Core: Business Research

(UNIT 3)
BMS 4th Sem

Sugandha Jain
 DATA COLLECTION
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
 Classification
of Data

Primary Secondary
 Primary Data
• Original
• Problem or project-specific: collected for the specific objectives and
needs spelt out by the researcher.
• The authenticity and relevance is reasonably high
• The monetary and resource implications of this are quite high
• Sometimes a researcher might not have the resources or the time or
both to go ahead with this method. In this case, he/she can look at
alternative sources of data which are economical and authentic
enough to take the study forward – namely the secondary data.
 Secondary Data
• Information which is not topical or research- specific
• Collected and compiled by some other researcher or investigative
body.
• The said information is recorded and published in a structured
format, and thus, is quicker to access and manage.
• In most instances, unless it is a data product, it is not too expensive to
collect.
• Also the information collected is contextual; what is primary and
original for one researcher would essentially become secondary and
historical for someone else.
Advantages of Secondary Data

Resource Accessibility of
advantage data

Accuracy and Assessment of

reliability of findings from
data primary data
 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Applicability Accuracy of
of data data
Criteria for evaluation of secondary data

Methodology Accuracy
Check Check

Cost-Benefit
Topical Check
Analysis
 Criteria for evaluation of secondary data
• Methodology Check: The process or design used to collect the data so that in case there has been an
element of skewed respondent selection or bias, one can detect it here. Includes sampling considerations,
methodology of data, analytical tools used and subsequent reporting and interpretation of results.
• Accuracy Check: If the study is conducted and the findings compiled by a reputed source, the reliability of
using it as a base for further research is higher, viz., one conducted by a newcomer or on a small scale. In
case information is from such a source, it is advisable to collect similar data from multiple sources and
then collate the findings. A related problem that might occur is when different studies/sources report
contrary findings. In such a case, a short pilot study, supported by an expert opinion survey would help
achieve the right perspective. This is termed as cross-check verification. Another problem of accuracy is
when the data is deliberately manipulated for the purpose of the study. The inaccuracy could also be in
the presentation of the findings, i.e., the scale used might artificially enhance or play down the results.
• Topical Check: There might be a considerable time lag between the earlier reported findings on the
subject and the research being conducted now. If one is looking at the impact of variables such as age and
gender on the purchase patterns of apparels, 5 years is a period where trends and fashions might have
changed and presumptions or hypotheses made on the basis of such a data might be erroneous. To
address these problems, a number of market research firms have started publishing syndicated data which
is periodically updated.
• Cost-Benefit Analysis (Financial Check): Before using secondary data, one needs to measure the cost of
procuring the data, viz., the advantage of the information.
 Data Sources

