EDX3160 Module 3 Notes Final

EDX3160 Science Curriculum and Pedagogy Module 3 Chemical sciences-2
Module 3 – Physical and chemical changes of

everyday materials
This module introduces the physical properties and changes of matter, using atomic theory as an
explanatory tool. The module also raises many interesting examples of everyday chemical
reactions that children enjoy investigating, and which provide evidence that chemical change
produces new substances. The chemistry of food, cooking, acid and bases, testing kitchen
chemicals, making dyes, corrosion and burning provides numerous opportunities for students to
observe and carry our 'fair tests' and to work and think scientifically.
Objectives
 explain the terms : mixtures, pure substance, solutions, elements, compounds

 describe and explain the properties of the three states of matter - solids, liquids and gases
 use the particulate model of matter to explain the physical properties of the states of matter
and the processes of melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, condensation, dissolving,
crystallisation, mixing
 compare and contrast the characteristics of physical change and chemical change
 describe different methods of separating mixtures
 explain how energy and mass are conserved in physical and chemical changes
 explain the terms endothermic, exothermic
 identify examples of chemical change in everyday life (e.g. cooking)
 identify different types of reactions in everyday life: corrosion (rusting), combustion
(burning), acid-base (vinegar and baking soda),
 define combustion and identify symbolic representations (chemical equations) of
combustion
 interpret symbolic representations of simple chemical reactions
Your knowledge of this material and its application will be tested on the online Content Test. In
Assignment 2, you must show an understanding of these concepts and how they can be transformed
to make them accessible to children.
Textbook
Hewitt, P. G., Lyons, S., Suchocki, J. and Yeh, J. (2013). Conceptual Integrated Science. (1st ed.)
Pearson Education Australia. Ch 9, 11, 12 & 13.
1
Module 3 table of contents
Page
3.1 Physical Changes 3
3.1.1 States (phases) of matter 3
3.1.2 Changes of state 5
Learning Activity 7
3.2 Mixtures 8
3.2.1 More about solutions 8
3.2.2 Suspensions 9
3.2.3 The separation of mixtures 11
Learning Activity 15
3.3 Chemical change 15
3.3.1 Observing chemical changes 16
3.3.2 The law of conservation of matter 16
3.4 Types of chemical reactions – oxidation 17
3.4.1 Combustion 17
3.4.2 Corrosion 21
3.5 Types of chemical reactions – acids and base reactions 23
3.5.1 Properties of acids 23
3.5.2 Explaining the properties of acids 23
3.5.3 Properties of bases 24
3.5.4 Explaining the properties of bases 25
3.5.5 Neutralisation of acids and bases 26
3.5.6 Reactions of acids with carbonates and bicarbonates 28
3.5.7 pH - a measure of acidity and basicity 30
3.6 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 32
3.6.1 Exothermic chemical reactions 32
3.6.2 Endothermic chemical reactions 33
2
3.1 Physical Changes
Physical changes do not result in a change to the chemical composition of the substances involved.
The atoms involved remain the same, but their physical organisation changes and thus the
properties the materials demonstrate may also change. Physical changes may be more easily
reversed than chemical changes, but this is not an absolute difference as some chemical reactions
are reversible. There are also some physical changes that are not readily reversed – once a rock has
been ground to a powder, it is difficult to reconstitute it as a rock.
Physical changes include:
1. Changes of state (phase)

2. Mixing (includes solutions and suspensions)
3. Grinding and pulverising (to reduce to a powder by friction)
4. Drawing a metal into a wire (using its property of ductility)
5. Hammering a metal into a sheet (using its property of malleability)
6. Quenching steel (making it very hot then rapidly cooling it to harden it)
7. Tempering steel (controlled heating to make it tougher and more workable)
8. Magnetising (making an object magnetic)
9. Crystallisation (causing crystals to precipitate (come out) of solution)
We will focus further on the first two of these.
3.1.1 States (phases) of matter

These notes have already referred to solids, liquids, and gases. These familiar words describe the
three states or phases in which matter we usually encounter exists. It is easy to describe how the
states are different, but to explain why they are different we need the particle theory. This refers to
the behaviour of the particles (atoms or molecules, depending on the substance) that make up
substances in each state.
Particles of matter are in motion but those in different states have different amounts of energy for
motion (kinetic energy).
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Decreasing kinetic energy
Visually, the states of matter are often represented by

particle diagrams.
Author: Yelod, Creative Commons licence from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:States_of_matter_En.svg
Particles in a gas have the most kinetic energy, enough to overcome the attraction to each other.
The particles move very freely in straight lines and often collide with each other and with the walls
of the container. This means the spaces between particles in a gas are large. A gas completely fills
the container occupied and takes its complete shape. The large spaces between gas particles means
a gas can also be easily compressed into a smaller space, but that will increase the pressure it exerts
on the walls of its container.
Particles in liquids have less kinetic energy than those in gases but more than those in solids.
Particles in liquids are able to move quite freely and bump into each other, so liquids take the shape
of their container, have a definite volume and they do not expand to fill the container completely.
Liquids are not easily compressed. Some particles at the surface of liquids may gain sufficient energy
to break free and become gaseous, forming a vapour.
Particles in solids are strongly attracted to each other so remain in a fixed 3D arrangement, but still
moving by vibrating. Therefore, solids have a definite volume, keep their own shape, and are not
easily compressed.
A fourth state of matter, plasma, exists at extremely high temperatures and pressures when gas
particles lose their electrons and form a state consisting of high energy positive ions and electrons.
The universe is composed mostly of plasma, found in stars and in the space between them. “Solar
wind” is plasma ejected from our sun. Plasmas are also found in fluorescent lights and in neon signs,
and high definition televisions use plasma to create high quality pictures. Lightning creates plasma.
The following website describes the properties of plasmas.
http://public.lanl.gov/alp/plasma/ubiquitous.html
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3.1.2 Changes of state

