to extra step of CRL’s segmentation.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 293

Find k-bucket
For sender’s node ID

Does the Promote sender’s node

Yes Done
node exist? to tail of list

No

Bucker full? No

Yes

Spilt bucket Yes Can bucket

be split?

No

Ping least recently

seen node

No Evict least recently

Response?
seen node

Yes

Promote least recently

Discard sender Done
seen node to tail of list

Figure 10.4 Adding contacts with bucket splitting. Adapted, with permission, from
Reference [12]

P2P concept has been introduced in mobile networks and has a lot of appli-
cations. But due to highly robust, random network topology and low transmission
range information retrieval problem arises. In the current paper [16], the authors
proposed economical and automatic information retrieval approach based on cache,
which is updated by seeing relevant factors. NS2 simulation experiments show that
this approach has better results than old ones. Average response time from query and
network messages are reduced. One thing missing was they could have extended their
method to content based search in these networks (Figure 10.5).
294 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Given a key...

Find closest
non-empty k-bucket

For first a closest nodes...

RPC: Find Node

if response, this gives us a list
of nodes

For those nodes:

RPC: Find Node

RPC: Find Node

if response, this gives us a list For first a closest nodes...
of nodes
Nodes that have
not already been
Query those nodes queried

Closer
nodes? Yes
No

For remaining k nodes

not closer and not queried
Do we have
total of k closer
Yes nodes?

No remaining
un-queried nodes
No

Return max(k)
closer nodes
For these nodes, up to k...

Figure 10.5 Node lookup algorithm. Adapted, with permission, from

Reference [12]
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 295

Botnets became popular in recent years and these have many applications, but
Botnets have become apparent as mostly extreme cyberattacks in near years. To solve
this backdrop, as discussed in [17], the authors have proposed new botnet called
AntBot in which C&C information is spread across all bots. aMule-based distributed
simulator is used for implementation. Doing enough simulations, it is proved that
against pollution-based migrants AntBot operated resiliently. They could have used
few other defense mechanism also which they did not.
The paper [18] is about management of content retrieval in KAD. Content search
is implemented in KAD by using Kademlia DHTs. In P2P systems, information loss
happens if node churn occurs. KAD already deals with this by publishing multiple
redundant copies of information. Here [18] they have only tweaked some parameters
and showed performance. Their results show that lookup performance can be increased
by coupling lookup and content retrieval but latency will be same. What more they
could have done is to use more design parameters i.e. requests in parallel, timeout,
round-trip delay, etc.
P2P networks can be used in applications like file sharing. They have to share
and gather huge chunk of computing resources due to which their average energy
usage is higher. There are other [19] proxy [20] based approaches used to solve
this. The paper [21] addresses energy problem by proposing a two-layer model [22].
The lower layer is composed of files for sharing, whereas the upper is composed of
DHTs, the work of which is to index peers and files and show availability of each.
Simulation result shows, in proposed system 50% less energy is used as compared to
others [23,24], and without any other delay, more than 80% of files start downloading.
They could have shortlisted peers (which have the highest availability ratios) among
other peers.
Efficient and fast search operations are possible in P2P networks [25]. For
querying or disseminating valuable information, their topology is useful. While broad-
casting when a network fails to link or bad node joins network problem occurs. To
solve this problem, the paper [26] presents a replication broadcast algorithm for
Kademlia [27]. This algorithm only uses entries in the routing tables of Kademlia.
The results show that replication can be used for enhancing speed and reliability. The
problem is, replication also increases networking traffic. Trade-off between time for
broadcast and network traffic cost could have been a solution for this.
In structures P2P systems, each peer may join or leave at any time. This is referred
to as churn. In distributed systems and in P2P systems due to high dynamicity routing
failures, saved data loss or random peer view occurs so minimizing churn is necessary.
To minimize churn, the paper [28] proposed a zone replication technique which
is implemented on DHTs top and consists of three steps: publishing, maintenance
protocols and searching. PeerfactSim.Kom was used for simulation; the result shows
that the proposed solution produces smaller routes and good resistance to churn as
compared to others. They divided the proposed solution into three parts which I think
will increase the execution time as compared to old systems.
Clustering has become a hot topic for P2P systems in recent years. Plain DHTs
have many applications but still they lack for some kind of applications, i.e., multime-
dia, etc. Also, they addressed whether clustering improves querying performance or
296 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

not? For supporting wide applications range in the paper [29], they presented Echo.
Echo (based on the Cayley graph model [30]) is a framework which improves query
efficiency by combining DHTs functionality [31], homogeneity of load with Clus-
tering. Also, they examined the effect of prefix clustering on congestion by using
“Congestion-freeness” [32] notation. The results show that as this model is Cayley
dependent, other DHTs can also be implemented using this. Where they lost was they
could have maintained peers statistics to make network strong and firm.
Kademlia and chord [33] provide an effective way for finding other nodes in P2P
networks. But lookup queries for finding resources along the path can be disrupt easily
by malicious nodes. In [34], a Reputation for Directory Services (ReDS) framework is
described that first track the lookup requests presented by other nodes and then based
on tracking it enhances lookups in redundant DHTs. The author also explores how
shared reputation can work with ReDS in the context of free-rider prevention [35]. By
using ReDS, simulations showed that over an extensive range of situations lookups,
success rates enhanced by 80% or more for Kad and Halo.
For distributed multimedia services in 2008, IETF P2PSIP was designing a
protocol to combine the SIP functionality of media session and for P2P resources
localization and decentralized distribution. At that time, infrastructure that was con-
sidered for P2PSIP scenarios was single domain for inside connectivity. The paper [36]
proposes a peer called “super peer,” the architecture is hierarchical based among multi
P2PSIP domains for interconnection. Every domain will have one minimum “super
peer” which will be stable peer among all other peers, and together, all super peers
from different domain make an upper overlay layer. To validate the routing state and
routing performance of analytical model PeerFactSim.Kom simulator [37] was used.
The results show that peers routing entries significantly (approximately 50%) decrease
as associated routing states and we increase in number of domains. A realistic scenario
is simulated by setting up the churn as explained in [38]. The selection mechanism
of super-peers can increase the performance.
In the last few years, P2P network architecture has gain very much popularity in
variety of applications and services, for example, VoIP streaming and collaborative
computing applications. The essential requirement of deploying such networks are
security and integrity. Withstanding various malicious peers in the network also called
Sybil attack can poison the routing tables and may make the retrieval, storage and
routing process time consuming and extremely difficult. The paper [39] proposes
a new trust and reputation-based technique which makes more secure the retrieval,
storing and routing the resources in Kademlia network. For simulation, a discrete event
simulator DEUS is used. In results, it is noticed that when the trust-based algorithm
is applied on Kademlia’s RPCs (PING, STORE, FIND), the networks perform 20%
better than pure RPCs. In simulation 200 Sybil nodes vs 1000 true nodes are used.
In future, it will be interesting to find a mathematical close form for finding optimal
value of balancing factor.
The P2P networks play an important role in communication-oriented systems. But
the performance of P2P networks is significantly affected by the churn phenomenon
particularly in mobile environment. Until now, no proper analysis is presented for
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 297

structured P2P networks. In [40], the authors conduct an evaluation for the Kademlia-
based P2P system in the communication-oriented environment in the presence of
churn. For simulation, Nethawk EAST simulator is used and the simulation is con-
ducted on mobile platform. It is noticed that for robust system under different levels
of churn 3 degree is enough for both lookup parallelism and resource replication, and
in terms of CPU load, 200 bytes or less were used for optimal energy consumption.
In future, it can be applied on some larger settings to confirm the conclusion draw in
this paper.
In the literature, many DHTs have been vigorously studied, and for peer orga-
nization in DHTs, many diverse suggestions have been made, but in real systems,
very few DHTs implemented on huge scale. Previously, developed crawler–based
p2p system has duration limitation of crawls to few days at best. The system devel-
oped, as discussed in [41], is able to operate at the rate of per crawl every 5 min
and peer behavior is measured in terms of up-time distribution and churn rate. Their
findings conclude that in high resolution document sharing peers (of kad) leave and
join the networks with a binomial distribution (negative), while session time of peer
will be same as Weibull distribution. In this paper, ID repetition has not been taken
into consideration.
Kademlia and chord are two relevant DHTs that are used in different P2P appli-
cations to provide decentralized services. In the literature, quite a lot piece of work
has appeared that evaluate the performance of both DHTs, but the results are neither
concluding nor consistent because a different churn model is used and neglects the
key point that churn occurs since the beginning of the DHTs lifetimes. In [42], a
realistic and fair framework is integrated by the following:
1. Executing the churn model at the time of peer creation,
2. Performance evaluation methodology considers different DHTs parameters are
not equal, and
3. A churn metric that keep track of rate of change of P2P population.
Successful lookup ratio metric is used for performance evaluation, and it is noticed
that under the similar scenario, Kademlia shows better performance than chord. The
only problem here is that simulations were conducted on small scale. For real world,
it was not tested.
In any P2P network, user enters or leaves network continuously. This behavior is
called churn. It has become important to understand the resilience properties when
the churn is changing on high rate. In paper [43], the authors in first step find the
dynamic churn model that is lifetime based for P2P system and have reached station-
arity that is reducible to a uniform node failure model. In the next step, a reachable
component method is developed, and then using this method under different level of
churn rates, routing performance of P2P networks [44] is evaluated. The results show
that de Bruijn graph based [45] routing networks show outstanding resilience under
tremendously high rates of nodes turnovers. The routing networks that were tested
include randomized-Chord, Chord, CAN and Kademlia.
Structured overlay networks have gained much popularity in our daily appli-
cations. The main problem of such networks is vulnerable to attack that aimed to
298 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

damage the functionality and structure of networks. In past, many proposals [46] for
secure architecture design were presented, but comprehensive and broadly acknowl-
edged solution is lacking. In [47], the authors present a new solution called Layered
Identity-based Kademlia-Like Infrastructure (Likir) which aims to secure implemen-
tation of P2P network based on DHT. For performance evaluation, both Likir and
Kademlia overlay nets were run on PlanetLab networks, and lookup operations in
Likir are greater than Kademlia because of cryptographic efforts spent during a node
session, but Likir is more secure than Kademlia. In evaluation, small nets were run
on PlanetLab, but in real, there are millions of peers and it will further increase the
lookup time for Likir.
Kademlia, based on keys, is one of the most effective routing protocols. In
Kademlia’s routing phase it needs to contact log (N) nodes. Due to this bottleneck
problem occurs. To reduce the quantity of nodes that participates in lookup process,
the paper [48] proposed an algorithm named “Shades.” In the proposed algorithm,
nodes have their own caches that will reduce time in cache hit case. Other algorithms
may store a set but they cannot count the number of times items are inserted [49]. Sim-
ulation results show that Shades have reduced median quantity of nodes contributing
to each lookup by 22%–36% compared to others when tested and 30%–40% reduced
when compared to Kademlia. In real time, it may corrupt the data. They have taken
data corruption problem into consideration.
In the paper [50], another implementation of Kademlia DHT protocol is discussed
which have over 1 million nodes. All nodes are concurrent and use eDonkey file
sharing protocol. There are many design weaknesses in Kad that attackers can exploit
to fail the find and search mechanism. They measured that cost and other parameters
of those attacks against 16,000 nodes which are kad connected. The attack they have
described in their paper has two phases. One is “Preparation Phase” and the other one
is “Execution Phase.” DVN, simulation which was quite large in magnitude, scaled
up to 200k nodes. And after all, they found out their attacks are more cost effective.
Based on DHTs, Kad network is the most popular P2P network and due to
network’s scalability and reliability, the user base of this network will continue to
grow in future. In the literature, many decentralized P2P architectures have been
proposed but still most existing system running on centralized architecture. In article
[51], two popular network types are examined one is server-based eDonkey and
other decentralized DHT Kad. In comparison to these networks, it is discovered that
eDonkey receive all 10% server request that conclude that eDonkey is more popular,
but in other results, it is noticed that Kad is more robust as compared to eDonkey.
These comparisons are not done on very large scale. So if it was done on large then
results may vary.

10.3 Model design

In this section, we will give a detail description of ODD and DREAM models for
our Kademlia protocol. We will also present the Unified Modeling Language (UML)
diagrams of our protocol.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 299

10.3.1 ODD model of “Kademlia”

ODD was first developed by Grimm et al. [8], and later, it was updated in [52].
Basically, ODD is a textually representation technique for the specification of ABM
system. In ODD, there is a checklist which describes significant features of ABM
system. ODD divides the ABM system into three main sections and then these sections
are further divided into subsections.

10.3.2 Overview
● Purpose
The main purpose of this model is to understand and learn that how agent-
based modeling techniques can be applied to simulate Kademlia protocol on huge
scale. Further to compare Kademlia performance with already existing non-ABM
models.
● Entities
There are three types of entities involved in this model. The first one is the
entities that are in the network, the second that want to join the network and the
third that are leaving the networks. All three types of entities are represented by
nodes. Each node owns some variables like every node has a node id of 160 bits
and a list of kBuckets to store the contact and key, value pair to store data.
● Process overview
At first, all three types of nodes are generated and placed randomly, and then using
protocol’s RPCs, they start contacting each other and start forming a network.
When one node contacts to another to join the network, the recipient node checks
their buckets. If it is not full, the recipient node simply adds the new node at the
end of one of the buckets, which depends on the XOR distance between their ids,
but if the bucket is full, then the recipient will ping the node on top of bucket, and
if gets response from the pinged node, then it will discard new node, otherwise
it will add the new node by removing the pinged node. kBuckets are sorted by
time, the last seen nodes will be on top and the recent seen will be in the bottom
of buckets.

10.3.3 Design concept

● Basic principles
The main hypothesis of our model is that Kademlia ABM performance is better
for large-scale system. We used already developed complex network models like
Line-walking Turtles, Communication-T-T network and Random Network as a
starting point and extended it to build our Kademlia P2P protocol.
● Emergence
In this type of features, we tell that what type of outputs of ABM is modeled. In
simple words, we can say that what results we are expecting from the model. So,
from Kademlia model, the key outputs that we expect are how messages behave
as we increase the size of network that means increase the number of nodes
300 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

and second output that we want to analyze how latency changes as we increase
network size.
● Adaptation
It is basically how agents adapt environment changes. So, we can say it is a test of
decision-making capabilities of agents when environment changes. Constraints
are already well defined and accordingly the environment changes. We test our
model in two scenarios—one is in the presence churn and the other is in the
absence of churn.
● Objectives
In adaptive environment as environment changes, the individual node or agent
also gets the effect or reward from the change for their adaptive behavior to
accomplish their own tasks. So, the core objective of our model is to analyze
how the messages and latency behave as we change network size when churn is
present and when churn is absent.
● Sensing
There are some properties related to each node that help in decision making
when nodes are communicating each other. These properties also increase the
performance of system. In our case to find the data, the node does not contact
every node in the network, but it only contacts to the nodes that are in their
buckets. This behavior reduces the number of messages and also the latency to
find the required data.
● Interaction
The nodes that are in buckets can contact each other to find or store a value.
● Stochastically
The model is developed using the protocol specification from the Markov
paper [1].
● Observation
In the simulation on every step, the following information are collected:
1. Network size or the number of nodes
2. Number of nodes joining the network
3. Number of nodes leaving the network
4. Number of messages

10.3.4 Details
In this section, we will describe how the model is initialized, what are the initial states
of model, we will also tell about the input data if any used, and at the end, we will
also tell about the model’s parameters and their values.
● Initialization
NetLogo tool is used for model implementation. NetLogo is a tool used for ABM.
It is free and open source. The initialization of model is done by calling the “setup”
procedure, and in this function, randomly nodes are created and a random id is
assigned to them and all nodes are placed randomly. Some walkers are generated
also position on some of the nodes. kBuckets of every node are also initialize
with nobody.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 301

Table 10.1 Evaluation metrics

Parameter Value

Body of the text 61×61

No. of Nodes 100, 500, 1,000
Hash Degree 220
Initial Seeds 10
Alpha 3
K 20

● Input data
No input data is feed to model.
● Submodels
The parameters that are used in the model and their values are given in Table 10.1.

10.3.5 Activity diagrams of “Kademlia”

In Figure 10.6, the activity diagram of lookup process is presented. The lookup
operation is same as described above in the Kademlia architecture section (10.2.4).
In Figure 10.7, the activity diagram of add contact process is shown. In this
process, a node receives any message (request or reply) from other node. More
information can be found in the Kademlia architecture section (10.2.4).

10.3.6 DREAM model of “Kademlia”

In this particular section, we will be giving a detailed overview of DREAM
(Figure 10.8). DREAM [3] is a cognitive ABM technique. It is an ABM specifi-
cation technique in which we have to develop a complex network model of the ABM,
pseudo-code based description of the model and also we have to do social network
analysis of the network model. It also offers a visual-based analysis.

10.3.7 Network model

As already been mentioned in the chapter, Network’s Paper model can be made by
extending baseline network model to initiate a DREAM. Network’s submodel can be
used/imported in network modeling tool. The results are shown in Figure 10.9.

10.3.8 Pseudo-code description

● Agents and breeds design
In the simulation model of this design, we have used two types of agents, i.e.,
Nodes and walkers. The overall complex network consists of nodes which are
joined by links. For routing purpose, agents of type walkers are used. Walker type
302 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Find own closest nodes, put in the list

Send Initial closest contact requests

[Contact replies]
Set timeout

[Reply]

Wait for replies or timeout

Timeout

Send request to new closer

[Reply] contact

[Timeout]

Update list of closest contacts

[New closer contact]

[No new closer contact]

[Last reply] [Not last reply]

Return list of closest contacts Condition

Figure 10.6 Node lookup process activity diagram

Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 303

Find k-bucket
For sender’s node ID

Does the Yes Promote sender’s

node exist? node to tail of the list

No

No
Bucket Full?

Yes

Ping least recently

seen node

Set timeout

Wait for replies or timeout

Timeout

No
Yes Response?

Promote least recently

Discard sender
seen node to tail of list

Figure 10.7 Add contact process activity diagram

304 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Develop basic
understanding of CAS

Perform complex Complex network

network analysis model

Results and comparative Pseudocode

analysis specification

Agent based model

Perform simulation
experiment

Discover emergent
behavior

Figure 10.8 DREAM methodology for ABM. Adapted, with permission, from
Reference [3]

agents can move across the network. Here first, we will be defining the node type
agent (Table 10.2).

We have implemented this model in NetLogo (Toolkit for ABM). For one node agent,
there are four internal variables, hid that is node id and an opaque 160-bit number,
which we have used as a label for a particular node. kBuckets are for node’s all bits
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 305

Hid Message
value Location
Make-New-Node

Walker-Attributes go
Node-Attributes
key Walker node-lookup Forever
init-props

KBuckets Node Agent-Breeds

src find-alpha-closest-nodes
Bits
tExpire Setup Procedures
find-k-closest-nodes
tReplicate Agents
K Agent-Attributes
create-network Reporter binary-to-integer

stop_flag InputGlobals Globals ABM

xor-distance
nested-get
tgt tRefresh from-distance
Apha alphaClosestNodes integer-to-binary digit-value xor-distance-btw-nodes
tRepublish OutputGlobals
from-base

closest-non-empty-bucket

Figure 10.9 Network view after manipulating algorithms

Table 10.2 Breed nodes details

Breed Node: This breed represents nodes present in Kademlia network

Internal Variables: <hid, key, value, kBuckets>

hid: Node Id of 160 bits. Also used as node label
key: Node key
Value: Node value
KBuckets: Each node from 0<= i <160 has a list of <IP address, UDP
port, Node ID> triples for nodes of distance between 2i and 2i +1 from itself.

Table 10.3 Breed walker details

Breed Walker: This agent is used for walker that can move across the network.

Internal Variables: <location, message>

location: This variable is used to represent the current location of walker
message: Walker message

because every node for each 0<= i <160 keeps a list of <IP address, UDP port,
Node ID> triplet for those nodes which have distance between 2i and 2i + 1 from
itself. Next, we will be defining the walker type agent.
Here Walker breed represents walker type agents (Table 10.3). These walkers
are used for the purpose of routing to move in a network. Next, we presented the
internal variables used in this type of network. The location variable is used to store
the current location of a walker. The message is being sent to Walker and does action
on the basis of that. Now as we have developed a specification model of the agent
306 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 10.4 Input Globals details

Input Globals: <Population, Hash_Degree, initial-seed>

Sliders
Population: Used for specifying initial number of nodes
Hash_Degree: Used to specify the size of hash
initial-seed: Used to specify initial seed size in network

Table 10.5 Setup procedure details

Procedure Setup: Creating environment for simulation.

Input: User Interface Global parameters are used

Output: Initial setup of simulation environment
Execution: Called in the start
Context: Observer
begin
1. Clear screen
2. Clear all outputs
3. Reset ticks
4. Set value for global constants
5. Create nodes, set labels for all nodes and also set “cur” variable value
6. Create walker
7. Create network and set value for “src” and “tgt” node

all breeds, next we will be developing model for global variables used in the code.
In simulation, different configurations are dependent on Global variables. So these
global variables are important.
● Globals
In this section, we will be describing the global variables in the simulation model.
For simulation setup, there are eight key input variables. In the specification
model below, key global variables are described.
Here we have three variables which are used as input, and we can clearly note that all
these variables are sliders (GUI element in NetLogo) (Table 10.4). The population is
the input provided by the user to specify the initial number of nodes. Hash_Degree is
the input provided by the user to specify the size of hash, that is, each node will be
given a random hash id between 0 and 2(Hash_Degree)−1 . Initial_seed is the input which
will be used to specify initial seeds size in a network.
● Procedures
After describing breeds and global variables in this section, we will be describing
procedures that are part of our model. There can be different types of procedures.
The first procedure is setup procedure (Table 10.5).
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 307

Table 10.6 “init-props” procedure details

Procedure init-props: Setting up nodes properties

Input: User Interface’s Global parameters and global constants

Output: Changing nodes properties
Execution: Called by setup
begin
1. Set shape as circle
2. Setting x-coordinate of node
3. Setting y-coordinate of node
4. Setting hid of node
5. Setting kBuckets
end

For every ABM, a setup procedure is the most important one. Models can have
different names for setup procedure, but more or less similar kind of procedure
is needed to set up simulation scenarios. Here point to note is that remaining
quantity of old simulation should not be disturbing future simulations. That’s
why old results are cleared before the next simulation. By doing this, we can
make sure that our simulation is running in a clean fashion. Then, some global
constant variables, which are used in the simulation, are assigned constant values.
Number of nodes depend on the “Population” slider value. Then, each node is
traversed and each node’s label is set. Node ID is used as node label. Also for
each node, another procedure “init-props” is called that will be explained later.
In the next step, for all nodes cur is set as “self.” After this a walker is created,
walker’s color is changed to one-of base colors. Next walker’s location is set to
one of the nodes and the initial location is moved to walker’s location.

“init-props” is the procedure which will set each nodes shape, label, store x and
y-coordinate, and id (Table 10.6). Also at the end kBuckets for each node is set as
nobody. To arrange nodes in some order and shape, there is button present on screen
called “Make Circle” that can be used. Next, we will be describing procedure named
“go.”
“go” is the procedure which is being called repeatedly for each simulation
(Table 10.7). This function gets called when “go (forever)” button is clicked or “go
(single step)” is clicked. First, in this procedure, ticks counter value is reported and
then another procedure named “node-lookup” is called.
“integer-to-binary” is the procedure used to convert an integer to a binary number
(Table 10.8). First, we start the loop which runs till number is not equal to zero. First,
set “rem” as number % 2. In the next step, set bitList, now add rem in the start of
bitList. Next, set “num” as number % 2. At last, “number” is set as a floor of “num”
to return.
308 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 10.7 “go” procedure details

Procedure go: Creating network and setting ticks

Input: No specific input parameters used

Output: For each simulation agent this equates to single step
Execution: Repeatedly called simulation execution
begin
1. Report current value of ticks counter
2. node-lookup
end

Table 10.8 “integer-to-binary” procedure details

Procedure integer-to-binary: Converts integer or decimal number to binary

Input: Internal variable containing decimal number

Output: Return binary number equivalent of input
Execution: Called from xor-distance
begin
1. Define local variables
2. Do this while number is not equal to 0 [
rem = number % 2
In this step set bitList now add rem in the start of bitList
Then we will set num = number / 2
At last number = floor of num ]
3. After converting integer to binary return that number
end

Table 10.9 “nested-get” procedure details

Procedure nested-get: Internal function to get value from list

Input: Internal variables

Output: Return value from list
Execution: Called from create-network
begin
1. Get list and index
2. Return value from second list
end

“nested-get” is the procedure which is used to get value from the list on the basis
of index (Table 10.9). It takes list and index as input and return value from the list. It
is called from “create-network” for each node.
“node-lookup” is the procedure which is used to do node lookup procedure
(Table 10.10). Lookup is started by first picking alpha nodes from closest non-empty
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 309

Table 10.10 “node-lookup” procedure details

Procedure node-lookup: Internal function to do node lookup

Input: User Interface’s Global parameters and global constants

Output: Doing node lookup
Execution: Called from go
Context: Observer
begin
1. Find alpha closest nodes
2. For each alpha closest node make a link with src. Advance tick by 1
3. Ping each node and find K closest nodes
4. Check if nodes from K closest nodes reply or not
5. For each k closest node make a link with src from alpha nodes
6. Find xor-distance btw node from “K” and “tgt”
7. If distance is 1 “stop” go procedure & advance tick by 1
end

Table 10.11 “find-alpha-closest-nodes” procedure details

Procedure find-alpha-closest-nodes: Internal function to get alpha closest nodes

Input: No specific input parameters used

Output: No output
Execution: Called from node-lookup
begin
1. Call procedure named “closest-non-empty-bucket”
2. Set value of global variable named “alphaCLosestNodes”
end

kBucket. If closest non-empty kBucket has fewer entries, it just picks alpha nodes it
has knowledge of. The source then sends to find the node RPCs to alpha nodes, where
alpha is typically 3. Then each alpha sends request to further K nodes and check if
they reply or not. If alpha = 1, then Kademlia resembles chord.
“find-alpha-closest-nodes” is the procedure which is used to get alpha closest
nodes from bucket (Table 10.11). It calls “closest-non-empty-bucket” procedure to
get the closest non-empty bucket, and then from the output of that procedure, we get
alpha nodes.
“find-k-closest-nodes” is used to get k closest nodes from bucket (Table 10.12).
It calls “closest-non-empty-bucket” procedure to get the closest non-empty bucket,
and then from the output of that procedure, we get k nodes to return.
“xor-distance-btw-nodes” is a procedure which is used to find xor distance
between two nodes (Table 10.13). It calls “xor-distance” procedure to find xor distance
between src and tgt ids.
310 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 10.12 “find-k-closest-nodes” procedure details

Procedure find-k-closest-nodes: Internal function to get k closest nodes

Input: Internal variables

Output: Return value from list
Execution: Called from node-lookup
begin
1. Call procedure named “closest-non-empty-bucket”
2. Return k nodes from output of “closest-non-empty-bucket”
end