Primary Secondary
Sources Sources

Internal External

Fully Need Further Electronic Syndicated

Published
Processed Analysis Database Sources
 Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research goes beyond the observable constructs and variables that are
not visible or measurable; rather they have to be deduced by various methods.
• There are a variety of such methods which are relatively loosely structured and
require a closer dialogue or interaction between the investigator and the respondent.
• The information collected is more in-depth and intensive and results in rich insights
and perspectives than those delivered through a more formal and structured method.
• However, since the element of subjectivity is high, they require a lot of objectivity on
the part of the investigator while collecting and interpreting the data.
• Conducting a qualitative research is an extremely skillful task and requires both
aptitude and adequate training in order to result in valuable and applicable data.
 Applications of Qualitative Research
a) Developing an in-depth understanding of individuals’ beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.
Eg. why is it such a difficult task to sell old age homes to Indian families? Providing insights into
verbal and non-verbal language and identifying the parameters that can be used for mapping a
subject’s attitude and behaviour.
b) Understanding the dynamics of industry and key issues (expert interactions).
c) Sometimes, direct and structured questions or information needed might not be obtainable, in
which case one needs to obtain it through a more flexible and unstructured approach.
Eg. What aspects of your boss do you think need correction?
d) Getting reactions to ideas and identifying likes/dislikes of human beings.
e) Sparking off new ideas and brainstorming. Eg. What does a consumer look for in probiotic curd or
low fat food? Tata’s Nano might mean something for a 2-wheeler owner and something entirely
different for a 4-wheeler owner. Based upon the reaction to the car, the company can decide its
positioning.
f) Certain behaviour seems to be non-comprehensible by the respondent also, in which case the
latent motives need to be unearthed through other methods. Eg. Why do you want to get a tattoo
on your arm? Or why do you not take any initiative in a team discussion even when your senior asks
you to?
 Basis Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Research To explore, describe or understand the To be able to quantify, explain and predict
Objective reasons for a certain phenomenon. the occurrence of a certain phenomenon.
Research Exploratory or descriptive, loosely Structured and has a measurable set of
Design structured variables
Sampling Plan Only a small sample is manageable as Large samples can be measured and data
the info required needs to be collected can be based upon a shorter time
extracted by a flexible and sometimes span with a larger number.
lengthy procedure
Data In-depth, collected through a more Formatted and structured. Nature of
Collection interactive and unstructured interrogation is more of stimulus-response
approach. type.
Nature of Includes both the verbal and The data collected is usually verbal and
data non-verbal responses. well-articulated.
Investigator Methodology requires a well-trained Interrogation does not need extensive
investigator. training on the part of the investigator.
Data Analysis Textual and usually non-statistical Entails various levels of statistical testing.
 Observation

DIRECT Content Analysis

(Undisguised)
Association
Focus Groups
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH Completion
METHODS
Depth Interviews
Construction

INDIRECT Projective
(Disguised) Techniques Expressive

Choice/Ordering
 OBSERVATION
• Most appropriate for descriptive research
• Often gets ignored as it appears too simplistic.
• Might be carried out in a naturalistic environment where there are no control
elements or it might be carried out in a simulated environment under certain
controlled conditions.
• The task of the observer-investigator is not to question or discuss with the
individuals whose behaviour is being studied.
• The event being observed might involve a live observation and reporting or it
might involve observing and inferring from a recording of the event.
• Observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups, organizations or
events in a scientific manner in order to collect valuable data related to the topic
under study.
 Observation

Structured Unstructured
 Structured Observation
• The nature of content to be recorded and the format and the broad areas
of recording are predetermined.
• Thus, the observer’s bias is reduced and the authenticity and reliability of
the information collected is higher.
• For eg., Fisher Price toys carry out an observational study whenever they
come out with a new toy. The observer is supposed to record the appeal of
the toy for a child, i.e., how often does he/she pick it up from a collection of
the toys available. What is the attention span in terms of how long is it able
to engage the child? Is there any safety issue with the toy? What was the
reaction of the child while/after playing with the toy? Thus, for a clearly
defined information need, in terms of parameters to be noted, it is an
extremely useful and a non-intrusive method. This method is useful for
cross-sectional descriptive studies.
 Unstructured Observation
• The observer is supposed to make a note of whatever he understands as relevant for the
research study.
• More useful in exploratory studies where there is a lack of clearly-defined objectives and one is
still trying to identify what parameters need to be investigated.
• Chances of observer’s bias are high as the observer has his/her own presumptions about the
situation being observed. To overcome this, have multiple observers for the same situation in
order to get different perspectives about the same instance.
• For eg., the observation of consumer experiences at a bank to get an insight into the intangible
needs and individual behaviour of service personnel. It could give clear indications of the
elements that might create an unhappy experience or might lead to customer delight. But,
giving clear mandates about what to observe might miss out on important elements of the
service experience which might be critical in delivering a superior value.
• The researcher must have a preconceived plan to capture the observations made. It is not to be
treated as a blank sheet where the observer reports what he sees. The aspects to be observed
might be indicative areas on which the observation is to be made.
 Observation