Water is the most familiar example of a substance that exists in three states. Children are most
familiar with ice (solid) and water as a liquid but may not realise it is the same substance in different
forms. They are often less familiar with water vapour, the gaseous phase of water, because it is
invisible and because of the safety issues in observing it. We usually see evidence of water vapour
when it condenses back into fine droplets of liquid water such as in clouds and the visible “steam”
that comes from kettles. The actual steam is invisible between the spout and the visible “steam”.
Visible “steam” is actually the

product of condensation into
very fine droplets of liquid
Actual steam i.e. water vapour

is invisible
Author: Lauren from Flickr.

https://www.flickr.com/photos/chishikilauren/7622224
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/
In order to move from the most condensed state (solids) to the least condensed state (plasma),
energy must be gained from the environment. This also results in increased disorder due to the
random free movement of particles.
Increasing disorder
Energy absorbed from the environment
Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Energy released to the environment
Increasing order
Diagram: C. Haeusler, 28.02.2014
5
Transitions between states are given specific names as summarised in the diagram below.
Author: ElfQrin, Creative Commons licence from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Physics_matter_state_transition_1_en.svg
When solids are heated, the particles vibrate more rapidly, and, if enough heat is absorbed (the
latent heat of fusion), the attractive forces between the particles will be overcome, so the solid
loses its fixed shape, it melts. The temperature at which a solid melts is its melting point. To return
to a solid, heat must be lost, and freezing occurs. Latent means hidden. This term is used as heating
continues with no appreciable rise in temperature recorded on a thermometer; it’s as if the
incoming heat is being hidden. It is actually being transferred to the particles but it takes some time
until they have absorbed enough to be able to move apart, at which time the change of state occurs
and further heating results in rise in temperature.
Please note that although heat exists, it’s a form of energy; there is no such thing as ‘cold’. Cold is
the relative absence of heat. Hot and cold are also perceptions of people of relative temperatures.
As our body temperature is 37oC, substances that are at higher temperatures than that feel hot.
Substances at lower temperatures than 37oC feel cold. In chemistry you can talk about cooling,
which is putting substances in areas at lower temperatures in order to bring about heat loss from
the hotter substance to the cooler surroundings. It’s all about the loss of heat, NOT the gain of cold!
This is part of the Laws of Thermodynamics; paraphrased by Flanders and Swann (circa 1963) to the
simple “Heat won’t pass from a cooler to a hotter.” You can hear the whole song here (First and
Second Law http://youtu.be/VnbiVw_1FNs ).
As a liquid is heated, the increased kinetic energy allows particles at the surface to escape into a
gaseous state, i.e. it evaporates. The amount of water vapour held in the air is called humidity. Air’s
capacity to hold water vapour increases as the air temperature increases – this is why tropical areas
are very humid in the wet season. Even in the solid state, some few particles may escape into the
gaseous phase – this is sublimation.
When we hang wet clothes out to dry, they dry because the water in the clothes evaporates. On high
mountains, snow and ice is lost because of sublimation. Ice-free refrigerators work because the fan
moves air across the ice that is formed, causing it to sublimate. Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) is the
most common substance known to sublimate at normal atmospheric conditions.
As a liquid is heated, it approaches its boiling point –the temperature at which the liquid is
completely converted to gas. The energy required to effect this change is the latent heat of
vaporisation. For water, the heat of vaporisation is about 7 times greater than the heat of fusion.
6
This graph shows that the latent heat of vaporisation is much greater than the latent heat of fusion.
Heat of vaporisation 2257kJ/kg
100o
Boiling point
0oC
Heat of fusion 335kJ/kg
Ice Water and ice Heating water Water and vapour Vapour
All Images Creative Commons licence: Ice cropped from image by Darren Hester at http://simple.wikipedia.org/, ice cubes in water by Jau
Kay Kiang from https://www.flickr.com/photos/jaukay/384109969/ , water drop by Jose Manuel Suarez from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg , boiling water cropped from image by Gran at
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boiling_water.jpg . Graph by J. Donovan 22.04.2014.
Water is not the only substance that can exist in more than one state. Different substances
have different melting and boiling points.
Substance Melting point (oC) Boiling Point ( oC)

water 0 100
naphthalene 80 211
Carbon dioxide -78 (sublimates)
Gold 1063 2600
Lead 327 1515
Ethanol (pure alcohol) -114 78
olive oil (mixture) -6 Decomposes at ~200
paraffin wax (mixture) 47-65 ~300
In ALL the changes of state described, the chemical nature of the substance does NOT change. For
example, ice, liquid water, and water vapour are all chemically H 2O. These are ALL physical changes.
Learning Activity
1. Read Sections 11.2 and 11.3 of Conceptual Integrated Science and complete related CHECK
YOURSELF exercises and the READING CHECK QUESTIONS.
2. Complete the questions: 34, 38, 45, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 62 and RAT 2, 3 from Chapter 11
7
3.2 Mixtures
These are physical aggregations of substances that:
 Have the chemical properties of the substances that went into the mixture (though physical
properties such as melting point may change)
 Have variable composition in that the relative amounts of each substance present can vary
 Can be separated into two or more different substances by physical or mechanical means
For example, different amounts of sugar or salt can be added to water to obtain solutions of
different concentrations (strengths).
In general, mixtures can be divided into suspensions (in which one substances is dispersed in
another) and solutions (in which one substance, the solute, is dissolved in another, the solvent). In
suspensions, particles are large enough that sedimentation occurs, i.e. particles eventually settle
out, whereas in colloidal suspensions (colloids), the particles are so fine that they remain
suspended, and sedimentation does not occur. The table on page 10 describes different examples of
these.
3.2.1 More about solutions

