APPROACHES IN TEACHING

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

 Communicative language teaching (CLT) is also referred to as the communicative approach,

which entails teaching language through communication. This approach to teaching
language frames communication as both a goal and a method for English language learners
(ELLs) whose first language is not English.
 Communicative language teaching prioritizes developing students' communication and
interaction skills. This ensures that students can communicate effectively and confidently in
real-life situations through student-to-student interaction and student-to-teacher interaction.
Why is communicative language teaching important?

 The main purpose behind communicative language teaching methods is to prepare students to
be confident communicators in different real-life contexts, through repetitive oral practices and
student-student cooperation.
Features of Communicative Approach
There are various features to the communicative language teaching approach, including the integration of
reading, writing, and speaking.
For example, a teacher may ask students to watch a video and then write a one to two sentence opinion
about the video on the board. Students will then read each other's opinions and discuss how they felt
about what they watched. This allows for multiple skills to be practiced at once, which is beneficial to a
student's ability to communicate effectively with others.
CLT also uses groups or pairs for activities, which allows for collaboration to be instilled in the language-
learning classroom. Group work or work in pairs allows for students to discuss, practice, and master
material without feeling isolated in the process of learning a new language. Often times, students who
work together will feel more comfortable practicing fluency over the mistakes they make in their
grammar. This ensures that students are on the road to becoming fluent in the new language through
collaboration, where students may learn from one another and work together.
The communicative approach uses tools, and technology for a personalized learning approach as well.
Each student learns differently and has different interests, so through CLT, teachers can make learning
more individualized to best meet the needs of their students. For example, students may enjoy talking
about sports or popular culture, so the teacher may ask students to discuss those areas with one another
through multiple activities, such as role-playing real-life scenarios, group discussion or pair discussion,
among other various activities that encourage collaboration.
Examples of Communicative Approach Activities in the Classroom

 Role-playing is an effective activity that is often used in the CLT classroom. For example,
some students may love shopping, so the teacher decides that they should discuss their love
of shopping through a role-playing activity. One student will act as the cashier while the
other will act as the customer. Through this role-playing activity, the two students can have
a conversation that one may often hear between cashiers and customers in real life, such as
being asked how the weather is, how their day is going, what brings them into the store, and
so much more.
  Interviews are also a great way to use CLT in the classroom. For example, students may be
put into a group together and asked to interview each other about their interests, such as
what hobby is their favorite. The teacher may then ask students to relay the information they
learned from each peer by giving a summary of the other student's favorite hobby and why it
is their favorite. This allows for students to repeat the information they heard but also work
together in an informal, low-stakes manner that does not make them feel like they are
learning on their own.
 Group discussions and pair discussions are effective ways to prioritize student-to-student
interaction, which creates a more open and safer atmosphere. When students are listening to
a teacher give a lecture, they may not retain that information as much as they would if they
were asked to put their skills to practice in a low-stakes way, such as through group
discussion. When students have their mistakes pointed out, such as grammatical mistakes
they made on a worksheet, they may feel like they alone are not capable of learning. When
put in groups or asked to practice the language with others, they might see that they are not
alone in the process of learning a new language.

Benefits of Communicative Language Teaching

 There are various benefits to CLT, such as it being holistic and engaging. Students
who can discuss their favorite things may feel more passionate in speaking to others
and out loud instead of speaking about something that is not as engaging to them.
CLT is also a learner-centered approach, in which activities are focused on and driven
by students instead of teachers.

SCAFFOLDING

 Scaffolding is an instructional practice where a teacher gradually removes guidance

and support as students learn and become more competent. Support can be for
content, processes, and learning strategies.
 This requires careful planning, initial assessment of students’ prior knowledge and
monitoring of growth to determine which supports are needed and which can be
removed. As a student grows, they begin more difficult challenges that require new
supports that will eventually fade.
The goals of scaffolding are to increase student proficiency and develop their skills as self-regulated
learners. This is achieved by providing an appropriate amount of instructional support based on
student needs and context complexity. As students grow as learners, scaffolding can be changed,
reduced or removed over time.
Scaffolding can be implemented into your course using a variety of methods:
Scaffolding Over Time
Scaffolding is a process that should be strategically embedded into both the design and instruction of
your course. In many cases, it follows a similar progression as shown in the diagram below.
Scaffolding Strategies
A variety of scaffolding strategies can be embedded into the overall course design or individual lesson
plans. Others may occur during synchronous teaching and learning as opportunities arise. Although
these strategies are categorized, they can be helpful in multiple areas.
Unit and Lesson Planning

 Determine students’ background/prior knowledge

 Divide instruction into mini-lessons with periodic checkpoints
 Logically and meaningfully set up course structure
 Provide additional supports, resources and references
 Ensure scaffolds are accessible and inclusive
 Incorporate technology support
Instructional Practices

 Share lesson goals or objectives

 Activate and build upon students’ prior knowledge
 Model skills and strategies
 Use guided instruction and practice
 Include multi-modal instruction (audio, visual, multi-media)
 Pair or group students for peer collaboration
 Share examples and exemplars
 Provide steps, processes or procedures
Monitoring Learning

 Regularly give feedback and guidance

 Use formative assessments to gauge student learning
 Provide answer keys or self-checking opportunities
 Guide students to take ownership of their learning
 Adjust instruction based on assessment results
Learning Activities

 Guided practice (peer-peer or peer-expert)

 Group work
 Collaborative writing
 Discussion boards
 Open question forums
 Prompts and guiding questions
 Chunking large assignments into smaller sections
 Outlines, guided notes or graphic organizers
 Self-checks or reflections
 Formative assessments
Explicit Instruction

Explicit instruction is a way to scaffold instruction by increasing student work through the following three
stages:

SCAFFOLDING MODEL
Instruction – "I do"

 Modeling and thinking aloud is done by the instructor.