Disguised Undisguised
 Disguised Observation
• The observation is done without the respondent’s knowledge who has no idea that
he/she is being observed.
• The investigator is considered to be like a ‘fly on the wall’, there has to be absolutely no
contribution in any way to the situation being observed. He cannot send any verbal or
non-verbal cues to the respondent, which might impact the behaviour being observed.
• The advantage is that since the respondent does not know, one is able to record the
natural manner in which the person behaves and interacts with others in his
environment.
• This may be accomplished by having observers who are a part of the group or the
organization. It is also possible to use other devices like a one way mirror or a hidden
camera or a recorder.
• The only disadvantage is the privacy issue, as this is ethically an intrusion of an
individual’s right to privacy.
 Undisguised Observation
• The knowledge that the person is under observation is conveyed to the
respondent.
• Proponents state that the influence of the observer’s presence is brief and does
not really have any effect on the natural way a person behaves. While the other
school of thought is that it distorts an individual’s behaviour pattern drastically.
The decision to choose one over the other depends upon the nature of the study.
• Whenever the objective is to study the latent, subconscious or an intangible
aspect of human behaviour, it is recommended that one opts for disguised
approach. However, when the observation is accepted as non-intrusive as it is a
part of the process the undisguised approach can be used.
 Observation

Natural Artificial
environment environment
 On the basis of setting of data collection:
Natural or Artificial
• Natural observation, as the name suggests, is carried out in real time locations,
for example the observations of how employees interact with each other during
breaks.
• On the other hand, it could be an artificial or simulated environment in which the
respondent is to be observed. For eg. this is actively done in the armed forces
where stress tests are carried out to measure an individual’s tolerance level.
• Evaluating the reactions of respondents to the phenomena or strategies under
study can be carried out at a smaller scale in a contrived situation, as these would
help predict the behaviour likely to occur, in the actual situation.
• However, when the object is to study true reactions and not the supposed ones,
natural observation is recommended.
 Observation

Human Mechanical
observer observer
 On the basis of type of Observer:
Human or Mechanical
• Human observation and recording is done by human observers.
• Analytical ability of the recorder makes this mode far superior to mechanical recording. However,
this very advantage might prove to be a negative of the technique as presence of human element
can lead to bias.
• Thus, maintaining objectivity while reporting and inferring is of critical importance. The exact
definition of what are the parameters to be observed in the case of structured observation are
extremely important.
• For example, if we need to observe the level of initiative, then it is essential to define the kind of
behaviour that is part of the job role and which might be construed as initiative. This is critical if
observation is the major data-collection instrument for a descriptive study. This will ensure the
reliability of the findings.
• In mechanical observation, man is replaced by machine. This might or might not involve directives
by human hand. Generally, the recording is done continuously and later subjected to interpretation
and analysis.
Turnstile
Located at the entrance of a
store, mall, office or even
traffic locations to collate data
about individual or vehicular
movement at different times
of the day.
Net Scanners
Observe the net surfing
behaviour in terms of the
time spent, sites visited and
links used are extremely
valuable insights into mapping
consumer interests, as this
helps in designing product
and promotion offering, thus,
catering to the needs and
interests of the potential
users.
Psychogalvanometer
Measures changes in the
electrical resistance of the skin.
Small electrodes are attached to
the individual’s skin and these
electrodes are in turn attached
to a monitor. Any affective
reaction of the individual results
in a higher perspiration which, in
turn, results in a change in the
electrical resistance of the skin.
The respondent could be
exposed to different kinds of
packaging, ads and product
composition, to note his
reaction to them.
Oculometer/
Pupilometer
Measures the impact of various
stimuli on the sense of sight.
Eye-tracking equipment such as
oculometers record movements of
the eye to determine how a
respondent reacts to ads, packaging
options, shelf or store displays.
Pupilometer measures the interest
of the person in the stimulus by
measuring changes in the diameter
of the respondent’s pupils. The
hypothesis being that more the
increase in the size of the pupil,
more positive is the attitude of the
individual towards the stimulus.
Voice Pitch Meter
Measure emotional reactions
of the individual by reporting
on any change in the
respondent’s voice by
measuring any change in the
voice pitch of the person.
 CONTENT ANALYSIS
• Studying a previously recorded or reported communication and systematically
and objectively breaking it up into more manageable units that are related to the
topic under study.
• It is peculiar that it is classified as a primary data collection technique and yet
makes use of previously produced data. However, since the analysis is original,
first hand and problem specific, it is categorized under primary methods.
• Some researchers classify it under observation methods, the reason being that in
this, one is also analysing the communication in order to measure or infer about
variables. The only difference being that one analyses communication that is
ex-post facto rather than live.
• One can content-analyse letters, diaries, minutes of meetings, articles, audio and
video recordings, etc.
 Method of conducting content analysis
• Structured and systematic and thus of considerable credibility.
• For example, we want to know what makes the young Indian tick,
we could make use of blogs written by youngsters, essays and
reality shows featuring the age group. We decide that we want to
assess value systems, attitudes towards others/ elders, clarity of life
goal and peer influences.
• This step is extremely critical as this indicates the assumptions or
hypotheses the researcher might have formulated.
 U: Universe of Content