When a solid solute such as sugar dissolves in water, the clump of sugar particles is pulled apart and
each molecule of sugar ends up surrounded by water molecules. The diagram of the container
shows this process just beginning (not to scale). Remember that water is polar, in that it has a more
negative end (where the O atom is) and a more positive end (where
the H atoms are). This is because of the pulling power of the Oxygen
atoms for electrons. Sugar molecules are made of C, H and O atoms,
and are also polar, so some parts of the sugar molecules are attracted
to the negative end of water, other parts are attracted to the positive
end, as shown in the enlarged diagram of one sugar molecule
surrounded by 4 water molecules. This allows the water molecules to
push in between the sugar molecules and separate them from a
clump into individuals. This makes them evenly dispersed amongst
the water molecules, so they disappear as solid particles, and the
whole solution tastes sweet.
Diagrams created by J. Donovan from Creative

Commons images of sucrose and water from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/
8
A concentrated solution contains more solute than a dilute solution, which contains less solute. A
saturated solution is one in which no more solute can dissolve. Solubility is defined as the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve in a solvent. Concentration can be expressed in various units, e.g.
grams of solute per 100g of solvent.
When dissolved, table salt (sodium chloride or NaCl) breaks down to positive Na + and negative Cl-
ions which are also differently attracted to the opposite ends of the water molecule. Again, the
water molecules push between and surround the ions, so the salt is no longer seen as a solid. In the
diagram, Cl- ions are green and Na+ ions are white. The solubility of table salt in water at 25oC is
36g/100g – this is a saturated solution. A salt solution containing 10g/100g is an unsaturated
solution.
Diagram: No author, Creative Commons Licence from https://ahomeschool.wikispaces.com/Middle+School+Chemistry+Chapter+5

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
In general, the solubility of solids in liquids increases with temperature (compare sugar in cold water
with sugar in hot tea or coffee), whereas solubility of gases in liquids decreases with temperature. A
concern with global warming is that even a small increase in water temperatures in seas, rivers, and
lakes will decrease the amount of O2 and CO2 dissolved, harming animal and plant life.
3.2.2 Suspensions
In a suspension, substances do not dissolve. Instead, the surrounding liquid molecules temporarily
hold up the particles, but eventually, the particles will settle out, a process called sedimentation. An
example would be sand or flour in water. In a colloidal suspension, the particles are so fine that they
remain suspended for a very long time, apparently indefinitely e.g. smoke. Emulsions are
suspensions of liquid droplets in another liquid e.g. homogenized milk in which the liquid cream has
been broken up into such fine droplets that it remains suspended instead of floating to the top.
Other examples of emulsions are mayonnaise and house paints.
To tell the difference between a solution and a suspension, shine a light through both at right angles.
If you can see the beam of light passing through the fluid, light rays are bouncing off the particles
and it’s a suspension; solutions are clear. This Tyndall effect also allows us to see rays of light in a
dusty room, or the whiteness of fog in the car headlights.
9
Diagram: J. Donovan, 24.04.2014
The following table gives examples of different types of solutions and suspensions depending upon
the states of the mixed substances. It shows how words familiar in everyday language such as foam
and aerosol are defined in chemistry.
What Solvent or Solution examples Colloid (fine dispersion) Suspension (coarse

dissolves dispersion examples dispersion) examples
(solute) or medium
disperses
Gas Gas Air (O2 and other None None
gases in N2)
Liquid Gas None Liquid aerosol: fog, mist, Aerosol
vapour, hair sprays
Solid Gas None Solid aerosol: smoke, Solid aerosol, dust in air
cloud, air particulates
Gas Liquid O2 and CO2 dissolved Liquid foam: whipped Foam
in water (and in the cream, shaving cream
blood plasma)
Liquid Liquid Alcoholic beverages Microemulsions: floor Emulsions: milk,
(ethanol in water) polishes, some pesticides mayonnaise, hand cream,
house paint
Solid Liquid Sugar in water, salt in Liquid sol: pigmented ink, Suspension: mud (soil,
water, sugar, salt, blood cells in blood clay or silt in water), chalk
urea in blood plasma plasma powder in water, flour in
water, wet cake mix
Gas Solid Hydrogen in metals Solid foam: Styrofoam, Foam: dry sponge
pumice
Liquid Solid Amalgam (mercury in Gel: agar, gelatin, opal Wet sponge
gold)
Solid Solid Alloys (metal in Solid sol: cranberry glass Mixtures such as clay,
metal), plasticisers in (gold salts added to glass) gravel, soil, dry cake mix
plastics
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3.2.3 The separation of mixtures

Mixtures can be separated by means that take advantage of the different properties of the
components of the mixture. Some separation methods include:
Visual sorting, magnetic sorting, or mechanical sieving - useful for solids
Photo: Author Michael Scott from

https://www.flickr.com/photos/sarahandmikeprobably/3221041224
/in/photolist-i6cFv-e4xxYL-8bKuVz-pPRw4-du9JZH-qfFwP-e2tQcn-
pPRw2-62GMf-Y4tzQ-5Ur5Fu-5MA6Up-2PcKD-5UCFkw-qXU9d-
6excjy-5DaKy1-64PxfQ-pPRw3-2PiFg-5jrMRf-hpc4M7-e2zsP3-
e2tQ9v-jB9P6t-e2gGU6-dv6fzb-goofEZ-62mPZ6-9qCU5n-e2gGRZ-
5J93oB-6GQ3yx-7kFtDA-5DbJpv-6DCERP-5YrCoh-45hhgS-pPRvZ-
ivfdu-eewv4q-qs1m3-8d91bj-6ALmgD-aATiDS-dH8mmq-e3LkVK-
kKkeu-9MyvxN-bmGXz3 Creative Commons
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/
Diagrams: No author from http://gellertclass.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6 All Creative Commons licence

Sieving or straining, and filtration - useful for insoluble solids from liquids
Sieves, also called strainers or colanders, are useful for separating large particles of solids from
liquids. Filtration enables separation of fine particles of solids from liquids.
All Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/

Photo Author: Beth M from http://www.budgetbytes.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Drain-Pasta.jpg
11
Diagram: No author from http://gellertclass.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6

Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/
Decanting (pouring off) is another way of separating liquid from an insoluble solid, for example,
when we pour off the brine (salt water) from a can of vegetables or the juice from a tin of fruit salad.
Centrifuging involves spinning at high speed in order to push the solids to the bottom so the fluid
can be more easily decanted (the spin dryer on a washing machine is a centrifuge).
Evaporation – useful for soluble solid from liquid
Evaporating involves separating a dissolved solid from a liquid. The liquid is boiled off leaving the
solid.

