CHE222

FLUID MECHANICS
(2020-2021 Spring Semester)
9th Weeks

• Laminar and turbulent flow and design equations of pipelines.

Design Equations for Laminar and Turbulent
Flow in Pipes
Velocity Profiles in Pipes
• One of the most important applications of fluid flow is the flow of fluids inside
circular conduits, pipes, and tubes. Often, the flow behavior of fluids in these
types of conduits is dependent on the size (e.g., diameter) of the conduits.
• As a reference, Appendix A.5 gives examples of commercial standard steel-pipe
sizes. Of those sizes, Schedule 40 pipe is a common standard. As a comparison,
Schedule 80 pipe has a thicker wall and will withstand about twice the pressure
of Schedule 40 pipe.
• The Schedule number of a pipe refers to pipe thickness, or the difference
between the outer and inner diameters. For example, 1-inch Schedule 40 and
Schedule 80 pipes have the same outer diameter, but will have different inner
diameters due to the different pipe thicknesses. Since both have the same
outside diameter, they can use the same fittings. Sizes of tubing are generally
given by the outside diameter and wall thickness.
• When a fluid is flowing in a circular pipe and the velocities are
measured at different distances from the pipe wall to the center of
the pipe, it has been shown that for both laminar and turbulent flow,
the fluid in the center of the pipe is moving faster than the fluid near
the walls.
• Figure 5.1-1 is a plot of the relative distance from the center of the
pipe versus the fraction of maximum velocity v/vmax, where v is local
velocity at the given radial position and vmax the maximum velocity at
the center of the pipe.
• For viscous or laminar flow, the velocity profile is a true parabola, as
derived in Eq. (4.4-9). The velocity at the wall is zero.
• In many engineering applications, the relation between the average velocity
vav in a pipe and the maximum velocity vmax is useful, since in some cases only
the vmax at the center point of the tube is measured.
• Hence, from only one point measurement, this relationship between vmax and
vav can be used to determine vav. In Fig. 5.1-2, experimentally measured values
of vav/vmax are plotted as a function of the Reynolds numbers Dvav ρ/μ and
Dvmax ρ/μ.
• The average velocity over the whole cross section of the pipe is precisely 0.5
times the maximum velocity at the center as given by the shell momentum
balance in Eq. (4.4-13) for laminar flow.
• On the other hand, for turbulent flow, the curve is somewhat flattened in the
center (see Fig. 5.1-1) and the average velocity is about 0.8 times the
maximum. This value of 0.8 varies slightly, depending upon the Reynolds
number, as shown in the correlation in Fig. 5.1-2.
Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
1. Pressure drop and loss due to friction. When the fluid in a pipe is
flowing at steady-state in the laminar flow regime, then, for a
Newtonian fluid, the shear stress is given by Eq. (3.1-2), which is
rewritten for change in radius dr rather than distance dy, as follows:
• Using this relationship and making a shell momentum balance on the
fluid over a cylindrical shell, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation (4.4-11) for
laminar flow of a liquid in a circular tube is obtained. This can be
written as

• where p1 is upstream pressure at point 1, N/m2; p2 is pressure at point

2; v is average velocity in tube, m/s; D is inside diameter, m; and (L2 –
L1) or ΔL is length of the straight tube, m.
• For English units, the right-hand side of Eq. (5.1-2) is divided by gc.
The quantity (p1 – p2)f or Δpf is the pressure loss due to skin friction
caused by the flowing fluid. Then, for constant ρ, the friction loss Ff is
• This is the mechanical energy loss due to skin friction for the pipe in
N.m/kg of fluid and is part of the ΣF term for frictional losses in the
mechanical-energy-balance equation (4.2-28).
• This term (p1 – p2)f for skin-friction loss is different from the (p1 – p2)
term, owing to velocity head or potential head changes in Eq. (4.2-28).
That part of ΣF that arises from friction within the channel itself by
laminar or turbulent flow.
• The part of friction loss due to fittings (valves, elbows, etc.), bends, and
the like, which sometimes constitute a large part of the friction, is
discussed in Section 5.1F.
• Note that if Eq. (4.2-28) is applied to steady flow in a straight, horizontal
tube, we obtain (p1 – p2)/ρ = ΣF.
• One of the uses of Eq. (5.1-2) is in the experimental measurement of
the viscosity of a fluid by measuring the pressure drop and volumetric
flow rate through a tube of known length and diameter. Often, slight
corrections for kinetic energy and entrance effects are usually
necessary in practice.
• Also, Eq. (5.1-2) is frequently used in the metering of small liquid
flows.
EXAMPLE 5.1-1. Metering of Small Liquid Flows
• A small capillary with an inside diameter of 2.22 × 10–3 m and a length
0.317 m is being used to continuously measure the flow rate of a
liquid having a density of 875 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 1.13 × 10–3Pa ·
s. The pressure drop reading across the capillary during flow is 0.0655
m water (the density of water can be assumed to be 996 kg/m3).
What is the flow rate in m3/s if end-effect corrections are neglected?
• Solution: Assuming that the flow is laminar, Eq. (5.1-2) will be used. First, to convert
the height h of 0.0655 m water to a pressure drop, use Eq. (2.2-4),