Space and
Word Theme Characters Item
Time
• Word. Can be easily subjected to computer analysis. For eg., the values that we want to evaluate are
individualistic or collectivistic, aggressive or compliant. Thus, we can sift the communication and
place words such as ‘I’ or ‘we’ under the respective heads. Words like ‘hate’ ‘dislike’ go under
aggression and ‘alright’ ‘fine’ for complacency. Then counts and frequencies are calculated to arrive
at certain conclusions.
• Theme. Difficult to quantify as it involves reporting the propositions and sentences or events as
representing a theme. For eg., disrespect towards elders is the theme and one picks out the
following as a representative: a young teen’s blog which says my old man (father) has gone senile
and needs to be sent to the looney bin for expecting me to become a space scientist, just because
he could not become one... This categorization becomes more complex as the element of observer’s
bias comes into play. This kind of analysis could be useful when carried out by an expert. However,
the reliability and validity of the findings would be questionable in the hands of an untrained analyst.
• Characters. The person producing the communication, for eg. the young teenager writing the blog.
• Space and time measures. Related to the physical format, i.e., the number of pages used, the length
and duration of communication.
• Item. Refers to categorizing the entire communication as say ‘responsible and respectful’ or
‘aggressive and amoral’. Observer’s bias is likely to be high. To ensure reliability of findings, can ask
another coder to evaluate the same data.
• Content analysis of large volumes becomes tedious and prone to error if
handled by humans. Thus, there are various computer program available
that can assist in the process.
• TEXTPACK can tag defined words for word frequency by sorting them
alphabetically or by frequencies.
• Open-ended questions can be sorted by Verbastat or Statpac, which has
an automatic coding module.
• Content analysis is a useful technique when there is large quantity of
textual data and it needs to be structured in order to arrive at some
definite conclusions about the variables under study. Computer assistance
has greatly aided in the active usage of the technique.
• However, it can appear too simplistic, when one reduces the whole data to
counts or frequencies.
 FOCUS GROUPS
• More cost effective and less time consuming
• Generates large amount of information in a short time span.
• Group dynamics play a positive role in generating data that the individual
would be hesitant about sharing when he was spoken to individually.
• The process generally involves a moderator who maneuvers the discussion
on the topic under study and a group of carefully-selected respondents who
are specifically invited and gathered at a neutral setting.
• The moderator initiates the discussion and then the group carries it forward
by holding a focused and an interactive discussion.
 Key Elements of a Focus Group
There are certain typical requirements for a conducive discussion. These need
to be ensured in order to get meaningful and usable outputs from the
technique.
1. Size: Not too small, not too large
2. Nature: Similar background
3. Acquaintance: Strangers
4. Setting: Neutral
5. Time period: Single sitting, should not exceed 90 minutes
6. The recording: Camera over human recording
7. The moderator: Skillful, attentive, good communicator, knowledgeable,
unbiased, flexible, ability to make respondents feel comfortable, sensitive,
etc.
 Steps in Planning and Conducting Focus
Groups
1. Clearly define and list the research objectives.
2. Split objectives into information needs to be answered by the group. These may be
bulleted as topics of interest or as broad questions to be answered by the group.
3. Prepare list of characteristics, which would be used to select the respondent
group. Based on this screening, a questionnaire is prepared to measure the
demographic, psychographics, topic-related familiarity and knowledge.
4. Chart out outline for conducting the whole process. It is critical to involve the
decision maker, the business researcher as well as the moderator. Done to ensure
complete clarity for the moderator in terms of the intention and potential applicability
of the discussion output.
5. Carry out the discussion.
6. FGDs reveal rich and varied data, thus the analysis cannot be quantitative or in
frequencies. Thus, summarize the findings by clubbing under different heads as
indicated in the focus group objectives and reported in a narrative form. Include
expressions like ‘majority of the participants were of the view’ or ‘there was
considerable disagreement on this issue’.
 Types of Focus Groups
1. Two-way focus group: One group sits and listens to another group first.
2. Dual moderator group: For managing group and group mind
3. Fencing moderator group: Take opposite sides on the topic
4. Friendship group: When comfort level of members needs to be high
5. Mini group: 4-6, expert committees
6. Creativity group: Longer than 90 minutes (may be 1-2 days long,
workshop mode), extract alternative thinking
7. Brand-obsessive group: Involve respondents passionate about a brand
8. Online focus group
 Advantages of Online Disadvantages of Online
FGDs FGDs
• Geographic locations not a • Used only with computer savvy
constraint people
• People who are busy and • As anonymity is assured,
otherwise are not able to authentication of the respondent
participate, can also be tapped being a part of the population
• Interaction is faceless so under study might be difficult to
anonymity is assured and is thus establish.
less inhibited. • Other sensory cues of tone,
• Cost and time advantage as body language and facial
compared to a traditional focus expressions are not available.
group.
 Advantages of FGDs Disadvantages of FGDs