Table 10.13 “xor-distance-btw-nodes” procedure details

Procedure xor-distance-btw-nodes: Internal function to find XOR distance between nodes

Input: Internal variables

Output: Return value from list
Execution: Called from node-lookup
begin
1. Declare and define local variables
2. For src & tgt inputs set respective ids
3. For src & tgt id’s calculate XOR distance
4. Return the dist
end

“create-network” is the procedure in which in start some local variables are

declared and assigned values (Table 10.14). Next for each node, set “cur” variable as
self and nodeId as hId. “Self ” is NetLogo keyword, which means “me.” Then change
walker properties like set the location as “cur,” color and move to new location. Then
for this particular node ask all the other nodes. Set “newNode” as self. After this for
that particular node, calculate XOR distance using procedure named “xor-distance”
which we will be explaining later. Populate bucket and then set “is-in-bucket” flag
based on which there is next if condition. In “bucket” at index 0 replace-item with
“cur.” Then for each walker define new variable “dest” as newNode. Move the face
to “dest” and check if distance “dest” is less than “speed” and do some operations
to change walker properties there. In the next step, Kademlia protocols have been
implemented. When some node sends a message to some other node, receiver node
updates the particular kBucket of node ID of sender node. The protocol has some
conditions. If the sending node is already present in recipient’s kBucket, then recipient
moves it to the end of that list. If node is not present in the particular kBucket and
that bucket has less than “k (Global constant variable)” entries, then recipient only
inserts new sender at the end/tail of list. If the particular kBucket is already full, then
recipient pings the kBucket’s last-recently seen node just to decide the future of new
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 311

Table 10.14 “create-network” procedure details

Procedure create-network: Creating network

Input: User Interface’s Global parameters and global constants

Output: Creating network
Execution: Called by setup
Context: Observer
begin
1. Local variables declaration. All next steps will be done for each node
2. For each node set “cur” variable as self, set node Id as hid & change
walker properties
3. Ask all other nodes for this node & set newNode as self
4. Then for that “newNode”
Find XOR, fill “bucket” with “nested-get” procedure output
Check if “cur” is “bucket” member then set “is-in-bucket” true
In “bucket” at index 0 replace-item with “cur”
Then change each walker properties
5. Here check if “is-in-bucket” is true or not
If yes then do this [
“currPos” &“lstPos” as position of “cur” &“nobody” in bucket
Check if “lstPos” is false?
If yes then do this [
From bucket remove item at “currPos” & put “cur” at tail
To walkers send message “ok” ]
else do this [
From bucket replace item at the “lstPos” with “cur”
From bucket remove item at “currPos” & put “nobody” at tail
To walkers send message “ok” ]
] else do this [
Define local variable “lstPos” as position of nobody in bucket
Check if “lstPos” is false? If yes then [
To walkers send message “fail” ]
else do this [
From bucket replace item at the “lstPos” with “cur”
To walkers send message “ok” ]
Then for each walker [
Change walker properties
Define local variable named “flag” and set its value as false
At last for each walker end message the value in flag
check if “flag” is “ok” or “fail”
For “newNode” from kBuckets replace at “dist” with “bucket”

node and least recently node. If there is no reply from least recently seen node, then
recipient just removes it from the particular kBucket and at the tail new sender is
inserted. Otherwise, if there is a response from last recently seen node, it is shifted to
tail of list, and new sender is discarded.
“closest-non-empty-bucket” is used to get the closest non-empty bucket from
buckets list (Table 10.15). It calls “xor-distance” procedure to find xor distance
between src and tgt ids. Then from buckets list get the closest non-empty bucket
and return it.
312 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 10.15 “closest-non-empty-bucket” procedure details

Procedure closest-non-empty-bucket: Internal function to get closest non-empty bucket

Input: Internal variables

Output: Return value from list
Execution: Called from find “k” & “alpha” closest nodes
begin
1. Declare and define local variables
2. For src & tgt inputs set respective ids
3. For src & tgt ids calculate XOR distance
4. Return bucket got from “nested-get” procedure
end

Table 10.16 “xor-distance” procedure details

Procedure xor-distance: Calculates XOR distance between two numbers

Input: User Interface’s Global parameters and global constants

Output: Return XOR distance between two numbers
Execution: Called from create-network
begin
1. Define local variables
2. if bin1Len = bin2Len then [
if bin1Len > bin2Len then [
zeroPadding = bin1Len - bin2Len
Then make a list of “0” and pad it to “zero”
Make a list containing zeros and bin2. Put that in bin2
] else this [
zeroPadding = bin2Len - bin1Len
Then make a list of “0” and pad it to “zero”
Make a list containing zeros and bin1. Put that in bin1
]
]
3. for loop on each of the arrays bin1 and bin2
In loop’s each iteration
If bin1 each bit is not equal to bin2 then increment dis by 1
end

“xor-distance” is the procedure which is used to calculate the distance between

two numbers (Table 10.16). It takes two decimal numbers as input and first convert
them to binary numbers. Then we find the length of both numbers and using “length”
function of NetLogo. First, we check if both numbers are of equal length or not. If
not of equal length, then again we check if first number is greater than second or not
if yes then we will set “zeroPadding” as subtraction of bin1Len and bin2Len. Then,
make a list of zeros and pad it to list named “zero” and, at last, make a list containing
zeros and bin2 and put that in bin2. In else, we will set “zeroPadding” as subtraction
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 313

Table 10.17 “binary-to-integer” procedure details

Procedure binary-to-integer: Converts Binary number to integer

Input: Internal variable containing bits

Output: Return Integer number equivalent of input
Execution: Called from create-network
begin
1. Bits as input
2. After converting bits to integer return that number
end

of bin2Len and bin1Len. Then make a list of zeros and pad it to list named “zero”
and, at last, make a list containing zeros and bin1 and put that in bin1. After main if
condition we have declared a local variable “dist as 0” and in last run for loop on each
of the arrays bin1 and bin2. In loop’s each iteration, we compare each bit of bin1 and
bin2, if bits are not equal, then increment “dis” by one. And return dist.
“binary-to-integer” is the procedure which is used to convert binary number to
decimal number (Table 10.17). It takes bits as input and convert them to a decimal
number.

10.4 Results and discussion

10.4.1 Evaluation metrics

To evaluate the performance of Kademlia, we used a number of messages as our
metric. It is defined as the number of messages exchanged between nodes for node
lookup operation. We simulate the messages behavior as we increase the network size.
Then, on the basis of this behavior, the comparison is performed between simulations
of PeerSim and NetLogo. The parameters that are used to set simulation environment
are shown in Table 10.1.

10.4.2 Power law plots of centrality measures

Initially, we started out with performing manipulation of the raw network. Degree
centrality measure is analyzed first. After the degree measure is done for each node,
it is added to corresponding node as an attribute. Centrality measure is used to resize
and colorize every node. Resultant network is shown in Figure 10.10. We can get
compelling overview of network by degree centrality, there are some other quantitative
measures as well shown in Table 10.18.
For further details, Table 10.18 can be used. Plots for Degree Centrality
(%) (Figure 10.11), closeness centrality (Figure 10.12) and betweenness centrality
(Figure 10.13) are shown below. Also, for each type of centrality measure, we have
also plotted poweRlaw plots using “R” language. Corresponding poweRlaw plots are
314 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks
closest-non-empty-bucket
xor-distance-btw-nodes Location
from-binary nested-get Message
xor-distance

from-base find-k-closest-nodes value

Walker-Attributes
integer-to-binary Agent-Attributes
digit-value Reporter Hid
Walker
Node-Attributes
binary-to-integer node-lookup
Node
KBuckets
init-props Agents Agents-Breeds
Key
setup Globals
ABM
Procedures
Apha Bits
create-network
OutputGlobals
Src tgt
InputGlobals
find-alpha-closest-nodes tExpire
Forever
tRepublish
K tRefresh
tReplicate
alphaClosestNodes
go stop_flag
Make-New-Node

Figure 10.10 Kademlia Complex Network Model, resized and colorized according
to degree centrality

shown below in the figures: Figure 10.14 shows poweRlaw plot of Degree, Fig-
ure 10.15 shows poweRlaw plot of Closeness centrality and Figure 10.16 shows
poweRlaw plot of Betweenness centrality (Figures 10.17 and 10.18).

10.4.3 PeerSim simulation using existing code in PeerSim

In PeerSim, Kademlia module is implemented using the event driven model approach.
The implementation is little bit different from the actual Kademlia protocol. The
implementation of store and search values are skipped and only the finding the node
is implemented. Messages exchange and few timeouts events are the focal events that
run the protocol. Timeouts events are mainly used for the nodes failure in the network.
In the next section, details of how protocol runs and messages will be explained.

1. Messages
In Kademlia protocol, the messages exchanged are the events linked to PeerSim.
For every message, we create an instance of Messages class that extends PeerSim
class of SimpleEvent.
i. MSG_FINDNODE: Find node action is stared using this message.
ii. MSG_ROUTE: This message is used to query about the target node from
the neighbors.
iii. MSG_RESPONSE: In response to MSG_ROUTE, this msg is sent that
contains the information of k nodes that are nearest to the target node.
2. Code comments
i. Bootstrap process
In the core of PeerSim, the WireKOut class contained. Two classes State-
Builder and CustomDistribution are implemented to facilitate network’s
bootstrap and initialization process.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 315

Table 10.18 Table of Degree, Betweenness Closeness and Eigen centrality

Label Degree Closeness Betweenness Eigen

ABM 3 0.34 0.66 0.41

Globals 3 0.29 0.41 0.42
OutputGlobals 1 0.23 0 0.12
InputGlobals 12 0.25 0.41 0.96
Apha 1 0.20 0 0.27
Bits 1 0.20 0 0.27
K 1 0.20 0 0.27
tExpire 1 0.20 0 0.27
tRefresh 1 0.20 0 0.27
tReplicate 1 0.20 0 0.27
tRepublish 1 0.20 0 0.27
Agents 3 0.29 0.39 0.19
Agent-Attributes 1 0.22 0 0.06
Agent-Breeds 3 0.25 0.36 0.14
Node 2 0.21 0.19 0.11
Node-Attributes 5 0.18 0.16 0.14
Hid 1 0.15 0 0.05
key 1 0.15 0 0.05
value 1 0.15 0 0.05
KBuckets 1 0.15 0 0.05
Walker 2 0.20 0.12 0.08
Walker-Attributes 4 0.17 0.08 0.06
Location 2 0.14 0 0.03
Message 1 0.14 0 0.03
Procedures 9 0.32 0.59 0.80
Forever 3 0.25 0.08 0.28
go 1 0.20 0 0.08
Make-New-Node 1 0.20 0 0.08
Setup 1 0.24 0 0.22
create-network 1 0.24 0 0.22
init-props 2 0.24 0 0.22
nested-get 1 0.21 0 0.27
binary-to-integer 1 0.21 0 0.27
integer-to-binary 1 0.21 0 0.27
xor-distance 1 0.21 0 0.27
from-binary 1 0.21 0 0.27
from-base 1 0.21 0 0.27
digit-value 1 0.21 0 0.27
Reporter 11 0.27 0.38 1
alphaCLosestNodes 1 0.20 0 0.27
src 1 0.20 0 0.27
tgt 1 0.20 0 0.27
stop_flag 1 0.20 0 0.27
node-lookup 1 0.24 0 0.22
find-alpha-closest-nodes 1 0.24 0 0.22
find-k-closest-nodes 1 0.21 0 0.27
closest-non-empty-bucket 1 0.21 0 0.27
xor-distance-btw-nodes 1 0.21 0 0.27
 0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
316

0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
ABM
ABM GLOBALS
GLOBALS OUTPUTGLOBALS
OUTPUTGLOBALS INPUTGLOBALS
INPUTGLOBALS APHA
APHA BITS
BITS K
K TEXPIRE
TEXPIRE TREFRESH
TREFRESH TREPLICATE
TREPLICATE TREPUBLISH
TREPUBLISH
Degree

AGENTS
AGENTS AGENT-ATTRIBUTES
AGENT-ATTRIBUTES

Closeness-centrality
AGENT-BREEDS
AGENT-BREEDS
NODE
NODE
NODE-ATTRIBUTES NODE-ATTRIBUTES
HID HID
KEY KEY
VALUE VALUE
KBUCKETS KBUCKTS
WALKER WALKER
WALKER-ATTRIBUTES WALKER-ATTRIBUTES
LOCATION LOCATION
MESSAGE MESSAGE
PROCEDURES PROCEDURES
Degree

FOREVER FOREVER
GO GO

Closeness-centrality
MAKE-NEW-NODE MAKE-NEW-NODE
SETUP SETUP
CREATE-NETWORK CREATE-NERWORK
INIT-PROPS INIT-PROPS
NESTED-GET NESTED-GET
BINARY-TO-INTEGER BINARY-TO-INTEGER
INTEGER-TO-BINARY INTEGER-TO-BINARY
XOR-DISTANCE XOR-DISTANCE
FROM-BINARY FROM-BINARY
FROM-BASE FROM-BASE
DIGIT-VALUE
DIGIT-VALUE
Figure 10.11 Plot showing the Degree centrality

REPORTER
REPORTER
Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

ALPHACLOSESTNODES
SRC ALPHACLOSESTNODES
TGT SRC
TGT

Figure 10.12 Plot showing the poweRlaw of Degree centrality

STOP_FLAG
NODE-LOOKUP STOP-FLAG
FIND-ALPHA -CLOSEST-NODES NODE-LOOKUP
FIND-K-CLOSEST-NODES FIND-ALPHACLOSEST-NODES
CLOSEST-NON-EMPTY-BUKET FIND-K-CLOSEST-NODES
XOR-DISTANCE-BTW-NODES CLOSEST-NON-EMPTY-BUCKET
XOR-DISTANCE-BTW-NODES
 0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
ABM 80.00%

GLOBALS
INPUTGLOBALS
y
AGENTS
0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 AGENT-BREEDS
NODE

1
NODE-ATTRIBUTES
WALKER
Betweenness (%)

WALKER-ATTRIBUTES
PROCEDURES
FOREVER

2
GO
MAKE-NEW-NODE
SETUP
CREATE-NETWORK

x
Degree
INIT-PROPS
NESTED-GET
Betweenness (%)

5
BINARY-TO-INTEGER
INTEGER-TO-BINARY
XOR-DISTANCE
FROM-BINARY
FROM-BASE

10
DIGIT-VALUE
Figure 10.13 Plot showing the closeness centrality

REPORTER
NODE-LOOKUP
FIND-ALPHA -CLOSEST-NODES

Figure 10.14 Plot showing the poweRlaw of Closeness centrality

FIND-K-CLOSEST-NODES
Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol

CLOSEST-NON-EMPTY-BUKET
XOR-DISTANCE-BTW-NODES
317
318 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Closeness-centrality

1.00
0.50
0.20
y
0.10
0.05
0.02

0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

x

Figure 10.15 Plot showing the Betweenness centrality

Betweenness
1.0
0.5
y

0.2
0.1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

x

Figure 10.16 Plot showing the poweRlaw of Betweenness centrality

When the process starts, the WireKOut class randomly creates the
links between nodes. It creates a virtually overlay network. After this,
CustomDistribution class is used to initialize the network, for example,
for every node, unique ids are assigned in a range between 0 …2BITS .
Here BITS is coming from the Kademlia protocol and usually the value
 0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
ABM
GLOBALS
OUTPUTGLOBALS
INPUTGLOBALS
APHA
BITS
K
y TEXPIRE
TREFRESH
0.02 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 1.00 TREPLICATE
TREPUBLISH
AGENTS
Eigen centrality

AGENT-ATTRIBUTES
AGENT-BREEDS
NODE
NODE-ATTRIBUTES

0.05
HID
KEY
VALUE
KBUCKETS
WALKER

0.10
WALKER-ATTRIBUTES
LOCATION
MESSAGE
PROCEDURES
FOREVER

x
GO

0.20
MAKE-NEW-NODE
SETUP

Eigen centrality
Eigen centrality (%)

CREATE-NETWORK
INIT-PROPS
NESTED-GET
BINARY-TO-INTEGER
INTEGER-TO-BINARY

0.50
XOR-DISTANCE
FROM-BINARY
FROM-BASE
Figure 10.17 Plot showing the Eigen centrality

DIGIT-VALUE
REPORTER

1.00
ALPHACLOSESTNODES
SRC

Figure 10.18 Plot showing the poweRlaw of Eigen centrality

TGT
STOP_FLAG
NODE-LOOKUP
Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol

FIND-ALPHA -CLOSEST-NODES
FIND-K-CLOSEST-NODES
CLOSEST-NON-EMPTY-BUKET
XOR-DISTANCE-BTW-NODES
319
320 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

is 160. After network’s initialization, bootstrap process is performed using

the StateBuilder class. The main objective of this class is to fill up the node’s
k-buckets.
ii. Find a node
The class TrafficGenerated generates a message MSG_FINDNODE that
initiates the process of find the node. The first step of this process is to
create an object of FindOperation class that has all the data related to specific
process. In particular, this object has the information of closest neighbor set
and information of queried nodes and about requests that are outstanding.
In this class, there are two variables nrHops and timestamp that keep track
of duration and hops operation count respectively. Rest is the same process
that are already explained in the overview section.
iii. Joining the network
This process is also the same as described in the overview of this section.
When a new node is created using PeerSim, a new id is assigned to it. Initially,
this node has an empty bucket and then a random node is selected and added
to the newly created node’s k-bucket. Then this node sends an MSG_ROUTE
to random node and this way it starts filling their k-bucket.
3. Simulations
There is a configuration file that is used to customize the Kademlia module. It is
a simple txt file that is easy to edit, and it defines the whole protocol by setting
the different controls and parameters. In the next section, a brief explanation is
given of the module different components.
i. The Protocol
There are system-wide three main parameters that can be used to customize
the protocol.
BITS: It is used to define the node id length. The default value is 160.
K: It is used to define a single k-bucket length. The default value is 20.
ALPHA: It is used in lookup operation. It defines the simultaneous
lookup process. The default value is 3.
ii. The controls
Two different types of control classes are provided; one is Turbolence and
the other is TrafficGenerator. The TrafficGenerator select random source to
generate random find node messages to search. The Turbolence class used
the given probability to add or remove nodes from the network. The following
parameters are used to configure probabilities:
p_idle: The default value is 0, it means the current execution neither
removes the node nor adds them in the network.
p_add: The default value is 0.5. This is probability of addition of new
node in current execution.
p_rem: Default values is 0.5. This is the probability of failure of a node
that exists in the network.
iii. The Observer
In this module, there is a class called KademliaOberver. The main purpose
of this class is to gather statistics of protocol behavior. It keeps track hops
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 321

Number of messages per search operation with respect network size in Absence of churn
35
Simulations
Number message (avg)

30

25

20
102 103 104 105
Network size (number node)

Figure 10.19 Number of messages with respect to network size per search
operation in churn absence

count, delivers messages count and finds operation count. The STEP is the
only allowed parameter that used the stderr to define the output frequency
measure.
4. Results
The performance of Kademlia protocol in search operations is analyzed in both
scenarios, that is, in the presence of churn and in the absence of churn by varying
the network size. The result of average messages exchanged during the search
operation is presented.
i. Simulation Parameters
In order to simulate Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)-like connection-
oriented protocol, a reliable channel was selected. In simulation, the network
size was varied from 128 to 65,536 nodes. In each round, the number of nodes
was doubled and total simulation time was around 1 h. The observer step
was 100,000 and traffic step was calculated from the following equation:
Simulation Time
TrafficStep = (10.3)
Network Size
The turbulence step was calculated from the blew equation

Turbulence Step = (Simulation Time ∗ 20)/Network Size (10.4)

5. Plots
The results from the java simulation were written in text file, and then using
MATLAB® , the results were plotted.
In Figure 10.19, system’s search operation performance is evaluated in the
stable environment, which means in the absence of churn. In this plot, the number
of messages required per search operation is compared with network size. You can
see that as network size is increasing, the number of messages is also increasing.
The turbulence is not used in this plot.
322 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Number of messages per search operation wrt network size in Presence of churn

Simulations
Number message (avg)

102 103 104 105

Network size (number node)

Figure 10.20 Number of messages with respect to network size per search
operation in churn presence

Figure 10.21 NetLogo user interface of Kademlia random shape. It has sliders,
buttons, plot, etc.

Figure 10.20 is the same graph as the previous one. The only difference is, now
the churn is present. You can see that there is very little difference in the graph as
compared with the graph from absence of churn. In this graph, the turbulence control
is activated. The probability of nodes for leaving or joining the network is same. It is
also an evidence to show that Kademlia handles churn very well (Figure 10.21).
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 323

Figure 10.22 NetLogo user interface of Kademlia circle shape. It has sliders,
buttons, plot, etc.

10.4.4 ABM simulation

To simulate Kademlia P2P network, a model is developed in NetLogo using ABM
approach. NetLogo setup is shown in Figure 10.22. NetLogo is a unified modeling
environment and programming language for ABM. It is an open source and can be
downloaded freely from NetLogo website. The implementation is little bit different
from the actual Kademlia protocol. The implementation of store and search values
are skipped and only the finding the node is implemented. Messages exchange is the
focal event that run the protocol.
There is a method “setup” that is called before the simulation start. It is the core
function that is used to initialize and bootstrap the process. In this function, first all
the global variables are initialized and then peers or nodes are created and placed
randomly. After that, random ids are generated in the range of 0 . . . 220 and assigned
to each node. There is button “make-circle” that can be used to arrange the randomly
placed nodes in a circle just for better visualization. At the end of setup, the method
“create-network” is called. This method used the routing algorithm and filled each
node’s k-buckets.
Once the environment is setup then the “go” button is used to run the simulation.
In “go” method, “node-lookup” method is called that run the lookup algorithm to
find the target node. Source node and target node are randomly set in the “setup”
function. The implemented lookup algorithm is the same as explained in the Kademlia
324 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Number of messages per search operation wrt network size in Absence of churn
400
Simulations
350
Number message (avg)

300
250
200
150
100
50
101 102 103
Network size (number node)

Figure 10.23 Number of messages with respect to network size per search
operation in churn absence

architecture section. We keep track of links that are made between the nodes in the
process of lookup and take them as messages.

10.4.4.1 Configuration
Like PeerSim in ABM, there are system-wide three main parameters that can be
used to customized the protocol. The first one is the BITS that defines the node id
length and the default value is 20. In PeerSim simulation, the default value of BITS
is 160, but in NetLogo, it is set to 20 because of limiting the simulation scale and
to avoid overflow errors in hashes operation. The second one is K that is used to
define the single k-bucket length default value is 20. The third one is ALPHA that is
used in lookup operation, and it defines the simultaneous lookup process. The default
value is 3.

10.4.4.2 Results
As described earlier, the performance of Kademlia protocol in search operation is
analyzed. The performance is analyzed in both scenarios that are in the presence of
churn and in the absence of churn by varying the network size. The result of average
messages exchanged during the search operation is presented. We used BehaviorSpace
tool of NetLogo for our experiment. The experiment consists of 200 simulations, 100
in the presence of churn and 100 in the absence of churn. The network size is changed
from 25 to 400 with a difference of 25. The results from the NetLogo simulation was
written in csv file, and then by using MATLAB, the results were plotted.
Figure 10.23 shows the results of lookup operation in the absence of churn, which
means stable environment. In this plot, the number of messages required per search
operation is compared with network size. You can see, as the network size increases,
the number of messages required is also increasing.
Figure 10.24 is the same graph as the previous one. The only difference is, now
the churn is present. You can see that there is very little difference in the graph as
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 325

Number of messages per search operation wrt network size in Presence of churn
400
Simulations
350
Number message (avg)

300
250
200
150
100
50
101 102 103
Network size (number node)

Figure 10.24 Number of messages with respect to network size per search
operation in churn presence

compared with the graph from absence of churn. The probability of nodes for leaving
or joining the network is same. It is also an evidence to show that Kademlia handles
churn very well.

10.4.5 Comparison of PeerSim and ABM results

In this section, we will do comparison of both NetLogo and PeerSim simulations.
The environment setup in both simulations was not exactly the same. For example,
the BITS length that is used to generate node id was different in both environments.
In PeerSim, it is 2160 and in NetLogo it is 220 . The second main difference was the
network size. In PeerSim, the network size was starting from 128 and ending at 65,000.
But in NetLogo due to resources constraint, it was not possible to set network this
much big as it was used in PeerSim. In NetLogo, the network size was starting from
0 to 400 with the interval of 25.
In Figure 10.25, the comparison of lookup operations is shown in the stable
environment, which means the absence of churn. In the plots, you can see that the
behavior of both simulations is comparable. As we are increasing the network size,
the number of messages required for lookup operation are also increasing.
In Figure 10.26, the comparison of lookup operation in the presence of churn is
shown for both simulations. As we have discussed earlier, the behavior of Kademlia
does not change much in the presence of churn. So, in result, the plots are almost same
as the above one. You can also see that the behavior of both plots are comparable.