12
Chromatography – useful to separate a number of dissolved substances from a liquid
To separate a number of substances dissolved in a liquid, a spot of the liquid mixture is placed on
chromatography paper (the stationary phase) and the paper placed in another liquid (the mobile
phase). The components have different solubilities in the mobile phase and they move up the paper
at different rates. Black ink is usually a mixture of coloured dyes and gives great results. Other
colours to try are orange, green, purple, and brown.
Diagram: No author, Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ from

http://labbookonline.wikispaces.com/Paper+Chromatography
Besides paper, gel may be used as a base. Electricity is applied, a process called gel electrophoresis.
This separates parts of proteins and DNA by size and charge. The picture shows DNA separated this
way. Profiles of different people can be compared for identification. Ultraviolet light is used to show
up the samples.
Image: Author: Mnolf, Creative Commons licence

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gel_electrophoresis_2.jpg
Distillation – useful to separate liquids from liquids or to remove solid impurities
Uses vaporisation and condensation, and can separate a number of liquids from one mixture. Crude
oil is distilled to release different substances from bitumen (very thick) to gasoline. Desalination of
seawater is a distillation process. To make alcoholic beverages, distillation concentrates the alcoholic
content and transfers volatile compounds (odours and flavours) into the alcohol. A still is the
equipment used in a distillery.
13
A process called fractional distillation is

used to separate components with
different boiling points from crude oil.

Crystallisation- useful for separating a dissolved solid from a supersaturated solution
Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than a saturated solution. These solutions are
unstable. They can be formed by heating a saturated solution and allowing it to cool slowly. The
excess solute can be made to crystallise out by either shaking the solution or seeding it with a small
crystal of the solute. Large crystals can be grown this way and is an activity that can easily be done at
primary school level.
Honey is an everyday example of a supersaturated solution of glucose and fructose (common

sugars). If the honey is seeded with crystals of glucose or fructose which occur at the mouth of the
jar when the honey dries out, candied honey is formed.
Recipes for growing crystals from commonly available materials such as alum and Epsom salts can be
found at http://chemistry.about.com/od/crystalsforbeginners/tp/quickcrystalprojects.htm.
Growing crystals Author: Teshi. Public Domain.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
1/18/Rock_Crystal_Illustration.jpg
14
Learning Activity
1. Read Sections 12.6, 12B, 12.7, and 12.8 of Conceptual Integrated Science and complete related
CHECK YOURSELF exercises and the READING CHECK QUESTIONS. Note: You are NOT expected
to know the information about dipoles and about moles in detail, but reading through this
does assist the understanding of solutions and mixtures.
2. Complete the questions: 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 45, 75, and RAT 8, 9 from Chapter 12
3. Explain the difference between the terms homogeneous and heterogeneous.
4. Which picture in the text illustrates the Tyndall effect?
5. Graph the data in Table 12.4 on p. 328. Use this graph to interpolate the solubility of oxygen gas
at 15oC and to extrapolate the solubility of oxygen gas at 45oC.
6. Which would be the best way to separate each of these two mixtures?
Pasta Image: No Author, Creative Commons licence from http://www.budgetbytes.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Boil-Pasta.jpg

Smarties Image: Author: St0rmz, Creative Commons licence from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Smarties(europe).jpg
3.3 Chemical change

A chemical change is a change which involves the formation of at least one new substance. Some
chemical changes are difficult to reverse. Some everyday examples of chemical changes are:
 Burning of fuel
 Burning of a candle
 Digestion of food
 Photosynthesis
 Cooking/baking
 Making concrete
 Rusting of iron
 Tarnishing of metals such as silver, copper, brass
 Fermentation of grapes to form wine
 Bleaching of fabrics (or hair!)
 Reaction of vinegar with baking soda to form carbon dioxide.
15
3.3.1 Observing chemical change

Chemical changes are called chemical reactions. Chemical reactions can be recognised by one or
more of the following characteristics:
1. A gas is evolved.
2. A solid (called a precipitate) is formed when two different solutions are mixed
3. There is a change in colour
4. There is a significant change in temperature.
5. A solid disappears which is not simply a dissolution of a solid in a solvent
6. An odour is produced.
All of these characteristics indicate that new substances are formed and that these substances have
different properties from the original substances.
3.3.2 The law of conservation of matter

In all chemical reactions matter is conserved. That is, the total mass of all reactants = total mass of
all products
For new substances to be formed in chemical reactions, chemical bonds must be broken and/or
formed.
The law of conservation of matter means that the number of each type of atom is conserved.
Example 1
When methane (biogas) burns in air, it undergoes a chemical change and two new substances, water
and carbon dioxide, are formed.
This can be represented in the following way:
By Jynto Robert A. Rohde Jacek FH Jynto [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 )], via Wikimedia Commons
16
More information can be included to show the physical state of the reactants and products
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
where (g) = gas, (l) = liquid, (s) = solid and (aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water).
This reaction releases a lot of heat so the water is usually given off as water vapour. In this example
of a chemical equation, the total number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms is the same before
and after the chemical reaction.
Example 2
Hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) when mixed together and provided with a spark, react
explosively to form water vapour. This reaction is used to launch spaceships into orbit around the
earth.
This chemical change can be represented as:
Theislikerice via Wikimedia Commons

