Lecture 1

VECTORS AND
THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

CET Sec 12.1, 12.2

(Partial)
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

In this chapter, we introduce

vectors and coordinate systems
for three-dimensional space.
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

This will be the setting for our study of

the calculus of functions of two variables
in Chapter 14.

 This is because the graph of such a function

is a surface in space.
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.1
Three-Dimensional
Coordinate Systems
In this section, we will learn about:
Aspects of three-dimensional coordinate systems.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2-D) COORDINATE SYSTEMS

To locate a point in a plane, two numbers

are necessary.

 We know that any point in the plane can be represented

as an ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers—where a is
the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate.

 For this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3-D) COORDINATE SYSTEMS

To locate a point in space, three numbers

are required.

 We represent any point in space by

an ordered triple (a, b, c) of real numbers.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In order to represent points in space,

we first choose:

 A fixed point O (the origin)

 Three directed lines through O that are

perpendicular to each other
COORDINATE AXES

The three lines are called the coordinate

axes.
They are labeled:

 x-axis
 y-axis
 z-axis
COORDINATE AXES

Usually, we think of:

 The x- and y-axes as being horizontal

 The z-axis as being vertical

COORDINATE AXES

We draw the orientation of the axes

as shown.
COORDINATE AXES

The direction of the z-axis is

determined by the right-hand rule,
illustrated as follows.
COORDINATE AXES

Curl the fingers of your right hand

around the z-axis in the direction of a 90°
counterclockwise rotation from the positive
x-axis to the positive y-axis.

 Then, your thumb

points in the positive
direction of the z-axis.
COORDINATE PLANES

The three coordinate axes determine

the three coordinate planes.

 The xy-plane contains

the x- and y-axes.
 The yz-plane contains
the y- and z-axes.
 The xz-plane contains
the x- and z-axes.
OCTANTS

These three coordinate planes divide

space into eight parts, called octants.

 The first octant,

in the foreground,
is determined by
the positive axes.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Many people have some difficulty

visualizing diagrams of 3-D figures.

Thus, you may find it helpful to do

the following.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Look at any bottom corner of a room

and call the corner the origin.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The wall on your left is in the xz-plane.

The wall on your right is in the yz-plane.
The floor is in the xy-plane.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The x-axis runs along the intersection

of the floor and the left wall.
The y-axis runs along that of the floor
and the right wall.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The z-axis runs up from the floor toward

the ceiling along the intersection of the two
walls.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

You are situated in the first octant.

You can now imagine seven other rooms
situated in the other seven octants.

 There are three on

the same floor and
four on the floor below.
 They are all connected
by the common corner
point O.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Now, if P is any point in space,

let:

 a be the (directed) distance from the yz-plane to P.

 b be the distance from the xz-plane to P.

 c be the distance from the xy-plane to P.

3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

We represent the point P by the ordered

triple of real numbers (a, b, c).

We call a, b, and c the coordinates of P.

 a is the x-coordinate.
 b is the y-coordinate.
 c is the z-coordinate.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Thus, to locate the point (a, b, c), we can start

at the origin O and proceed as follows:

 First, move a units along the x-axis.

 Then, move b units

parallel to the y-axis.

 Finally, move c units

parallel to the z-axis.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The point P(a, b, c) determines a

rectangular box.
PROJECTIONS

If we drop a perpendicular from P to

the xy-plane, we get a point Q with
coordinates (a, b, 0).

 This is called
the projection of P
on the xy-plane.
PROJECTIONS

Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are

the projections of P on the yz-plane and
xz-plane, respectively.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

As numerical illustrations, the points

(–4, 3, –5) and (3, –2, –6) are plotted here.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The Cartesian product

R x R x R = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z R}

is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers

and is denoted by R3.
3-D RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

We have given a one-to-one correspondence

between points P in space and ordered triples
(a, b, c) in R3.

 It is called a 3-D rectangular coordinate

system.
3-D RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

Notice that, in terms of coordinates,

the first octant can be described as
the set of points whose coordinates are
all positive.
2-D VS. 3-D ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

In 2-D analytic geometry, the graph of an

equation involving x and y is a curve in R2.

In 3-D analytic geometry, an equation in

x, y, and z represents a surface in R3.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 1

What surfaces in R3 are represented by

the following equations?

a. z = 3
b. y = 5
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 1 a

The equation z = 3 represents the set

{(x, y, z) | z = 3}.