10.4.6 Discussion
10.4.6.1 Comparison of ODD and DREAM
In this part of the chapter, we will present comparison of ODD [8] and DREAM [3]
from all perspectives.
326 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks
Number of messages per search operation Number of messages per search operation
with respect network size in Absence of churn with respect network size in Absence of churn
35 400
Peersim simulations Netlogo simulations
350
Number message (avg)

Number message (avg)

300
30
250

200
25
150

100

20 50
102 103 104 105 101 102 103
Network size (number node) Network size (number node)

Figure 10.25 The left side is PeerSim simulation and in the right NetLogo
simulation

Number of messages per search operation with respect Number of messages per search operation with respect
network size in Presence of churn network size in Presence of churn
35 400
Peersim simulations Netlogo simulations
350
Number message (avg)

Number message (avg)

300
30
250

200
25
150

100

20 50
102 10
3
10
4
10
5
10
1
10
2
10
3

Network size (number node) Network size (number node)

Figure 10.26 The left side is PeerSim simulation and in the right NetLogo
simulation

ODD only provides a textual description of ABM for the purpose of making
the model more readable and ODD also promotes rigorous model formulations. To
describe ABM, it provides checklist covering key features. ODD has some limitations
that are described next. According to a survey conducted by Grimm [52], for the
publications which have used ODD only, 75% have used it correctly and the remaining
25% have some flaws, even some parts of the protocol were compromised. So, in [52],
the author concludes that using ODD protocol, it is not an easy task to write down
ABM specification.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling of Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 327

An issue with ODD is, some of the ODD specifications are overlapping in differ-
ent sections. For example, introduction and purpose sections have overlaps. The same
thing that is asked in the purpose section is also included in the introduction section.
The submodel section also has some similarities with the design concept section. The
submodel section is also described again in the scheduling and process section.
ODD is not suitable for comparison between different ABMs and to describe
large ABM. Some large ABMs have a lot of features and ODD has less description of
them, which is not enough to cover the whole ABM. Comparison between different
ABMs is not possible in ODD due to the lack of quantitative assessment. The only way
to do is to prepare an ODD checklist for both ABMs and put them is a table and find
the differences and similarities between them. Therefore, using ODD comparison of
two ABMs is not an easy task and also reviewing of many ABMs is a hectic the task.
ODD specification has redundancy, replication and less information. Sometimes,
the same ABM with a different version is published in different publications. But in
these publications, ODD specifications are almost same just with little change in
process section and entities. Another issue with ODD is, using it, someone cannot
replicate ABM because it provides a very specific description of the model. So, to
replicate ABM with such specific, redundant and ambiguous information is quite
difficult.
As compared to ODD, DREAM provides a detailed description of ABM. Using
DREAM, we can develop a complex network model of any ABM, describe through
pseudo-code specification and also can make steps for network analysis. So, by using
DREAM, we can easily get detailed description and pseudo-code based design of
ABM which will be quite helpful for us to compare ABMs and replicate ABMs of
any domain.
DREAM allows to understand and analyze visually the complex network of any
ABM without going into much code details. It provides quantitative measurement
after performing network analysis, which lacks in ODD. Therefore, by using these
measurements, one can easily understand, replicate and compare ABM from different
domains.
DREAM is independent of scientific domains and applicable to any ABM
research domain. DREAM allows comparing different models that are developed
in different scientific domains. For example, to compare two ABMs of different
domains, first we have to develop the complex networks of both models and then we
can analyze and compare them in the same manner. So, we can say that by DREAM,
we cannot only get detailed description but we can also compare ABMs from different
domains.
DREAM further provides pseudo-code specification of ABM. Using this spec-
ification, anyone can understand ABM regardless of discipline. This specification
translates to code and then ABM development. Hence, using DREAM, we can
confidently say that it is an easy task to understand and to replicate any ABM.
In [53], the authors did a very good empirical analysis of both protocol method-
ologies. They used 13 features to evaluate the methodologies and calculate the rank
of each methodology. The averaging result of DREAM was 1.76 and ODD was 0.69.
328 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Hence, the results show that DREAM provides very detailed specification, and it is
the best suitable choice for ABM understanding, comparison and replication.

10.4.6.2 Kademlia relation with theory of computation

The theory of computation has three portions, i.e., computability, complexity theory
and automata theory. In this section, we will try and relate Kademlia with “Com-
plexity.” Now we will try and find the time complexity for Kademlia FIND_NODE
operation. Let’s say we are looking for an ID that is furthest away from our own
node ID. For this, we first query alpha closest nodes than from the result of those
alpha nodes we further query K more nodes and this process continues until there are
no closer nodes present (Node Look up operation is defined already in detail in Node
Look up section). Since our each hop sweeps off minimum distance of 1 bit at one
time, therefore O(log(n)) hop count is needed (here “n” is network size).
From the above paragraph, the point to note is, we will need less steps to find
the required node if the node id to find is closer to our own node id. As we already
know, “k” is a constant variable (nodes present per bucket), therefore log(k) is also
a constant. If nodes in a bucket are doubled, then we will have double the resolution
of given keyspace area and therefore will (probabilistically) get a node that is at least
1 bit closer to target than a bucket of size k/2. Another point here is, there are some
optimizations which are needed, like for handling unbalanced trees, each node splits
kBuckets as per requirement to satisfy that they have knowledge of trees having k
nodes at minimum. Therefore, at last, we can conclude that Kademlia being a P2P
system is complex and O(log(n)) hop count is needed for each operation to complete.

10.5 Conclusion and future work

In the past a number of works have been done to implement P2P protocols in Object
Oriented domain and other domains. In this chapter, we have implemented Kademlia,
a P2P protocol in NetLogo. We have presented ABM and Complex-network based
model for Kademlia. In the results section, we have compared our results with the
results of Kademlia simulation in PeerSim. As we have already written in the results
section, our results have matched with the results of PeerSim by some error margin.
In future what can be done to improve model is due to the resource constraint,
we have to only run the simulation for network sizes of up to 500. More network sizes
can be added in simulation to get further insight of model and do better comparison
with already present models. Another addition can be, we implemented only the
FIND_NODE operation from the original Kademlia protocol. Other operations like
STORE value and SEARCH value can also be implemented.

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 Chapter 11
Descriptive agent-based modeling of the
“BitTorrent” P2P protocol
Abdul Saboor1 , Nasir Khan1 , and Mubariz Rehman1

11.1 Introduction
BitTorrent designed by Cohen [1] is a peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing protocol devel-
oped to distribute data in such a manner that the actual distributer would be capable
to decrease the bandwidth use, and he will be able to reach the same amount of users
as well. In BitTorrent [1], data is divided or broken down into small chunks, and
every single user using those chunks would be available to upload to other people
in a swarm to save bandwidth where swarm is a group of peers connected to single
torrent. It is one of the most efficient protocols for replication and distribution of files
over the internet [2]. BitTorrent facilitates users to upload and download files at the
same time with each other as it uses principal known as tit-for-tat where BitTorrent
client act as a client and server. BitTorrent is the complex networks which improve
the performance of the communication systems.
In a network, many clients communicate with each other in a complex P2P
network using BitTorrent. In BitTorrent, peers work as seeders or lechers which act
both as a client and a server [1]. The main complexity [3] of the BitTorrent model is that
the whole model follows the power law distribution mechanism. In this mechanism,
when the total number of seeder involved in communication increases with respect to
network size, it tends to decrease in the network clustered. High-network clustering
values are only obtained when the swarm size of the network increases exponentially.
Agent-based modeling leads to the most efficient paradigm for the complex
adaptive systems (CASs) [4] and for the large-scale complex adaptive communica-
tion networks and environment. One of the main limitations of the other models is
that it does not offer the flexibility in terms of the complex connectivity of P2P net-
work. Agent-based modeling for the complex systems provides many benefits like
the overall throughput of the system increases and nodes interaction become easy for
communication.
In the modern era where the network sizes increase as well as the complexity
and the dynamically increase in the different network communication like wireless

1
Cosmose Research Group, COMSATS University, Pakistan
334 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

networks, mobile ad hoc networks, P2P communication. This all leads to the increase
in the complex network-emergent phenomena. These effects cause the network con-
gestion and the overall communication cost increases. To avoid these effects, modeling
of the network communication is needed instead of CASs and complex adaptive com-
munication networks and environments (CACOONS) [5]. Agent-based modeling of
the complex networks overcomes these issues and increases the flexibility of the
systems. Agent based modelling (ABM) is commonly used to model the dynamic
behavior in CASs. These techniques are more effective for the modeling of complex
networks because the interaction of the networks is handled using the visualization
techniques. As the simulation experiment of the complex systems increases the over-
all complexity of the systems, so there is a need of specific modeling approach
for the large-scale networks. ABM allows a clear, concise and the unambiguous
representation of the complex network model.
In the past few years, the unpredictable growth with respect to scale and complex-
ity of the network is observed. Networks sizes are increasing rapidly which results
in increase in their complexity. In the large complex networks, it is very difficult to
test and evaluate each module and its implementation. For the above aforementioned
purpose, simulation in terms of modeling plays a vital role in the development and
the design of the distributed system networks. For the agent-based modeling, a very
interactive and popular tool NetLogo is used. It provides the visual simulations for
the complex adaptive networks. One of the main features of the NetLogo models is
that it provides user friendly environment.
From the previous studies, is no descriptive agent based model (DREAM) [4] for
the BitTorrent P2P networks is developed. To overcome the complexity of distributed
networks, the basic Descripted agent-based model is proposed in [4]. In this chap-
ter, we have modeled DREAM of BitTorent. Overview, design concepts and details
(ODD) is used for textual representation of BitTorent. We have shown the compar-
ison between the ODD model [6] and DREAM model. As a result, we conclude
that for agent-based modeling, the NetLogo environment is extremely flexible with
very less space complexity and the DREAM model provides the basic description of
agent-based modeling.
In the BitTorrent P2P network, the main benefits are as follows:

● In the decentralized system, the file which is to be downloaded is not present in

central server system. If the source 1 is not active, you can download it from the
other available source, but in the centralized system, if the main server downs,
the downloading process stops.
● During the downloading process, if the connection interrupts after establishing
connection, the downloading process continues from where it stops and not from
start.
● Even with the slower network bandwidth torrent provide user friendly environ-
ment for downloading the big files.
● BitTorrent provides flexible environment for user whether it is downloading or
searching process. Prevents the tempered or corrupted file for sharing.
● Ability to download the larger files (Figure 11.1).
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 335

Develop basic Develop Development

Build Complex
understanding pseudocode agent-based
Network Model
of case model model

Perform
Perform complex Perform simulation
interdisciplinary
network analysis experiments
model comparison

Discover
emergent
behavior

Figure 11.1 Descriptive agent-based modeling level. Adopted, with permission,

from Reference [4]

The main contribution of the BitTorrent in ABM is

1. Agent-based modeling by using NetLogo provides the wide range of benefits

such as real-time analysis and statistical measurements.
2. Implementation in NetLogo is more efficient and in visualized form. Complex
network simulation is easier as compared to Network Simulator 2, etc.
3. In the NetLogo simulator, only the active environment is to be showed, so there
will be less space and time complexity.
4. NetLogo provides the user friendly environment in which it is easy to understand
how communication between the nodes occurs.

BitTorrent is a complex P2P network, which improves the performance of

the communication systems. Designing agent-based model for the complex system
provides multiple benefits as well as nodes interaction becomes more easy for com-
munication. Proactive agent design is the famous used approach for the agent-based
modeling. These are example of the complex systems [4] in which agents can commu-
nicate and take decisions intelligently by itself. In terms of P2P networks, agent-based
modeling also supports the mobility of the nodes in the network. However, the overall
performance also increases using the mobility and adaption of the peers (Figure 11.2).

11.1.1 Contributions
The main contribution of the BitTorrent in ABM is
● Agent-based modeling by using NetLogo provides the wide range of benefits such
as real-time analysis and statistical measurements.
● Implementation in NetLogo is more efficient and in a visualized form. Complex
network simulation is easier as compare to Network Simulator 2, etc.
336 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Client Client

Server

Client Client

Figure 11.2 Client/Server architecture. Adopted, with permission, from

Reference [7]

● In the NetLogo simulator, only the active environment is to be showed, so there

will be less space and time complexity.
● NetLogo provides the user friendly environment in which it is easy to understand
how communication between the occurs.

11.2 Background and literature review

11.2.1 Complex adaptive systems

In [5], the authors have presented a novel framework known as FABS for agent-based
modeling. They introduced FABS for developing wireless sensor network–based sim-
ulation and experimental approach, for monitoring complex adaptive environments.
Furthermore, the authors explained the advantage of existing model by implementing
a boids model. Initial simulation and experiments has proved how describe specifi-
cation can be efficiently utilized to make simulation models of the CAS phenomena
along with the involvement of wireless senor networks.However, wireless network
model for complex system takes high computation complexity.
The authors [4] demonstrated multiple advantages of NetLogo, a modeling tool
for the agent-based environment as well as describe how to compile a random-walk
function in the simulation. Furthermore, the authors defined a systematic tech-
nique for the use of agent-based modeling to compile and simulate a model for the
complex wireless senor network’s applications along with demonstrating the effec-
tiveness and efficiency of agent-based modeling, in both forms as a general and
NetLogo, specifically for modeling and designing different types of communication
networks.However, the authors conclude that dynamically simulation parameters are
not to be supported by proposed NetLogo model.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 337

In [4], the authors presented a broad overview of complex communication net-

works modeling and analysis using techniques from social network analysis (SNA).
The authors also examined that how network dynamics can be characterized using
complex networks. Furthermore, the authors have used a complex network approach to
analyze these networks in a more effective way to identify important nodes, the nodes
creating congestion, bridges, network centrality and the broker nodes. The authors
have also presented a complete overview of the common network-analysis techniques.
The authors [6] show the first steps toward the answer of a set of nontrivial
problems related with the colossal task of emerging a combined framework applica-
ble to multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary CAS research trainings. Furthermore,
the author proposed a grouping of complex network approaches and agent-based
modeling, two standards which are predominant in the CAS modeling.

11.2.2 Modeling and simulation of CACOONS

Due to the invention in the field of the networks, the network size and the complexity
also increases. In the networks, the invention in not only in term of scale but also the
new approach for the communication is explored such as the wireless sensor networks,
ad hoc mobile networks and distributed networks such as P2P networks. With the
emergence of these phenomena, the complexity of the networks also increases. Mostly,
the effects of these technologies are untraceable in the single network.
In this research article [8], the authors proposed a new approach for the real-
time intruder detection while using the lightweight software agent–based technique
for visual surveillance model. The main objective of the research work is to obtain
the maximum throughput with the precision and accuracy while minimizing the
complexities such as computation and storage of the system.
The authors in [9] perform the mathematical analysis and the formal framework
for determining the inconsistencies in the evaluation and validation of the complex
networks simulations in the field of the wireless sensor networks. The outcome of
this research article is that the simulation-based system validation is more enhanced
and empowered using the efficient and specific frameworks and their statistical and
mathematical analysis.
In the paper [10], the main focus of the researchers is on the object-oriented
communication framework or model. In the multiple-tiered networks, the individual
behavior of the agents is determined by the modeling and simulating environment.
For the efficient simulation support, a multiple number of agent behaviors are
defined using the various best outcome results algorithms and different dynamic
data structures.

11.2.2.1 Agent-based modeling

With the help of the high computation systems, the complex problems in the fields
of physics, chemistry, biology and economics are to be solved. The new inventions in
terms of computing power, software establishment and the computer visual graphics
lead to solve complex problem by using the agent-based modeling. With the help of
the agent-based modeling, the development of large and complex system simulations
338 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

in real time is easier. Different agent-based modeling tools used for the simulation of
some of them are swarm, macon, NetLogo, metaabm, etc. Agent-based modeling has
direct relation with the CASs.

11.2.2.2 Cognitive agent-based computing

The authors in [4] proposed a versatile multi-agent scheme for the dynamic resources
distribution in scalable manufacturing system by using the resource agents. The main
work of these intelligent agents is the dynamic distribution of the tasks or called oper-
ation, and there is no interaction between the agents. Agents perform the simulations
on the real-time environment. The main functionalities of these resource agents are
scheduling, detection and error management.
In this research article [11], the authors proposed a new agent-based model for the
dynamic resource allocation and distribution in the steel-manufacturing process. In
this agent-based modeling, the agents act as various stages in development processes.
Different metaheuristic techniques are implemented for the efficient scheduling on
the real time-agent based modeling environment.

11.2.2.3 Complex network modeling

In [12], the researchers defined and described a multidisciplinary road map along
with the summary of agent-based modeling and complex networks for the network
modeling and experimental simulation of CASs. Furthermore, the author introduced
CAS modeling, a new multidisciplinary Open/BioMed Central journal with objectives
and scope in both of these mentioned areas. CAS modeling reflects a tremendous
advantage peer-reviewed location for multidisciplinary scientific researcher in the
field of agent-based modeling and the complex networks.

11.3 BitTorrent peer-to-peer protocol

P2P networks have attracted a lot of audience in the past few years due to its idea
of connecting many end hosts also known as peers in an ad hoc manner. It is an
efficient and scalable way of sharing file which do not need and sophisticated central
software for communicating the data across the sender and receiver. P2P is distributed
architecture for sharing digitized content like audio music, videos and e-books over
the network which adds benefit of no single point to failure. It is performed by the
usage of files transfer on per chunk-by-chunk and per host-by-host bases. In recent,
it has seen that some advance application have been shifted to P2P architecture such
as media streaming, online gaming as well as it is providing secure environment
to business users for data sharing and collaboration. One of 2012 survey showed
over 5,374 petabytes P2P traffic has been consumed over a month considered to be
20.5% of internet traffic consumed as per Cisco estimation [4]. In short, compared
to traditional client/server architecture, P2P is more preferred in many aspects. There
are a lot of P2P protocol currently available, and one of the most well-known P2P
protocol currently under discussion is BitTorrent protocol. BitTorrent is one of most
widely used protocol in P2P networks [13] (Figure 11.3).
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 339

Figure 11.3 Peer-to-peer network. Adopted, with permission, from Reference [14]

BitTorrent was developed by Bram Cohen who an American computer program-

mer and was born on October 12, 1975, in New York City. Cohen designed BitTorrent
to distribute data in a manner that the actual distributer would be capable to decrease
the bandwidth use and he will be able to reach same amount of users as well.
The basic idea behind BitTorrent revolves around pieces or seeds in which data
is divides or broken down into small chunks and every single user using those chunks
would be available to upload to other people in a swarm to save bandwidth where
swarm is a group of peers connected to single torrent. It is one of the most efficient
protocols for replication and distribution of files over the internet. In traditional
sources centralized server was used which allowed users to download files from that
server and with the increase in download requests resulted in bandwidth usage which
in turn increases traffic cost and also bandwidth exhaustion. While comparison with
BitTorrent, it facilitates users to upload and download files at the same time with each
other as it uses principal known as tit-for-tat where BitTorrent client act as a client
and server.

11.3.1 BitTorrent history overview

Till the late 1990s, after working for several dot com companies, Cohen was inspired
from the idea of his last project he worked on named MojoNation; the idea was to
break confidential files into small pieces to keep them safe and secure and encrypting
and storing them into different locations. This idea took Cohen to build file-sharing
system by dividing files into small pieces or chunks which is now known as Bit-
Torrent. The first beta version of BitTorrent was released in summer 2001, which
was later presented at the conference in 2002. Cohen’s goal behind BitTorrent was to
provide users a simpler and quicker way of swapping and distributing Linux software
online. But later on, BitTorrent potential got recognition, and in 2004, pirate copies
of different files started to dominate the BitTorrent traffic which resulted in huge
growth. Furthermore, BitTorrents protocol is open source and completely free [1].
340 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

11.3.2 Content publishing in BitTorrent

In order to make content available for users in BitTorrent, the publisher makes a .tor-
rent file linked to its content. After making the .torrent file, the publisher of a content
uploads it to the portal of a BitTorrent. There are few portals of BitTorrent, and The
Pirate Bay is one of them which is indexing millions of torrents and getting millions
of day-to-day visits. These portals offer comprehensive information concerning each
indexed torrent, and this information differs slightly from portal to portal, but gener-
ally it comprises content category, number of associated files, whole content size in
the torrent, complete file name, upload date, username of torrent uploader, number
of leechers and seeders participating in the swarm.

11.3.3 Joining swarm and peers discovery in BitTorrent

To download a particular content, a BitTorrent user looks for .torrent file associated
with that particular torrent and downloads it. To open the downloaded torrent, Bit-
Torrent client is used. Upon opening .torrent file, BitTorrent client is connects to
the Tracker. When a new peer initially contacts to the Tracker, it uses an announce
started request which is replied by the Tracker with the total number of leechers and
seeders contributing in the swarm including the IP addresses of peers selected ran-
domly. These peers make the initial neighborhood of the new node. Furthermore, if a
peer’s neighborhood size is below a particular threshold which is 20 typically, then an
announce started request is sends again to the Tracker to get new neighbors. Finally,
when a peer wants to leave the swarm, it generates an announce stopped request to
the Tracker which removes that particular peer from the participants list in the swarm.

11.3.4 Delivery procedure BitTorrent

In BitTorrent, communication between two peers is carried out by using the peer
wire protocol. Initial handshake is used to start every communication. Just after the
initial handshaking sequence is finished, BIT FIELD message is used by the peers
to exchange the bit fields. These bit field indicates chunks of the file that a peer
has downloaded already. Furthermore, each time when a peer obtains a new chunk,
it uses a HAVE message to notify its neighbors. Hence, each peer is aware of the
chunks that their neighbor has at that particular moment. BitTorrent also uses the Tit-
for-Tat strategy for the delivery mechanism in which basically every leecher uploads
chunks to those leechers from whom they are downloading more chunks. The choking
algorithm is the one for providing this behavior. It is a repeated operation in which a
single leecher unchoke M other leechers from its neighborhood for whom it uploads
chunks to every 10 s. These M unchoked leechers are those from whom more chunks
are downloaded by the peer during the last 20 s. The remaining of the neighbors are
choked. In the case of a seeder, it unchokes M leechers to whom it has uploaded more
chunks in the last 20 s. Furthermore, to the regular unchoke operation, BitTorrent
puts into practice the optimistic unchoke operation. In which leechers and seeders
randomly select one choked neighbor every 30 s to upload chunks to. Finally, when a
neighbor is a leecher, it tries the Rarest First Policy in order to select which chunk to
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 341

demand to this neighbor. As leechers have complete knowledge about every chunks
availability in its neighborhood, it always demands the oddest one.

11.3.5 BitTorrent architecture and working

To understand working and operation of BitTorrent, we must first look into the ter-
minology that bit BitTorrent uses in order to operate; these terminologies are given
in the following sections.

11.3.5.1 Peer
A peer is an active client of BitTorrent to whom other peers can connect with for the
purpose of sharing content or it can be stated as peer is an instance of a client than is
running on any computer.

11.3.5.2 Swarm
Swarm represents the whole networks of users or peers which are connected to a same
torrent.

11.3.5.3 Tracker
Tracker is a server whose responsibility is keeping track of all the peers or
communication between the peers which are in the swarm by using BitTorrent
protocol.

11.3.5.4 Leecher
Leecher is referred to that peer which has downloaded some complete content and
which never uploads content or data.

11.3.5.5 Seeder
Seeders refer to those who have done downloading content and leaves connection
open for uploading parts of content to leechers.

11.3.5.6 Mechanism and architecture

To share content or group of files, initially a peer creates a file which is known
as .torrent file. This .torrent file is a metadata file which describes the properties of
content that is going to be shared; these properties are URL (uniform resource locator)
of the tracker length of chunks or pieces, name, etc., After all this BitTorrent file is
then divided into small pieces of 512 kb by default, for which SHA-1 checksum in
.torrent file is specified, where SHA-1 checksum is used to check error detection.
Initial steps in posting a file on BitTorrent are as follows: we first create a .torrent
file which is a metadata file containing information of content which is going to be
shared. The information includes URL of the tracker, length of chunks or pieces,
name, file size and Hashing information, etc. This torrent is needed to download the
file, and the torrent file can be distributed or shared by e-mail, http, etc.
Second, other most important thing you need is BitTorrent client in order to
download or seed a file. This BitTorrent client application is used to administrate
the download process. There are multiple BitTorrent client applications available
342 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

supporting standard BitTorrent protocol but may differ in few certain features [12].
Now to start downloading, .torrent file is downloaded and opened in BitTorrent client.
When the user requests for the web page, the computer system sends the request
to the download server where the web page is present. The computers through which
the web page is obtained are the central servers. This scenario describes how much
of the traffic is on the web [12]. To prevent these from these traffic issues, P2P
protocols are introduced. BitTorrent is classified as a P2P protocol; the computers
involved in the process are called BitTorrent swarm (a set of computers which upload
and download the same torrent). These computers send and receive the data with the
central server involvement.
Mostly, .torrent file is uploaded in the BitTorrent client by joining the BitTorent
Swarm. There is tracker embedded in the .torrent file with the help of this BitTorent
contacts. The specific server which contains the address of the connected computers
is called a tracker. The Tracker has a specific IP address which is to be shared to the
swarm for connection establishment.
Once the connection is established between all the systems, the BitTorrent client
download the numerous small pieces of files in the torrent. Once the downloading
process completes, it can share the data to the other BitTorrent clients in the swarm.
In this special procedure, every system can download and upload the data on the same
torrent. This process enhance the downloading speed; if there are 10,000 request for
a single file to download on the same server by using P2P protocol, it does not cause
the traffic load on the server but also enhances the response time of the server. It also
speeds up the systems.
When the user requests for downloading from the swarm, it is called peers or
leechers. After downloading the complete file from the swarm, the user remains
connected to server. Contributing maximum bandwidth so the other user involved
can easily download the file. This process is called seeders. The torrent which has
complete set of file must join the swarm (group of computers) so that the other systems
can start the downloading process. If there is no seeder in the P2P protocol process,
then the downloading process will not to be started. It is to prefer the clients who
utilize their more upload bandwidth other the transferring the files to others clients
which is a very slow process. The users who contribute more toward the upload
bandwidth have speed up the swarms download process. The nature of BitTorrent
files is a flood like architecture in which many nodes have the file. The output of the
systems increases if mores nodes are to be attached to swarm. This will be in result of
reducing the computation cost of the system and also bandwidth/resource utilization.
Some of the others P2P protocol enhances the redundancy issues, while BitTorrent
also get rid of these issues. BitTorrent is used for reducing the distribution cost of
BOINC client server system [8].

11.3.5.7 Limitations of BitTorrent

● If the file user wishes to download but have no seeds, the downloading process
stops.
● The user is not aware of file which is being downloaded whether it is original or
not. It totally depends on the user feedbacks.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 343

● Both the downloading and uploading cause congestion in bandwidth, but it can
be avoided if you have fast internet.
● While downloading the file from torrent, everyone can have access of each system
IP Address. This will lead to a lack of security. To enhance the security, use the
virtual private networks simply.
● The computer performance decreases while using the P2P BitTorrent software.