• Group dynamics • Group dynamics

(idea generation and expression due (nodding dog syndrome)
to contagion)
• Scientific process
• Process advantage (cumbersome to code and analyse)
(more info in less time)
• Moderator/Investigator bias
• Reliability and validity
(due to structure)
 PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD
• Another method of direct access to the respondents’ school of thought is the
personal interview method.
• Personal interview is a one-to-one interaction between the
investigator/interviewer and the interviewee.
• The purpose of the dialogue is research specific and ranges from completely
unstructured to highly structured. The definition of the structure depends upon
the information needs of the research study.
• The interview has varied applications in business research and can be used
effectively in various stages.
 Applications of Interview method
1. Problem definition: The researcher uses the method to get a better clarity about
the topic under study. Can be carried out with the experts or with the members of
the respondent population to get an indication about the variables to be studied
in the actual research study.
For eg., in a study on devising a PGM programme like what should be the research
undertaken and what needs should it address; the investigator might carry out
informal interviews with some academic experts as well as the student decision
maker, to get a perspective on the information that needs to be collected. On the
basis of the interviews, the following objectives would be formulated:
• Identify the PGM options available to the students, both national and international.
• Identify the selection process followed by benchmarked institutes.
• Identify the process used by a typical UG student in preparing a list of the institutes
to apply in.
• Based on the above objectives, identify the business model that a PG institute
needs to adapt to successfully reach out to the potential student group.
 Applications of Interview method
2. Exploratory research: Once the steps or research objectives have been
established, the researcher might need to do another round of
semi-structured interviews to get a perspective on the variables to be
studied, the definitions of these variables and any other information of
relevance to the study topic. This helps in formulating the questions of the
final measuring instrument of the study.
For eg., to achieve objective three in the above research study, it is
imperative to find out the parameters considered by the students in selecting
a PGM course. Thus, informal interviews would be held with a few UG
students to find out what measures they use to arrive at a decision. At the
same time, interviews would also be held with the deans of a few selected
universities to find out the same.
 Applications of Interview method
3. Primary data collection: When the area to be investigated is high on
subjectivity or individual sentiments and a structured method would
not elicit any meaningful information, this method is used for primary
data collection.
For eg., if the study is about confidential, sensitive or embarrassing
topics (impact of obesity on personal relations, etc.), or situations
where conformity to social norms exists and the respondent is wary of
deviant behaviour, may be easily swayed by group response (e.g.,
attitude towards cosmetic surgery).
 The Interview Process
• Interview objective: Information that the instrument needs to address should be
clearly spelt out as objectives. Clear definition of construct/variable(s) to be studied.
• Interview guidelines: May take from 20 minutes to an hour. A brief outline
formulated.
Unstructured: Absolutely no defined guidelines. Begins with casually worded opening remark
like ‘so tell me something about yourself’. Cues are taken from what subject says. Direction of
interview is unknown to researcher also. Subjectivity is high and generalization is difficult.
Semi-structured: More defined format and only the broad areas to be investigated are
formulated. Questions, sequence and language are left to the investigator’s choice. Probing is
critical in obtaining meaningful responses and uncovering hidden issues. After asking initial
question, interviewer uses an unstructured format. Subsequent direction of the interview is
determined by the respondent’s initial reply, the interviewer’s probes for elaboration.
Structured: Highest reliability and validity. Considerable structure to the questions and
questioning is done on the basis of a prescribed sequence. Used as the primary data collection
instrument also.
 The Interview Process
• Interviewing skills: Quality of output and depth of information collected depend
upon the probing and listening skills of the interviewer. Thus, he needs to be a
sympathetic listener and alert to cues from the respondent’s answers, which might
require further probing/clarification. He needs to be well-acquainted with the study
objectives and aware about the deliverables of the study. His attitude needs to be as
objective as possible and not in any way be directional or distorting the results or
responses of the subject.
• Analysis and Interpretation: Not subjected to any statistical analysis. Usually data is
in narrative form, in the case of structured interviews it might be categorized after
the conduction and be reported as ‘most students seem to be using placements and
infrastructure as the primary reason...’ Sometimes the output of the interviews is
subjected to a content analysis to achieve a better structure for the results obtained.
 Interview Methods