 This is the set of all points in R3 whose

z-coordinate is 3.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 1 a
This is the horizontal plane that is
parallel to the xy-plane and three units
above it.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 1 b

The equation y = 5 represents

the set of all points in R3 whose
y-coordinate is 5.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 1 b
This is the vertical plane that is
parallel to the xz-plane and five units
to the right of it.
NOTE Note

When an equation is given, we must

understand from the context whether it
represents either:

 A curve in R2

 A surface in R3
NOTE

In Example 1, y = 5 represents
a plane in R3.
NOTE

However, of course, y = 5 can also

represent a line in R2 if we are dealing with
two-dimensional analytic geometry.
NOTE

In general, if k is a constant,
then

 x = k represents a plane parallel to the yz-plane.

 y = k is a plane parallel to the xz-plane.

 z = k is a plane parallel to the xy-plane.

NOTE

In this earlier figure, the faces of the box

are formed by:

 The three
coordinate planes
x = 0 (yz-plane),
y = 0 (xz-plane),
and z = 0 (xy-plane)

 The planes x = a,
y = b, and z = c
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 2

Describe and sketch the surface in R3

represented by the equation
y=x
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 2

The equation represents the set of all points

in R3 whose x- and y-coordinates are equal,
that is, {(x, x, z) | x  R, z R}.
 This is a vertical plane that intersects
the xy-plane in the line y = x, z = 0.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 2

The portion of this plane that lies in

the first octant is sketched here.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The familiar formula for the distance

between two points in a plane is easily
extended to the following 3-D formula.
DISTANCE FORMULA IN THREE DIMENSIONS

The distance |P1P2| between the points

P1(x1,y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) is:

1 2  ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )  ( z2  z1 )
2 2 2
PP
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

To see why this formula is true, we

construct a rectangular box as shown,
where:

 P1 and P2 are
opposite vertices.

 The faces of the box

are parallel to the
coordinate planes.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

If A(x2, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z1) are the vertices
of the box, then

 |P1A| = |x2 – x1|

 |AB| = |y2 – y1|

 |BP2| = |z2 – z1|

3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Triangles P1BP2 and P1AB are right-angled.

So, two applications of the Pythagorean
Theorem give:

 |P1P2|2 =
|P1B|2 + |BP2|2

 |P1B|2 =
|P1A|2 + |AB|2
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Combining those equations,

we get:

|P1P2|2 = |P1A|2 + |AB|2 + |BP2|2

= |x2 – x1|2 + |y2 – y1|2 + |z2 – z1|2
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Therefore,

1 2  ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )  ( z2  z1 )
2 2 2
PP
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 3

The distance from the point P(2, –1, 7)

to the point Q(1, –3, 5) is:

PQ  (1  2)  (3  1)  (5  7)
2 2 2

 1 4  4
3
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 4

Find an equation of a sphere

with radius r and center C(h, k, l).
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 4

By definition, a sphere is the set of

all points P(x, y ,z) whose distance from C
is r.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 4

Thus, P is on the sphere if and only

if |PC| = r

 Squaring both sides, we have |PC|2 = r2

or
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 + (z – l)2 = r2
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The result of Example 4 is worth

remembering.

 We write it as follows.
EQUATION OF A SPHERE

An equation of a sphere with center C(h, k, l)

and radius r is:
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 + (z – l)2 = r2

 In particular, if the center is the origin O,

then an equation of the sphere is:

x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 5

Show that
x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y + 2z + 6 = 0
is the equation of a sphere.

Also, find its center and radius.

3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 5

We can rewrite the equation in the form of an

equation of a sphere if we complete squares:

(x2 + 4x + 4) + (y2 – 6y + 9) + (z2 + 2z + 1)

= –6 + 4 + 9 + 1

(x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 1)2 = 8

3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 5

Comparing this equation with the standard

form, we see that it is the equation of a sphere
with center (–2, 3, –1) and radius 8  2 2
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 6

What region in R3 is represented by

the following inequalities?

1 ≤ x2 + y 2 + z2 ≤ 4
z≤0
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 6

The inequalities
1 ≤ x2 + y2 + z2 ≤ 4
can be rewritten as:

1 x  y  z  2
2 2 2

 So, they represent the points (x, y, z) whose distance

from the origin is at least 1 and at most 2.
3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 6

However, we are also given that

z ≤ 0.