• Substituting into Eq. (5.1-2) the values μ = 1.13 × 10–3 Pa · s, L2 – L1

= 0.317 m, D = 2.22 × 10–3 m, and Δpf = 640 N/m2, and solving for v,
• The volumetric rate is then given as

• Since it was assumed that laminar flow is occurring, the Reynolds

number will be calculated to check this:

• Hence, the flow is laminar as assumed.

2. Use of friction factor for friction loss in laminar flow.
A common parameter used in laminar and especially in turbulent flow
is the Fanning friction factor, f, which is defined as the drag force per
wetted surface unit area (shear stress τs at the surface) divided by the
product of density times velocity head, or .
Thus, the drag force is Δpf times the cross-sectionalarea πR2 and the
wetted surface area is 2πRΔL. Hence, the relation between the
pressure drop due to friction and f is as follows for both laminar and
turbulent flow:
• Rearranging Eq. (5.1-4) and using D = 2R yields
• For laminar flow only, combining Eqs. (5.1-2) and (5.1-5) yields the
following expression for the friction factor,
EXAMPLE 5.1-2. Use of Friction Factor in Laminar Flow
Assume the same known conditions as in Example 5.1-1 except that the
velocity of 0.275 m/s is known and the pressure drop Δpf is to be
predicted. Use the Fanning friction factor method.
Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow
In turbulent flow, as in laminar flow, the friction factor also depends on
the Reynolds number. However, it is not possible to theoretically predict
the Fanning friction factor f for turbulent flow as was shown previously
for laminar flow.
The friction factor must be determined empirically (experimentally), and
it not only depends upon the Reynolds number but also on the pipe’s
surface roughness. In laminar flow, the roughness has essentially no
effect.
Dimensional analysis can also be used to show the dependence of the
friction factor on these factors.
• A large number of experimental data on friction factors for both
smooth pipes and pipes with varying degrees of equivalent roughness
have been obtained and correlated.
• For design purposes, to predict the friction factor f and, hence, the
frictional pressure drop for round pipes, the friction-factor chart in
Fig. 5.1-3 can be used.
• It is a log–log plot of f versus NRe. The friction factor f is then used in
Eqs. (5.1-5) and (5.1-6) to predict the friction loss Δpf or Ff:
• For the region with a Reynolds number below 2100, the line is the same as
given in Eq. (5.1-7). For a Reynolds number above 4000 for turbulent flow,
the lowest line in Fig. 5.1-3 represents the friction-factor line for smooth
pipes and tubes, such as glass tubes and drawn copper and brass tubes.
• The other lines, for higher friction factors, represent lines for different
relative roughness factors, ε/D, where D is the inside pipe diameter in m and
ε is a roughness parameter, which represents the average height in m of
roughness projections from the wall (M1). In Fig. 5.1-3, values for the
equivalent roughness of new pipes are given (M1).
• The most common pipe, commercial steel, has a roughness of ε = 4.6 ×10–5
m (1.5 × 10–4 ft).
• The reader should be cautioned about using friction factors f from other
sources. The Fanning friction factor f in Eq. (5.1-6) is the one used here.
Others use a friction factor (i.e., Darcy friction factor) that may be four times
larger.
EXAMPLE 5.1-4. Trial-and-Error Solution to Calculate Pipe Diameter
Water at 4.4°C is to flow through a horizontal, commercial steel pipe
having a length of 305 m at the rate of 150 gal/min. If a head of water
of 6.1 m is available to overcome the friction loss Ff, calculate the pipe
diameter.
Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in the Flow of Gases
• The equations and methods discussed in this section for turbulent
flow in pipes hold for incompressible liquids. They also hold for a gas
if the density (or the pressure) changes by less than 10%.
• Then, an average density ρav in kg/m3, should be used and the errors
involved will be less than the uncertainty limits in the friction factor f.
For gases, Eq. (5.1-5) can be rewritten as follows for laminar and
turbulent flow:
• where ρav is the density at the average pressure, pav = (p1 + p2)/2. Also,
the NRe used is DG/μ, where G has units of kg/m2 · s and is a constant
independent of the density and velocity variations for the gas unless
the diameter changes along the length of piping. Equation (5.1-5) can
also be written for gases as