11.4 BitTorrent literature review

The authors [16] analyzed BitTorrent traffic characteristics of IPv4 and IPv6 using
real network traces, and to analyze the difference between IPv4 and IPv6 traffic,
authors used obtained traces of 150 mbps link among Japan and USA. Results of
aforementioned autocorrelations and power spectral densities indicated more simi-
larities than differences in sense of inter-arrival time of packet and size for IPv4 and
IPv6 BitTorrent traffic. However, the authors only considered single P2P protocol for
aforementioned work.
In [17], the authors suggested a technique that increases the obtainability of frag-
ments in a BitTorrent P2P system by assuming a neural network and a mathematical
model. Furthermore, for remembering the features of how users will behave, wavelet
transforming of the time series of peer availability and then by feeding results as input
to a nonlinear autoregressive neural network are used. However, the authors proposed
model computational cost due to modeling, and prediction is very high to the tracker.
The Piece selection algorithm known as IIPS is presented in [18] to pick uncom-
mon parts which, if transferred, would tolerate data transmission and increase piece
mixture among cooperating peers unlike previous last problem which reduces the per-
formance of BitTorrent.Results of proposed algorithm showed that in terms of system
robustness, IIPS overtakes the BitTorrent’s LRF algorithm furthermore successfully
results in 28%–60% lesser existences than LRFs last piece problem. However, the
authors neither did nor implemented IIPS practically to analyze performance metrics
in an open-source BitTorrent.
In [19], the authors offered an innovative investigation methodology that takes
into account specific, sole features of BitTorrent. Furthermore, the authors suggested
an investigation method for illegal file-sharing constructed on characteristics of the
file distribution process by means of BitTorrent. By following this procedure, an
investigator can more successfully conduct an inquiry about illegal file distribution.
However, upgrading of the law nearby P2P investigations in respects to the application
of the procedure is desired.
The authors [20] stated that the dimension of free riders in the BitTorrent setting
is growing and extended up to 16.8% of the total population of peers and analyzed
four different types of BitTorrent clients which are low bandwidth strategic and non-
strategic clients and high bandwidth strategic and nonstrategic clients to communicate
with other peers in a network. Results show that the Tit-for-Tat accomplishes well in
distribution cooperation between peers in BitTorrent. However, optimistic unchoke
signifies the single serious limitation of the Tit-for-Tat process, and thus BitTorrent.
344 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

In [14], the authors implemented broad trace analysis and modeling to understand
the behaviors of such systems and found that the current BitTorrent system delivers
poor service availability, unfair services to peers and fluctuating downloading per-
formance. Hence, the authors proposed a new architecture design where the different
torrent tracker sites are organized into an overlap to assist inter-torrent association.
BitTorrent plays an essential part in the Internet but has required an up-to-date
knowledge of its Ecosystem. The authors [13]provided a broad picture of English-
language BitTorrent community Ecosystem and identified over 4.6 million exclusive
torrents and 38,996 trackers of maximum widespread torrent-discovery sites in period
of 9 months. Furthermore, the authors developed multitracker crawler and found
that BitTorrent ecosystem is most successful open application by many measures.
However, the fame of BitTorrent content is delicate to its age.
Complex network model is proposed in [21], for BitTorrent-like networks and val-
idated analytical computers using simulations. Furthermore, the authors have shown
that their proposed model is consistent by using BitTorrent simulator with BitTor-
rent protocol. However, for heterogeneous configurations, authors have ignored to
generalize the model and extensions like peer exchange.
In [22], the authors have developed scalable methodologies by gathering wide
measurements of BitTorrent demand demographics, laying their resultant traffic
matrix and showing that a huge fraction of small ISPs do not have plenty means
to limit traffic after studying real ISPs. However, area yields win circumstances for
average and huge size ISPs which is confined by unlocalizable torrents which have
insufficient native neighbors.
A new phenomena-based friendship and trust model for the scheme of P2P
file-sharing networks design is presented by the authors [23] and executed the TRI-
BLERP2P file-sharing system. Furthermore, the authors described that how to make
social overlay and semantics on top of the BitTorrent protocol. The authors have shown
that how several TRIBLER mechanisms can produce good performance with respect
to current results and addressed major challenges in P2P research. However, the
authors ignored to extend reputation system with TRIBLER, application-level multi-
casting and tag-based navigation. However, proposed system is unable to predict users
file concern and public relationship and practical file replication and recommendation.
The authors [24] confirmed by analyzing BitTorrent trace that by clustering nodes
with common interest and physically close can polish file searching proficiency in P2P
system and proposed SOCNET that integrates multiple components and proved that
proposed system SOCNET performed better than other systems in trustworthiness,
dynamism resilience, system overhead and file searching efficiency.
In [25], the authors considered BitTorrent network and conducted an agency
service in which agents are used for priority evaluation for users requested tasks by
prioritizing each task in descending order. Furthermore, the authors have designed
new scheme to avoid duplicate files transferring and for activation of free riders.
Results showed that proposed idea performed better for more downloads compared
to original under limited time and bandwidth.
The authors [15] addressed distribution problem and defined collaborative file
distribution system including transmission and possession matrix while gathering
theoretical bound required for minimum time distribution. Furthermore, the authors
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 345

developed several types of algorithm which decides that to whom and which file pieces
are to be sent with in a scheduling problem. Results of proposed algorithm which is
a weighted maximum flow algorithm show better results than other algorithms by
returning optimal solution in many cases.
The authors [26] proposed methodology to motivate peers for contribution of
resources in the network in which every peer in an access link shares his upload and
download streams. Furthermore, presented allocation scheme is implemented on each
peer in a distributed manner. Results of proposed scheme showed improvement in
peers performance in heterogeneous system, and with comparison with BitTorrent
it exhibits significant advantage in few terms like dynamic capacity allocation and
seeds motivation to for contributing and remaining in the system.
In [27], the authors have discussed some motivations of BitTorrent protocol
and focused on its two main components which are piece revelation strategy and
unchoking algorithm. Furthermore, the authors have used game theoretic approach
and show that BitTorrent does not use tit-for-tat and proposed another model known as
auction-based mode as well new bootstrap mechanism for ping. Results of proposed
model attains objectivity and robustness deprived of any wireline alterations to the
BitTorrent protocol. However, the components considered in this work are treated
orthogonally and focused on incentives in a swarm instead of between swarm.
For multimedia broadcasting, the authors [7] have proposed strategy based on
quality over P2P network based on PBS and showed that those peers who have greater
service level provides greater and stable quality of multimedia. Results showed that
aforementioned technique is more efficient for multimedia broadcasting of P2P then
TFT, which is used by BitTorrent currently. However, the authors ignored to carry
simulations on other video-streaming applications. In [28], the authors proposed
improved version of BitTorrent for P2P communication in cloud computing.Instead
if sharing the complete file, the peers and seeders can share the segments of the
data with other clients and they proposed a centralized tracker in order to increase
the security. In this way, a peer do not know the identity of the client.Results show
that their proposed model show significant results in cloud computing. However, the
authors did not compare the results with other P2P protocols to show its significance.
In P2P protocols, BitTorrent is mostly used for file sharing. For congestion
control, TCP was introduced in BitTorent which was later on replace by uTP which
control the congestion on application level. In [29], the authors studied the completion
time of torrents using both TCP and new uTP protocol in order to compare their
performances. The results show that uTP performed better in terms of torrent time
completion. However, the authors did not consider multiple peers on a single machine.
In [30], the authors performed analysis and measurement study on very famous
P2P protocol BitTorrent. The researchers made all the data publicly available so that
people can verify it truthfulness. Due to BitTorrent work in global components, it
ensures both reliability of content and metadata. They also found at that decentraliza-
tion makes the metadata more exposed. The authors ignored decentralization issue in
this study.
Researchers in [31] performed simulations to study bit torrent protocol. They
studied the protocol and evaluated its performance under different workloads. In their
study, they considered several performance measuring metrics like file download time,
346 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

peer-link consumption and distribution of trackers among various peers. The results
show that BitTorrent protocol performs optimally in terms of peer-link consumption
and file download time except some extreme conditions.
P2P networks are mostly the top-listed networks for sharing the information on
the internet. It is a very difficult task to have a proper check and balance for the data
shared through P2P networks, whether the information is legitimate and illegitimate.
The existing P2P networks follow the simple handshake protocol in which authentica-
tion services are not included. The authors [32] proposed an XTRA-P2P framework
through which covert channel communication is avoided. XTRA-P2P is robust for the
security attacks on P2P networks. Efficient outcomes against eavesdropping attacks
and brute force attacks of proposed technique are observed. In this paper, the authors
focus on three parameters: handshake message, bit field message and piece message;
however, the author did not consider other parameters of P2P protocol.
The BitTorrent protocol is designed for the content with time insensitive. The
author [33] enhanced the current approach for the video streaming as it is time sen-
sitive.The piece have higher download priority. In the basic BitTorrent protocol, the
pieces are downloaded randomly; however, priority-based approach is introduced by
the authors to enhance the system for streaming.However, the time complexity of the
proposed system is much higher than the general P2P network system. Effectiveness
and the streaming model robustness in real network is still a challenge.
BitTorrent is a scalable P2P distributed system, without overwhelming the capac-
ity of the server, large files can be shared. Resource utilization is one of the challenges
in BitTorrent systems. The authors [34] introduced the discrete event simulator for
BitTorrent systems that equalized the overall performance of newly joined nodes that
have less or more blocks than average nodes. Delay issued for pre-seeded nodes are
also mentioned in paper. By combining the bandwidth matching tracker and pairwise
block level, the unfairness among nodes in BitTorrent system decreases.
BitTorrent is the most powerful and complex P2P protocol. To evaluate P2P
protocol simulation and experimental evaluation is the basic methodologies. In this
paper, the author [35] introduce a Torrent Lab, a specific test bed in which live
experiments and BitTorrent simulation are performed.It allows the new agents to
involve in the simulation; however, in this simulation, the Torrent lab is machine
dependent. Hardware Resources and Machine Processing Capacity are the limitation
of this work done.
In this paper, the authors [36] proposed a multi-agent based modeling of BitTor-
rent P2P protocol. The authors proposed a system in JADE platform where each peer
act as agent and each agent can exchange the information with other agent as BitTor-
rent Platform works. The proposed models allow more than 1,000 systems to involve
in simulation at the same time. The results were analyzed on multiple parameters:
number of peers, abort rate, exit rate, etc. Limitation of this proposed work is that
JADE agent run autonomously while real and precise agent-based models run on any
real BitTorrent network.
The authors [37] proposed a simple fluid model (P2P model) in which different
parameters such as scalability, efficiency and the performance is evaluated.In the
proposed work, the model have high efficiency with respect to capacity utilization;
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 347

however, the model proposed used global knowledge as a selection of peers, while in
real P2P network system, the peers have limited view of other peers.
In this article, the author [38] presents a discrete event simulator using a Bit-
Torrent simulations. The main objective of the proposed work is to achieve multiple
peer up to 5,000. The proposed work focused on the upload capability of each node
and data size each node serves. However, the limitation of this work is that the size
of individual peer is less as compared to usual. Overall behavior of P2P protocol is
affected from set size because the selection strategy is based upon set size of peer.
In this paper, the authors [39] simulate P2P protocol at the packet level. Packet-
level approach is more complex than the flow-level simulations of P2P protocols. The
simulation is done on NS-2 network simulator which allows using multiple algorithms
for peer and piecing selection. Constant peer population and flash crowd algorithm is
evaluated. However, the complete scenario on packet level approach is not evaluated
even when the first seed appears until all the peer in network can get the shared content.
The authors [40] proposed a general P2P simulator for BitTorrent modeling.
GPS supports the modeling of the download component. Complex networks, large
size of files is complex in model-based approach. However, the proposed simulator
can achieve maximum efficiency by modeling the communication at message-level
approach. Geographical peer selection and bloom filter usage approach is involved in
BitTorrent GPS model. However, the run-time efficiency of the model is much high
than the P2P simulator.
BitTorrent P2P system that generates a large amount of ISP traffic through which
the cost increases. To overcome this issue, a new approach is implemented to con-
trol cost and enhance BitTorrent traffic locality. The authors [41] implemented a
technique in which biased neighbor selection is focused. In biased neighbor selec-
tion, peer choose the majority but not all neighbors as a peer. By comparing with other
approaches bandwidth limiting, gateway peer and caching biased neighbor selection
not required dedicated server and can be implemented on big P2P networks. In the
future, the proposed technique is integrated with bandwidth limiting and caching to
improve the overall performance of the system.
In the research article [42], the deep concepts behind the BitTorrent working
is discussed.The main objective is to understand the behavior of the P2P protocol
under heavy traffic load. In the research article, authors are concerned about the
two parameters: one is the download speed and the other is the availability. The
comparison between different P2P protocols is also discussed in paper.
In [43], different P2P protocols are studied which are used both in industry as
well as self-used.The main of this paper is to discuss the different technical issues such
as network flow control, delivery, etc. P2P technologies used in the future generation
computing are also discussed. Traffic measurement is the key focus of the P2P network
protocol studied in this article.
In [44], the authors inspected BitTorrent protocol for data diffusion in the environ-
ment of Computational Desktop Grid. The authors designed a prototype and finds out
that even if Desktop Grid architecture depends on centralized coordination, even then
they can simply incorporate this P2P technology deprived of fundamental variations
on their model of deployment. Furthermore, the authors have shown experimental
348 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

performance and evaluation on a LAN cluster that BitTorrent performed well for
large data files transfers and scalable with increasing number of nodes but suffers
from overhead while transmitting small data files.
Working of BitTorrent is studied by the authors [45] and used several mechanisms
to attain optimal performance of the protocol. The authors investigated the influence
on download rate by number of peers by using libtorrent client and NS-2 simulator.
The authors found that overall Download Time decreases with increase in number
of peers because of higher availability of files through multiple peers. However,
Download Time increases due to increase in traffic.
Three modification are presented by the authors [46] to improve fairness of Bit-
Torrent protocol. According to the authors presented models, all models provide some
level of improvements. Furthermore, the authors ranked all presented modification
according to improvement to fairness, and this ranking also demonstrates that how
each proposal modifies the BitTorrent.
To show the topology of P2P networks, the authors [47] have presented plane
graph model by using the BitTorrent protocol. For evaluation, different parameters
are calculated such as clustering, betweenness, shortest path, coefficient, etc., for
revealing the topological features of BitTorrent. The authors showed that high clus-
tering value is obtained with larger swarm, which permits peers to have additional
adjacent neighbors. Furthermore, the authors achieved positive correlation between
node strength and betweenness. However, the authors did not consider analysis of the
dynamical progress of BitTorrent networks.
The authors [48] have presented BitTorrent-based data sharing for mobile devices.
The authors presented work analyzes different solution based on cloud which uses
remote server for downloading via BitTorrent and moving it to mobile devices in
energy efficient way. Furthermore, the authors presented model is evaluated via mea-
surements carried out on mobile devices, which showed that energy consumption is
minimized, traffic is minimized and the content on the cloud server can be accessed
in multiple ways such as streaming or HTTP. However, savers in the clouds are not
feasible both from business and architecture side.

11.4.1 PeerSim
PeerSim is the simulator of the P2P network models which provide the scalability,
flexibility and the efficient environment for P2P simulations. In the real environment,
the experimental simulation of P2P systems is very costly and their results are not
reproductive. To avoid all of these issues, a java-based simulator is introduced called
PeerSim. Testing of the specific protocol is also supported by the PeerSim. The main
features of the PeerSim are described in the following sections.

11.4.1.1 Scalability
PeerSim provides the scalable real-time environment for the simulations of P2P net-
work model. In PeerSim simulator, the network size is not fixed, it depends upon
the P2P network protocol for the network simulations. The large simulation can also
performed in very cost-cost effective manner.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 349

11.4.1.2 Modularity
In the simulation environment of the PeerSim, all of the components are freely
involved in the simulations and are easy to configure. The components enrollment in
the simulation is dynamic and controllable.

11.5 Model design

11.5.1 ODD approach

In the ODD model, there is basic description of entities, variables, attributes and
by which these all are characterized. The basic purpose of the proposed model is an
agent-based simulation of complex P2P networks. BitTorrent is a complex file-sharing
protocol which is involved in the 40%–70% of the total internet traffic. To avoid
the complexity of the internet traffic protocol is defined which reduces the network
congestion as well as enhanced the overall performance of the whole network. The
proposed model describes the real-time simulation of the network communication by
using multiple agents. The proposed model described the several major characteristics
of proposed model. These characteristic describe the effects of parameters.
11.5.1.1 Entities, state variables and scales
In this proposed agent-based models, the turtles are the entities. Each turtle acts as an
individual seeder or leecher in the whole network. These entities describe the overall
behavior of the BitTorrent-proposed model. Also, with the help of these entities, the
overall runtime behavior of the whole network is observed. The turtle describe the
communication behavior of the whole network. Seeds/Leeches are the attribute of the
entities. A type of turtles that contains the all file part at the beginning of network
simulation and present in the simulation for sharing uploading bandwidth is called
seeders. These are to be shown as a green circle in the proposed environment. The
number of initial seeders are controlled using the appropriate slider parameter. A type
of turtles that initialize with no file parts and then getting different pieces from other
clients and lechees are called lechers. Initially, in the environment, the color of these
turtles types are red and it turns to blue after getting at least one file piece. When
they get all the complete pieces of the file, then they turn into green and change their
type to seeders. The total amount of these turtles is controlled by the slider parameter.
Time represents the scale of the proposed model, its values carrying from 1 to 10.
Parameter
Selfishness is the parameter which controls the performance of the whole agent-based
model. The probability of the death of the green turtle is called selfishness. This is
the specific parameter of the BitTorrent that some users are selfish, they do not care
that other users are still downloading the file parts. The selfishness of the BitTorrent
P2P agent-based model is controlled by the slider from 0% to 100%.
11.5.1.2 Process overview and scheduling
At the beginning of the simulation, the total numbers of the seeds and leeches are
appearing. The amount of these leeches is controlled by the slider parameter. The file
350 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

is divided into total ten chunks, each chunk represents a segment, so there are total ten
segments involved in the simulation. Each turtle have their own ten variables each of
which corresponds to a possession of a particular file segments. For example, if the
segment 5 variable for a given turtle is sent to be 0, it means the current turtle cannot
possess this segment. If on the other hand it is to be set to one, then we conclude as the
given turtle can possess the segment. Depending on this condition, the seeders begin
with all ten segments variable set to one while leechers have zero. The simulation
can be finished in two ways: whether all turtles turn green which means they have
downloaded the complete file entirely or the second way is that seeds drop out from
the simulation and remove one or more segments from the network. In this case, it
would be not possible for anyone to finish the simulation properly by downloading
completely.

11.5.1.3 Design concepts

There are different designs concepts, each of which are describing as follows:

Basic principles
The basic principle of the BitTorrent model is to design a P2P agent-based model
which can simulate the performance with less computation complexity and increase
the run time of the simulations. The comparisons with other simulation platforms like
NS2 have more time complexity as well as space complexity. To overcome this entire
limitation, agent-based modeling is to be adopted. Multiple numbers of clients can
contribute and download the data from the network. One of the main advantages of
the proposed model is that it does not contain congestion in the network model.

Emergence
The main idea behind the proposed network model is to control the environment
dynamically. The turtles involved in the agent-based model and other parameters like
selfishness are to be controlled using the slider parameter. The outcome of the model is
unpredictable by changing the behavior space and complexity. The results are mostly
dependent on the rules defined inside model than on the individual or environment.

Adaptation
In the proposed network environment, there are some specific rules that are defined.
There must be at least a seeder in the simulation. If the probability for the simulation
drop out is more, then there will be more chances of simulation failure. To avoid the
failure outcome, these rules are to be adopted by the network model. When lecher
gets all the segment of the file then they turn its behavior to the seeder for supporting
the environment. If there will be more seeders involved in the simulation, then the
run time of the simulation is minimized. In the other way, we called seeder value as
a fitness factor of the network.

Objectives
There is a clear negative correlation between the number of initial seeds and the total
time it takes for all turtles to completely download the file. Furthermore, torrents with
few initial seeds also exhibit greater volatility in torrent activity (roughly analogous to
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 351

average download speed). Both these behaviors are consistent with real-world obser-
vations. This simulation also beautifully reproduces typical torrent speed behavior
whereby downloads begin slowly (with few seeders) then rapidly speed up as more
file segments get distributed. This is closely related to the observed pattern whereby
some segments are distributed much more widely than others initially (when there
are only 1 or 2 seeds), a behavior that is also reproduced by this simulation.
Learning
In the proposed model, the agents cannot change their behavior with respect to time or
previous history. The behaviors depend upon the downloading segments; if there will
at least one segment, then the color of the turtle changes to blue. While downloading
all the complete segments its color changes to green. These are the main learning
concepts of the proposed agent-based model.
Interaction
There is the direct interaction between the seeder and leeches. According to the
main concept of the P2P network, there is one-to-one connection between each node.
Depending on these interactions, the segment values are changed and seeders upload
the segment to other leeches. The interaction communication between each nodes are
represented as line in the graphical user interface.
Initialization
At the initial stage of the model, there are two entities initialized: seeders and leeches.
The values of the seeders and leeches can be changed by using the slider parameter.
It is not necessary at each simulation the values of seeders and leeches are same.
Its change depends upon the required network specifications. The initial conditions
have much effect on the model and simulation. If the value increases, the run time
complexity also increases.
Input data
The proposed model does not contain the input data to represent process like time-
varying, etc. Although the input is not in terms of initial value of state variable or
parameter values, in the dynamic system model, the input is to be obtained by the user
by the state variables. Depending upon these state variable values, the simulation runs
but the internal variables are not affected by these input data. Success/failure rate of
the network model depends upon the state-variable values. The simulation is said to
have succeeded when all the agents acquire all file segments (i.e., all turtles end up
green). The simulation fails when users are unable to obtain some file segments. This
will occur when seeds drop out (due to selfishness) before certain file segments are
in distribution amongst leeches.

11.5.2 Overview of the proposed model

This model simulates the dynamics of a P2P BitTorrent network. BitTorrent is a
popular protocol for distributing large files amongst multiple users over the internet,
and studies have shown it to account for approximately 70% of total IP traffic. It
works by breaking a file into many segments (usually 100 or more depending on
352 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Seed

Leech

Figure 11.4 States of node agents

the size of the file) and allows individual users who are downloading the file to
simultaneously upload completed segments to other users. This means that users are
downloading from each other as well as from the server or the initial distributors.
Compared to traditional web hosting where everyone downloads directly from the
server, BitTorrent significantly reduces bandwidth usage and hardware requirements
for the initial distributor, thereby resulting in substantial cost savings. In some cases
(as this model will demonstrate), it is possible for the initial distributors (seeds) to drop
out completely without undermining the network, provided enough file segments are
in distribution.

11.5.2.1 Problem statement

This simulation aims to capture several major characteristics of BitTorrent behavior
outlined below and should enable the measurement of the effects of certain parameter
changes in terms of their impact on the time it takes for users to download the file,
and on the probability that the system will fail because there are not enough file
segments in distribution. In particular, this simulation seeks to understand the effect
of the number of initial seeds, the type of seed algorithm and the selfishness of users
on the time it takes for all users to complete downloading the file.

11.5.2.2 Node agents

In this study, for ABM we require the placement of network node agents. The agents
are randomly deployed. The network nodes can communicate with each other. In
ABM for BitTorent, these node agents communicate with each other over the network
for the purpose of file sharing. For communication, either all nodes should be present
in a single-hop network or the nodes should be accessible in the case of multi-hop
network. The goal of these nodes is to share a file over a network in different segments.

11.5.2.3 States of node agents

Node agents of BitTorent have several states as shown in node agents Figure 11.4.
First, there are nodes agent in the network that begin with all parts of the file. We call
these agents seeds which exist for the sole purpose of uploading content to leeches.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 353

Procedure

Setup

Go

Check
random Yes
number
of links

No
Generate selfish
links (random
number segments)

Distribute random
segments

Download complete
segments

Figure 11.5 Activity diagram

Leeches are node agents that begin with no parts of the file then gradually obtain file
segments from seeds and from other leeches.

11.5.2.4 Activity diagrams

In this section, we have shown the overall activities of BitTorrent Network imple-
mented in NetLogo. In Figure 11.5, we have shown how BitTorrent Network perform
its operation by doing different activities.
354 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Download random
Distribute random

segment complete
Generate random
number segment

segment number

segment number
Check random
Setup

Go

Loop

call ()

call ()

call ()

call ()

call ()

return () result ()

Figure 11.6 Sequence diagram

11.5.2.5 Sequence diagrams

In this section, we have shown the sequence in which BitTorrent is implemented in
NetLogo. The sequence diagram of BitTorrent Network implemented in NetLogo is
shown in Figure 11.6.

11.5.3 DREAM model

DREAM can be initiated by developing a paper model of network designed by extend-
ing network model. We draw the network model using network modeling tool called
(Gephi). The result can be seen in Figure 11.7. In the initial view of the network, it
is difficult to comprehend. For this, we need to manipulate the network. We manip-
ulate the network using various algorithms, the resulting network can be viewed in
Figure 11.8.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 355

Peer obtain
Torrent tracker 6 swarm info
server
peer/seeds
Another peer
gets .torrent file
5

Server Indexer First peer

obtains
3 Peer/Seed
1. running a
swarm info
Initial seed 2.
BitTorrent Multiple source
First peer client
uploads torrent obtains .torrent file file transfer
7
file to server
indexer 7

4 First peer completes

1. Seed created .torrent Peer/Seed running a
file transfer
file on PC BitTorrent client

Figure 11.7 BitTorrent architecture. Adopted, with permission, from

Reference [15]

ABM Upload Download

Agent Breed

Slider/Input Data Results/Output Data

Random segment Numbers

Procedures

ts Make turtles
Switch/Input Data
Links Breeds Links Already-WideSpreads

Go
Avaitable
segment already Widespread
Upload File Segment
Upload File Segment
her

Make New Seeds Green Die

h Turtle Dropout
Setup
Agent Attributes

do Plots Seeder Needed by Others

Globals Make turtles

Figure 11.8 Network model of ABM

356 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

ABM

Experiments

Globals Agents Patches Links

Input Seeds Attributes Seeds

Output Leeches Leeches

Procedures
setup go Already Widespread Available Do plots

Make turtles Needed by other Random Segment Number

Selfish turtle dropout upload file segment Make new seed green

Figure 11.9 An overview of ABM constructs in relation with the specification

model constructs

This network model will be described in detail and a CNA will be performed
next. The result will be discussed in the results section of the chapter (Figure 11.9).

11.5.4 Pseudocode-based specification

In this section, we describe detailed translated specification model expanded from
this network sub-modeled as a means of describing the model in detail. Initially, we
will describe the agents and breeds.

11.5.4.1 Agents and breeds

The model has two breeds and their definitions are given next in the form of a
specification model as below:

Breed Seeds: This breed represent the seeds in the network.

Internal Variables: Random segment number, segments

random segment number: This number is randomly generated at each
iteration and determines which file segment a seed will attempt to share
segments: Data chunks of a complete file and depends on the size of the file
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 357

Now, the “Seeds” breed here is first described in the specification model. After-
wards range we note the internal variables that will be used in the simulation. There
are two specific internal variables here. One is the “Random_segment_number” vari-
able. This variable is used to generate a randomly generated number at each iteration
and determines which file segment a seed will attempt to share.
The other variable is “Segments” which represents data chunks of a complete file
and depends on the size of the file. The seeds will have all the segments of a file.

Breed Leeche: This breed represent the leeches in the network.

Internal Variables: Random segment number, segments

random segment number: This number is randomly generated at each
iteration and determines which file segment a leech will try to get or share
segments: Data chunks of a complete file and depends on the size of the file

Unlike seeds, the leeches are the agents which try to get segments from the
seeds or leeches. After developing a specification model of the agent breeds, we next
develop a model for various globals variable. These variables play an important role
for the configuration of the simulation model.

11.5.5 Globals
In this section, we describe the global variables for the simulation model. Now, in this
model, the key input global variables here are four in number. These are described
next in the specification model given below.

Input Globals: <p, s, l, smarts eeding>

Sliders:
p: The probability that, each time interval, seeds will drop out of the system.
s: The number of seeds that the simulation begins with.
l: The number of leeches the simulation begins with.
Switch:
Smart Seeding: Whether seeds operate intelligently, or randomly.