Guided practice – "We do"

 Students work together.

 Students and instructor work together.
Independent practice – "You do"

 Students work on their own.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

 Cooperative Learning involves structuring classes around small groups that work together in such
a way that each group member's success is dependent on the group's success. There are different
kinds of groups for different situations, but they all balance some key elements that distinguish
cooperative learning from competitive or individualistic learning.
 Cooperative learning can also be contrasted with what it is not. Cooperation is not having
students sit side-by-side at the same table to talk with each other as they do their individual
assignments. Cooperation is not assigning a report to a group of students where one student does
all the work and the others put their names on the product as well.
 Cooperation involves much more than being physically near other students, discussing material,
helping, or sharing material with other students. There is a crucial difference between simply
putting students into groups to learn and in structuring cooperative interdependence among
students.
Why Use Cooperative Learning?
Extensive research has compared cooperative learning with traditional classroom instruction using the
same teachers, curriculum, and assessments. On the average:

 Students who engage in cooperative learning learn significantly more, remember it longer, and
develop better critical-thinking skills than their counterparts in traditional lecture classes.
 Students enjoy cooperative learning more than traditional lecture classes, so they are more likely
to attend classes and finish the course.
 Students are going to go on to jobs that require teamwork. Cooperative learning helps students
develop the skills necessary to work on projects too difficult and complex for any one person to
do in a reasonable amount of time.
 Cooperative learning processes prepare students to assess outcomes linked to accreditation.
Cooperative Learning Techniques
Cooperative learning techniques can be loosely categorized by the skill that each enhances (Barkley,
Cross and Major, 2005), although it is important to recognize that many cooperative learning exercises
can be developed to fit within multiple categories. Categories include: discussion, reciprocal teaching,
graphic organizers, writing and problem solving. Each category includes a number of potential structures
to guide the development of a cooperative learning exercise. For example, the category of problem-
solving helps to develop strategic and analytical skills and includes exercises such as the send-a-problem,
three-stay one-stray, structured problem solving, and analytical teams.

CONTENT-BASED APPROACH
Content-based instruction is a teaching approach where learners study language through meaningful
content. It motivates students to learn because the subject matter is interesting, and allows them to
apply their learned language skills in a different context instead of rotely memorizing vocabulary.

 The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject matter. During the lesson students are
focused on learning about something.
 They learn about this subject using the language they are trying to learn, rather than their
native language, as a tool for developing knowledge and so they develop their linguistic ability
in the target language. This is thought to be a more natural way of developing language ability
and one that corresponds more to the way we originally learn our first language.
What does a content-based instruction lesson look like?
There are many ways to approach creating a CBI lesson. This is one possible way.
Preparation

 Choose a subject of interest to students.

 Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could
be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.
During the lesson
  Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a source of
information to use to help them fulfil the task.
 Then once they have done their research, they form new groups with students that used other
information sources and share and compare their information.
 There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of information which could
take the form of a group report or presentation of some kind.
What are the advantages of content-based instruction?
It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use the
language to fulfil a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and
confident.
Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through CBI which can feed
back into improving and supporting their general educational needs.
CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students
to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key
information from texts.
Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information
can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other
subjects.
The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also help
students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value.
What are the potential problems?

 Because CBI isn't explicitly focused on language learning, some students may feel confused or
may even feel that they aren't improving their language skills. Deal with this by including
some form of language focused follow-up exercises to help draw attention to linguistic
features within the materials and consolidate any difficult vocabulary or grammar points.
 Particularly in monolingual classes, the overuse of the students' native language during parts
of the lesson can be a problem. Because the lesson isn't explicitly focused on language
practice students find it much easier and quicker to use their mother tongue. Try sharing your
rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target language rather than their
mother tongue.
 It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels can understand. Also, the
sharing of information in the target language may cause great difficulties. A possible way
around this at lower levels is either to use texts in the students' native language and then get
them to use the target language for the sharing of information and end product, or to have texts
in the target language, but allow the students to present the end product in their native
language. These options should reduce the level of challenge.
 Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information. Avoid
this by designing tasks that demand students evaluate the information in some way, to draw
conclusions or actually to put it to some practical use. Having information sources that have
conflicting information can also be helpful as students have to decide which information they
agree with or most believe.
Conclusions
 While CBI can be both challenging and demanding for the teacher and the students, it can also be
very stimulating and rewarding. The degree to which you adopt this approach may well depend on
the willingness of your students, the institution in which you work and the availability of
resources within your environment. It could be something that your school wants to consider
introducing across the curriculum or something that you experiment with just for one or two
lessons. Whichever you choose to do I would advise that you try to involve other teachers within
your school, particularly teachers from other subjects. This could help you both in terms of finding
sources of information and in having the support of others in helping you to evaluate your work.
Lastly, try to involve your students. Get them to help you decide what topics and subjects the
lessons are based around and find out how they feel this kind of lessons compares to your usual
lessons. In the end they will be the measure of your success.