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/3.0 )
2H2 + O2 2H2O
or showing the physical state of the substances:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
Again, matter is conserved, with 4 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms on each side of the
equation.
3.4 Types of chemical reactions – oxidation
3.4.1 Combustion
Combustion is an oxidation reaction, which means gain of oxygen. Combustion or burning is a
process in which a self- sustaining chemical reaction occurs at temperatures above that of the
surroundings. Explosions are forms of combustion.
J. Donovan. Taken 10/08/2011 near Alice Springs
17
Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuel fuels are called hydrocarbons. They release heat when burned in the presence of oxygen.
Coke C(s) + O2(g) CO2 (g) + heat ( 33 kJ/g)
Methane CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) + heat (55 kJ/g)
Petrol 2C8H18(l) + 25O2 (g) 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O(l) + heat ( 54 kJ/g)
Pure paraffin wax (or candle wax) is a large hydrocarbon (C25H52). It is a solid at room temperature
but melts at about 50oC.
Author: Bencmq. Public Domain from

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Candle-earthquake.jpg
Fuels are substances that are used to generate energy, most commonly through combustion. Fuels
are combined with oxygen from the air. For a substance to be a fuel its combustion reaction must
also be exothermic, that is it must release heat.
Balancing combustion equations
To ensure that matter is conserved, chemical equations must be balanced. That is, the total number
of atoms of each element must be the same before and after combustion.
For the combustion of methane, a simple count of the number of C, H and O atoms in reactants and
products shows that the law of conservation of matter is obeyed.
C atoms H atoms 0 atoms

Reactants CH4+ 2O2 1 4 4
Products CO2 + 2H2O 1 4 4
Difference 0 0 0
Learning Activity
Write balanced chemical equations for the combustion of ethane C2H6 and propane C3H8 with
oxygen.
18
The advantages of fossil fuels
Fossils fuels have been widely used because they have been easy to extract from the earth. They
produce a relatively large amount of energy which can be used for
 electricity generation
 transport (cars, trucks, planes)
 agriculture (used to make fertilisers)
 industry and manufacturing (plastics, synthetic materials)
 extraction of metals in blast furnaces
The disadvantages of fossil fuels
Combustion produces two new substances, carbon dioxide and water. Both of these new substances
are greenhouse gases which contribute to the heating of the atmosphere.
As carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water, the oceans can absorb some of the carbon dioxide.
Similarly, plants can use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. However the amount of carbon dioxide
released by fossil fuels is far in excess of the capacity of the oceans and plant life to remove it.
The combustion of hydrogen gas
Hydrogen gas reacts explosively with oxygen in the presence of a spark to produce water.
2H2 (g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + heat (143 kJ/g)
By NASA/Bill Ingalls [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
This reaction is used to propel space ships into space. It is also a potential fuel for transport. It has
the advantage of not producing the carbon dioxide.
Hydrogen is not currently used an energy source as it requires a great deal of energy to extract it
from water. Rather, it is an energy carrier. Many organisations are working on efficient ways of
obtaining and using hydrogen as a fuel.
19
Cell respiration – a combustion reaction
In the human body, cell respiration is a process in which glucose, C6H12O6, reacts with oxygen
releasing heat, carbon dioxide and water. The released energy helps maintain body temperature.
However, instead of being explosive, the reaction is controlled by enzymes, so that it occurs in many
steps instead of all at once. Just as well!
Learning Activity
Write a balanced chemical equation for respiration.
Combustion and Safety
Fire safety is an essential consideration in a classroom. The Science Ways of Working include safety
as an important part of teaching. Please refer to pages 21-28 of the Deakin University booklet
Chemical Reactions (http://www.deakin.edu.au/arts-ed/education/sci-enviro-ed/years5-10/chem-
react.php ) for activities that include combustion and safety in the classroom.
http://www.firealarmassociation.com/services
Author: Kocio. From Wikipedia.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fire_extinguisher#mediaviewer/
File:FireExtinguisherABC.jpg Creative Commons
20
3.4.2 Corrosion – another example of oxidation

Corrosion is commonly known as rusting, although technically, rusting should only be used when
referring to iron. Corrosion is an oxidation reaction of a metal with oxygen in the air that proceeds
slowly.
Corrosion of iron
The rusting of iron and its prevention causes significant cost to the community every year. Everyday
examples include the rusting of car bodies, tin roofs, bridges, ships, iron nails, food cans. The rust is
porous and offers no protection to the underlying metal which eventually corrodes away. Iron
objects need to be protected by materials such as paint or they need to be galvanised (coated with
other metals such as zinc) to prevent degradation.
The reddish-brown deposit on iron is iron oxide. The chemical equation is:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2Fe2O3(s)
Author: Tony Hisgett from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rust_(5695343513).jpg

[CC-BY-2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 )], via Wikimedia Commons
Factors affecting corrosion of iron
1. Experimental studies on iron have shown that:

2. Both oxygen and water are necessary for rusting to occur
3. Salt water accelerates rusting
4. Impure iron rusts more quickly than pure iron
5. Rusting occurs more readily at points of stress in iron such as bends, around bolts and at the
points of nails
6. Iron rusts more rapidly when attached to a less reactive metal such as copper or tin.
7. Iron rusts less rapidly when attached to a more reactive metal such as zinc (galvanised iron
has a zinc coating)
Galvanised iron
Galvanised iron is iron that has been coated with a thin layer of zinc. Zinc oxidises to form zinc oxide
(ZnO) layer which is inert and insoluble. This layer prevents the inner iron from rusting.
21
Aluminium
Aluminium corrodes far less than iron even though aluminium is more reactive than iron. The
difference lies in its oxide layer. Aluminium oxide, Al 2O3, forms a very thin non-porous protective
layer on the aluminium surface. This means that aluminium is useful for window and door frames,
aeroplane bodies, roofing and guttering and so on. However, if the oxide layer is removed with an
acid, the exposed aluminium metal quickly oxidises.
Reactivity series of metals
Experimental studies have shown that metals have different reactivities. These are shown in the
f9ollowing table.
sodium calcium aluminium zinc iron tin lead copper silver gold
Na Ca Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag* Au
Reacts explosively Oxidises Rusts Corrodes Do not react with
quickly if slowly very oxygen in the air
oxide layer slowly
removed
Increasing reactivity
*The tarnish on silver is silver sulphide (Ag 2S) formed when silver reacts with pollutants in the air.
Combustion and corrosion are both examples of oxidation-reduction reactions, known as REDOX.
These always occur together, as one substance is oxidised, the other is reduced. There are three
ways of thinking about oxidation-reduction:
OXIDATION REDUCTION
1 Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
2 Losing hydrogen Gaining hydrogen
3 Losing electrons Gaining electrons
Chemists tend to think in terms of 1 and 3, biologists tend to think in terms of 2 and 3. Redox is an
important part of both photosynthesis and cell respiration.
Other examples of redox that we do not cover in this course include:
 Metal plating (creating a thin film of one metal on a different metal)