In this specification, we can clearly see that three of the variables, viz., “p,” “s”
and “l,” represent inputs which are provided by the user via a “slider” UI element in
the NetLogo simulation model. Whereas “Smart_seeding” is a switch or represents
a Boolean input variable. “p” is used for the probability (%) that, each time interval,
seeds will drop out of the system. “s” is the number of seeds that the simulation begins
with. “I” is the number of leeches the simulation begins with and the “Smart_seeding”
is whether seeds operate intelligently, or randomly. The slider variable “s” and “l” are
used to initialize the number of seeds and leeches for the particular simulations.
Greater the value of “s,” the network will converge faster, and greater the number of
“l,” greater will be the execution time of a simulation.
358 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

These globals are randomly placed when initial simulation screen is setup having
“s,” “l” and “p” as a sliders used for gradual change in an input configuration required
in different experiments. It also assists in minimizing the effects of our configuration.
So by changing the number of agents and repeating the number of simulations several
times will not skew the eventual results.
The switch “smart_seeding ” is used for seeding intelligently or randomly. When
this is switched off, seeds randomly select a segment to upload. When smart seeding
is switched on, seeds will be significantly more likely to upload a segment that is not
already in distribution amongst leeches.

11.5.6 Procedures
The procedure makes seeds “smart” in which they are highly unlikely to seed parts that
are already in distribution amongst leeches. If more than one leech has the segment
corresponding the random number that was initially generated by a seed, random
numbers will continue to be generated up to three times until a segment is found
that is not yet distributed. From personal experience, real-world torrents exhibit both
random and “smart” behavior depending on tracker parameters.

Procedure Check-if-segment-is-already-widespread:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask seeds with [random-segment-number].
2. check-if-segment-is-available
End

11.5.6.1 Check-if-segment-is-available
This checks to see if the random segment number that has been selected corresponds to
a file segment that the turtle does not possess. If this is the case, the turtle is instructed
to keep generating numbers (up to 100 times) until it finds one that corresponds to a
file segment that it DOES possess. In other words, it ensures leeches are uploading
segments that they actually have.

Procedure Check-if-segment-is-available:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask leeches with [random-segment-number].
2. check-if-segment-is-needed-by-others
End
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 359

11.5.6.2 Check-if-segment-is-needed-by-others
This procedure checks to see if the random segment number that has been selected
corresponds to a file segment that every other turtle already possesses. If this is the
case, the turtle is instructed to keep generating numbers (up to 100 times) until it
finds one that corresponds to a file segment that another turtle needs. For example,
if everyone else already has segment 2, a turtle would not upload segment 2.

Procedure Check-if-segment-is-needed-by-others:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask turtle with [random-segment-number].
2. repeat 1 hundred times
3. upload file segment
End

11.5.6.3 Do-plots
Procedure Do-plots:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. set-current-plot “Links”
2. set-current-plot-pen “number-of-links”
3. plot count links
4. set-current-plot “Segments”
5. set-current-plot-pen “segment”
6. export all plot
7. export all interface
End

This procedure creates the histogram showing the number of links during each “tick”
and a plot showing the number of segments completed with time. This is an accurate
representation of total torrent activity; however, it may not directly correspond to an
individual turtle’s activity.

11.5.6.4 Generate-random-segment-number
“ask leeches with [random-segment-number]” is a “workaround” to overcome a prob-
lem whereby leeches who generated a segment number (say 8) who did not possess
that segment would immediately upload it (during that tick) if they happened to receive
it from another turtle. Their random segment number is set to 88888, so they would
360 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

not try to upload anything until the next tick (i.e., after they have generated another
random number).

Procedure Generate-random-segment-number:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask turtle with color
2. set random segment number
3. check-if-segment-is-already-widespread
End

11.5.6.5 Go
Procedure Go:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. if success = 1 [ stop ]
2. generate-random-segment-number
3. makes-new-seeds-greenwidespread
End

In this procedure, the simulation starts and P2P communication begins. If the complete
file is downloaded by at least one, it generates a random segment number and the
seed turn to green.

11.5.6.6 Make-turtles
Procedure Make-turtles:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. create-leeches initial-leeches [ set color red ]
2. create-seeds initial-seeds
3. repeat max-pxcor – 3 [ layout-spring turtles links 0.2 5 1 ]
End

In this procedure, initially all leeches are to be defined and the color of these leeches
at beginning is set as a red. Then at the Step 2, the seeds are also settled. The leeches
and seeds are settled in a circle.
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 361

11.5.6.7 Makes-new-seeds-green
Procedure Makes-new-seeds-green:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. Ask turtles with [segment − 0 = 1]
2. Set color green
3. End
End

This makes turtles that have finished downloading all ten segments turn green. It
does not technically change their breed, but this does not really matter in terms of the
performance and accuracy of this simulation.

11.5.6.8 Selfish-green-turtles-dropout
Procedure Selfish-green-turtles-dropout:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask turtles with [ color = green ]
2. if random 99 < green-turtle-selfishness
3. [die]
End

In this procedure, if the seeds those download and participate in other leeches down-
loading process, these are called selfish turtles. If the selfishness is more than the
leeches, then the simulations stops.

11.5.6.9 Setup
For this model to work with NetLogo’s new plotting features, clear-all-and-reset-
ticks should be replaced with clear-all at the beginning of your setup procedure and
reset-ticks at the end of the procedure.

Procedure Setup:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
362 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Begin
1. clear-all-and-reset-ticks
2. set-default-shape turtles “circle”
3. make-turtles
End

11.5.6.10 Upload-file-segment
Assuming turtles actually have the segment they are trying to upload (highly likely
given the “check-if-segment-is-available” above), they will seek out a leech without
that segment and share it with that turtle. The visible link is partly for esthetic purposes
and simply to show where the upload activity is during each “tick.” This process is
repeated for every possible random number (0–9) and therefore every possible file
segment.

Procedure Upload-file-segment:

Input: Uses global parameters from the User Interface

Output: All agents and patches are setup for simulation
Execution: Called at the start
Context: Observer
Begin
1. ask turtle with random segment number
2. ask one of leeches with segment 0
3. set random random segment number 99999
4. set color Blue
5. create-link from myself
End

All the procedures and their communication links are shown in Tables 11.1
and 11.2.

11.5.7 Experiments
As expected, there is a clear negative correlation between the number of initial seeds
and the total time it takes for all turtles to completely download the file. Furthermore,
torrents with few initial seeds also exhibit greater volatility in torrent activity (roughly
analogous to average download speed). Both these behaviors are consistent with real-
world observations. This simulation also beautifully reproduces typical torrent speed
behavior whereby downloads begin slowly (with few seeders) then rapidly speed up
as more file segments get distributed. This is closely related to the observed pattern
whereby some segments are distributed much more widely than others initially (when
there are only 1 or 2 seeds), a behavior that is also reproduced by this simulation.
As selfishness increases, the probability of failure also increases, although the random
nature of this agent behavior creates extreme variance in this relationship (i.e., total
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 363

Table 11.1 ABM network linkage table

Node from Node to

ABM Globals
ABM Procedure
ABM Links
ABM Agents
Global Slider
Global Switch
Global Results
Procedure Already Widespread
Procedure Available
Procedure Needed by other
Procedure Do plots
Procedure Random Segment Number
Procedure Go
Procedure Make turtles
Procedure Make new seed green
Procedure Selfish turtle dropout
Procedure setup
Procedure upload file segment
Links Link Breeds
Agents Agents Breed
Agents Agents Attribute
Attribute Uploading
Attribute Downloading

failure is an extreme occurrence). This variance highlights the important conclusion

that torrents will likely fail when people behave selfishly (which might happen when
they have to pay for their upload quota). Selfishness also increases the volatility of
total torrent activity and hence reproduces this aspect of real-world torrent behavior.

Experiment vary-nodes: Experiment with the effects of number of

seeds and leeches

Input: s, p, l, smart seeding?

Setup procedures: Setup
Go procedures: Go
Context: Observer
Parameters:
p: 0.6
s: 30
l: 400
smart seeing: false
End Stop condition: Ticks = 28
Final commands: None
364 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 11.2 Network statistics

Label Degree Eigencentrality Eccentricity Betweenness

ABM 4 44.8982 3 258

Globals 4 19.9087 4 81
Procedures 12 100 4 309.5
Agents 3 20.5066 4 147
Links 2 14.6366 4 28
Slider/Input Data 1 6.4495 5 0
Switch/Input Data 1 6.4495 5 0
Results/Output Data 1 6.4495 5 0
Links Breeds 1 4.5308 5 0
Already-WideSpreads 1 27.3111 5 0
Available 2 29.8494 5 28
Upload File Segment 1 8.2762 6 0
Needed by Others 1 27.3111 5 0
do Plots 2 32.3933 5 13.5
Random Segment Numbers 2 32.3933 5 13.5
segment already Widespread 2 17.8165 6 0.5
Go 1 27.3111 5 0
Make turtles 1 27.3111 5 0
Make New Seeds Green 1 27.3111 5 0
Selfish Turtle Dropout 2 29.8494 5 28
Die 1 8.2762 6 0
Setup 2 29.8494 5 28
Make turtles 1 8.2762 6 0
Upload File Segment 1 27.3111 5 0
Agent Breed 3 9.9394 5 55
Seeder 1 3.7863 6 0
Leecher 1 3.7863 6 0
Agent Attributes 3 9.9394 5 55
Upload 1 3.7863 6 0
Download 1 3.7863 6 0

Experiment vary-nodes: Experiment with the effects of number of

seeds and leeches

Input: s, p, l, smart seeding?

Setup procedures: Setup
Go procedures: Go
Context: Observer
Parameters:
p: 0.3
s: 25
l: 300
smart seeing: true
End Stop condition: Ticks = 28
Final commands: None
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 365

At lower levels of selfishness, a greater number of initial seeds can to some

extent compensate for selfish behavior. Once selfishness reaches around 75%, then
the system will fail unless the number of seeds is high (relative to the number of
file segments). These findings have significant implications for the design of seeding
algorithms. Clearly, everything should be done to ensure that users behave in a way
that is not “selfish.” In other words, incentives should be provided for users to keep
sharing files after they have completed downloading all segments. Many trackers
and BitTorrent clients already do this through the use of minimum upload/download
ratios and by withholding the last segment from users in order to keep them active
for longer (described further below). Future additions to this simulation could be
made to analyze the effect of such incentives on the probability of failure and the
total download time. In a typical torrent, some file segments are much more widely
distributed than others initially. This simulation reproduces this behavior when there
are few seeds to begin with, as the first segments to be seeded become widespread
much more rapidly.
In this simulation, adding leeches does not seem to significantly alter download
speed (time to completion). This is contrary to real-world observations. One likely
explanation for this is that in the real world, many leeches contribute nothing or
very little in terms of upload capacity, whereas in this model, the upload capacity of
leeches is just as great as that of the initial seeders. If leech upload capacity were to
be restricted (e.g., they could only upload once every four ticks), then adding leeches
would, in theory, significantly increase the total time to completion.
The effect of smart seeding highlights the importance of seeding algorithms in
the overall performance of the torrent. It took as much as 30% longer to complete
file distribution with random seeding compared with “smart seeding.” In the real-
world different trackers and BitTorrent, clients create a range of interesting behaviors.
For example, some seeds will not upload to leeches with only one incomplete seg-
ment remaining to be downloaded. This effectively prevents them from dropping
out (being selfish) and ensures that they will continue to contribute to the network,
thereby increasing its viability. The effects of optimizing BitTorrent performance
using peer selection algorithms are examined by Huang, Wang, Zhang and Liu. Their
study found that a dynamic upload quota allocation scheme based on the principle
of investment return successfully reduced file download time during simulations.
Further improvements to the seeding algorithm, particularly of the kind that rewards
users with high upload ratios, are discussed below among other suggested additions
to this experiment.

11.5.8 Results and discussions

11.5.8.1 Metrics table and description
In this section, we are discussing NetLogo Based BitTorrent Protocol simulated results
by implementation and comparing our results with the results of PeerSim. For our
comparison with PeerSim, we have implemented BitTorrent in NetLogo as shown
in figure. Our BitTorrent Interface Design consists of a graphical window, switch,
monitors, graphs and a multiple sliders. On left side we have three sliders, first
366 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks
BitTorrent PeerSim simulation results
400

350
Number of completed pieces (ms)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1×106 1.2×106 1.4×106 1.6×106
Time

Figure 11.10 PeerSim simulation result

one represents the selfishness, second slider is used to set number of initial seeds
and third slider is used to set a number of initial leechers. Furthermore on left side
we also have a switch which is used for the purpose of smart seeding and a graph
showing links. On the right side, we have multiple monitors showing segments and
a segment graph. To appropriately notice performance of BitTorrent in NetLogo we
have simulated a similar network setup and parameters as explained in PeerSim.
Furthermore, the results of both NetLogo and PeerSim are described in subsequent
sections.

11.5.9 PeerSim results

In Figure 11.10, performance of BitTorrent protocol with single shared torrent in a
fixed size network is shown in which each colored lines within a graph shows down-
loaded pieces for every node in a network. In starting phase distribution of pieces
among nodes for simulations is chosen randomly: few nodes begin with greater num-
ber of downloaded pieces and remaining have fewer completed pieces. As simulation
begins, torrent is shared by the nodes among their neighbors downloading parts. Node
will only start to share when the simulations start: some nodes will be waiting for
their selection (Pink nodes) probably because these nodes are chocked due to start
with more or less 120 segments at time 0.

11.5.10 ABM results

In this section, we have discussed the results of ABM; for this, we have performed a
simulation. The parameters of the simulations are shown in Table 11.3.
Initially, we setup the simulation after which leeches and seeds appear whose
quantity along with other parameters can be increased or decreased by using sliders
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 367
Table 11.3 Simulation parameters

Parameters Values

Initial leeches 400

Green turtles selfishness 0
Initial seeders 50
Smart seeding On

parameters. The file which is to be distributed has 10 segments and each agent owns
10 variables and each variable corresponds to particular segment in which 1 indicates
possession of particular segment and 0 indicates that turtle does not possess that
particular segment. In this model, all leeches are set to 0. In this experiment, we
have set initial seeds to 50, leeches to 400 and set selfishness probability of dropping
out of each green turtle to 0 with smart seeding set to ON. We start our experiment
by calling go procedure. During each and every tick, each turtle who owns a file
segment (initially seeds) produces a random number from 0 to 9 which matches to
the file segment which is going to be uploaded. They will only generate numbers
that are required by others. With smart seeding switched ON, seeds will generate
random numbers up to three times until they find one that is possessed by 1 or fewer
leeches to prevent the probability of uploading the same seeds multiple times. The
upload method starts by requesting a turtle to select that leech which does not own
file segment to be uploaded and then a particular turtle is asked to set variable to 1
which shows that they now own that segment. Maximum of one segment is uploading
per tick and no limit for downloading. Furthermore, in real-world scenario, download
capacity hugely beats upload capacity for maximum users. Once a leech owns single
segment, it goes blue, and finally when a leech owns all segments, they go green which
can be seen in figures that all the leeches turns green after getting all the segments.
After leeches go green, there is a likelihood that these green turtles will drop out
which signifies selfish manners, and the drop out probability for individual green
turtle can be set by means of slider parameter. In this scenario, the simulation can
finish in either two ways. First, it can end when all turtles go green. Second, if seeds
drop out in a way that completely eliminates one or more segments from circulation
(Figures 11.11–11.13).

11.5.11 Comparison of both

In Figures 11.10 and 11.14, the results of PeerSim and NetLogo are shown. In PeerSim-
simulated BitTorrent network, simple study has been prepared to understand the
performance of the protocol which can be seen in the figure. In the above graph,
behavior of the BitTorrent protocol in fixed sized network of 30 nodes with 100 Mb
of single shared torrent is shown. On x-axis we have we have time, which is required to
complete each piece, and y-axis represents number of completed pieces in a particular
time. Furthermore, colored line with in a graph shows the number of downloaded
368 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 11.11 NetLogo Interface

Figure 11.12 NetLogo interface

Figure 11.13 NetLogo interface

 Descriptive agent-based modeling 369

500
Number of completed segments

400

300

200

100

0 50 100 150 200

Time

Figure 11.14 NetLogo simulation result

pieces for each node in the network. In PeerSim distribution of the pieces among the
nodes is randomly chosen in a beginning. When the simulation begins, few nodes
start to distribute torrent with their neighbor nodes, some but not all of the nodes, and
when all nodes own file graph shows constant value.
While in our designed agent-based model we have followed the same procedure
discussed above. On x-axis we have time in which each agent gets all of the segments
and on y-axis we have number of completed segments which can be seen in Figure 11.4.
Furthermore we are distributing segments among agents instead of pieces. When
leeches own all the segments, they turn green, which states either selfish behavior
or end of simulation which can be seen in the graph when all segments that are
distributed among agents graph go constant. Furthermore, detailed results of both
ABM and PeerSim are already discussed above in detail.

11.5.12 DREAM network models

In the initial view of the network as shown in Figure 11.7, it is difficult to comprehend.
For this, we need to manipulate the network. We manipulate the network using various
algorithms, the resulting network can be viewed in Figure 11.8.

11.5.12.1 Plots of centralities

The degree centrality analysis of network is plotted in Figure 11.15. The plot shows
that the node containing highest peak of betweenness centrality is “Procedures.” Node
“Globals” have the second highest betweenness centrality, which represent the inputs,
which are entered from the NetLogo user interface model. In Figure 11.16, we have
plotted the betweenness centrality in R [49] using power law. The plot show a decaying
behavior because there are few nodes in the network which have more connections
and more nodes in the network which have few connections (Figure 11.17).
 Betweenness
370

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Fraction of vertices having betweenness x or greater ABM
Globals
Procedures
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 Agents
Links
Slider/Input Data

3.0
Switch/Input Data
Results/Output Data
LinksBreeds
Already-WideSpreads
Available
Upload File Segment

3.5
Needed by Others
do Plots
Random Segment...
Segment already...
Go

4.0
Make turtles
Betweenness

Make New Seeds...

Selfish Turtle Dropout
Die

4.5
Setup
Make turtles

Betweenness centrality
Upload File Segment
Agent Breed

5.0
Seeder
Leecher
Agent Attributes

Figure 11.16 Betweenness using power law

Upload

5.5
Figure 11.15 Betweenness of NetLogo simulation
Download
Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.0
Betweenness
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 371

segment already Widespread Random Segment Numbers

do Plots Make New Seeds Green Upload File Segment

Make turtles Available

Make turtles
Upload File SegmentAlready-WideSpreads
Setup
Die
Switch/Input Data
Selfish Turtle Dropout
Input Data Globals Procedures Go

Results/Output Data Needed by Others

ABM
Links
Links Breeds

Agents

Agent Breed Agent Attributes

Seeder
Leecher Download Upload

Figure 11.17 Network model of ABM

The plot in Figure 11.18 shows the eccentricity centrality. In the case of eccen-
tricity centrality, following “Procedures” which has the highest Eccentricity centrality
value, we find ABM to have the second highest value followed by “Agents,” “Agents
Breed” and “Agent Attribute.” In Figure 11.19, we have plotted the eccentricity cen-
trality in R [49] using power law. The plot show a decaying behavior because there
are few nodes in the network which have more connections and more nodes in the
network which have few connections.
The plot in Figure 11.20 shows the analysis of eigen centrality of network. The
plot shows that the node containing highest peak of eigen centrality is “Procedures”
followed by “ABM.” However, the nodes containing the lowest eccentricity centrality
is “Download” and “Uploads.” In Figure 11.21, we have plotted the eigen centrality
in R [49] using power law. The plot show a decaying behavior because there are few
nodes in the network which have more connections and more nodes in the network
which have few connections.
The degree centrality analysis of network is plotted in Figure 11.22. The plot
shows that the node containing highest peak of degree centrality is “Procedures.”
Node “Globals” have the second highest degree centrality, which represent the inputs,
which are entered from the NetLogo user interface model. In Figure 11.23, we have
plotted the degree centrality in R [49] using power law. The plot shows a decaying
behavior because there are few nodes in the network which have more connections
and more nodes in the network which have few connections.
 Eccentricity
372

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
ABM 7
Globals
Procedures
Fraction of vertices having eccentricity x or greater Agents
Links
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 Slider/Input Data
Switch/Input Data
Results/Output Data

3.0
LinksBreeds
Already-WideSpreads
Available
Upload File Segment
Needed by Others

3.5
do Plots
Random Segment...
Segment already...
Go
Make turtles

4.0
Make New Seeds...
Selfish Turtle Dropout
Die
Eccentricity

Setup

4.5
Make turtles
Upload File Segment

Eccentricity centrality
Agent Breed
Seeder

5.0
Leecher
Agent Attributes
Upload

5.5

Figure 11.19 Eccentricity using power law

Figure 11.18 Eccentricity of NetLogo simulation Download
Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

6.0
Eccentricity
 Eigen centrality

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
ABM
Globals
Fraction of vertices haveing eigencentrality x or greater Procedures
Agents
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 Links
Slider/Input Data
Switch/Input Data
Results/Output Data
LinksBreeds

0.05
Already-WideSpreads
Available
Upload File Segment
Needed by Others
do Plots
Random Segment...

0.10
Segment already...
Go
Make turtles
Make New Seeds...
Selfish Turtle Dropout

0.20
Die
Eigen centrality

Setup

Eigen centrality
Make turtles
Upload File Segment
Agent Breed
Seeder
Leecher

0.50
Agent Attributes
Upload

Figure 11.21 Eigencentrality using power law

Download
Figure 11.20 Eigencentrality of NetLogo simulation

1.00
Descriptive agent-based modeling

Eigen
centrality
373
 374

Degree

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
ABM
Fraction of vertices having degree x or greater Globals
Procedures
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 Agents
Links
Slider/Input Data

1
Switch/Input Data
Results/Output Data
LinksBreeds
Already-WideSpreads
Available
Upload File Segment
Needed by Others

2
do Plots
Random Segment Numbers
segment already Wide spread
Go
Make turtles
Degree

Make New Seeds Green

Selfish Turtle Dropout
Die
Setup

Degree centrality
5
Make turtles
Upload File Segment
Agent Breed
Seeder
Leecher

Figure 11.23 Degree using power law

Agent Attributes
Figure 11.22 Degree of NetLogo simulation
Upload
Download

10
Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Degree
 Descriptive agent-based modeling 375

11.6 Discussion (ODD vs DREAM)

Agent-based modeling is the versatile approach for the feasibility studies. The main
theme of the agent-based modeling is to make the efficient communication and the
comparison between the different communication model. The proposed Descripted
agent-based modeling (DREAM) models allow the P2P network simulation and their
modeling. DREAM model is the combination of different components such as com-
plex network simulation model, statistical analysis of the P2P communication network
and the detail description of the pseudocode-based specific schemes. DREAM mod-
els in the agent-based modeling allows the fidelity. One of the main advantages of
the DREAM model is that it provides the complete analysis of complex adaptive net-
works. Another feature of the DREAM model is that it provides the visualized result
comparison of P2P networks as well as quantitative results. DREAM model supports
the heterogeneity of the agent-based modeling. According to our previous literature
knowledge, there is no specific and well-defined Descripted model for BitTorrent
P2P network. The proposed Descripted agent-based models for P2P network models
provides both the visualized and the qualitative results and their comparison. ODD
is the textual techniques of the modeling. ODD is the combination of the Overview,
Design concepts and their details. The ODD model is presented by the Grimm et al.
By the comparison of ODD and DREAM model, there are some limitations of ODD
model. These are following:

● ODD model is the textual model for the BitTorrent P2P network. It does not allow
the visualized network model in the BitTorrent simulations.
● ODD model does not support the quantitative comparisons, and the statistical
measures are not involved in ODD model.
● Agent-based modeling is the visualization modeling of the BitTorrent network.
For the comparison between different agent-based models, the visualization
modeling is necessary, although ODD does not support visualization modeling.
● In the DREAM model, the pseudocode description is present for the BitTorrent
model, while ODD does not allow the pseudocode description of the agent-based
model.
● ODD models does not allow the technical description of the algorithms.
● DREAM model supports the activity diagrams, sequence diagrams of the network
model while ODD does not include this type of modeling support.

At the end, we conclude that ODD models gives the basic ideas of the modeling,
and DREAM model allows the Descripted detail of the agent-based modeling of the
BitTorrent. Theory of computation is the basic study of complexity and the automata.
Complex theory provides the theoretical study of the complex systems. The agent-
based modelers mostly prefer to address a specific theoretical problem by using the
agent-based modeling. The main relation between the agent-based modeling and
computation theory is that it is mutually more beneficial for the CASs. To solve the
theoretical concepts, the complexity provides the fuzzy concepts to the agent-based
modeling. As the agent-based modeling enhanced the understanding, concepts of
complexity varied from field to field. Theory of computation belongs to the field
376 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

of the theoretical computer science while agent-based modeling is the visualization

interface which provides the solutions for the complex systems or complex networks.
Agent-based modeling is the paradigm is still under development process. When the
new techniques emerge with ABM, a sufficient time is needed to find all the basic
details of the application, their capabilities and limitations.
As the theory of computation provides the proof study of the theoretical prob-
lem, agent-based modeling handle these problems with the help of the visualization
structure. The most common example for the solution of the complex network system
is the agent-based model of Turing machine. A Turing machine have infinite memory
and their simulations are more complex. To provide the solution for these complex
systems, agent-based modeling is provided. ABM enhances the overall performance
of the system and reduces the complexity load of the system.

11.7 Conclusion

Among many P2P networks, BitTorent is very famous for sharing files over a net-
work. In this chapter, we proposed modeling and simulation of the BitTorrent protocol
by using a combination of agent-based and complex network-based approaches. The
simulation results demonstrate that our proposed ABM-based BitTorrent model per-
formed better. Furthermore, forABM specification, we followed two approaches, first
is ODD and the second one is DREAM methodology. We presented qualitative as well
as a quantitative comparison of both ODD and DREAM specification techniques. The
comparative study of ODD and DREAM proved that DREAM methodology is the
more useful approach for documenting an ABM not only in terms of modeling but
also for replication of the models, specifically for P2P networks.

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 Chapter 12
Social networks—a scientometric visual survey
Bisma S. Khan1 and Muaz A. Niazi1

12.1 Introduction

“Social networks” is a significant area of research. It has garnered considerable atten-

tion from the research community. The literature in the domain of social networks is
growing incredibly fast; a corpus of literature is already accumulated. In spite of its
importance, one of the key difficulty beginners, academicians, and researchers face
in locating information about social networks is the diverse spread of related articles
across multiple domains—primarily due to the multidisciplinary nature of the “social
networks.” Therefore, it is quite difficult to get conversant with the fundamental
concepts, future directions, and advent in the field.
It, therefore, seems appropriate to identify emerging trends, temporal patterns,
and underlying dynamics in the bibliographic literature of social networks in such a
way that is accessible to the beginners, academicians, and researchers. The traditional
domain analysis studies consider only a fraction of publications in the domain, which
are inadequate to capture diverging trends and transient patterns of the field. To the
best of our knowledge, there is no recent review of current literature which uses
a scientometric analysis of networks formed from highly cited and key-reviewed
articles from the Web of Science (WoS) to explore the general growth of the domain.
We retrieved papers from 2001 to 2018 and applied scientometric analysis on the
data using CiteSpace. The topic search and cited references in our method provide
coverage of the literature at a broader level.
The key contribution of this article is the identification of important nodes occu-
pying significant positions in the scientometric networks, such as highly cited and
central articles, articles with citation burst and sigma, clusters of the articles network
based on most representative terms, turning points and pivot points, popular key-
words, central keywords, keywords with citation burst, most productive, central, and
active institutions and countries, and important subject categories in the domain.
The key findings of our research are as follows. First, we have explored
key articles in terms of citation frequency, betweenness centrality, citation burst,
and sigma through cited-reference co-citation analysis. Then, we have identified
core authors based on a number of publications, centrality, burstiness, and sigma

1
Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan
382 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

through collaborative analysis of author network. Next, we have revealed core subject
categories of the domain in terms of centrality, the frequency of occurrence, bursts,
and sigma. Next, we seek productive institutions in terms of betweenness centrality,
burstiness, sigma, and frequency of publications. Then, we explored popular keywords
in terms of centrality, the frequency of occurrence, co-occurrence burst, and sigma.
Subsequently, we identified core countries in terms of sigma, centrality, publication
frequency, and bursts. Additionally, we explored clusters of the cited references.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 12.2 background, Section
12.3 presents the methodology, Section 12.4 demonstrates results, Section 12.5
summarizes the results, and Section 12.6 contains conclusions.