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH

 The language experience approach (LEA) is a whole language approach that promotes reading
and writing through the use of personal experiences and oral language.
 It can be used in tutorial or classroom settings with homogeneous or heterogeneous groups of
learners.
 Beginning literacy learners relate their experiences to a teacher or aide, who transcribes them.
These transcriptions are then used as the basis for other reading and writing activities.
 The LEA, first developed for Maori-speaking (Ashton-Warner, 1963) and native-English-
speaking children (Spache & Spache, 1964; Stauffer, 1965), has also been used successfully with
learners of all ages.
 Adult learners entering ESL programs may or may not have previous educational or literacy
experiences; nonetheless, all come to class with a wealth of life experiences.
 This valuable resource for language and literacy development can be tapped by using the
language experience approach. The approach develops literacy not only with the whole learner in
mind, but also the whole language.
Features of the Language Experience Approach
The Language Experience Approach is as diverse in practice as its practitioners. Nonetheless, some
characteristics remain consistent (Hall, 1970):

 Materials are learner-generated.

 All communication skills--reading, writing, listening, and speaking--are integrated.
 Difficulty of vocabulary and grammar are determined by the learner’s own language use.
 Learning and teaching are personalized, communicative, creative.

Language Experience Approach with ESL Learners

Krashen and Terrell (1983) recommend two criteria for determining whether reading materials are
appropriate for ESL learners:

The reading must be

1) at a comprehensible level of complexity and

2) interesting to the reader.

Reading texts originating from learners' experiences meet these two criteria because

1) the degree of complexity is determined by the learner's own language, and

2) the texts relate to the learner's personal interests.

Both criteria are of particular importance in adult beginning ESL classes, where the paucity of reading
materials can be problematic. Many books written in simplified English are either too juvenile or too
uninteresting to be considered appropriate reading material for adults.

Two Variations of Language Experience Approach

The Personal Experience

The most basic, and in fact the original, form of the Language Experience Approach is the simple
transcription of an individual learner's personal experience. The teacher or aide (or in a mixed-ability
class, a more proficient learner) sits with the learner so that the learner can see what is being written. The
session begins with a conversation, which might be prompted by a picture, a topic the learner is interested
in, a reading text, or an event the learner has participated in. Once a topic evolves, the learner gives an
oral account of a personal experience related to that topic. The transcriber may help the learner expand or
focus the account by asking questions.

In most forms of the Language Experience Approach, the experience is transcribed as the learner dictates
it, without transcriber corrections to grammar or vocabulary. This technique keeps the focus on the
content rather than the form of what is written and provides concrete evidence of the learner's language
growth over time (Heald-Taylor, 1989). Errors can be corrected later, during revising and editing stages of
the writing process. The relationship between the transcriber and learner should be well established before
attempting the LEA, and the transcriber should be supportive of what the learner has to say.

The Group Experience

Groups may also develop language experience stories together. An experience can be set up and carried
out by the group, or stories can grow out of experiences and stimuli from any part of the learners'
personal, work, or classroom lives.

The following steps are often involved:

1. Choosing the experience or stimulus. In collaboration with the learners, choose a prompt or activity that
can be discussed and written up in some form. This might include pictures, movies, videotapes, songs,
books or articles, class projects, field trips, holidays or celebrations, or an activity designed for this
purpose.
2. Organizing the activity. Develop a plan of action with the class. This might include what you will do
and when, and what you will need. The plans can be written on the board to provide the first link between
the activity itself and the written word.
3. Conducting the experience. The following activities might be done in the classroom or in the
community.

In the classroom In the community

Preparing food (sandwich, French toast, Taking field trips (to the bank, market,
salad, popcorn) malls, library, city hall)
Making cards (thank you notes, get well Mapping the school or the neighborhood.
cards, holiday cards)
Class projects (simulations, bulletin
boards, skits)

If the experience takes place within the classroom, the teacher can narrate it as it unfolds, repeating key
words and phrases.

For more advanced learners, discussions, as well as actual experiences, can evolve into group-produced
texts. Discussion topics might include work, adult education, adjustment to life in the U.S., or current
local and world events. Again, the teacher might write key words and phrases on the board as they are
mentioned in the discussion.

4. Discussing the experience, including all learners in the discussion and writing key words and phrases
on the board. The class might, for example, reconstruct the sequence of events that took place. Some
learners may be capable of describing an entire experience or generating an extended text about a prompt,
while others may only be able to answer questions about it. The teacher may need to stimulate or focus
the discussion by asking wh- questions--Who was involved? When did this take place? What did we do
first? Regardless of the level of active participation of various learners, it is crucial that all understand the
discussion.

5. Developing a written account. The class works together to develop a written account of what was done
or discussed. Before actually writing a text, the class might do some planning activities like
brainstorming, webbing or mapping, listing, or sequencing ideas. Learners may dictate a description or
sequence of events in an activity while the teacher or aide writes it down, or a group of students may
work together in groups to produce an account. Regardless of who does the writing, it should be easily
visible to all learners--on the board, on a flip chart pad, or on an overhead transparency.

The teacher does not correct the learners' language at this point, although learners may correct themselves
or each other as they work together. Formal correction can be done later, as part of the revising and
editing stages.

With beginning students, written compositions may be very simple, just a sentence or two if this
represents their level of English proficiency. Length is not significant.

6. Reading the account. Once the written text is complete, the teacher or a learner can read it aloud to the
class, focusing on key words and phrases, and then learners can read it silently on their own. Of course,
oral reading of the account does not need to occur only at this stage, but can be done at many different
points during its production, thus promoting rethinking and revision throughout its evolution.

7. Extending the experience. Many language and literacy activities beyond rereading can be based on the
written text. The following possibilities can be selected and adapted according to learners' proficiency
levels.