 Electroplating (using an electric current to facilitate metal plating)
 Electrochemical cells, groups of which are called batteries. In batteries, oxidation occurs at
the anode (-), and reduction at the cathode (+)
22
3.5 Types of chemical reactions - acid and base reactions
3.5.1 Properties of acids

Acids are substances which have these properties.
1. They have a sour taste (do not let students taste

materials in science)
2. When dissolved in water, they conduct electricity
3. They change the colour of many plant and
vegetable dyes
Author: Sébastien Bruneau. Public Domain from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Papier_pH.jpg
3.5.2 Explaining the properties of acids

The properties of acids and bases can be explained by understanding their characteristics at the sub-
microscopic level. Acids are defined the following way.
Definition of an acid
+
When dissolved in water, acids produce hydrogen ions H . It is the hydrogen ions (H+) which
determine the behaviour of acids.
By OpenStax College http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/ [CC-BY-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 )],

via Wikimedia Commons
Most acids are neutral covalent molecular compounds that produce H+ in water.
For examples, when hydrogen chloride, HCl, dissolves in water it forms hydrogen ions, H + and
chloride ions Cl-..
HCl H+ + Cl-
23
Strong acids and weak acids
When strong acids are dissolved in water they break down completely into hydrogen ions (H+) and
the corresponding negative ion (called an anion).
Solutions of strong acids are good conductors of electricity (called electrolytes) as they are
composed of free positive ions and negative ions which can carry a current.
Hydrogen ions are very reactive and solutions of strong acids are hazardous.
Weak acids, however, hold on to hydrogen more strongly and when they are dissolved in water,
produce relatively few free hydrogen ions. Thus, solutions of weak acids are poorer conductors of
electricity.
Weak acids are not as reactive as strong acids. Many foods contain weak acids – acetic acid
(vinegar), citric acid (citrus fruit), lactic acid (milk), tartaric acid (grapes, bananas), benzoic acid
(berries).
Acid
Acid name Formula Dissolved in water Found/use
strength
Stomach acid,
Hydrochloric + strong
HCl HCl -> H + Cl- Used by builders to clean
acid
brickwork
Car battery acid
Used to manufacture strong
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 H2SO4 -> 2H+ + SO42-
fertilisers, plastics, paints,
dyes and explosives
Manufacture of fertilisers strong
Nitric acid HNO3 HNO3 -> H+ + NO3 -
and TNT
Acetic acid CH3COOH CH3COOH -> H+ + CH3CO2- Vinegar weak
Formed when carbon

Carbonic acid H2CO3 +
H2CO3 -> H + HCO3 -
dioxide dissolves in very weak
water. E.g. soda water
3.5.3 Properties of bases

Bases are often called alkalis. Bases are substances which have these properties
1. They have a soapy feel

2. They have a bitter taste (do not let students taste materials in science)
3. When dissolved in water, they conduct electricity
4. They change the colour of many plant and vegetable dyes.
24
3.5.4 Explaining the properties of bases

Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis. In water, they react with water to form hydroxide
ions, OH-. Bases can be metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates or covalent molecular
substances.
Definition of a base
When dissolved in water, bases produce hydroxide ions, OH-. It is the hydroxide ions (OH-) which
determine the behaviour of bases. Aqueous solutions of bases are called alkalis.
Sodium hydroxide is an alkali which exists as sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) in water.
NaOH (s) Na+ + OH-
By OpenStax College http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/ [CC-BY-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 )],

via Wikimedia Commons
Base
Base name Formula Dissolved in water Found/use
strength
Caustic soda (oven
Sodium
NaOH NaOH -> Na+ + OH- and drain cleaner) strong
hydroxide
Used to make soaps
Quicklime—used in
Calcium
CaO CaO + H20 -> Ca2+ + 20H - mortar for bricklaying, strong
oxide
flux in smelting of ores
Magnesium Milk of magnesia –
Mg(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 -> Mg2+ + OH- weak
hydroxide antacids and laxatives
Baking soda. In
Sodium
NaHCO3 NaHCO3 + H20 -> Na+ 0H -+ CO2(g) antacid powders. Used weak
bicarbonate
to neutralise acids
Fertiliser, Cleaning
agent (cloudy
Ammonia NH3 NH3 + H20 -> NH4+ + OH- weak
ammonia). Used to
make explosives
25
Strong bases and weak bases
When strong bases are dissolved in water they break down completely into hydroxide ions (OH-) and
the corresponding positive ion (called an anion).
Solutions of strong bases are good conductors of electricity (called electrolytes) as they are
composed of free positive ions and negative ions which can carry a current. Hydroxide ions are very
reactive and solutions of strong bases are hazardous. On contact with skin, strong bases react with
the oil on skin – hence the soapy feel of alkalis.
Weak bases produce only form relatively few hydroxide ions and thus are less hazardous and poorer
conductors of electricity than strong bases.
3.5.5 Neutralisation reactions of acids with bases