12.2 Background
In this section, we present the background for better understanding of the social
networks and visual analysis.

12.2.1 Social networks—an overview

Networks/graphs are about studying interaction or interaction patterns on objects.
A network in its simplest form is made up of nodes/vertices and loaded edges/links
[1]. A social network is a network in which the nodes are individuals of the popula-
tion, such as people, group of people, friends, authors, or organizations, and edges are
some form of social interaction, such as liking, friendship, belonging, exchange of
money, professional relationships, communication patterns, or collaborative interac-
tions. Nodes in the social networks are referred to as actors, and links between actors
are referred to as ties (directed or undirected).
Social networks are mostly attributed to online social network services, such as
Twitter, Facebook, etc. These sites are designed to help us work together on common
interests or activities. Social networks are growing rapidly, at an unprecedented as
well as unpredictable scale, because of the exponential increase in the usage of social
media. Social networks are dynamic in nature, they evolve over time. In general, they
are emergent, self-organizing, and complex. The growth of social networks follows a
power law.
Over the past decades, the notion of “social networks” and “social network anal-
ysis” has gained considerable interest from multidisciplinary domains, such as social
sciences, behavioral sciences, marketing, physics, computer science, and economics.
Much of the focus of this interest is the study of relationships between individuals to
understand the structure and patterns of the interaction.
Sociologists have introduced social network analysis as a means of analyzing rela-
tionships between individuals by studying the exchange of information and resources.
Social network analysts rarely draw samples from social networks because social
networks are based on relations among actors, therefore actors cannot be sampled.
Social networks exhibit “small world” property also known as “six-degrees of
separation” which states that every actor in the world can be reached from every
other actor at six hops distance on average. Some social networks are scale free,
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 383

that is, some actors have many connections with other actors, whereas others have a
few connections. These are heterogeneous networks following the power law degree
distribution [1].
Some nodes occupy a central position in the network. Information diffuse in the
network through central nodes. Diffusion demonstrates the dissemination of events
(information, disease, rumor, or virus, etc.) all over a network. Social networks are
an active source of information dissemination. On the one hand, useful information
can be promoted and propagated efficiently and effectively via social networks. On
the other hand, malicious information such as virus and rumor can also propagate
uncontrollably in social networks.

12.2.2 Citation networks

Citation networks are the type of information networks. Nodes in the citation network
are articles. There will be a directed link from paper A to paper B if paper A cites
paper B in its references. Papers are mostly cited to give credit to the prior work of
the cited author. The citing article is known as citer and the cited paper is known as
citee. Citation of a paper also indicates that citer and citee have relevance [2]. One
of the earliest citation networks study was conducted by Price in 1965 [3]. Web of
Science, Scopus, CiteSeerX, and Google Scholar, etc., are the well-known examples
of citation index databases [2].
The vertices of the citation networks hold information in the form of images and
text. Links are formed from “citing article” to “cited article.” These networks are
acyclic. “An acyclic network is one in which there are no closed loops of directed
edges” [2]. Citation networks are acyclic because one paper can only cite another
which is already written. These networks demonstrate the information flow between
documents. They are constrained in time, so form directed acyclic graphs which own
causal structure [4].

12.2.3 Co-citation networks

Two documents are called co-cited if they both are cited by the same another document.
Co-citation indicates that co-cited documents are related. In co-citation network,
nodes are the cited articles and edges are the co-citation links between node pairs.
Unlike citation networks, co-citation networks are undirected symmetric graphs [2].
Other examples of co-citation networks include journal co-citation networks and
author co-citation networks. In journal co-citation networks, journals are the nodes,
and in author co-citation networks, cited authors are the nodes [2,5].

12.2.4 Bibliographic coupling

Two documents are considered bibliographically coupled if they both cite the same
another document. Like co-citation, it also indicates that the documents are related.
These are also undirected graphs [2].
384 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Cited-reference co- Authors Institutions

Data collection citation network collaboration collaboration
analysis network analysis network analysis

Identification of
largest cluster
in cited-references

Category co- Keywords co- Country

occurrence occurrence Journal co-citation collaboration
network analysis network analysis network analysis network analysis

Figure 12.1 Research methodology for the visualization of “social network” to

identify trends and emergent patterns in the bibliographic data of the
domain

12.2.5 Coauthorship networks

Coauthorship of a document is formed by the collaboration between two or more
authors. The coauthors’ collaboration forms coauthorship networks. In this network,
authors are the nodes, and collaboration between them forms edges. Collaboration
could also be between institutions and countries. In that case, institutions or countries
will be the nodes and collaboration link between them will be the edges [6].

12.2.6 Co-occurrence networks

These networks are formed by the paired presence of terms within a particular unit
of text. Two terms A and B are said to be co-occurred if they both appear in the same
document. In co-occurrence networks, the terms are the nodes and co-occurrence links
between them form edges. For example, category–category co-occurrence network,
keyword–keyword co-occurrence network [5].
After fundamentals of background, we present materials and methods.

12.3 Materials and methods

Here we present data-collection process and identify emerging trends and pat-
terns through data visualization and analysis. We also explore central and highly
cited documents, influential collaborative authors, key institutions, core countries,
important keywords, and leading research categories. Figure 12.1 demonstrates step-
by-step methodology of the scientometric study and visualization of the bibliographic
literature in the domain of “social networks.”
First, we have collected data from Clarivate Analytics’ Web of Science (WoS)
using a search query. Then we have analyzed the co-citation network of cited refer-
ences and we also identify largest connected cluster in the cited reference co-citation
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 385
Sum of times cited per year
18,000
16,000

14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Figure 12.2 Citations history of the scientometric data in the domain of “social
networks” over latest 11 years (2007–18)

network. After that, we have performed coauthors’ network visualization. Next, we

visualize collaborative institution and collaborative country networks. Subsequently,
we have analyzed the co-occurrence network of keywords and research categories.

12.3.1 Data collection

To perform substantial co-citation and collaboration analysis of scientific literature,
input data is retrieved from the core collection of WoS. An extensive topic search
was made and refined by topic = (“social network∗ ”); timespan = 2007–18 years;
language = English; document type: articles; and indexes: SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI,
A&HCI, ESCI. The date was retrieved is on March 16, 2018. Total 36,469 unique
bibliographic records are downloaded by selecting a full record and cited references
as record contents.
We first analyze the citation report of WoS. Figure 12.2 illustrates that beginning
from few citations in 2007, the domain of “social networks” has risen to almost
18, 000 citations only in the year 2017. It clearly indicates that the domain has garnered
considerable attention from the research community in recent years.
Table 12.1 contains published items per year. It is quite interesting to note that the
articles published in the domain of “social network*” have surged from approximately
314 (3.001%) in 2001 and reached to almost 5, 710 publications alone in the year 2017,
which is 15.570% of total 36,616 records.
12.3.2 CiteSpace—a science mapping tool
In this chapter, CiteSpace—a visual analytic tool is used for visualization of sciento-
metric analysis [5]. This section provides an overview and comparison of CiteSpace
with four other science mapping tools.
CiteSpace is a freely available, Java-based bibliometric tool used for visualization
of emerging trends and patterns in bibliographic literature. It runs on the Windows,
Linux, or Mac-operating systems. It is used for educational and research purposes.
386 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.1 Publication years by record count

Publication years Record count % of 36,616

2017 5,701 15.570

2016 5,335 14.570
2015 4,943 13.500
2014 3,703 10.113
2013 3,230 8.821
2012 2,683 7.327
2011 2,224 6.074
2010 1,774 4.845
2009 1,367 3.733
2008 1,099 3.001

Citespace
BibExcel
Interest over time CRExplorer
100 CitNet Explorer
Biblio Tools
Interest

75

50

25

Average Jan 3, 2016 Oct 2, 2016 Time Jul 2, 2017

Figure 12.3 Google Trends for the comparison between science mapping tools.
Color figure can be viewed at: https://www.researchgate.net

It allows dynamic, spatial, temporal, and interactive visualization. It has a simple and
interactive interface.
It could directly import data from WoS, Scopus, and PubMed. CiteSpace takes
scientometric information and performs the following bibliometric analysis: author,
document, and journal co-citation analysis; coauthors, institutions, and country col-
laboration analysis; co-terms and keywords co-occurrence analysis. The key features
of CiteSpace include timeline view, geographic mapping, and dual-map overlays.
It also offers built-in database and could be connected to MySQL on the local host.
It can export cited references to Endnote and RIS.
It can also generate a summary report containing key information obtained from
the analyzed literature. Its strong documentation is also available, including books,
articles, tutorials, demos, manual, and videos. It also has a Facebook page on which
near real-time help is available.
We have compared CiteSpace with four other science mapping tools: “BibEx-
cel,” “CRExplorer,” “CitNetExplorer,” and “BiblioTools.” Apparently, CiteSpace in
Google Trends shown in Figure 12.3 is on top with an average popularity score of 27.
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 387

Table 12.2 Comparison between different science mapping tools

Scientometric CiteSpace BibExcel CRExplorer CitNetExplorer BiblioTools

tool [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Availability Free Free Free Free Free

Platform Java – Java Java Python
Operating Windows, Windows, Java Run Windows, Unix, Mac,
system Linux or Linux Time any Java Windows
Mac, Java supporting OS
Runtime
(JRE)
Data import WoS, PubMed, WoS, WoS, WoS WoS
arXiv, ADS, Scopus Scopus
Scopus, NSF
Award
Abstracts
Resolves No No Yes No No
disambiguation
Bibliometric Author, Bibliometry, Cited Citation Data parsing,
analysis institution, bibliometric, references networks, filtering,
countries citation interactive detecting
collaboration analysis, visualization bibliographic
networks, bibliographic coupling
document, coupling, communities,
journal, and shared co-occurrence
author references, maps
co-citation co-citation, (co-words,
networks, cluster coauthors,
co-occurrence analysis co-citations)
networks
of terms,
categories,
and keywords,
geographic
map, overlays;
interactive,
temporal,
and spatial
visualization
Export Pajek, Excel, Pajek, Pajek Pajek Gephi,
SPSS NetDraw, BiblioMaps
Excel, SPSS
Documentation Strong Weak Weak Weak Weak

To compare salient features of CiteSpace with other science-mapping tools, com-

parative analysis is given in Table 12.2. For a detailed overview and comparison,
readers may refer to [7].
After providing materials and methods, we present research results and
discussion.
388 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

12.4 Results and discussion

In this section, we present results obtained from visual analysis of the scientific litera-
ture obtained from WoS. The color figures are available at https://www.researchgate.
net/project/Visual-Analysis-of-Scientometric-Networks.

12.4.1 Cited-references co-citation network analysis

The goal of our first analysis is the visualization of the document co-citation network to
identify key documents in the scientific literature of “social networks.” Top 30 nodes
per time slice of length 2 years are selected in the timespan of 2001–18. The panoramic
view of the network shown in Figure 12.4 comprises 142 unique documents and 453
citation links. Unique colors are used to represent each time slice. Link colors indicate
the time period when this link was first established. The blue color corresponds to the
earliest years, green color corresponds to the middle years, and the red color indicates
the current years. The lighter and darker shades of the same color indicate the earlier
and later time slices, respectively. The nodes in the network are resized according to
the corresponding degree in the network.

Figure 12.4 The document co-citation network

 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 389

Table 12.3 Top articles sorted in terms of co-citation frequency

Cited references Citation GS Cluster #

counts citation

Ellison NB, 2007, J Comput-Mediat Comm, V12, 558 9,521 2

P1143–1168
Fortunato S, 2010, Phys rep, V486, P75–174 542 6,725 0
Christakis NA, 2007, New Engl J Med, V357, P370 501 4,583 0
Boyd DM, 2007, J Comput-Mediat Comm, V13, P210 455 14,702 2
Newman MEJ, 2010, Networks Intro 417 8,381 0
Kaplan AM, 2010, Bus Horizons, V53, P59 387 12,726 2
Borgatti SP, 2009, Science, V323, P892 385 2,493 3
Newman MEJ, 2003, Siam Rev, V45, P167 381 17,398 1
Christakis NA, 2008, New Engl J Med, V358, P2249 375 1,840 0
Snijders TAB, 2010, Soc Networks, V32, P44 359 1,320 3

The largest radius of the node Ellison NB (2007) indicates that it is a landmark
node having highest citation frequency. The thickness of purple trims around Kossinets
G (2006) shows that it is the most influential article in the domain. The pink trims
around the nodes are indicating that their centrality score is ≥0.1.
Further details are given below in tabular form.
Table 12.3 presents top articles ranked in terms of citation counts. The top article
is Ellison NB (2007) in Cluster #2 with citation frequency of 558. It has 9,521 citations
on GS. The second one is Fortunato S (2010) in Cluster #0 with citation frequency
of 542. It obtained 6,725 citations on GS. The third is Christakis NA (2007) in Cluster
#0 with citation frequency of 501. It has 4,583 citations on GS. The fourth is Boyd DM
(2007) in Cluster #2 with citation frequency of 455. It has 12,726 citations on GS. The
fifth is Newman MEJ (2010) in Cluster #0 with citation frequency of 417. The sixth is
Kaplan AM (2010) in Cluster #2 with citation frequency of 387. It has 2,493 citations
on GS. The seventh is Borgatti SP (2009) in Cluster #3 with citation frequency of
385. It has 17,398 citations on GS. The eighth is Newman MEJ (2003) in Cluster #1
with citation frequency of 381. It has 1,840 citations on GS. The ninth is Christakis
NA (2008) in Cluster #0 with citation frequency of 375. The tenth is Snijders TAB
(2010) in Cluster #3 with citation frequency of 359. It has 1,320 citations on GS.
Table 12.4 presents top articles listed in terms of citation burst. “The burstiness
of the frequency of an entity over time indicates a specific duration in which an abrupt
change of the frequency takes place” [13]. The top article ranked by citation burst is
Newman MEJ (2003) in Cluster #1 with burstiness of 140.95. The second one is Boyd
DM (2007) in Cluster #2 with bursts of 126.59. The third is Albert R (2002) in Cluster
#1 with bursts of 120.88. The fourth is Ellison NB (2007) in Cluster #2 with bursts of
111.91. The fifth is Watts DJ (1998) in Cluster #1 with bursts of 100.56. The sixth is
Barabasi AL (1999) in Cluster #1 with bursts of 95.75. The seventh is McPherson M
(2001) in Cluster #5 with bursts of 83.29. The eighth is Borgatti SP (2002) in Cluster
#3 with bursts of 80.51. The ninth is Christakis NA (2007) in Cluster #0 with bursts
of 79.06. The tenth is Putnam R D (2000) in Cluster #5 with bursts of 75.83.
390 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.4 Top articles sorted in terms of citation burst

Cited references Bursts Cluster #

Newman MEJ, 2003, Siam Rev, V45, P167 140.95 1

Boyd DM, 2007, J Comput-Mediat Comm, V13, P210 126.59 2
Albert R, 2002, Rev Mod Phys, V74, P47 120.88 1
Ellison NB, 2007, J Comput-Mediat Comm, V12, P1143 111.91 2
Watts DJ, 1998, Nature, V393, P440 100.56 1
Barabasi AL, 1999, Science, V286, P509 95.75 1
Mcpherson M, 2001, Annu Rev Sociol, V27, P415 83.29 5
Borgatti SP, 2002, Ucinet Windows Softw, V, P 80.51 3
Christakis NA, 2007, New Engl J Med, V357, P370 79.06 0
Putnam R D, 2000, Bowling Alone Collap, V, P 75.83 5

Table 12.5 Top articles sorted in terms of betweenness centrality

Cited references Centrality Cluster #

Centola D, 2010, Science, V329, P1194 0.58 0

Kaplan AM, 2010, Bus Horizons, V53, P59 0.50 2
Bond RM, 2012, Nature, V489, P295 0.50 0
Onnela JP, 2007, P Natl Acad Sci USA, V104, P7332 0.28 0
Kossinets G, 2006, Science, V311, P88 0.26 0
Brass DJ, 2004, Acad Manage J, V47, P795 0.25 3
Newman MEJ, 2010, Networks Intro, V, P 0.24 0
Newman MEJ, 2003, Siam Rev, V45, P167 0.19 1
Amaral LAN, 2000, P Natl Acad Sci USA, V97, P11149 0.19 1
Snijders TAB, 2010, Soc Networks, V32, P44 0.19 3

Table 12.5 presents top-ranked articles in terms of betweenness centrality. “The

betweenness centrality of a node in a network measures the extent to which the node
is part of paths that connect an arbitrary pair of nodes in the network” [14]. The top-
graded article in terms of betweenness centrality is Centola D (2010) in Cluster #0
with the centrality of 0.58. The second one is Kaplan AM (2010) in Cluster #2 with
the centrality of 0.50. The third is Bond RM (2012) in Cluster #0 with the centrality
of 0.50. The fourth is Onnela JP (2007) in Cluster #0 with the centrality of 0.28. The
fifth is Kossinets G (2006) in Cluster #0 with the centrality of 0.26. The sixth is Brass
DJ (2004) in Cluster #3 with the centrality of 0.25. The seventh is Newman MEJ
(2010) in Cluster #0 with the centrality of 0.24. The eighth is Newman MEJ (2003)
in Cluster #1 with the centrality of 0.19. The ninth is Amaral LAN (2000) in Cluster
#1 with the centrality of 0.19. The tenth is Snijders TAB (2010) in Cluster #3 with
the centrality of 0.19.
Table 12.6 lists top articles sorted in terms of sigma. “Sigma indicator measures
the combined strength of structural and temporal properties of a node, namely, its
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 391

Table 12.6 Top articles sorted in terms of sigma

Cited references Sigma Cluster #

Kaplan AM, 2010, Bus Horizons, V53, P59 5819401151475.16 2

Newman MEJ, 2003, Siam Rev, V45, P167 27277977080.97 1
Albert R, 2002, Rev Mod Phys, V74, P47 79866981.70 1
Centola D, 2010, Science, V329, P1194 66555034.25 0
Bond RM, 2012, Nature, V489, P295 8847176.59 0
Onnela JP, 2007, P Natl Acad Sci USA, V104, P7332 40726.42 0
Newman MEJ, 2010, Networks Intro, V, P 25355.81 0
Kossinets G, 2006, Science, V311, P88 24045.82 0
McPherson M, 2001, Annu Rev Sociol, V27, P415 19341.76 5
Amaral LAN, 2000, P Natl Acad Sci USA, V97, P11149 1555.13 1

betweenness centrality and citation burst” [15]. The top-ranked item by sigma is
Kaplan AM (2010) in Cluster #2 with a sigma of 5819401151475.16. The second one
is Newman MEJ (2003) in Cluster #1 with a sigma of 27277977080.97. The third is
Albert R (2002) in Cluster #1 with a sigma of 79866981.70. The fourth is Centola D
(2010) in Cluster #0 with a sigma of 66555034.25. The fifth is Bond RM (2012) in
Cluster #0 with a sigma of 8847176.59. The sixth is Onnela JP (2007) in Cluster #0
with a sigma of 40726.42. The seventh is Newman MEJ (2010) in Cluster #0 with a
sigma of 25355.81. The eighth is Kossinets G (2006) in Cluster #0 with a sigma of
24045.82. The ninth is McPherson M (2001) in Cluster #5 with a sigma of 19341.76.
The tenth is Amaral LAN (2000) in Cluster #1 with a sigma of 1555.13.
After a detailed visualization of cited references co-citation network, our next
target is to identify largest connected cluster in the network of cited references.

12.4.1.1 Identification of largest cluster in cited references

Our next analysis is the identification of the giant component in the document co-
citation network. Figure 12.5 shows the clustered view of the document co-citation
network. The network of cited references is decomposed into 22 co-citation clusters.
These clusters are labeled by index terms from their own citers. The largest connected
component has 6 clusters comprising 122 documents which are 85% of entire articles
in the network. The largest connected cluster is summarized in Table 12.7.
There are several turning points and pivot points in the giant component playing
the brokerage role between different components. “Turning points refer to the revolu-
tionary articles identified by domain experts, whereas pivotal points refer to articles
that share similar topological properties in the network generated by CiteSpace” [8].
The articles Kaplan AM (2010) and Bond RM (2012) are the key turning points join-
ing Cluster #0 and Cluster #2. Similarly, McPherson M (2001) and Kossinets (2005)
are the turning points connecting Cluster #2 and Cluster #5, whereas Amaral Lan
(2000) and Watts D (1999) are the pivot points joining Cluster #1 and Cluster #4.
Similarly, Newman MEJ (2002) is the pivot point joining Cluster #1 and Cluster #5.
392 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 12.5 Clusters of cited references co-citation network

Table 12.7 Summary of the largest connected cluster of the cited references of
co-citation network

Cluster Size Silhouette Average Label

ID (Citee
year) TFIDFa LLRa MIa

0 30 0.825 2008 Application | Social network Statistical

complex network analysis
1 28 0.933 2001 Role | infection Small world Assortative
network interaction
2 26 0.998 2009 Feelings | Social networking Job search
educational method site
3 25 0.846 2004 Coauthorship Structural hole Acute
network | physical myocardial
activity infarction
4 8 0.969 1996 Practice | HIV infection Social network
perspective
5 5 0.945 1999 Dyadic stability CEO compensation Social network

a
Labelling algorithms: Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency (TFIDF), Log-Likelihood Ratio
(LLR), and Mutual Information (MI).
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 393

The largest cluster (#0) has 30 members and a silhouette value of 0.825. The
silhouette score suggests that the homogeneity of the underlying cluster is relatively
high. It is labeled as “social network” by LLR, “application | complex network” by
TFIDF, and “statistical analysis” by MI. The most active citer to the cluster is 0.17
Pei, S (2013) [16].
The second largest cluster (#1) has 28 members and a silhouette value of 0.933
indicating high homogeneity score. The cluster is labeled as “small world network”
by LLR, “role | infection” by TFIDF, and “assortative interaction” by MI. The most
active citer to the cluster is 0.29 Newman, MEJ (2001) [17].
The third largest cluster (#2) has 26 members and a silhouette value of 0.998,
which indicates higher homogeneity score. The cluster is labeled as “social networking
site” by LLR, “feelings | educational method” by TFIDF, and “job search” by MI. The
most active citer to the cluster is 0.23 Krasnova, H (2015) [18].
The fourth largest cluster (#3) has 25 members and a silhouette score of 0.846. It
is labeled as “structural hole” by LLR, “coauthorship network | physical activity” by
TFIDF, and “acute myocardial infarction” by MI. The most active citer to the cluster
is 0.24 Hoppe, B (2010) [19].
The fifth largest cluster (#4) has eight members and a silhouette value of 0.969. It
is labeled as “HIV infection” by LLR, “practice | perspective” by TFIDF, and “social
network” by MI. The most active citer to the cluster is 0.62 Riolo, CS (2001) [20].
The sixth largest cluster (#5) has five members and a silhouette value of 0.945. It
is labeled as “CEO compensation” by LLR, “dyadic stability” by TFIDF, and “social
network” by MI. The most active citer to the cluster is 0.4 Denner, J (2001) [21].
After identifying the largest component in the cited reference co-citation network,
our focus is the analysis of author collaboration network.

12.4.2 Authors collaboration network analysis

Here we present visual analysis of coauthors network to identify core authors of the
“social networks” domain. As shown in Figure 12.6, the merged network of coauthors
comprises 1,103 authors and 1,231 coauthorship links. The selection criterion for this
network is the top 50 authors per 1-year time slice in the timespan of 2001–18.
The largest connected component comprises 274 authors who are 24% of the entire
network.
The thickness of the links in the network represents the strength of the coauthor-
ship. The link color represents the time slice when the first article was coauthored. The
size of a specific node is proportional to the overall publication count of that author.
Red color indicates the publication burst of authors. The concentric circles around
author nodes represent the separation of publication years. The blue color represents
the older publications, whereas the red color represents recent publications.
It is pertinent to note here that bibliometric data of authors suffer from initial-
based disambiguation of author names. “The name disambiguation, i.e. identifying
whether a set of name strings refers to one or more real-world persons” [22].
The broader picture of coauthors network is given in tabular form below.
394 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 12.6 The network of collaborative authors

Table 12.8 demonstrates top collaborative authors in terms of publication counts.