With beginning learners, teachers can

 have students copy the story themselves;

 have students match words with pictures or definitions;
 delete every nth word (4th, 5th, 6th, etc.) to create a cloze exercise. Have the students fill in the
blanks either with or without the assistance of a word bank, depending on their literacy level;
 select words from the story for vocabulary, spelling, or sound-symbol correspondence activities;
 use the texts to review a grammar point, such as sequence of tenses, word order, or pronoun
referents;
 dictate the story for learners to write;
 write the sentences in scrambled order and have students rewrite them, restoring the correct
sequence;
 scramble key words and have students unscramble them.

More advanced learners can

 use the group-produced text as the basis for individually written texts about the same topic, about
a similar experience, or as a critique of this experience. Then they might read each other’s texts;
 revise and edit the texts and prepare them for publication;
 read other texts related to the topic;
 generate comprehension questions for classmates to answer;
 write other types of texts--songs, poems, letters (for example, a letter to the editor), or directions
for how to do something.

In a class with learners at different proficiency levels, the teacher can use the more basic activities with
the learners at lower levels while the more proficient learners work on the more advanced activities
individually or in groups, with less teacher help.

Conclusion

Although the language experience approach was developed primarily as a tool for reading development,
this technique can be used successfully to develop listening, speaking, and writing as well. This integrated
approach is unique in that it begins with students' individual or shared experiences as a basis for
discussion, writing, and finally reading. As students see their personal experiences transcribed into the
written word, they also gain a greater understanding of the processes of writing and reading and can make
the bridge to reading and writing independently.

EXPLICIT INSTRUCTIONS
Explicit instruction is a way to teach in a direct, structured way. When teachers use explicit
instruction, they make lessons crystal clear. They show kids how to start and succeed on a task. They
also give kids plenty of feedback and chances to practice.
Who explicit instruction helps
Explicit instruction can help all students. But it can be especially beneficial for the following students:

 Students who learn and think differently.

Without explicit instruction, students who struggle with attention or working memory
may not focus on the most crucial ideas in a lesson. With explicit instruction, you cue students
in to the most essential information.

 English language learners.

When you use consistent and clear language in each step of instruction, English
language learners (ELLs) aren’t overwhelmed with new language demands. Research has
shown that explicit instruction can lead to achievement gains among ELLs.
For educators: Why to use explicit instruction
There are many reasons to use explicit instruction. Here are some of the most important.
1. Students get opportunities to practice. Explicit instruction helps students who need intensive
intervention, including those with learning disabilities. In your school, you may call this support “Tier
3 intervention.”
These students usually need to practice a skill 10 to 30 more times than their peers. Explicit
instruction can give them those opportunities to practice. It also gives you a structure to make sure
those learners are capable and successful as they practice.
2. It uses data collection and analysis. Each time students practice a skill; you have a chance to collect
data. You can use that data to plan your next lesson, like re-teaching or moving on to the next
progression of the skill. This data helps you meet the needs of each student.
3. It lightens the “cognitive load.” Students who learn and think differently often have trouble with
working memory. That makes it hard to make sense of a long series of directions.
Explicit instruction breaks up learning into smaller parts. This lightens the “cognitive load,” or how
much brain resources a student needs to process information. A lighter cognitive load frees up working
memory. That’s important because learning new skills requires a lot of working memory.
For educators: How to teach using explicit instruction
Explicit instruction follows a sequence of steps:

 Identify a clear, specific objective.

 Break the information into chunks.

 Model with clear explanations.

 Verbalize the thinking process.

 Provide opportunities to practice.

 Give feedback.
For educators: Explicit instruction and inquiry-based learning
It’s a myth that explicit instruction limits students from engaging in inquiry-based learning, project-based
learning, and higher-order thinking. In fact, it’s the opposite. Explicit instruction gives students who are
typically left out of these opportunities the information and skills they need to engage.

Explicit instruction uses some of the same processes used for inquiry-based learning and project-based
learning, including modeling, practice, and feedback. Students can transfer the processes they learn in
explicit instruction to other types of learning.

Also, remember that explicit instruction isn’t just for basic academic skills. Students often need explicit
modeling and feedback on higher-order skills, like decision making and social skills.

For families: How to support explicit instruction at home

You may not be familiar with the term explicit instruction. It’s not something you would commonly use at
home.

But there are ways you can practice some parts of explicit instruction at home. The next time you tell your
child to clean their room, try breaking down the task into very clear steps. You can model what it looks
like to organize a closet. You can also give feedback after your child is done.

SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE LEARNING

 Situational Language Teaching is an approach developed by British applied

linguists between the 1930s and the 1960s. While it is unknown for many teachers,
it had a big influence on language courses till the 1980s. Textbooks such as
Streamline English (Hartley and Viney 1979) was designed following the SLT
approach principles.
 Situational Language Teaching is based on a structural view of language. Speech,
structures and a focus on a set of basic vocabulary items are seen as the basis of
language teaching.
Situational Language Teaching is characterized by two major features:
Vocabulary And Grammar Control

 Focus on both vocabulary and reading is the most salient trait of SLT. In fact,
mastery of a set of high-frequency vocabulary items is believed to lead to good
reading skills.
Behavioristic Background
The behavioristic view of language learning constitutes the cornerstone of Situation Language
Teaching. The approach gives primacy to the processes over the conditions of learning. The following
processes are noted in this approach:

 The act of receiving knowledge or material

 Repetition to fix that knowledge or material in memory.
 The use of the knowledge or material in actual practice until it becomes a personal
skill.
The behaviorist theory of learning is based on the principle of habit formation. Mistakes are banned so
as to avoid bad habit formation. Following the premises of behaviorism, a teacher presents language
orally, then in written form.
SLT Objectives
The objectives of Situational Language Teaching involve accurate use of vocabulary items and
grammar rules in order to achieve a practical mastery of the four basic skills. Learners must be able to
produce accurate pronunciation and use of grammar. The ultimate aim is to be able to respond quickly
and accurately in speech situations with an automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns.
The Syllabus, Techniques, And Activities
Situational Language Teaching syllabus is designed upon a word list and structural activities.
Grammar teaching involves a situational presentation of new sentence patterns and drills to practice
these patterns. The teacher moves from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of
sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading, and writing.
Typical lesson
According to Situational Language Teaching, a lesson starts with stress and intonation practice
followed by a revision and a presentation of new materials (mainly structures or vocabulary). The
teacher then proceeds to oral practice and drilling of the elements presented. Finally, the lesson ends
with reading activity or written exercises.
Advantages
Situational Language Teaching is still attractive to many teachers who still believe in the structural
practice of language. Its practicality in the teaching of grammar patterns has contributed to the
survival of the approach until recently. Besides, its emphasis on oral practice still attracts support
among language teachers.
Disadvantages
Many premises underlying the approach have been criticized. For example, Chomsky (1957) showed
that the structural and the behavioristic approaches to language are simply unfounded as they do not
explain the fundamental feature of language learning: the ability to create novel and unique sentences.
Children do not acquire their mother tongue through repetition and habit formation. There must be,
however, an innate predisposition that leads them to a certain kind of linguistic competence.

MULTI SKILL APPROACH

The multi skill approach involves the interweaving of teaching multiple skills like listening,
speaking, and reading, writing, and viewing, including culture and grammar.
The multi-skill approach theory hold that language is unitary.
Students should be given the chance to simultaneously use all language arts such as listening,
speaking, reading, and writing in contextually meaningful, purposeful, and cooperative activities.
These activities center around areas that build upon students' prior knowledge.
Advocates Multi-skill approach claim that there are many advantages that can be attributed to this
approach.
 One of these advantages is that it develops upon students’ experiences and encourages their
hobbies and thoughts.
The multi-skill approach uses all the language art in order to develop the students’ proficiency in
learning the language. It can be manifested in the classroom when the teacher uses different
teaching strategies to associate different language of art.

TASKED-BASED APPROACH

 The term Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) came into prevalent use in the field of
Second Language Acquisition in terms of developing process-oriented syllabus and
designing communicative tasks to promote learners’ actual language use.
 Tasks are a central component of TBLT in language classrooms because they provide a
context that activates learning processes and promotes L2 learning.
 It is important to remember that TBLT is an approach rather than a method. It assumes
that the teacher respects the students as individuals and wants them to succeed.
 It also acknowledges that motivation, attitudes to learning, students’ beliefs, language
anxiety and preferred learning styles, have more effect on learning than materials or
methods.

Within the varying interpretations of TBLT related to classroom practice, recent studies exhibit three
recurrent features:

 TBLT is compatible with a learner centered educational philosophy (Ellis, 2003;

Nunan, 2005; Richards & Rodgers, 2001);
 it consists of particular components, such as goal, procedure, specific outcome
(Murphy, 2003; Nunan, 2004; Skehan, 1998);
 it advocates content-oriented meaningful activities rather than linguistic forms
(Beglar & Hunt, 2002; Carless, 2002; Littlewood, 2004).
Since TBLT is a new approach requiring a change in methodological focus rather than a new method
requiring the wholesale learning of new teaching techniques, a text based on a structural/functional
syllabus can provide some activities out of which task-based frameworks can be constructed. While a
variety of design changes and changes in how the materials are used will typically be required, the biggest
challenge for a designer involves redesigning grammar practice exercises into post-task language analysis
activities and coming up with tasks intensive enough to allow for comparative analysis.

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH

 Participatory Approach is a brainchild of Brazilian language educator Paulo Freire. Freire is the
author of the book "Pedagogy of the Oppressed".
 Participatory approach, also known as Freirean Approach to language literacy education.
 Participatory approach is a teaching strategy that incorporates themes or content area that are of
interest to the learners.
The purpose

 The goal of this method is to use language learning as a tool to provide solutions to social
problems that impact learners in their daily lives.
The Role of teacher and student

 As facilitator and Guide

 The students are collaborating with their teacher in finding solution to an issue that affects the
community.
 Over the course of the lessons, teachers in participatory approach eventually turn over some
facets of control to the students.
Activity

 Group Discussions
 Problem-posing
 Pair work
 Group work
 Two-way Dialogue/Discussion

Advantage

 Students are more active and work together as a team.