Acids react with bases to form a salt and water. This reaction is called neutralisation. The word
equation for neutralisation is:
Acid + base -> salt + water
A simple example is:
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide -> salt + water
HCl + NaOH ----> NaCl + H20
Author: Walkerma. Public domain from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydrochloric_acid_03.jpg
Author: Matthew Sergei Perrin. Creative Commons http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 from

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sodium_hydroxide#mediaviewer/File:Sodium_hydroxide_solution.jpg
Author: Michel. Creative Commons http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ from [email protected]
Author: Jose Manuel Suarez. Creative Commons https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ from

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg
26
Explaining neutralisation reactions
Knowing that acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) in water and bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-), we
can rewrite the following equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).
In the equations above, it can be seen that he Na+ and Cl- ions have not been involved in any bond
breaking or bond forming. They are just spectators when H + combines with OH- to form water. The
salt, NaCl, is just a by-product.
If we cancel out the spectator ions, the only bond formation that has occurred is:
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- -> Na+ + Cl- + H20
H+ + OH- -> H20
Thus the neutralisation reaction of an acid with a base can be simply understood as:
H++ OH- -> H2O
Examples of acid- base neutralisation reactions
acid + Base -> salt + water Neutralisation Spectator ions Name of salt formed
HCl + KOH -> KCl + H20 H + OH- -> H20
+
K+ and Cl- potassium chloride
2HCl + Ca(OH)2 -> CaCl2 + 2H20 H+ + OH- -> H20 Ca2+ and 2Cl- calcium chloride
H2SO4 + 2NaOH -> Na2SO4 + 2H20 H+ + OH- -> H20 2Na+ and SO42- sodium sulphate
HCl + NH4+OH- -> NH4Cl + H20 H+ + OH- -> H20 NH4+ and Cl- ammonium chloride
(NH3 in water)
27
3.5.6 Reactions of acids with carbonates and bicarbonates

Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonate to form a salt and water and carbon dioxide gas. The
word equation is:
acid + bicarbonate or carbonate ---> salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
A familiar example is the reaction of vinegar (acetic acid) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate).
acetic acid + sodium bicarbonate ----> sodium acetate + water + carbon dioxide
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
+ +
No Author. From http://montessorimuddle.org/2010/01/10/the-things-you-can-do-with-vinegar-and-baking-soda/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/
Author: pngbot. Public domain from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetate#mediaviewer/File:Acetate-anion-3D-balls.png
Author: Ben Mills & Jynto. Public domain from http://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_acetate#mediaviewer/File:Sodium-3D.png
No author. Public domain. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_molecule.png
Author: Benjah-bmm27. Creative Commons From http://county10.com/2014/06/19/integrated-test-center-commercial-carbon-research-still-

horizon/
Author: Allison Waken from

http://allfortheboys.com/home/2011/08/04/science-fun.html
AL L F OR T H E B OY S · 1 OR 2 P H OT O S MAY B E U SE D
W IT H P R OP E R CR E D IT AN D L IN K
The baking soda and vinegar volcano demonstrates how acids and bicarbonates react vigorously to
form carbon dioxide.
28
Another example is the reaction of hydrochloric acid (stomach acid) with sodium carbonate.
hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate ----> sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
No Author. From http://cnx.org/contents/26521d3f-85f6-4706-

b889-98e035aad977@1/Types_of_reactions:_Acid-base_
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
The experimental set-up shows how to collect the carbon dioxide. There will be another chemical
reaction in the delivery tube – the carbon dioxide will turn limewater (Ca(OH) 2) milky as this reaction
produces white calcium carbonate (chalk/limestone) (CaCO3) and water.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Explaining the reaction of acid with bicarbonates and carbonates
Carbonates react with the hydrogen ions of acids to form carbon dioxide and water.
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O
Everyday examples of carbonates:
 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (washing soda)

 calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (chalk, calcium supplements, marble)
Bicarbonates (hydrogen carbonates) react with the hydrogen ions of acids to form carbon dioxide
and water
HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O
Everyday examples of a bicarbonate:
 sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3 (baking soda).

 Medications such as Alka-Selzer and Eno fizz when dissolved in water. The fizz is carbon
dioxide which is formed when two of the ingredients, sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3)
and citric acid (H3(C6H5O7)), react in water.
29
3.5.7 pH - a measure of acidity and basicity

pH is a scale which measures the strength of acids in solution. It is related to the amount
(concentration) of hydrogen ions in solution.
pH is a logarithmic scale and ranges from 0 to 14.
 A ph of 7 represents a neutral or water solution

 pH < 7 is acidic
 pH > 7 is alkaline or basic
Each unit on the pH scale is 10 times different from adjacent units. Thus
 A solution with a pH of 5 is 10 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 6.

 A solution with a pH of 9 is 10 times more alkaline (or 10 times less acidic) than a solution
with pH of 8.
A strong acid has a pH < 2, a strong base has a pH > 12.
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
strong
strong acids weak acids neutral weak bases
bases
The following diagram shows the pH of some common materials.
https://voer.edu.vn/m/acid-base-
balance/14533d66+pH+Levels
30
pH indicators
The coloured pigments in many plants change colour in acidic or basic solutions. These pigments are
called acid-base indicators because they have different colours in solutions of different pHs.
Common indicators
Litmus
Litmus is a water soluble dye extracted from lichens. It is often absorbed onto filter paper.
Litmus is:
 blue in alkaline conditions

 red in acid in solutions
 purple in water or neutral solutions
No Author. From https://science7acidbase.wikispaces.com/Litmus+Paper

http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5
Universal indicator
.Universal indicator is a mixture of different dyes that

give a unique colour for each pH unit.
Author: Sébastien Bruneau. Public Domain from