• where R is 8314.3 J/kg mol.K or 1545.3 ft .lbf/lb mol · °R and M is the

molecular weight.
Effect of Heat Transfer on the Friction Factor
• The friction factor f in Fig. 5.1-3 is given for isothermal flow, that is, no heat
transfer. When a fluid is being heated or cooled, the temperature gradient
will cause a change in the physical properties of the fluid, especially its
viscosity. For engineering practice, the following method of Sieder and Tate
(S3) can be used to predict the friction factor for nonisothermal flow for
liquids and gases:
1. Calculate the mean bulk temperature ta as the average of the inlet and
outlet bulk-fluid temperatures.
2. Calculate the NRe using the viscosity μa at ta and use Fig. 5.1-3 to obtain f.
3. Using the tube wall temperature tw, determine μw at tw.
4. Calculate ψ for the appropriate case:
5. The final friction factor is obtained by dividing f from step 2 by ψ
from step 4.
Hence, when the liquid is being heated, ψ is greater than 1.0 and the
final f decreases. The reverse occurs when cooling the liquid.
 Friction Losses in Expansion, Contraction, and Pipe Fittings
• Skin-friction losses in fluid flow through straight pipes are calculated by using
the Fanning friction factor. However, if the velocity of the fluid is changed in
direction or magnitude, additional friction losses may occur. These result
from further turbulence that develops because of vortices and other factors.
1. Sudden enlargement losses. If the cross section of a pipe enlarges very
gradually, few or no extra losses are incurred. If the change is sudden, it results
in additional losses due to eddies formed by the jet expanding in the enlarged
section. This friction loss can be calculated by applying Eq. (4.3-36), which was
derived for flows involving sudden enlargements:
• where hex is the friction loss in J/kg, Kex is the expansion-loss coefficient
and equals (1–A1/A2)2, v1 is the upstream velocity in the smaller area in
m/s, v2 is the downstream velocity, and α = 1.0. If the flow is laminar
in both sections, the factor α in the equation becomes . For English
units, the right-hand side of Eq. (5.1-15) is divided by gc. Also, h = ft ·
lbf/lbm.

2. Sudden contraction losses.

When the cross section of the pipe is suddenly reduced, the stream
cannot follow around the sharp corner and additional frictional losses
due to eddies occur. For turbulent flow, this is given by
• where hc is the friction loss, α = 1.0 for turbulent flow, v2 is the
average velocity in the smaller or downstream section, and Kc is the
contractionloss coefficient (P1) and approximately equals 0.55(1 –
A2/A1). For laminar flow, the same equation can be used with α = (S2).
For English units, the right side is divided by gc.
3. Losses in fittings and valves.
Pipe fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines in a pipe and
cause additional friction losses. In a short pipe with many fittings, the
friction loss from these fittings could be greater than in the straight
pipe. The friction loss for fittings and valves is given by the following
equation:
• where Kf is the loss factor for
the fitting or valve and v1 is
the average velocity in the pipe
leading to the fitting.
Experimental values for Kf are
given in Table 5.1-1 for
turbulent flow (P1) and in
Table 5.1-2 for laminar flow.
• As an alternative method, some texts and references (B1) give data
for losses in fittings as an equivalent pipe length in pipe diameters.
These data, also given in Table 5.1-1, are presented as Le/D, where Le
is the equivalent length of straight pipe having the same frictional loss
as the fitting, and D is the inside pipe diameter.
• The K values in Eqs. (5.1-15) and (5.1-16) can be converted to as Le/D
values by multiplying the K by 50 (P1). The Le values for the fittings
are simply added to the length of the straight pipe to get the total
length of equivalent straight pipe to use in Eq. (5.1-6).
4. Frictional losses in the mechanical-energy-balance equation.
The frictional losses due to the friction in the straight pipe (Fanning friction factor),
enlargement losses, contraction losses, and losses in fittings and valves are all incorporated
into the ΣF term of Eq. (4.2-28) for the mechanical-energy balance, so that