The top-ranked author by publication counts is “Liu Y” (2012) with publication fre-
quency of 73. The second one is “Zhang Y” (2009) with publication frequency of 64.
The third is “Zhang J” (2008) with publication frequency of 64. The fourth is “Kim
J” (2011) with publication frequency of 61. The fifth is “Wang Y” (2013) with publi-
cation frequency of 61. The sixth is “Latkin CA” (2001) with publication frequency
of 57. The seventh is “Chen Y” (2009) with publication frequency of 56. The eighth
is “Lee S” (2010) with publication frequency of 52. The ninth is “Lee J” (2010) with
publication frequency of 49. The tenth is “Chen L” (2013) with publication frequency
of 48.
Table 12.9 presents top authors listed in terms of burstness of publications. The
top-ranked author in terms of bursts is “Wang Y” (2013) with bursts of 17.79. The
second one is “Zhang Y” (2009) with bursts of 17.69. The third is “Li Y” (2015) with
bursts of 17.12. The fourth is “Liu Y” (2012) with bursts of 15.51. The fifth is “Zhang
J” (2008) with bursts of 14.17. The sixth is “Chen L” (2013) with bursts of 13.64. The
seventh is “Wu J” (2013) with bursts of 12.78. The eighth is “Christakis NA” (2008)
with bursts of 10.54. The ninth is “Kim J” (2011) with bursts of 10.34. The tenth is
“Chen X” (2014) with bursts of 10.23.
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 395

Table 12.8 Top articles sorted in terms of publication frequency

Publication counts Author Year

73 Liu Y 2012
64 Zhang Y 2009
64 Zhang J 2008
61 Kim J 2011
61 Wang Y 2013
57 Latkin CA 2001
56 Chen Y 2009
52 Lee S 2010
49 Lee J 2010
48 Chen L 2013

Table 12.9 Top articles sorted in terms of publication burst

Publication bursts Author Year

17.79 Wang Y 2013

17.69 Zhang Y 2009
17.12 Li Y 2015
15.51 Liu Y 2012
14.17 Zhang J 2008
13.64 Chen L 2013
12.78 Wu J 2013
10.54 Christakis NA 2008
10.34 Kim J 2011
10.23 Chen X 2014

Table 12.10 presents top authors sorted in terms of betweenness centrality. The
top-ranked author by betweenness centrality is “ZhangY” (2009) with centrality score
of 0.04. The second one is “Kim Y” (2011) with centrality score of 0.04. The third
is “Newman MEJ” (2001) with centrality score of 0.03. The fourth is “Lee J” (2010)
with centrality score of 0.03. The fifth is “Wang L” (2007) with centrality score of
0.03. The sixth is “Holme P” (2003) with centrality score of 0.03. The seventh is
“Fowler JH” (2007) with centrality score of 0.03. The eighth is “Park J” (2004) with
centrality score of 0.03. The ninth is “Liljeros F” (2004) with centrality score of 0.03.
The tenth is “Christakis NA” (2008) with centrality score of 0.02.
Table 12.11 presents top authors sorted in terms of sigma score. The top-ranked
author by sigma is “ZhangY” (2009) with a sigma of 1.98. The second one is “Newman
MEJ” (2001) with a sigma of 1.33. The third is “Kim Y” (2011) with a sigma of 1.31.
The fourth is “Lee J” (2010) with a sigma of 1.29. The fifth is “Wang Y” (2013) with
a sigma of 1.23. The sixth is “Wang L” (2007) with a sigma of 1.21. The seventh
396 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.10 Top authors sorted in terms of betweenness centrality

Betweenness centrality Author Year

0.04 Zhang Y 2009

0.04 Kim Y 2011
0.03 Newman MEJ 2001
0.03 Lee J 2010
0.03 Wang L 2007
0.03 Holme P 2003
0.03 Fowler JH 2007
0.03 Park J 2004
0.03 Liljeros F 2004
0.02 Christakis NA 2008

Table 12.11 Top authors sorted in terms of sigma score

Sigma Author Year

1.98 Zhang Y 2009

1.33 Newman MEJ 2001
1.31 Kim Y 2011
1.29 Lee J 2010
1.23 Wang Y 2013
1.21 Wang L 2007
1.21 Zhang J 2008
1.18 Holme P 2003
1.17 Christakis NA 2008
1.16 Park J 2004

is “Zhang J” (2008) with a sigma of 1.21. The eighth is “Holme P” (2003) with a
sigma of 1.18. The ninth is “Christakis NA” (2008) with a sigma of 1.17. The tenth is
“Park J” (2004) with a sigma of 1.16.
After analyzing coauthors collaboration network, we move toward visual analysis
of the institution’s network.

12.4.3 Institution collaboration network analysis

This section demonstrates the visualization of the institution–institution network to
identify most productive institutions in the domain of “social networks” from the
period of 2001 to 2018. Top 50 institutions per time slice of 1 year are selected to
develop the network shown in Figure 12.7. The merged network consists of 256 insti-
tutions and 1,280 collaboration links. The largest connected component comprises
274 nodes. Five percent of the institutions are labeled in the network.
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 397

Figure 12.7 The collaborative network of institutions

Table 12.12 Top institutions sorted in terms of publication frequency

Publications Institution Country Year World

count ranking 2018

452 Harvard University USA 2001 6

427 University of Michigan USA 2001 21
388 University of Illinois USA 2001 37
374 University of Oxford UK 2002 1
368 University of North Carolina USA 2001 56
351 Pennsylvania State University USA 2001 77
346 University of California, Los Angeles USA 2001 15
335 Arizona State University USA 2001 126
328 Columbia University USA 2001 14
293 University of Toronto Canada 2001 22

The thickness of purple trim around Harvard University indicates that it is the
most central institution, and the largest radius around Harvard indicate that it is also
the landmark node. The red highlights on Chinese Academy of Science indicate that
it is the most active institution with the highest burst.
The detailed analysis is presented in the tabular form below.
Table 12.12 demonstrates the publication count of institutions. The top-ranked
institution by publication frequency is the “Harvard University, USA” (2001) with
398 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.13 Top institutions sorted in terms of betweenness centrality score

Betweenness Institution Country Year World ranking

centrality 2018

0.18 Harvard University USA 2001 6

0.14 Karolinska Institute Sweden 2001 38
0.09 University of Michigan USA 2001 21
0.08 Stockholm University Sweden 2001 134
0.07 University of Oxford UK 2002 1
0.07 Pennsylvania State University USA 2001 77
0.07 University of Toronto USA 2001 22
0.07 University of Melbourne Australia 2001 32
0.07 University of California, Berkeley USA 2001 18
0.06 University of Maryland USA 2001 69

publication frequency of 452. It is ranked sixth in World University Rankings. The

second one is the “University of Michigan, USA” (2001) with publication frequency
of 427. It is ranked 21st in World University Rankings. The third is the “University
of Illinois” (2001) with publication frequency of 388. It is ranked 37th in World Uni-
versity Rankings. The fourth is “University of Oxford, UK” (2002) with publication
frequency of 374. It is ranked first in World University Rankings. The fifth is “Uni-
versity of North Carolina” (2001) with publication frequency of 368. It is ranked
56th in World University Rankings. The sixth is the “Pennsylvania State University,
USA” (2001) with publication frequency of 351. It is ranked 77th in World University
Rankings. The seventh is the “University of California, Los Angeles, USA” (2001)
with publication frequency of 346. It is ranked 15th in World University Rankings.
The eighth is the “Arizona State University, USA” (2001) with publication frequency
of 335. It is ranked 126th in World University Rankings. The ninth is the “Columbia
University, USA” (2001) with publication frequency of 328. It is ranked 14th in World
University Rankings. The tenth is the “University of Toronto, Canada” (2001) with
publication frequency of 293. It is ranked 22nd in World University Rankings.
Table 12.13 lists top institutions sorted in terms of betweenness centrality. The
top-ranked institution in terms of betweenness centrality is “Harvard University, USA”
(2001) with the centrality of 0.18. It is ranked sixth in World University Rankings.
The second one is “Karolinska Institute, Sweden” (2001) with the centrality of 0.14.
It is ranked 38th in World University Rankings. The third is “University of Michi-
gan, USA” (2001) with the centrality of 0.09. It is ranked 21st in World University
Rankings. The fourth is “Stockholm University, Sweden” (2001) with the centrality
of 0.08. It is ranked 134th in World University Rankings. The fifth is the “Univer-
sity of Oxford, UK” (2002) with the centrality of 0.07. It is ranked first in World
University Rankings. The sixth is “Pennsylvania State University, USA” (2001) with
the centrality of 0.07. It is ranked 77th in World University Rankings. The seventh is
“University of Toronto, Canada” (2001) with the centrality of 0.07. It is ranked 22nd
in World University Rankings. The eighth is “University of Melbourne, Australia”
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 399

Table 12.14 Top Institutions sorted in terms of sigma score

Sigma Institution Country Year World ranking

2018

1.00 Harvard University USA 2001 6

1.00 Karolinska Institute Sweden 2001 38
1.00 University of Michigan USA 2001 21
1.00 Stockholm University Sweden 2001 134
1.00 University of Oxford UK 2002 1
1.00 Pennsylvania State University USA 2001 77
1.00 University of Toronto Canada 2001 22
1.00 University of Melbourne Australia 2001 32
1.00 University of California, Berkeley USA 2001 18
1.00 University of Maryland USA 2001 69

(2001) with the centrality of 0.07. It is ranked 32nd in World University Rankings.
The ninth is “University of California, Berkeley, USA” (2001) with the centrality
of 0.07. It is ranked 18th in World University Rankings. The tenth is “University
of Maryland, USA” (2001) with the centrality of 0.06. It is ranked 69th in World
University Rankings.
Table 12.14 presents top institutions sorted in terms of sigma score. The top-
graded institution by sigma is the “Harvard University, USA” (2001) with a sigma
of 1.00. It is ranked sixth in World University Rankings. The second one is the
“Karolinska Institute, Sweden” (2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 38th in
World University Rankings. The third is the “University of Michigan, USA” (2001)
with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 21st in World University Rankings. The fourth is
the “Stockholm University, Sweden” (2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 134th
in World University Rankings. The fifth is the “University of Oxford, UK” (2002)
with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked first in World University Rankings. The sixth is
“Pennsylvania State University, USA” (2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 77th
in World University Rankings. The seventh is the “University of Toronto, Canada”
(2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 22nd in World University Rankings. The
eighth is the “University of Melbourne, Australia” (2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is
ranked 32nd in World University Rankings. The ninth is the “University of California,
Berkeley, USA” (2001) with a sigma of 1.00. It is ranked 18th in World University
Rankings. The tenth is the “University of Maryland, USA” (2001) with a sigma of
1.00. It is ranked 69th in World University Rankings.
Table 12.15 presents top institutions listed in terms of burst of publications.
The top-ranked institution in terms of bursts is “University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, China” (2014) with bursts of 40.52. It is ranked 189th in World University
Rankings. The second one is “University of Southern California, USA” (2016) with
bursts of 36.5. It is ranked 66th in World University Rankings. The third is “Tsinghua
University, China” (2013) with bursts of 29.49. It is ranked 30th in World University
Rankings. The fourth is “Nanyang Technological University, Singapore” (2005) with
400 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.15 The top institute sorted in terms of burstness

Institution Country Year Burst World

ranking 2018

University of Chinese Academy of Sciences China 2014 40.52 189

University of Southern California United States 2016 36.5 66
Tsinghua University China 2013 29.49 30
Nanyang Technological University Singapore 2005 27.79 52
Nanyang Technological University Singapore 2016 26.76 52

Figure 12.8 The network of collaborative countries

bursts of 27.79. It is ranked 52nd in World University Rankings. The fifth is the
“Nanyang Technological University, Singapore” (2016) with bursts of 26.76. It is
ranked 52nd in World University Rankings.
After giving an overview of the collaborative institution network analysis, we
present an overview of the analysis of the country–country network.

12.4.4 Country collaboration network analysis

Here we demonstrate a visualization of the country collaboration network to visualize
the spread of research in the “social networks” research community. As shown in
Figure 12.8, the merged network consists of 84 countries and 677 collaboration links.
It is a dense network. We have selected top 50 countries per 1-year slice length in the
timespan of 2001–18. The largest connected component of the network contains 274
countries out of which 5.0% nodes are labeled.
The largest diameter of the United States indicates that it is the landmark node
which indicates that key publications originate from the United States. The purple
trims around England indicate that it is the most central country of the domain. The
red marks exhibiting the United States indicates that the articles originating from the
United States have garnered the interest of its research community.
Table 12.16 presents the top-ranked countries by publication frequency. The
United States (2001) is on top with publication frequency of 14,490. The second
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 401

Table 12.16 Top countries sorted in terms of publication frequency

Country Publication counts Year

USA 14,490 2001

People’s Republic of China 4,045 2001
England 3,637 2001
Australia 2,071 2001
Canada 1,955 2001
Spain 1,592 2001
Germany 1,522 2001
Netherlands 1,480 2001
Italy 1,216 2001
South Korea 1,156 2001

Table 12.17 Top countries sorted in terms of burstness

Country Bursts Year

USA 52.20 2001

Sweden 51.65 2001
India 38.31 2002
Iran 26.02 2010
Saudi Arabia 23.92 2013
Pakistan 21.89 2011
Egypt 13.04 2002
Croatia 10.57 2009
Israel 8.67 2001
Estonia 7.04 2008

one is People’s Republic of China (2001) with publication frequency of 4,045. The
third is England (2001) with publication frequency of 3,637. The fourth is Australia
(2001) with publication frequency of 2,071. The fifth is Canada (2001) with pub-
lication frequency of 1,955. The sixth is Spain (2001) with publication frequency
of 1,592. The seventh is Germany (2001) with publication frequency of 1,522. The
eighth is Netherlands (2001) with publication frequency of 1,480. The ninth is Italy
(2001) with publication frequency of 1,216. The tenth is South Korea (2001) with
publication frequency of 1,156.
Table 12.17 lists the top countries ranked in terms of burstness. The top country
ranked by bursts is the United States (2001) with bursts of 52.20. The second one is
Sweden (2001) with bursts of 51.65. The third is India (2002) with bursts of 38.31.
The fourth is Iran (2010) with bursts of 26.02. The fifth is Saudi Arabia (2013) with
bursts of 23.92. The sixth is Pakistan (2011) with bursts of 21.89. The seventh is
Egypt (2002) with bursts of 13.04. The eighth is Croatia (2009) with bursts of 10.57.
The ninth is Israel (2001) with bursts of 8.67. The tenth is Estonia (2008) with bursts
of 7.04.
402 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.18 Top countries sorted in terms of betweenness centrality

Betweenness centrality Country Year

0.25 England 2001

0.12 USA 2001
0.11 Canada 2001
0.11 Spain 2001
0.10 France 2001
0.08 Denmark 2001
0.08 Switzerland 2001
0.08 Chile 2008
0.07 Finland 2001
0.07 Germany 2001

Table 12.19 Top countries sorted in terms of sigma

Sigma Country Year

426.27 USA 2001

6.14 Sweden 2001
2.09 Saudi Arabia 2013
1.52 India 2002
1.42 Norway 2001
1.37 Denmark 2001
1.35 Finland 2001
1.27 Hungary 2002
1.11 Israel 2001
1.10 Iran 2010

Table 12.18 presents the central regions in terms of betweenness centrality. The
top-ranked country in terms of centrality is England (2001) with the centrality of
0.25. The second one is the United States (2001) with the centrality of 0.12. The
third is Canada (2001) with the centrality of 0.11. The fourth is Spain (2001) with the
centrality of 0.11. The fifth is France (2001) with the centrality of 0.10. The sixth is
Denmark (2001) with the centrality of 0.08. The seventh is Switzerland (2001) with
the centrality of 0.08. The eighth is Chile (2008) with the centrality of 0.08. The ninth
is Finland (2001) with the centrality of 0.07. The tenth is Germany (2001) with the
centrality of 0.07.
Table 12.19 contains top countries sorted in terms of sigma score. The top-graded
country by sigma is the United States (2001) with a sigma of 426.27. The second one
is Sweden (2001) with a sigma of 6.14. The third is Saudi Arabia (2013) with a sigma
of 2.09. The fourth is India (2002) with a sigma of 1.52. The fifth is Norway (2001)
with a sigma of 1.42. The sixth is Denmark (2001) with a sigma of 1.37. The seventh
is Finland (2001) with a sigma of 1.35. The eighth is Hungary (2002) with a sigma
of 1.27. The ninth is Israel (2001) with a sigma of 1.11. The tenth is Iran (2010) with
a sigma of 1.10.
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 403

Figure 12.9 The keyword co-occurrence network

Table 12.20 Top keywords in terms of co-occurrence

frequency

Co-occurrence counts Keywords Year

11,151 Social network 2001

2,983 Network 2001
2,679 Model 2001
2,452 Behavior 2001
1,801 Social network analysis 2005
1,740 Internet 2002
1,689 Health 2001
1,639 Facebook 2010
1,616 Community 2001
1,557 Performance 2001

After analyzing the network of collaborative countries, we focus on the analysis

of keywords co-occurrence network.

12.4.5 Keywords co-occurrence network analysis

Here we present a visualization of the keywords co-occurrence network to identify
popular keywords associated with the “social networks” domain. The merged network
comprises 135 keywords and 887 co-occurrence links. It is a dense network with 5.0%
nodes labeled. For this analysis, we have selected top 50 nodes per time slice of the
year in the timespan of 2001–18.
As shown in Figure 12.9, the diameter of a node is proportional to the frequency of
occurrence. The keyword “social network” with the largest diameter is the landmark
node. The thickness of a node corresponds to the high betweenness centrality score.
The keyword “social network” with purple trims is also the most central node. The
detailed analysis is given underneath in the tables.
Table 12.20 demonstrates top keywords sorted in terms of frequency of
co-occurrence. The top-ranked keyword based on a co-occurrence frequency is “social
404 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.21 Top keywords sorted in terms of

co-occurrence burst

Co-occurrence burst Keywords Year

135.87 Media 2015

101.12 Children 2001
95.19 Stress 2001
89.61 Social media 2012
80.67 Twitter 2014
77.78 Mortality 2001
70.61 Weak ty 2001
70.20 Quality of life 2001
64.17 Life 2001
63.19 Care 2001

network” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 11,151. The second one is “net-
work” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 2,983. The third is “model” (2001)
with a co-occurrence frequency of 2,679. The fourth is “behavior” (2001) with a co-
occurrence frequency of 2,452. The fifth is “social network analysis” (2005) with a
co-occurrence frequency of 1,801. The sixth is “Internet” (2002) with co-occurrence
frequency of 1,740. The seventh is “health” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency
of 1,689. The eighth is “Facebook” (2010) with a co-occurrence frequency of 1,639.
The ninth is “community” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 1,616. The tenth
is “performance” (2001) with co-occurrence frequency of 1,557.
Table 12.21 presents top keywords based on co-occurrence burst. The top-graded
keyword by bursts is “media” (2015) with bursts of 135.87. The second one is “chil-
dren” (2001) with bursts of 101.12. The third is “stress” (2001) with bursts of 95.19.
The fourth is “social media” (2012) with bursts of 89.61. The fifth is “Twitter” (2014)
with bursts of 80.67. The sixth is “mortality” (2001) with bursts of 77.78. The seventh
is “weak ty” (2008) with bursts of 70.61. The eighth is “quality of life” (2001) with
bursts of 70.20. The ninth is “life” (2001) with bursts of 64.17. The tenth is “care”
(2001) with bursts of 63.19.
Table 12.22 illustrates top keywords listed in terms of betweenness centrality.
The top-ranked keyword by betweenness centrality is “social network” (2001) with
the centrality of 0.50. The second one is “behavior” (2001) with the centrality of 0.13.
The third is “support” (2001) with the centrality of 0.09. The fourth is “Facebook”
(2010) with the centrality of 0.09. The fifth is “mortality” (2001) with the centrality
of 0.08. The sixth is “health” (2001) with the centrality of 0.08. The seventh is
“community” (2001) with the centrality of 0.08. The eighth is “predictor” (2001)
with the centrality of 0.07. The ninth is “children” (2001) with the centrality of 0.06.
The tenth is “population” (2001) with the centrality of 0.06
Table 12.23 lists top keywords sorted in terms of sigma. The top-ranked keyword
by sigma is “mortality” (2001) with a sigma of 389.96. The second one is “children”
(2001) with a sigma of 234.65. The third is “support” (2001) with a sigma of 13.08.
The fourth is “predictor” (2001) with a sigma of 7.48. The fifth is “social support”
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 405

Table 12.22 Top keywords sorted in terms of

betweenness centrality

Betweenness centrality Keywords Year

0.50 Social network 2001

0.13 Behavior 2001
0.09 Support 2001
0.09 Facebook 2010
0.08 Mortality 2001
0.08 Health 2001
0.08 Community 2001
0.07 Predictor 2001
0.06 Children 2001
0.06 Population 2001

Table 12.23 Top keywords sorted in terms of sigma

Sigma Keyword Year

389.96 Mortality 2001

234.65 Children 2001
13.08 Support 2001
7.48 Predictor 2001
6.44 Social support 2001
5.33 Women 2001
5.11 Privacy 2014
3.65 Stress 2001
3.45 HIV 2001
3.09 Population 2001

(2001) with a sigma of 6.44. The sixth is “women” (2001) with a sigma of 5.33.
The seventh is “privacy” (2014) with a sigma of 5.11. The eighth is “stress” (2001)
with a sigma of 3.65. The ninth is “HIV” (2001) with a sigma of 3.45. The tenth is
“population” (2001) with a sigma of 3.09.
After giving an overview of the popular keywords of the domain, we present an
overview of the key subject categories of the domain.

12.4.6 Category co-occurrence network analysis

This section presents a visual analysis of the category co-occurrence network to iden-
tify articles associated with key subject categories of the “social network” domain.
The merged network contains 87 categories and 432 co-occurrence links. We have
selected top 50 articles as per slice length of 1 year for the period of 2001–18. The
largest connected component is composed of 274 nodes.
406 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Figure 12.10 The category co-occurrence network

Table 12.24 The top categories sorted in terms of co-occurrence frequency

Co-occurrence counts Categories Year

6,939 Computer Science 2001

4,510 Business & Economics 2001
4,097 Psychology 2001
3,695 Computer Science, Information Systems 2002
2,423 Engineering 2003
2,296 Public, Environmental & Occupational Health 2001
2,141 Management 2001
2,011 Sociology 2001
1,834 Information Science & Library Science 2001
1,667 Business 2001

In Figure 12.10, it can be noted that “computer science” is the most occurred
category, and it is the most influential category of the “social network” domain. A
detailed analysis is listed below in the tabular form.
Table 12.24 presents top categories sorted in terms of co-occurrence frequency.
The top-ranked subject category by co-occurrence frequency is “Computer Science”
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 407

Table 12.25 The top categories sorted in terms of co-occurrence

bursts

Co-occurrence bursts Categories Year

77.40 Sociology 2001

63.49 Gerontology 2001
60.05 Nursing 2001
56.93 Geriatrics & Gerontology 2001
48.15 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism 2016
44.72 Psychiatry 2001
44.70 Psychology, Developmental 2001
44.45 Demography 2001
42.99 Physics, Mathematical 2001
40.51 Psychology, Applied 2001

(2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 6,939. The second one is “Business & Eco-
nomics” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 4,510. The third is “Psychology”
(2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 4,097. The fourth is “Computer Science,
Information Systems” (2002) with a co-occurrence frequency of 3,695. The fifth is
“Engineering” (2003) with a co-occurrence frequency of 2,423. The sixth is “Pub-
lic, Environmental & Occupational Health” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency
of 2,296. The seventh is “Management” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of
2,141. The eighth is “Sociology” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency of 2,011.
The ninth is “Information Science & Library Science” (2001) with a co-occurrence
frequency of 1,834. The tenth is “Business” (2001) with a co-occurrence frequency
of 1,667.
Table 12.25 presents top categories sorted in terms of co-occurrence bursts. The
top-ranked item by bursts is “Sociology” (2001) with bursts of 77.40. The second
one is “Gerontology” (2001) with bursts of 63.49. The third is “Nursing” (2001)
with bursts of 60.05. The fourth is “Geriatrics & Gerontology” (2001) with bursts of
56.93. The fifth is “Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &Tourism” (2016) with bursts of 48.15.
The sixth is “Psychiatry” (2001) with bursts of 44.72. The seventh is “Psychology,
Developmental” (2001) with bursts of 44.70. The eighth is “Demography” (2001)
with bursts of 44.45. The ninth is “Physics, Mathematical” (2001) with bursts of
42.99. The tenth is “Psychology, Applied” (2001) with bursts of 40.51.
Table 12.26 presents top categories sorted in terms of betweenness central-
ity. The top-ranked item by centrality is “Psychology” (2001) with the centrality
of 0.21. The second one is “Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Applications”
(2002) with the centrality of 0.20. The third is “Health Care Sciences & Services”
(2001) with the centrality of 0.20. The fourth is “Mathematics” (2001) with the cen-
trality of 0.18. The fifth is “Social Sciences—Other Topics” (2001) with the centrality
of 0.16. The sixth is “Public, Environmental & Occupational Health” (2001) with the
centrality of 0.15. The seventh is “Environmental Sciences & Ecology” (2001) with
the centrality of 0.13. The eighth is “Engineering” (2003) with the centrality of 0.11.
408 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Table 12.26 The top categories sorted in terms of betweenness centrality

Betweenness centrality Subject categories Year

0.21 Psychology 2001

0.20 Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Applications 2002
0.20 Health Care Sciences & Services 2001
0.18 Mathematics 2001
0.16 Social Sciences—Other Topics 2001
0.15 Public, Environmental & Occupational Health 2001
0.13 Environmental Sciences & Ecology 2001
0.11 Engineering 2003
0.11 Social Sciences, Interdisciplinary 2001
0.10 Psychology, Multidisciplinary 2001

Table 12.27 Top categories based on sigma

Sigma Categories Year

350.69 Sociology 2001

14.41 Psychology 2001
9.19 Psychiatry 2001
8.71 Physics, Mathematical 2001
6.38 Social Sciences, Biomedical 2001
6.38 Biomedical Social Sciences 2001
5.45 Rehabilitation 2001
5.35 Public, Environmental & Occupational Health 2001
3.22 Physics 2001
2.44 Mathematics, Interdisciplinary Applications 2001

The ninth is “Social Sciences, Interdisciplinary” (2001) with the centrality of 0.11.
The tenth is “Psychology, Multidisciplinary” (2001) with the centrality of 0.10.
Table 12.27 presents top categories sorted in terms of sigma. The top-ranked item
by sigma is “Sociology” (2001) with a sigma of 350.69. The second one is “Psychol-
ogy” (2001) with a sigma of 14.41. The third is “Psychiatry” (2001) with a sigma of
9.19. The fourth is “Physics, Mathematical” (2001) with a sigma of 8.71. The fifth is
“Social Sciences, Biomedical” (2001) with a sigma of 6.38. The sixth is “Biomedical
Social Sciences” (2001) with a sigma of 6.38. The seventh is “Rehabilitation” (2001)
with a sigma of 5.45. The eighth is “Public, Environmental & Occupational Health”
(2001) with a sigma of 5.35. The ninth is “Physics” (2001) with a sigma of 3.22. The
tenth is “Mathematics, Interdisciplinary Applications” (2001) with a sigma of 2.44.
After analyzing the key subject categories, we perform our final analysis of
journal co-citation network.
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 409

Table 12.28 Top journals sorted in terms of frequency of publications

Source title Record count % of 36,616 Impact factor

of total

Computers in Human Behavior 781 2.133 3.536

PLoS One 636 1.737 2.806
Physica A Statistical Mechanics and 442 1.207 2.132
Its Applications
Social Networks 408 1.114 2.530
Social Science Medicine 279 0.76 3.007
Physical Review E 252 0.688 2.366
Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social 193 0.527 2.689
Networking
Scientometrics 192 0.524 2.173
Scientific Reports 186 0.508 4.609
Expert Systems with Applications 171 0.467 3.711

12.4.7 Journal co-citation network analysis

In this section, we are visualizing journal co-citation network to identify core journals
in the “social networks” domain. The detailed analysis of journal co-citation is given
below in the tabular form.
Table 12.28 demonstrates top-core journals sorted in terms of frequency of
publications. The top-ranked journal is “Computers in Human Behavior” with the
publication frequency of 781. It has an impact factor of 3.536. The second one is
“PLoS One” with the publication frequency of 636. It has an impact factor of 2.806.
The third is “Physica A Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications” with the pub-
lication frequency of 442. It has an impact factor of 2.132. The fourth is “Social
Networks” with the publication frequency of 408. It has an impact factor of 2.530.
The fifth is “Social Science Medicine” with the publication frequency of 279. It has
an impact factor of 3.007. The sixth is “Physical Review E” with the publication fre-
quency of 252. It has an impact factor of 2.366. The seventh is the “Cyberpsychology
Behavior and Social Networking” with the publication frequency of 193. It has an
impact factor of 2.689. The eighth is “Scientometrics” with the publication frequency
of 192. It has an impact factor of 2.173. The ninth is “Scientific Reports” with the
publication frequency of 186. It has an impact factor of 4.609. The tenth is “Expert
Systems with Applications” with the publication frequency of 171. It has an impact
factor of 3.71.