Personal Telephone
Interview Interview

Mall Computer-a Computer-as

At Home Traditional
Intercept ssisted sisted
 Personal Interview Methods
• At-home interviews: At the respondent’s residence. Interviewer needs to initially contact
respondent to ascertain interview time. Considerable cost and time. However, used for
studies like pantry audits. Can be used in collaboration with observation to ascertain the
lifestyle of the subject as well as get his/her responses.
• Mall-intercept interviews: Conducting when respondents are shopping in malls. Sometimes,
product testing or reactions can be carried out through structured methods and followed by
interviews to test reactions. Advantage is that a large number of subjects are accessible in a
short time period, thus it is both cost and time effective. However, the time available is
short, thus the questioning cannot be extensive and must get over quickly.
• Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI): Carried out with the help of the computer.
Respondent faces an assigned computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the
computer screen by using the keyboard or a mouse. Instead of probing, the respondent is
guided to a set of questions depending on the answer given. Thus, predetermined branches
are formulated for probing a particular line of thought. There is usually an interviewer
present at the time of respondent’s computer-assisted interview and is available for help and
guidance, if required. This is why they are called interviews and not questionnaires.
 Telephone Interview Methods
Replacing the face-to-face interaction, by questioning on telephones and calling up subjects to ask
them a set of questions. Advantage is that geographic boundaries are not a constraint and
interview can be conducted at individual respondent’s location. Format and sequencing of
questions remains the same.
• Traditional telephone interviews: Traditional telephone used for questioning. With improvement
in wireless technology, it is possible to reach subject in the remotest of locations with
considerable ease.
• Computer-assisted telephone interviewing: Interviewer is replaced by computer and telephonic
interview is conducted using a computerized interview format. Interviewer sits in front of a
computer terminal and wears a headset to hear the answer. However, unlike the traditional
method where he had to manually record the responses, responses are simultaneously recorded
on the computer. Once the interview time is fixed, the call is made to the respondent by the
computer. The interviewer reads questions as listed in front of him on the computer screen and
hears the response on the headset and at the same time the answers are fed into the computer’s
memory. The method has the advantage of the computer handling the sequencing of questions
and the interviewer is free to conduct the interview in reduced time and with higher accuracy.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews
• Provides information that is richer in content as compared to the focus group.
• No pressure for conformity and reactions which might be lost in group
conduction are explored in depth in this technique.
• For selected groups, (experts or retailers or representatives of the competing
organizations), information can be better sought by the personal interview
method.
• With the advent of technological assistance, interviews can be carried out at
remote and far-off locations with the help of a telephone or a computer.
• Since the interview requires a one-to-one dialogue to be carried out, it is more
cumbersome and costly as compared to a focus group discussion.
• Conduction requires considerable skills on the part of the interviewer and thus
adequate training in interviewing skills is needed for capturing a comprehensive
study-related data.
 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
• Projecting one self or one’s feelings on to ambiguous objects is the basic assumption here.
• Their origin lies in clinical and developmental psychology. Later adopted for use in advertising,
marketing, consumer and motivational research.
• Unlike the previous approaches, these methods involve indirect questioning and ambiguous