 So, the points lie on or below the xy-plane.

3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS Example 6

Thus, the given inequalities represent

the region that lies:

 Between (or on)

the spheres
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1
and x2 + y2 + z2 = 4

 Beneath (or on)

the xy-plane
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.2
Vectors

In this section, we will learn about:

Vectors and their applications.
VECTOR

The term vector is used by scientists to

indicate a quantity (such as displacement
or velocity or force) that has both magnitude
and direction.
REPRESENTING A VECTOR

A vector is often represented by

an arrow or a directed line segment.

 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude

of the vector.

 The arrow points in the direction of the vector.

DENOTING A VECTOR

We denote a vector by either:

 Printing a letter in boldface (v)

 Putting an arrow above the letter ( v )

VECTORS

For instance, suppose a particle

moves along a line segment from
point A to point B.
VECTORS

The corresponding displacement vector v

has initial point A (the tail) and terminal point
B (the tip).

 We indicate this by
writing v = AB .
VECTORS

Notice that the vector u = CD has the same

length and the same direction as v even
though it is in a different position.
 We say u and v are equivalent (or equal)
and write
u = v.
ZERO VECTOR

The zero vector, denoted by 0, has

length 0.

 It is the only vector with no specific direction.

COMBINING VECTORS

Suppose a particle moves from A to B.

So, its displacement vector is AB .
COMBINING VECTORS

Then, the particle changes direction,

and moves from B to C—with displacement
vector BC.
COMBINING VECTORS

The combined effect of these

displacements is that the particle
has moved from A to C.
COMBINING VECTORS

The resulting displacement vector AC

is called the sum of AB and BC .
We write:

AC  AB  BC
ADDING VECTORS

In general, if we start with vectors u and v,

we first move v so that its tail coincides with
the tip of u and define the sum of u and v
as follows.
VECTOR ADDITION—DEFINITION

If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial

point of v is at the terminal point of u, then
the sum u + v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v.
VECTOR ADDITION

The definition of vector addition is

illustrated here.
TRIANGLE LAW

You can see why this definition is

sometimes called the Triangle Law.
VECTOR ADDITION

Here, we start with the same vectors u and v

as earlier and draw another copy of v with
the same initial point as u.
VECTOR ADDITION

Completing the parallelogram,

we see that:
u+v=v+u
VECTOR ADDITION

This also gives another way to construct

the sum:

 If we place u and v so
they start at the same
point, then u + v lies
along the diagonal of
the parallelogram with
u and v as sides.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW

This is called the Parallelogram

Law.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

Draw the sum of the vectors a and b

shown here.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
First, we translate b and place its tail at the tip
of a—being careful to draw a copy of b that
has the same length and direction.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
Then, we draw the vector a + b starting at
the initial point of a and ending at the terminal
point of the copy of b.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
Alternatively, we could place b so it starts
where a starts and construct a + b by
the Parallelogram Law.
MULTIPLYING VECTORS

It is possible to multiply a vector

by a real number c.
SCALAR

In this context, we call the real

number c a scalar—to distinguish
it from a vector.
MULTIPLYING SCALARS

For instance, we want 2v to be the same

vector as v + v, which has the same direction
as v but is twice as long.

In general, we multiply a vector by a scalar

as follows.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION—DEFINITION

If c is a scalar and v is a vector, the scalar

multiple cv is:

The vector whose length is |c| times the length

of v and whose direction is the same as v if
c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0.

 If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

The definition is illustrated here.

 We see that real

numbers work like
scaling factors here.

 That’s why we call

them scalars.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Notice that two nonzero vectors are

parallel if they are scalar multiples of
one another.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

In particular, the vector –v = (–1)v has the

same length as v but points in the opposite
direction.

 We call it the negative

of v.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

By the difference u – v of two vectors,

we mean:

u – v = u + (–v)
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we can construct u – v by first drawing

the negative of v, –v, and then adding it to
u by the Parallelogram Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

Alternatively, since v + (u – v) = u,
the vector u – v, when added to v,
gives u.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we could construct u by means of

the Triangle Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

If a and b are the vectors shown here,

draw a – 2b.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2
First, we draw the vector –2b pointing in
the direction opposite to b and twice as long.
Next, we place it with its tail at the tip of a.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

Finally, we use the Triangle Law to

draw a + (–2b).