12.5 Summary of results

In this manuscript, CiteSpace—a key visual analytic tool is used for the visualization
of scientometric data retrieved from WoS, devoted to the “social networks” over
last 18 years in the timespan of 2001–18. The retrieved dataset contains 36,469
410 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

unique records. Here we provide highlights of the key findings of this scientometric
study.
First, we observed the popularity of the domain over past 10 years and revealed
that starting from a few citations in 2007, the “social network” has risen to 18,000
citations only in the year 2017. Similarly, the number of publications in the domain
has risen from 314 publications in the year 2001 to 5,710 publications in the year 2017.
In the successive analysis of cited reference co-citation network, we identified
that the article “Ellison NB (2007)” is the landmark node with a citation frequency of
558, the article “Newman MEJ (2003)” has strongest citation burst of strength 140.95,
the top-ranked article in terms of betweenness centrality is “Centola D (2010),” and the
top-ranked article in terms of sigma is “Kaplan AM (2010).” We have also identified
key turning points in the largest connected component of cited reference co-citation
network which are “Kaplan AM (2010),” “Bond RM (2012),” “McPherson M (2001),”
“Watts D (1999),” and “Newman MEJ (2002)” and the key pivot points which are
“Amaral Lan (2000),” Watts D (1999),” and “Newman MEJ (2000).”
In the analysis of collaborative author network, we observed that the author “Liu
Y (2012)” is the landmark node with the highest number of publications. We also
observed that “Wang Y (2013)” has the strongest publication burst. We also observed
that “ZhangY (2009)” is the most central author in the domain and also has the highest
burst.
In the institution–institution network analysis, it is revealed that Harvard is the
most productive and the most centrally organization in the domain. It also has highest
sigma score. We also observed that the “University of Chinese Academy of Sciences”
has the strongest burst.
In the visualization of keywords co-occurrence network, we observed that “social
network” is the most popular and most central keyword in the domain. We also
observed that the keyword “media” has the highest co-occurrence burst and the
keyword “mortality” has a highest sigma score.
In the category co-occurrence network, we observed that “computer science” is
the most frequently occurred subject category of the domain. We also observed that
“sociology” has highest co-occurrence burst and highest sigma score. We also found
that “psychology” is the most central category.
Subsequently, in the analysis of the journal co-citation network, we also noted
that “computers in human behavior” journal has highest publication frequency and
its impact factor is 3.536.

12.6 Conclusions and future work

In this study, CiteSpace—a key visual analytic tool is used to trace the emerging
trends, temporal patterns, and development in the domain of “social networks.” To
this end, we use a methodology involving the use of complex networks to visually
analyze recent data from WoS in the social network domain. We took bibliographic
records from the period of 2001 to 2018 and applied analysis on the data. We have visu-
alized co-citation networks of cited references and journals, collaboration networks
 Social networks—a scientometric visual survey 411

of authors, institutions, and countries and co-occurrence networks of keywords and

subject categories.
We have identified key turning points, pivot nodes, landmark publications, central
articles, active articles, key journals, most productive and influential organizations,
active organizations, core countries, central countries, most productive countries,
popular keywords, central keywords, active keywords, key subject categories, central
subject categories, and bursty subject categories. Additionally, major clusters in the
cited reference co-citation network are also revealed.
A future research may conduct a visual analysis of hybrid networks, such as
author–country network, institution–country network, author–institution network,
author–document network, and document–category network.

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 Index

adaptive programming scheme 122–3 active methodology based on

A/D converter 179 traceroute 154
add-on process triggers 39–40 passive methodology based on BGP
agent-based model (ABM) 210, 232, and internet routing registry
239–41, 274, 286, 307, 334, 153
366–7
exploratory agent-based level battery management 130–2
210–11 Bayesian learning 117, 135
network model of 355 Berkeley UNIX socket 57, 117, 135
simulation 323 betweenness 155, 241
agent-based simulator 211, 229 betweenness centrality 274, 279, 318
NetLogo 212, 217 bibliographic coupling 383
research questions 213 “binary-to-integer” procedure details
air traffic control simulation 313
systems 7 BIT FIELD message 340
algorithmic approach 123, 136 BitTorrent Interface Design 365
census scheme 124 BitTorrent P2P protocol 333, 338–9
fuzzy-rule 123–4 architecture and working 341
spanning tree approach 124 leecher 341
sweep technique 124 limitations of 342–3
alias resolution techniques 151–2 mechanism and architecture
analytical modeling 56 341–2
AntBot 295 peer 341
application programming interface seeder 341
(API) 8, 42–4, 65 swarm 341
ARENA simulation software 62 tracker 341
artificial neural network (ANN) 88, background and literature review
116, 118, 129, 131, 135 336
ATM machine 35 complex adaptive systems 336
attacker machine 63, 68–9 modeling and simulation of
authors collaboration network analysis CACOONS 337
393–6 content publishing in 340
Autodesk® Maya 8 contributions 335–6
automated guided vehicle (AGV) 31 delivery procedure 340–1
autonomous system (AS) 152 history overview 339
414 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

joining swarm and peers discovery in Centre for Applied Internet Data
340 Analysis (CAIDA) 154
literature review 343–8 CheckCS function 221
PeerSim 348 “check-if-segment-is-available” 358,
model design 349 362
ABM results 366–7 “check-if-segment-is-needed-by-others”
comparison of both 367–9 359
DREAM model 354–6 chord
DREAM network models 369 -based approaches 249–50
experiments 362–5 hierarchy-based 248
globals 357–8 load distribution and resource
ODD approach 349 allocation based 249
overview of proposed model mobility-based 247–8
351–2 peer data management-based 246–7
PeerSim results 366 performance of 245
procedures 358–62 routing and latency-based 248–9
security-based 245–6
pseudocode-based specification
Chord, ODD model of 250
356
design concepts 252
results and discussions 365
adaptation 253
ODD vs DREAM 375–6
basic principles 252–3
Blender 8
collectives 253
Blue Box 6
emergence 253
BoNeSi 55, 63, 68–9
interaction 253
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) 153 learning 253
Boston university Representative objectives 253
Internet Topology gEnerator observation 254
(BRITE) tool 146, 159, 162 sensing 253
Botnets 295 stochasticity 253
Breed Node 257, 260 entities, state variables, and scales
building energy management system 251
(BEMS) 120 agents/individuals 251–2
Bullet Physics Library 8 collectives 252
burstiness 176, 389, 400–1 environment 252
Business to Manufacturing Markup spatial units 252
Language (B2MML) 41 initialization 254
buy-in 7 input data 254
process overview and scheduling
category co-occurrence network 252
analysis 405–10 purpose 251
census-based approach 115–16, 132, sub-models 254
136 create-network 254
census scheme 124 go 254
centrality measures, power law plots of init-node 254
313–14 set-up 254
 Index 415

chord peer-to-peer (P2P) protocol 241 computerized simulation 10, 56

architecture and working 241–2 computer network, defined 55
Chord-PKI 245 computer virtualization techniques 58
churn 295 connectTonode 258, 260
Cisco Ethernet switches 62 constructive simulation 7
Cisco routers 62 content sources (function) 218
citation networks 383 co-occurrence networks 384
cited-references co-citation network country collaboration network analysis
analysis 388–91 400–3
identification of largest cluster in CR-Chord 246
cited references 391–3 “Create Content Source Node” function
CiteSpace 381, 385–8 219
closeness centrality 317 “create-network” procedure 262
clustering 295 Create-Search-Node function 218
clustering coefficient 155 custom virtual network interface 67
coauthorship networks 384 Cyber Security Simulated Lab (CSSL)
co-citation networks 383 64
cognitive agent-based computing 287
communication channels 57 data burstiness 176
communication latency problem 115 data-driven modeling 42
communication management 113 data-generated modeling 42
group communication 113 data tables 40–2
census 115–16 DDoS attack simulation 62–3
coalition formation 115 decentralized management system 113
hierarchal framework 113–15 degree centrality 241, 313, 316
particle swarm optimization 116 demand buyback program (DBP) 99
learning-based approach 116 demand–response management (DRM)
artificial neural network (ANN) 83, 86–8, 117
116 complex system 89, 119
Bayesian learning 117 collaborative approach 90,
reinforcement learning approach 119–20
116 complex adaptive system 90–1,
communication protocols 57, 116 120
Complex Adaptive COmmunicatiOn demand-side integration 91, 120
Networks and eNvironmentS electric vehicles (EV) charging
(CACOONS) 240, 285 96–7
agent-based modeling 240–1, 337–8 energy market 99–100
cognitive agent-based computing game-theory approach 91–2, 120
338 home-energy management (HEM)
complex network modeling 241, 338 system 94–6
complex adaptive system (CAS) 103, microgrid 100–2
209, 240, 285, 287, 333, 336 particle swarm optimization (PSO)
complex network modeling (CoNeM) 91, 120
level 210, 241 renewable energy sources 97–9
Computational Desktop Grid 347 security management 92–4
416 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

learning-based approaches 88, 118 Do-Search function 218

artificial neural network (ANN) .NET languages 41, 44
88, 118 DREAM (DescRiptivE Agent-based
reinforcement learning approach Modeling)
89, 118–19
open-research problems 102 Echo 296
in complex system 102–3 Eclipse attack 245
in learning system 102 Eigen centrality 319
in other techniques 103–4 Eigen-exponent 157
descriptive agent-based modeling electric vehicles (EV) charging 96–7
(DREAM) 210, 286, 354–6, Ellison NB 389
369, 375 E-Model 187
descriptive agent-based modeling energy control center (ECC) 90, 119
(DREAM) of a “Chord” 254 energy market 99–100
activity diagrams 255 energy storage system (ESS) 116
agent design 254 entertainment, simulation for 8
flowchart 255–6 epidemic spreading 164–5
future work 280 equivalence principle 28
pseudo-code based specification 256 exploratory agent-based level 210–11
agents and breed 256–60 exploratory agent-based modeling
experiments 267 (EABM) 209–11
globals 260–1 Extras library 28
procedures 261–7
results and discussion 267 fault-detection technique 127
ABM results 270–1 fault monitoring 121
Chord and theory of computation algorithmic approach 123
280 census scheme 124
DREAM network models 272–4 fuzzy-rule 123–4
metrics (table and description) spanning tree approach 124
267–9 sweep technique 124
ODD CHORD protocol 278–80 self-organizing 121
PeerSim and ABM, comparison of adaptive programming scheme
271–2 122–3
PeerSim results 269–70 multi-agent framework 123
DEVS (Discrete Event System wolf-pack hunting 123
Specification) 10 fidelity 7
DHTs (Distributed Hash Tables) 285, find-successor (procedure) 264
297 FIND_NODE 291
diameter 155 FIND_VALUE 291
direct load control (DLC) 133 finger table 242–3
Disney Interactive Studios 8 5G networks and IoT 213
distributed energy resources (DERs) 99 basic IoT module 234–5
Docker containers 55 basic simulation model 233–4
Docker images 59 implementation 217
“do-plots” 359 breeds 217
 Index 417

global variables 217 Havok 8

procedures 218–21 hierarchical methods 158
IoT creation module 234 hierarchical topology generator tools
modeling approach and design 214 160
computing device agents 215–16 hierarchy-based chord 248
message agents 216–17 hill climbing 133
VOMAS agent design 235 home-energy management (HEM)
fixed objects 30 system 94–6
“fix-fingers” procedure 266 hop-count distribution 163–5
fourth industrial revolution 50 hop-count filtering 163–4
fuzzy logic controller (FLC) 90, 119 host-only network 67
fuzzy-rule 123–4 hypervisor, virtualization using 58

game theory approach 121 Industry 4.0 50

gamma distribution 161 Inet 159
Gantt charts 46, 48 information centric networks (ICN)
Gatekeepers (GK) 182 166
gateways (GWs) 182 init-fingers 262, 264
“generate-random-segment-number” init-node 261
359 input, types of 20–1
geographic network topologies 154 input data 61, 254, 351
Georgia Tech Internetwork Topology institution collaboration network
Model (GT-ITM) topology 160 analysis 396–400
Gephi 354 integrated development environments 5
global network 32 intelligent dynamic energy management
globals 357–8 system (I-DEMS) 127
GNS3 emulation tool 55, 62, 64–5 interactive custom dashboard 49
“go” procedure 262, 360 Internet Control Message Protocol
gradient establishment process 214 (ICMP) 68, 149
graphical user interface (GUI) 70–1, Internet Group Management Protocol
271 (IGMP) 152
graph theory, internet models based on: internet models based on graph theory
see internet models based on 154
graph theory fundamental notions from graph
group communication 113 theory 155
census-based approach 115–16 topology generator tools 158
coalition formation 115 hierarchical topology generator
hierarchal framework 113–15 tools 160
particle swarm optimization 116 power-law topology generator tools
guest machines 58 159
random topology generator tools
H.323 181–3 159
Haar wavelet-based decomposition and scale-free topology generator tools
Hurst index estimation 194–5 159–60
hashing and key mapping 242 topology models 156
418 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

hierarchical methods 158 alias resolution techniques 151–2

power-law topology models 157 recursive router discovery 152
random and small-world topology Internet Topology Zoo 154
model 156–7 intrusion detection systems (IDSs) 62
regular and well-known topology
models 156 JADE platform 346
scale-free topology model 157–8 Jain’s Fairness Index 248
Internet of Things (IoT) 209, 286 jitter 188–9
5G networks and 213, 233 jitter modeling by self-similar and
basic IoT module 234–5 multifractal processes 195–200
basic simulation model 233–4 “join-node” procedure 264
implementation 217–21 journal co-citation network analysis
IoT creation module 234 409
modeling approach and design
214–17, 233 Kademlia peer-to-peer protocol 285
VOMAS agent design 235 architecture of 287–92
results and discussion 221, 235 cognitive agent-based computing
behavior space experiments 222 287
descriptive statistics 222–4 complex adaptive systems 287
discussion 224–9 complex network modeling 287
simulation parameters 221–2 literature review 292–8
simulation parameters 235–6 model design 298
validated agent-based level 230 activity diagrams 301
research questions 233 design concept 299–300
validation techniques 231–2 details 300–1
virtual overlay multi-agent system DREAM model 301
232 network model 301
validation discussion 236 ODD (overview, design concepts
internet protocol (IP) technology 147, and details) model of
175 “Kademlia” 299
Internet Service Provider (ISP) 147 pseudo-code description 301–13
internet topology, mapping 146 results and discussion 313
Autonomous System (AS) level 152 ABM simulation 323
active methodology based on comparison of ODD and DREAM
traceroute 154 325–8
passive methodology based on comparison of PeerSim and ABM
BGP and internet routing results 325
registry 153 evaluation metrics 313
geographic network topologies 154 Kademlia relation with theory of
interface level 147 computation 328
active methodology based on PeerSim simulation using existing
traceroute 149–50 code in PeerSim 314–23
IP options and subnet discovery power law plots of centrality
150–1 measures 313–14
router level 151 K-Buckets 290–2
 Index 419

key performance indicator (KPI) 43 measure of risk and error (MORE)

keywords co-occurrence network analysis technique 43
analysis 403–5 Merida 8
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test 162, 166 MESH-CHORD 248
metrics table and description 365–6
Layered Identity-based Kademlia-Like microgrid 100–2
Infrastructure (Likir) 298 mixed integer linear problem (MILP)
learning 130 91, 121
artificial neural network 131 ML-Chord 246
reinforcement learning 130–1 Mobile IPv4 167
learning-based approach 116 Mobile robust Chord (MR-Chord) 247
artificial neural network (ANN) 116 mobile VoIP (mVoIP) 175
Bayesian learning 117 mobility-based chord 247–8
reinforcement learning approach 116 model building 4
library-based modeling 50 model development 4
links 30–1 modern communication networks
Linux Cgroups and namespace 59 177–9
linux containerization 59 Haar wavelet-based decomposition
load distribution and resource allocation and Hurst index estimation
based Chord 249 194–5
self-similarity processes in 192
load shedding 128
monitoring 131
Local Area Networks (LANs) 152
census approach 132
LocationGuard approach 246
state monitoring 132
lognormal distribution 162
volt/var control 131–2
long-range dependence (LRD) 176,
move and move (forever) 220
197
move devices (function) 221
lookup-messages 263
Move-RW 220–1
“lookup-ping” procedure 264 MQ Telemetry Transport (MQTT) 166
multi-agent framework 123
M&S 4 multi-agent system (MAS) 84
machine intelligence 10 applications, in smart grid: see smart
“makes-new-seeds-green” 361 grid, multi-agent systems’
“make-turtles” 360 applications in
Malicious traffic Composition Multipoint Controller (MC) 182
Environment (MACE) tool 63 Multipoint Control Units (MCU) 182
Management Information Base (MIB) Multipoint Processors (MP) 182
152 multiservice network 178
manufacturing execution systems MYSQL database 55
(MESs) 41 Mysql machine 73–4
Markov decision process (MDP) 128
Markov models NAT (network address translation)
packet-loss modeling by 200–2 66–7, 70
MaxSim 7 NetFlow 63
M-Chord 247 Nethawk EAST simulator 297
420 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

NetLogo 212, 217, 229, 255, 268, 272, vs DREAM 375–6

300, 353, 366–71, 373–4 oneway delay 188
Network Address Translation (NAT) one-way power communication in smart
167 grid 113
network anomalies and detection 60–1 ontologies of simulation 9–10
simulated and virtualized test bed for ontology-based dictionaries 9
64–8 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
simulated environment for 68 model 70–1
attacker machine 68–9 OptQuest 43–4
NAT and VMware host-only Ostinato 55, 70–1
networks 70 out-degree exponent 157
NTOPNG tool 71–4
pfSense firewall 69–70 packet-loss modeling by Markov
repository machine 74–5 models 200–2
traffic generator machine 70–1 packet-loss rate (PLR) 186, 189–92
victim machine 68 packet-loss simulation and proposed
network devices 57 model 202–4
network emulation 58 Parallel Monte Carlo tree search
network interfaces 66–8 (P-MCTS) 90, 119
network nodes 57 particle swarm optimization (PSO) 91,
network packets 57 116, 120
network security particle swarm optimization agent
application of network simulation adaptive bidding strategy
and emulation in 58 (PSO-AABS) 116
investments 55 path inflation 160, 162
network simulation 56–7 P-Chord 248
for security studies 61–3 peak to average ratio (PAR) 95
Network Simulation Testbed (NEST) peer data management-based chord
tool 56 246–7
network statistics 364 PeerfactSim.Kom 295
network workload generators 61 PeerSim 251, 272, 314–23, 348, 366
neural network 118 modularity 349
Newton Laws 5 scalability 348
N -level hierarchical method 158 peers/leechers 342
node agents 352–3 peer-to-peer (P2P) distributed protocol
node degree 155 239
node joining 242 pfSense firewall 55, 69–70
“Node Look up” algorithm 291, 323 physical components, modeling 33–8
nodes 31 Physics Abstraction Layer 8
no-overlapping (function) 218 physics-based simulation methods 8
normality analysis 133 physics engines 8
NTOPNG tool 55, 71–4 PhysX 8
Piece selection algorithm 343
ODD (overview, design concepts and PING 291
details) 286, 334, 349, 375–6 ping-Node 260
 Index 421

plug-and-play technique 129 real-time pricing (RTP) 95

Poisson model 178 “receive-update” procedure 267
post-decision state (PDS) 128 recursive router discovery 152
power demand 115 Red Dead Redemption 8
power-law random graphs (PLRGs) redirect server 184
158–9 registrar server 184
power-law topology generator tools 159 regular-symmetric networks 178
power-law topology models 157 regular topology 156
power scheduling 125 reinforcement learning (RL) 87, 89,
complex system 125 116, 118–19, 127–31
census-based approach 126 renewable energy resources 104
cognitive-based approach 126 renewable energy sources 97–9
hierarchal approach 125 repository machine 74–5
self-organizing 125 Reputation for Directory Services
learning-based approach 127 (ReDS) framework 296
artificial neural network 129 Resource Dispatch Reports 45
reinforcement learning 127–9 rich get richer phenomenon 157–8
power transfer distribution factor Rockstar Games 8
(PTDF) 100 router level 151
protocol headers 57 alias resolution techniques 151–2
proxy server 184 recursive router discovery 152
public switched telephone network
routing and latency-based chord 248–9
(PSTN) 175
SAP 41
q-learning technique 130
Scalable URL Reference Generator
quality of service (QoS) 176, 178
(SURGE) tool 63
assessment 186–8
scale-free network 158, 178
basic concepts of 186
scale-free topology generator tools
VoIP traffic, QoS parameters
159–60
modeling on 195
jitter modeling by self-similar and scale-free topology model 157–8
multifractal processes 195–200 SCALLOP 248
packet-loss modeling by Markov Searches (function) 218
models 200–2 searching 132
packet-loss simulation and hill climbing 133
proposed model 202–4 normality analysis 133
self-organizing 132–3
random and small-world topology swarm intelligence 133
model 156–7 security-based chord 245–6
random network 178 security studies
random topology generator tools 159 network simulation for 61–3
rank exponent 157 seeders 342
R-Chord 246 “Seeds” breed 356–7
REAL (realistic and large) network seeker-Node 258
simulation tool 57 Select Best Scenario tools 44
422 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

self-advertising content sources (SACS) modeling physical components 33–8

214 processes 38–40
Self-Chord 249 server object 36
“selfish-green-turtles-dropout” 361 Standard Library 28, 31–3
self-organizing 121, 132–3 objects in 34
adaptive programming scheme transporter 31
122–3 vehicle object 37–8
multi-agent framework 123 worker object 37
wolf-pack hunting 123 Simple Network Management Protocol
self-similarity processes 192–4 (SNMP) 152
semantic small world (SSW) 247 simulated and virtualized test bed for
session initiation protocol (SIP) 184–6 network anomaly detection
setup-gateway 218 researches 64
setup procedure 218 GNS3 64–5
“Setup Query” function 218 network interfaces 66–8
Setup-SACS-d function 219 Ubuntu 66
Setup SACS function 219 simulation 211
“setup” procedure 261, 361–2 -based training 7
Shapley-value (SV) 92, 121 defined 3–4
shortest path models 155, 160 evolution and increasing importance
applications 163–7 of 10–11
cross-comparison among shortest experience aspects of 6–8
path models 162 experimentation aspects of 5–6
gamma distribution 161 simulation for entertainment 8
lognormal distribution 162 types of 12–20
parameters definition 160–1 simulation-as-a-service (SaaS) 11
shortest path models applications smart grid (SG) 83–4
163–7 complex adaptive system 90–1
Weibull distribution 161 demand-side integration in 91
Simio object classes 30–1 smart grid, multi-agent systems’
Simio object framework 27–30 applications in 111
agents 31 communication management 113
application programming interface group communication 113–16
(API) 43–4 learning-based approach 116–17
applications in scheduling 44–50 demand–response management 117
base objects 29 complex system 119–21
composite objects 28–9 learning-based approach 118–19
data tables 40–2 fault monitoring 121
derived objects 29 algorithmic approach 123–4
entities 31 self-organizing 121–3
experimentation with the model open research problems and
42–3 discussion 134–7
Flow Library 28, 33 power scheduling 125
objects in 34 complex system 125–6
modeling movements 31–3 learning-based approach 127–9
 Index 423

storage and voltage management 129 monitoring 131

learning 130–1 census approach 132
monitoring 131–2 state monitoring 132
searching 132–3 volt/var control 131–2
social network analysis (SNA) 337 searching 132
social networks 381–3 hill climbing 133
bibliographic coupling 383 normality analysis 133
citation networks 383 self-organizing 132–3
coauthorship networks 384 swarm intelligence 133
co-citation networks 383 STORE 291
co-occurrence networks 384 subject matter experts (SMEs) 231
materials and methods 384 super peer 296
citespace 385–8 supply balance 115
data collection 385 swarm intelligence 133
nodes in 382 sweep technique 124
results and discussion 388 Sybil attacks 246
authors collaboration network
analysis 393–6 taxonomies of simulation 8–10
category co-occurrence network terminals 182
analysis 405–9 3D computer graphics software 8
cited-references co-citation time-to-live (TTL) field 149, 214
network analysis 388–91 topology, defined 145
country collaboration network topology generator tools 158
analysis 400–3 hierarchical topology generator tools
institution collaboration network 160
analysis 396–400 power-law topology generator tools
journal co-citation network 159
analysis 409 random topology generator tools 159
keywords co-occurrence network scale-free topology generator tools
analysis 403–5 159–60
SOCNET 344 topology models 156
software agents 11 hierarchical methods 158
source routing option 150 power-law topology models 157
spanning tree approach 124 random and small-world topology
spectrum 155 model 156–7
stabilization 243–5 regular and well-known topology
stabilize-count 261 models 156
Stackelberg game 126 scale-free topology model 157–8
Standard Library 30 Toy Story 3 8
start-messages 262–3 traceroute, active methodology based
state monitoring 132 on 149–50, 154
storage and voltage management 129 traffic 177
learning 130 traffic generator machine 70–1
artificial neural network 131 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
reinforcement learning 130–1 68, 147, 189
424 Modeling and simulation of complex communication networks

Traversal Using Relays around NAT virtual overlay multi-agent system

(TURN) 167 (VOMAS) 210, 231
triangular routing 165 virtual simulations 6
TRIBLER mechanisms 344 VMware host-only networks 70
Trimble 3D Warehouse 28 VMware virtualization software 63–4
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) voice over IP (VoIP) 175–6
63 basic structure of 179–81
two-state Markov chain 190 H.323 181–3
jitter 188–9
Ubuntu 66 oneway delay 188
UNIX libraries and functions 56–7 packetloss rate 189–92
“update-Node” breed 258 session initiation protocol (SIP)
upload-file-segment 362 184–6
user agents (UAs) 184 volt/var control 131–2
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 68, 149
Weibull distribution 161
validated agent-based modeling well-known topology 156
(VABM) 209–10 Windows XP UDP services 63
victim machine 68 Wireshark 62
virtualization 58 wolf-pack hunting 123
using container 59 Workflow Constraints Analysis 45
using hypervisor 58
virtual machines (VMs) 58, 63 “xor-distance” procedure details 312
and simulation 59–60 XTRA-P2P framework 346
Virtual Multi-Agent System 232
virtual network computing (VNC) 71 zeroPadding 312