 Students are also more concerned about social issues happening around them.
This participatory approach is an approach where students are able to be themselves. This approach
teaches students to think better in solving a problem. Suggestions Based on what I read and I understand
it, there are some things that I understood from this teaching strategy including teachers can apply this
method as an alternative model in which the teaching of this approach is able to develop students'
horizons. Due to this approach students are more active and have a great curiosity in solving a problem or
issue that they think it is interesting.
Collaborative learning can occur peer-to-peer or in larger groups. Peer learning, or peer instruction, is a
type of collaborative learning that involves students working in pairs or small groups to discuss concepts
or find solutions to problems. Similar to the idea that two or three heads are better than one, educational
researchers have found that through peer instruction, students teach each other by addressing
misunderstandings and clarifying misconceptions.
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
- Research shows that educational experiences that are active, social, contextual, engaging,
and student-owned lead to deeper learning. The benefits of collaborative learning include:
 Development of higher-level thinking, oral communication, self-management, and leadership
skills.
 Promotion of student-faculty interaction.
 Increase in student retention, self-esteem, and responsibility.
 Exposure to and an increase in understanding of diverse perspectives.
 Preparation for real life social and employment situations.
  Considerations for using collaborative learning
 Introduce group or peer work early in the semester to set clear student expectations.
 Establish ground rules for participation and contributions.
 Plan for each stage of group work.
 Carefully explain to your students how groups or peer discussion will operate and how students
will be graded.
 Help students develop the skills they need to succeed, such as using team-building exercises or
introducing self-reflection techniques.
 Consider using written contracts.
 Incorporate self -assessment and peer assessment for group members to evaluate their own and
others' contributions.
Getting started with collaborative learning
Shorter in-class collaborative learning activities generally involve a three-step process. This process can
be as short as five minutes, but can be longer, depending on the task at hand.

 Introduce the task. This can be as simple as instructing students to turn to their neighbor to
discuss or debate a topic.
 Provide students with enough time to engage with the task. Walk around and address any
questions as needed.
 Debrief. Call on a few students to share a summary of their conclusions. Address any
misconceptions or clarify any confusing points. Open the floor for questions.
For larger group work projects, here are some strategies to help ensure productive group dynamics:

 Provide opportunities for students to develop rapport and group cohesion through icebreakers,
team-building, and reflection exercises.
 Give students time to create a group work plan allowing them to plan for deadlines and divide up
their responsibilities.
 Have students establish ground rules. Students can create a contract for each member to sign.
This contract can include agreed-upon penalties for those who fail to fulfill obligations.
 Assign roles to members of each group and change the roles periodically. For example, one
student can be the coordinator, another the note-taker, another the summarizer, and another the
planner of next steps.
 Allow students to rate each other’s quality and quantity of contributions. Use these evaluations
when giving individual grades, but do not let it weigh heavily on a student's final grade.
Communicate clearly how peer assessment will influence grades.
 Check in with groups intermittently but encourage students to handle their own issues before
coming to you for assistance.
 METHODS IN TEACHING
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONS
- It’s a teaching method that helps bring struggling students up to speed, enables gifted
students to learn at a faster pace, and makes teacher’s lives easier because learning is
more effective. When you use differentiated instruction, you’re steering all your students
toward the same learning objectives, while giving students the freedom to choose how
they get there.
What Is Differentiated Instruction and Why Is It Important?
- Differentiated instruction is the process of tailoring lessons to meet each student’s
individual interests, needs, and strengths. Teaching this way gives students choice and
flexibility in how they learn, and helps teachers personalize learning. This method also
requires instructional clarity and clearly defined goals for learning, better enabling
students to meet those goals.
What Are Some Differentiated Instruction Strategies?
You can differentiate instruction across four main areas: content, process, product, and environment.
To differentiate content, teachers consider the objective of a lesson, then provide students with flexible
options about the content they study to meet the objective, from subject or topic to approach or
presentation.
With process differentiation, teachers differentiate how students learn. Grouping students based on their
individual readiness or to complement each other is one way to accomplish process differentiation.
Another is varying the way concepts are taught: through visual, auditory, or kinesthetic lessons, for
example.
Product differentiation applies to the types of assignments students create. A teacher might ask students to
explain a concept; the product could be a written report, a story, a song, a speech, or an art project.
Varying the types of assessments, you give students is also an example of product differentiation.
The classroom environment also affects learning. Changing physical things in the classroom, like how
desks are set up or arranged, or where students can sit (on beanbags, for example), serves as classroom
environment differentiation, which can also include changes to routines and habits.

What Are the Benefits of Differentiated Instruction?

Differentiated instruction is beneficial because it helps educators connect with different learning styles.
Not all students will respond to a class lecture; a game or a video may work better with other students.
Some students may learn better by reading than they do using a computer. Giving students choices about
how they learn enables them to meet learning objectives in the best way for them.
In some classrooms, differentiation will be required for students with disabilities and for English language
learners. Differentiating instruction gives all students the opportunity to keep pace with learning
objectives.
No matter what you’re teaching, some students will find certain material engaging, while others won’t,
and students will learn the same material in varying amounts of time. Want to make whatever you ’re
teaching more likely to resonate with each one of your students? Differentiated instruction motivates them
to learn the material in a way conducive to their own interests and unique learning styles.
What Do Experts Say About Differentiated Instruction?
“We differentiate instruction to honor the reality of the students we teach. They are energetic and
outgoing. They are quiet and curious. They are confident and self-doubting. They are interested in a
thousand things and deeply immersed in a particular topic. They are academically advanced and ‘kids in
the middle’ and struggling due to cognitive, emotional, economic, or sociological challenges. Many of
them speak a different language at home. They learn at different rates and in different ways. And they all
come together in our academically diverse classrooms.” – Carol Ann Tomlinson (William Clay Parrish, Jr.
Professor and Chair of Educational Leadership, Foundations, and Policy)
“Differentiating instruction is really a way of thinking, not a preplanned list of strategies. Oftentimes, it is
making decisions in the moment based on this mindset. It’s recognizing that ‘fair’ doesn’t always mean
treating everyone equally. It’s recognizing that all of our students bring different gifts and challenges, and
that as educators, we need to recognize those differences and use our professional judgment to flexibly
respond to them in our teaching.” – Larry Ferlazzo (award-winning teacher at Luther Burbank High
School in Sacramento, California, who writes a teacher advice column for Education Week)