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Papier_pH.jpg
Vegetable Indicators
Red cabbage is an everyday example of a plant dye that can be used to determine the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
Other plants that respond to pH are:
 fruits - strawberries, blueberries,
blackberries, raspberries, grapes,
plums
 vegetables - beets, red radishes,
red onions, etc
 flowers - purple dahlias, purple
hollyhocks, red geraniums, blue
iris, hydrangeas
Both images - no author. From http://cnmesm.wikispaces.com/Red+Cabbage+Juice-+A+Natural+pH+Indicator_make_y.php
http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
31
3.6 Exothermic and endothermic reactions

3.6.1 Exothermic chemical reactions
Exothermic reactions release heat because the energy of the products is less than that of the
reactants.
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy before reaction must equal the total
energy after a reaction. That is,
energy of the reactants = energy of the products + heat released
This is shown in the diagram.

reactants
Total energy
Exothermic - Energy
released to the
environment as heat
products
Progress of reaction
Combustion reactions are exothermic reactions. However most fuels do not burn spontaneously but
require a spark or flame to ignite them. The spark or flame supplies energy to break bonds to start
the burning. This initial energy is called the Activation energy. Once the burning commences, there is
sufficient energy released to keep combustion going until the fuel is used up.
Activation energy Energy released when new bonds are formed

needed to break bonds
reactants
Energy released to the
environment as heat
products
Some exothermic reactions have small activation energies. At room temperature, the reactants have
sufficient thermal energy to enable them occur spontaneously. Neutralisation reactions of acids and
bases are examples of exothermic reactions that occur spontaneously. The setting of concrete and
cement are also exothermic reactions.
32
3.6.2 Endothermic chemical reactions

Endothermic reactions absorb heat because the energy of the products is less than that of the
reactants.
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy before reaction must equal the total
energy after a reaction. That is,
energy of the reactants + absorbed heat energy = energy of the products
This is shown in the diagram.
products
Total energy
Endothermic –Heat
energy absorbed from
the environment
reactants
Photosynthesis is an example of an endothermic reaction. For every gram of glucose (C6H12O6)

produced by a plant, 15 kilojoules of energy from sunlight is required.
Sunlight (15kJ) + 6CO2(g) + H2O(g) C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Endothermic reactions also have to overcome an Activation Energy to proceed.
Activation energy Energy released when new bonds are formed

needed to break bonds products
Energy absorbed from

the environment
reactants
If the activation energy barrier is small, an endothermic reaction proceeds spontaneously.
A chemical cold pack is a familiar example of an endothermic reaction. It occurs when a barrier
between water and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is broken and the ammonium chloride dissolves.
33
Learning Activity
1. Read pages 324 -329, omitting the discussion about moles, of Conceptual Integrated Science and
complete the relevant CHECK YOURSELF exercises and the READING CHECK QUESTIONS.
2. Read Sections 13.1, 13.2,13.4, 13.5, 13.77of Conceptual Integrated Science and complete the
relevant CHECK YOURSELF exercises and the READING CHECK QUESTIONS.
3. Complete the questions: 31, 49, 51, 53, 55, 59, 67, 69, 71,75, 81, 83
Checking your understanding of physical and chemical changes
4. If you have completed the Learning Activities and checked your answers (see the end section of
Conceptual Integrated Science), you are now in a position to complete the READINESS
ASSURANCE TESTS on page 345 (Q 1-9) and 374 (Q1,2,6,8)
34

EDX3160 Module 3 Notes Final

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EDX3160 Science Curriculum and Pedagogy Module 3 Chemical sciences-2

Module 3 – Physical and chemical changes of

 explain the terms : mixtures, pure substance, solutions, elements, compounds

Module 3 table of contents

3.1 Physical Changes

Physical changes include:

1. Changes of state (phase)

We will focus further on the first two of these.

3.1.1 States (phases) of matter

Decreasing kinetic energy

Visually, the states of matter are often represented by

3.1.2 Changes of state

Visible “steam” is actually the

Actual steam i.e. water vapour

Author: Lauren from Flickr.

Energy absorbed from the environment

Solid Liquid Gas Plasma

Energy released to the environment

Diagram: C. Haeusler, 28.02.2014

Author: ElfQrin, Creative Commons licence from

Substance Melting point (oC) Boiling Point ( oC)

3.2.1 More about solutions

Diagrams created by J. Donovan from Creative

Diagram: No author, Creative Commons Licence from https://ahomeschool.wikispaces.com/Middle+School+Chemistry+Chapter+5

Diagram: J. Donovan, 24.04.2014

What Solvent or Solution examples Colloid (fine dispersion) Suspension (coarse

3.2.3 The separation of mixtures

Visual sorting, magnetic sorting, or mechanical sieving - useful for solids

Photo: Author Michael Scott from

Diagrams: No author from http://gellertclass.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6 All Creative Commons licence

All Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/

Diagram: No author from http://gellertclass.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6

Evaporation – useful for soluble solid from liquid

Diagram: No author from http://gellertclass.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6

Chromatography – useful to separate a number of dissolved substances from a liquid

Diagram: No author, Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ from

Image: Author: Mnolf, Creative Commons licence

Distillation – useful to separate liquids from liquids or to remove solid impurities

A process called fractional distillation is

Creative Commons licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/

Crystallisation- useful for separating a dissolved solid from a supersaturated solution

Honey is an everyday example of a supersaturated solution of glucose and fructose (common

Growing crystals Author: Teshi. Public Domain.

Pasta Image: No Author, Creative Commons licence from http://www.budgetbytes.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Boil-Pasta.jpg

3.3 Chemical change

3.3.1 Observing chemical change

3.3.2 The law of conservation of matter

This can be represented in the following way:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

This chemical change can be represented as:

Theislikerice via Wikimedia Commons

or showing the physical state of the substances:

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

3.4 Types of chemical reactions – oxidation

J. Donovan. Taken 10/08/2011 near Alice Springs

Combustion of Fossil Fuels

Coke C(s) + O2(g) CO2 (g) + heat ( 33 kJ/g)

Petrol 2C8H18(l) + 25O2 (g) 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O(l) + heat ( 54 kJ/g)