stimuli related to imaginary situations or people. The ambiguity of the situation is
non-threatening and thus the person has no hesitation in revealing his true inner motivations
and emotions. More the ambiguity, richer is the data from the respondents.
• The purpose is to present a situation to the respondents to project their underlying needs,
emotions, beliefs and attitudes on to.
• These techniques uncover different levels of consciousness. Generally, structured methods
look at primary motivations; however, it is underlying latent needs which drive the individual
to behave in a certain manner.
• They also reveal data that is inhibited by socially-desirable and correct responses. Sometimes
individuals hesitate to express their prejudices or feelings towards other individuals, groups or
objects. Indirect and ambiguous stimuli might reveal startling results in such cases.
 Association Techniques
• Presenting a stimulus to the respondent and he responds with the first thing that comes to his mind.
• Rorschach Inkblot test: The set of inkblots are ambiguous, standardized and symmetrical in nature. First
few are black & white and others are coloured. Presented in a sequence to the consumer. The responses,
time taken, orientation of the blot, are noted. There are norms and scores available for evaluating the
personality of the individual. Considerable amount of training in conduction and interpretation is
required and, thus, are not commonly used.
• Word association test: A sequence of words is presented and respondent needs to instantly say the first
thing that comes to mind. Critical words are disguised and come after a few neutral/mundane words. The
idea is that the element of surprise will reveal associations that lie in the subconscious/unconscious
mind. Words which are selected to address the study objectives are test words and the others are fillers.
For eg., to know the eco-friendly attitude of a community, one could have words like ‘environment’,
‘plastic’, ‘water’, ‘earth’, ‘tigers’, ‘clean’, etc. These would be embedded in filler words. The person’s exact
response is either noted or recorded; in case one is doing this manually, it is critical to note the reaction
time, as hesitation or lag means that there was a latent response which the person is not comfortable
about revealing.
• Another usage can be to test brand personality by asking the person to think of an animal that he
associates with that brand. The obtained answers are measured in terms of similar responses given to a
test word, unique responses, response time, non-response (it tells that the emotional block hampering
the person is considerable. Attitudes/feelings related to the topic can be measured through this.)
 Completion Techniques
• Involve presenting an incomplete object to the respondent, which can be completed
by him in any way that he deems appropriate. For eg: Old age is………………..
• Sentence completion: Used as an open-ended question. However, the incomplete
sentence of a projective test needs to be more ambiguous than a typical open-ended
question. For eg: A woman who drinks green tea
is……………………………………….
• Story completion. Individual is given an incomplete story/idea. One provides a
backdrop/background for a possible topic and the end is left open-ended. The
subject is supposed to complete the story and provide a conclusion.
• The theoretical assumption is that the completion of the story/sentence reflects the
underlying attitude and personality traits of the person.
• Completion is more extensive than association, but researcher’s intent of asking
question may become apparent to respondent.
 Construction Techniques
• Might appear similar to completion technique, however, the focus is on the completed object,
which could be a story, picture, dialogue or description.
• The level of ambiguity and scope for letting loose the respondents’ imagination is vast.
• Story construction tests: There are a total of 20 pictures, most of them having the profile of
a man, woman or child either clearly visible or diffused. Given to the respondent and he is
asked: What is happening here? What happened or led to this? What do you think is going to
happen now? The assumption is, that in most instances the person puts himself into the