• If all the velocities, v, v1, and v2 are the same, then by factoring, Eq.
(5.1-18) becomes, for this special case,
EXAMPLE 5.1-6. Friction Losses and Mechanical Energy Balance
An elevated storage tank contains water at 82.2°C, as shown in Fig. 5.1-
4. It is desired to have a discharge rate at point 2 of 100 gal/min (0.223
ft3/s). What must be the height H in ft of the water’s surface in the
tank relative to the discharge point? The pipe used is commercial steel
pipe, Schedule 40, and the lengths of the straight portions of the pipe
are shown.
EXAMPLE 5.1-7. Friction Losses with a Pump in the Mechanical
Energy Balance
Water at 20°C is being pumped from a tank to an elevated tank at the rate of 5.0 × 10–3
m3/s. All of the piping in Fig. 5.1-5 is 4-in. Schedule 40 pipe. The pump has an efficiency of
65%. Calculate the kW power needed for the pump.
The ΣF term for frictional losses includes the following: (1) contraction
loss at the tank exit, (2) friction in the straight pipe, (3) friction in the
two elbows, and (4) expansion loss at the tank entrance.
3. Friction in the two elbows. From Table 5.1-1, Kf = 0.75. Then,
substituting into Eq. (5.1-7) for two elbows,
Entrance Section of a Pipe
• If the velocity profile at the entrance region of a tube is flat, a certain
length of tube is necessary for the velocity profile to be fully established.
• This length for the establishment of fully developed flow is called the
transition length or entry length. This is shown in Fig. 5.1-6 for laminar
flow. At the entrance, the velocity profile is flat; that is, the velocity is the
same at all positions.
• As the fluid progresses down the tube, the thickness of the boundary
layers increases until finally they meet at the center of the pipe and the
parabolic velocity profile is fully established.
• The approximate entry length Le of a pipe of diameter D for a fully
developed velocity profile to be formed in laminar flow is (L2)

• For turbulent flow, no relation is available to accurately predict the

entry length for a fully developed turbulent velocity profile to form.
As an approximation, the entry length is nearly independent of the
Reynolds number and is fully developed after 50 diameters
downstream.
• The pressure drop or friction factor in the entry length is greater than
in fully developed flow.
• For laminar flow, the friction factor is highest at the entrance (L2) and
then decreases smoothly to the fully developed flow value.
• For turbulent flow, there will be some portion of the entrance over
which the boundary layer is laminar and the friction-factor profile is
difficult to express. As an approximation, the friction factor for the
entry length can be taken as two to three times the value of the
friction factor in fully developed flow.
EXAMPLE 5.1-8. Entry Length for a Fluid in a Pipe
Water at 20°C is flowing through a tube of diameter 0.010 m at a
velocity of 0.10 m/s.
a. Calculate the entry length.
b. Calculate the entry length for turbulent flow.
Selection of Pipe Sizes
In large or complex process piping systems, the optimum size of pipe to
use for a specific situation depends upon the relative costs of capital
investment, power, maintenance, and so on.
Charts are available for determining these optimum sizes (P1). However,
for small installations, approximations are usually sufficiently accurate.
Representative values for ranges of velocity in pipes are shown in Table
5.1-3. For stainless-steel pipes, recent data (D1) show that the velocities
in Table 5.1-3 for process lines or pump discharge should be increased by
70%.