“All teachers want their students to succeed, and all teachers try to make this happen. That is all
differentiation is. We complicate differentiation by not allowing ourselves to be provisional with how we
apply the foundational pieces of differentiated instruction. Instead, if we address these four questions in
our instructional planning, differentiation will always be the result: What do my students need? How do I
know? What will I do to meet their needs? How do I know if what I’m doing is working?” – Lisa
Westman (instructional coaching, differentiation, and standards-based grading consultant and professional
development facilitator)
How to Implement Differentiated Instruction
To ensure that the same objectives are being pursued by all students (though they each take their own path
to get there), differentiated instruction must be standards-based.
First steps for teachers should include diagnostic testing and learning inventories. Your goal is to set
baselines for individual students. Then you can identify tactics to help each student achieve the objectives
and deliver custom-tailored content.
Differentiated instruction is evident when teachers:

 Offer students options to choose from in assignments or lesson plans.

 Provide multiple texts and types of learning materials.
 Utilize a variety of personalized learning methods and student assessments.
 Customize teaching to suit multiple forms of intelligence.
For differentiated instruction to be successful, teachers must clearly explain the learning goals and the
criteria for success. Differentiated learning thrives in a classroom environment where students are
working toward shared goals with a growth mindset. Teachers must identify and be responsive to student
needs, creating a supportive classroom culture where students embrace differentiation for themselves and
their peers.
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
- This Grammar- Translation Method is also called Classical Method of teaching English.
This method has enjoyed a very good reputation among the Indian teachers and the
students, still enjoying.
- Translation Method means teaching a target language (here it is English) by translating it
into mother tongue. The teacher translates each word and sentence in to the mother
tongue. This is one of the simplest ways of teaching a foreign language. Neither the
teacher nor the taught have to make extra efforts to learn the target language.

Advantages of Translation Method –

1. This method is useful in the class in which there are a large no of students.
2. It is beneficial to use in the class where there are students of various levels – very intelligent and not-
so-very intelligent.
3. It helps teacher much to clear the meaning of a word and sentence to the students easily by translating
them in to the mother tongue.
4. The students understand the things very easily if taught using this method.
5. It doesn’t consume the time in finishing the syllabus.
6. Precise pictures of things can easily be made in the minds of the learners using this method.
7. This Method is very useful for the average and below-average students
Disadvantages of Grammar-Translation Method –
1. No oral work takes place in the class room due to this method. Only teacher speaks.
2. The main focus remains only on the mother-tongue and the target language remains ignored.
3. No Speaking in the target language is possible. The only thrust remains on the reading.
4. The students don’t develop the power of thinking in the target language. They become mentally lazy
5. It doesn’t help the students to learn correct pronunciation of English Language of the target language.
6. Main emphasis is given on the Rules of Grammar.
7. Students try to do everything by translating.
8. This method doesn’t involve the students mentally and it is just like story telling method.

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

- The initial point of Audio-lingual Method was also grammar and pronunciation by oral
drills and practice. This method had strong connection with the Structural linguistics.
Features of Audio-Lingual Method –

 The teacher treats all the four skills equally and teach them separately.
 In audio-lingual syllabus, dialogue has the dominant role to play.
 There is much focus on Language Laboratory as an important teaching aid.
 Like Direct Method, there is no importance of Mother Tongue.

Techniques used in Audio – Lingual Method –

The teacher teaches the four skills in the following order – Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.
Dialogues with useful vocabulary and common structures of communication always play a major role.

Aims of Audio – Lingual Method –

 Main focus is on oral learning. So, aim is to enhance listening and speaking skills.
 Main aim is to achieve development of communication skills.
 Practice is more important in learning foreign language. So, the main focus is on this
aspect.

Advantages of A-L Method –

 This method is teacher-dominated. Teacher’s role is very important.

 Main focus is on Listening and Speaking skills.
 The method can be used for a larger group of learners.
 This method demands pattern practice, drilling and memorization.

Disadvantages of Audio-lingual method –

  No heed on communicative competence.
 Main focus is on language form, not on meaning.
 The learner assumes a passive role during the learning process.
 There is no equal focus on all the four skills.

THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

- Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method of teaching language or vocabulary concepts
by using physical movement to react to verbal input. The process mimics the way that
infants learn their first language, and it reduces student inhibitions and lowers stress. The
purpose of TPR is to create a brain link between speech and action to boost language and
vocabulary learning.
How to Use
1. Prepare
Select the vocabulary that you are going to teach. Gather any equipment, props or pictures you will need
to illustrate the meaning of the words.
2. Teacher Modeling
Say the new vocabulary word for the students. As you do this, use gestures, facial expressions, props or
body movement to illustrate the meaning of the word.
3. Student Modeling
Have student volunteers mimic the same gestures, facial expressions, use of props or body movement
modeled as you say the word
4. Student Participation
Have all students mimic the same gestures, facial expressions, use of props or body movement modeled
by the teacher and student volunteers. Ask them to say the word as they are making the movement. Vary
this activity by then doing the action and while students say the word.
5. Writing
Write the word or phrase where all students can see it so that students can make the connection between
oral and written words.
6. Repetition and Practice
Teach the next word or phrase using the same method. Review and practice words with students ’ multiple
times to ensure learning. Recycle words regularly to make sure that students do not forget old words.