shoes of the protagonist and actually indicates how he would respond in the given situation
and gives an indication of the person’s personality. For eg., an individual may be characterized
as extroverted, pessimistic, creative or dogmatic, etc.
• Cartoon tests: The tests make use of animated characters in a particular situation. They are
considered ambiguous as the figures bear no resemblance to a living being and thus are
considered non-threatening. The cartoon usually has a picture that has two or more
characters talking to each other; usually the statement/question by one character is denoted
and one needs to fill in the response made by the other character. The picture has a direct
relation with the topic under study and is assumed to reveal the respondent’s attitude, feelings
or intended behaviour.
 Choice/Ordering Techniques
• Involve presenting respondents with an assortment of stimuli—in the form of pictures or
statements— related to the study topic. The subject is supposed to sort them into
categories, based on the study instructions given.
• For e.g., in a study on measuring desired supervisor-subordinate relations, a set of Tom and
Jerry cartoon pictures were used, in some Tom is overpowering Jerry, some neutral pictures
where they are carrying out their respective tasks and others where Jerry outwits Tom. The
respondent needs to sort them into good, neutral and bad picture piles.
• Not similar to cartoon tests as they do not require completion/closure, just sorting.
• Help to measure any stereotyped or typical behaviour of the respondent.
• The pictures given to the person carry an expert score (categorized on a rating scale to
reveal different degrees of the attitude). The higher the selection of pictures with extreme
scores, the more rigid is the respondent’s attitude and in case modification or
enhancement is required, the task would be more difficult. The test is used to measure
attitudes and the strength of the existing attitude.
 Expressive Techniques
• The focus of the other techniques was on the end result/output. However, in expressive techniques,
the method or means or expressions used in attempting the exercise are significant.
• Clay modelling: Emphasis is on manner in which person works with clay and not on the end result.
• Psychodrama: Person takes on the role of living or inanimate object, like a brand(s) and carries out
a dialogue.
• Object personification: Person personifies inanimate object/brand/organization and assigns it
human traits.
• Role playing: Respondents play role or assume behaviour of someone else. The details about
setting are given to subject(s) and they are asked to take on different roles and enact the situation.
• The third-person technique is again considered harmless as here, respondent is presented with a
verbal or visual situation and needs to express what might be the person’s beliefs and attitudes. The
person may be a friend, neighbour, colleague, or a ‘typical’ person. Asking individual to respond in
the third person reduces social pressure, especially when discussion/study is about a sensitive issue.
• For eg., no respondent even when assured of anonymity, would own up to being open to an
extra-marital affair; however, if asked whether a colleague/friend/person in his/her age group might
show an inclination for the same, the answers might be starkly different.
 Pros of Projective Techniques Cons of Projective Techniques
• There are instances where respondent is • Conduction and analysis requires
unaware of his underlying motivations, specialists and trained professionals.
beliefs and attitudes that are operating • Therefore, the tests are expensive and
subconsciously. These techniques help to time consuming.
unearth these with considerable ease
and expertise and reveal latent yet • Ambiguity makes the analysis and
significant responses, which would not interpretation difficult and subjective.
surface through structured techniques
like FGDs or interviews.
• Ambiguity and third-person setting give
the respondent sufficient camouflage
and confidence to feel comfortable about
revealing attitudes, interests and beliefs
about sensitive issues. Higher the
ambiguity, the richer is the response.