When to Use
- Total Physical Response (TPR) may be used to teach many types of vocabulary but works
best when teaching vocabulary connected with action. It is an effective strategy to use
 with English Language Learners as well as with native speakers when learning new
words.

Variations
TPR Circles
Organize the students into a circle around the teacher. The teacher says the word and the last person to do
the action is out. This person then stands behind the teacher and watches for the student who does the
action last. Eventually there is only one student, he or she is the winner.
TPR Simon Says
Play Simon Says. The teacher gives a command and students should only do it if the teacher "Simon
says..." at the start. The teacher might say, "Simon says, 'slice some bread'" or "Simon says, 'chop an
onion'" and the students must do the action. However, if the teacher says, "Whisk an egg" the students
shouldn't do this. If anyone does the action that Simon doesn't say then they are out and have to watch for
the mistakes of the other students.
TPR Sounds
The teacher will first get the students to do the actions connected with each vocabulary word. Then, the
teacher adds a sound related to the word and the students practice hearing the word and doing the action
along with making the sound. The students are then ready to give commands to each other.
GAMIFICATION IN TEACHING ENGLISH
- Gamification, game-based learning or play-based learning refers to a type of game play
with clear and defined learning outcomes. It means employing well-designed digital and
non-digital games to stimulate learners’ language, critical-thinking and problem-solving
abilities. It includes elements of games or play into the learning environment to boost
engagement and participation.
As with any new approach, there are certain factors to consider:
1. Learner engagement
- Students’ motivation determines everything, meaning it directs how and what they do, as well as how
long they can sustain their learning. The first thing to do is start a discussion about gamification, asking
them their favorite games, what devices they use, how often they play, how they balance gaming with
other activities out of school. Show an interest in what they say and utilize the information to help you
plan your play-based lessons. Keep them involved in this process. Ask them to create a list of games they
play or would like to play, before identifying which ones have learning potential, and would be suitable
for the classroom (age appropriacy and devices used). Digital game tools are becoming increasingly
accessible and many are free or very cost-effective, and there are many to choose from.
2. Ask others
Ask your colleagues. Those interested in game-based learning would probably love to share ideas and
advice. Make sure you keep school administration and parents in the loop to avoid any
misunderstandings, particularly of the difference between ‘playing’ and ‘learning’.
3. Classroom management
Don’t assume learners will know what to do, or take the work seriously. So, explain and be clear about
what the rules for usage are. Remind learners that they are still in class and they are there to learn. Playing
games is strictly for home. Explain that tasks will be set, just as in any class, and completion of these
tasks is expected. There's not real need to use the word game at all, really. Students will soon cotton on
to what it happening.
4. Structure your lesson accordingly
When we plan a listening task, perhaps using a video or a listening clip, we structure our lessons to think
about how the listening might link to the current topic, or wider curriculum goals. We might plan our
lesson by setting context first, followed by pre-listening, during-listening and post-listening tasks to
encourage maximum productive use of the target language from our learners. So too must we plan game-
based lessons accordingly. Make sure there is a clear context for using games in the lesson.

Remember, the game is not the teacher, it is just an activity to facilitate learning. As such game play
should not be assessed, but how learning transfers from the game experience to the curriculum can be.
5. Step back
Don’t intervene when students are figuring something out unless they really need help. It’s all part of the
gaming experience in understanding games as systems.
Some more ways to use game-based learning in your lessons
Digital games can be excellent sources for authentic texts in your classroom. Some depend on decisions
of the player to tell the story, similar to the Choose Your Own Adventure series from the 1980s. Some use
the hero’s journey (e.g. Harry Potter, Allegiant, The Hunger Games, How to Train Your Dragon) to
explore themes and practice skills.
Try:

 Never Alone is based on an Alaskan Native folktale

 Journey is an interactive parable, an anonymous online adventure to experience a person’s life
passage and their intersections with others.
 Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons, an award-winning adventure game that relies on cooperative play
Digital games are also excellent catalysts for collaborative work and sharing experiences. In 2015, on an
iCivics panel at the International Society for Technology in Education conference, Benjamin Stokes
compared the experience of playing games to taking a class on a field trip. With a field trip, expectations
are given first so students are aware, before they are given freedom to explore. Back in the classroom,
facilitate connections to the curriculum through discussion.
Minecraft is an excellent world-building game that gives further meaning to topics like habitat,
environment, and history. One teacher at Edutopia uses Minecraft as a way for students to explore the
difficulties of setting a colony (like Jamestown) in a hostile environment. Students understand the dangers
of settling new worlds because they have experienced them.
But game-based learning doesn't always have to be digital. Non-digital Games can be an excellent way to
practice skills. Many games have no text and can be exploited in a variety of more ‘traditional’ ways,
such as live listening tasks, running dictations, jumping off points for creative writing or story-telling.
Dave Gatrell’s lesson ideas for Samorost are a gentle start for those teachers who will recognize more
conventional ESL tasks as a way of getting to grips with GBL.
Features of Effective GBL Activities
Teachers should consider the following when planning to use games in the classroom:

 Having clear linguistic aims in lesson planning

 Ensuring lots of student interaction and productive chatter
 Allowing elements of student autonomy as they create and adapt rules to solve problems
 Giving feedback on language at multiple points in the lesson
 Allowing multiple opportunities to attempt the game
 Moving away from dominant competitive play